Aashto 2002standard Specifications For Highway Bridges 17th

Standard Specifications
for Highway Bridges

17th Edition – 2002
Adopted and Published by the

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
444 North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249
Washington, D.C. 20001
© Copyright 2002 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All
Rights Reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This book, or parts thereof, may not be re-
produced in any form without permission of the publishers.
Code: HB-17 ISBN: 156051-171-0
© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY
AND TRANSPORTATION OFFICIALS
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
2001–2002
VOTING MEMBERS
Officers:
President: Brad Mallory, Pennsylvania

Vice President: James Codell, Kentucky
Secretary/Treasurer: Larry King, Pennsylvania
Regional Representatives:
Region I: Joseph Boardman, New York, One-Year Term

James Weinstein, New Jersey, Two-Year Term
Region II: Bruce Saltsman, Tennessee, One-Year Term

Fred Van Kirk, West Virginia, Two-Year Term
Region III: Kirk Brown, Illinois, One-Year Term

Henry Hungerbeeler, Missouri, Two-Year Term
Region IV: Joseph Perkins, Alaska, One-Year Term

Tom Stephens, Nevada, Two-Year Term
NON-VOTING MEMBERS
Immediate Past President: E. Dean Carlson, Kansas

Executive Director: John Horsley, Washington, D.C.
ii

HIGHWAY SUBCOMMITTEE ON
BRIDGES AND STRUCTURES
2002
TOM LULAY, Oregon, Chairman

SANDRA LARSON, Vice Chairman
JAMES D. COOPER, Federal Highway Administration, Secretary
ALABAMA, William F. Conway, George H. SOUTH CAROLINA, Randy R. Cannon, Jeff

Connor Sizemore
ALASKA, Richard A. Pratt SOUTH DAKOTA, John C. Cole
ARIZONA, F. Daniel Davis TENNESSEE, Edward P. Wasserman
ARKANSAS, Phil Brand TEXAS, Mary Lou Ralls
CALIFORNIA, Richard Land U.S. DOT, Nick E. Mpras
COLORADO, Mark A. Leonard UTAH, David Nazare
CONNECTICUT, Gordon Barton VERMONT, James McCarthy
DELAWARE, Doug Finney, Dennis O’Shea VIRGINIA, Malcolm T. Kerley
D.C., Donald Cooney WASHINGTON, Jerry Weigel, Tony M. Allen
FLORIDA, William N. Nickas WEST VIRGINIA, James Sothen
GEORGIA, Paul Liles, Brian Summers WISCONSIN, Stanley W. Woods
HAWAII, Paul Santo WYOMING, Gregg C. Fredrick, Keith R.
IDAHO, Matthew M. Farrar Fulton
ILLINOIS, Ralph E. Anderson
INDIANA, Mary Jo Hamman ALBERTA, Dilip K. Dasmohapatra
IOWA, Norman L. McDonald MANITOBA, Ismail Elkholy
KANSAS, Kenneth F. Hurst, Loren R. Risch NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS, John C.
KENTUCKY, Stephen E. Goodpaster Pangalinan
LOUISIANA, Hossein Ghara, Mark J. Morvant NEW BRUNSWICK, David Cogswell
MAINE, James E. Tukey NORTHAMPTON, R. T. Hughes
MARYLAND, Earle S. Freedman NORTHWEST TERRITORIES, John Bowen
MASSACHUSETTS, Alexander K. Bardow NOVA SCOTIA, Alan MacRae, Mark Pertus
MICHIGAN, Steve Beck ONTARIO, Vacant
MINNESOTA, Dan Dorgan, Kevin Western SASKATCHEWAN, Hervé Bachelu
MISSISSIPPI, Harry Lee James
MISSOURI, Shyam Gupta FHWA, Shoukry Elnahal
MONTANA, William S. Fullerton MASS. METRO. DIST. COMM., David
NEBRASKA, Lyman D. Freemon Lenhardt
NEVADA, William C. Crawford, Jr. N.J. TURNPIKE AUTHORITY, Richard
NEW HAMPSHIRE, Mark Richardson Raczynski
NEW JERSEY, Harry A. Capers, Jr., Richard NY STATE BRIDGE AUTHORITY, William
W. Dunne Moreau
NEW MEXICO, Jimmy D. Camp PORT AUTH. OF NY AND NJ, Joseph J.
NEW YORK, James O’Connell, George Kelly, Joseph Zitelli
Christian BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS, Wade Casey
NORTH CAROLINA, Gregory R. Perfettie MILITARY TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
NORTH DAKOTA, Terry Udland COMMAND, Robert D. Franz
OHIO, Timothy Keller U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS-DEPT.
OKLAHOMA, Robert J. Rusch, Veldo Goins OF THE ARMY, Paul Tan
OREGON, Mark E. Hirota U.S. COAST GUARD, Jacob Patnaik
PENNSYLVANIA, R. Scott Christie U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE-
PUERTO RICO, Jaime Cabre FOREST SERVICE, Nelson Hernandez
RHODE ISLAND, Kazem Farhoumand
iii

PREFACE
to
Seventeenth Edition
Major changes and revisions to this edition are as follows:

1. The Interim Specifications of 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002 and 2003 have been
adopted and are included.
2. The commentaries from 1996 through 2000 are provided and have been cross-referenced
with each other, where appropriate.
3. In 1997, Section 15, “TFE Bearing Surface,” Division I, was replaced by Section 14,
“Bearings.”
4. In 1997, Section 19, “Pot Bearings,” Division I, was replaced by Section 14, “Bearings.”
5. In 1997, Section 20, “Disc Bearings,” Division I, was replaced by Section 14, “Bearings.”
6. In 2002, Section 16, “Steel Tunnel Liner Plates,” Division I, became Section 15.
7. In 2002, Section 17, “Soil-Reinforced Concrete Structure Interaction Systems,” Division
I, became Section 16.
8. In 2002, Section 18, “Soil-Thermoplastic Pipe Interaction Systems,” Division I, became
Section 17.
9. A new companion CD-ROM with advance search features is included with each book.
10. The Federal Highway Administration and the States have established a goal that the
LRFD standards be used on all new bridge designs after 2007; only edits related to technical
errors in the seventeenth edition will be made hereafter. These Standard Specifications are ap-
plicable to new structure designs prior to 2007 and for the maintenance and rehabilitation of
existing structures.
iv

INTRODUCTION
The compilation of these specifications began in 1921 with the organization of the
Committee on Bridges and Structures of the American Association of State Highway
Officials. During the period from 1921, until printed in 1931, the specifications were
gradually developed, and as the several divisions were approved from time to time,
they were made available in mimeographed form for use of the State Highway
Departments and other organizations. A complete specification was available in 1926
and it was revised in 1928. Though not in printed form, the specifications were valu-
able to the bridge engineering profession during the period of development.
The first edition of the Standard Specifications was published in 1931, and it was
followed by the 1935, 1941, 1944, 1949, 1953, 1957, 1961, 1965, 1969, 1973, 1977,
1983, 1989, 1992, and 1996 revised editions. The present seventeenth edition consti-
tutes a revision of the 1996 specifications, including those changes adopted since the
publication of the sixteenth edition and those through 2002.
In the past, Interim Specifications were usually published in the middle of the cal-
endar year, and a revised edition of this book was generally published every 4 years.
However, since the Federal Highway Administration and the States have established a
goal that the LRFD standards be used on all new bridge designs after 2007, only edits
related to technical errors in the seventeenth edition will be made hereafter. These
Standard Specifications are applicable to new structure designs prior to 2007 and for
the maintenance and rehabilitation of existing structures. Future revisions will have
the same status as standards of the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and are approved by at least two-thirds of the
Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures. These revisions are voted on by the
Association Member Departments prior to the publication of a new edition of this book,
and if approved by at least two-thirds of the members, they are included in a new edition
as standards of the Association. Members of the Association are the 50 State Highway
or Transportation Departments, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. Each mem-
ber has one vote. The U.S. Department of Transportation is a nonvoting member.
Future revisions will be displayed on AASHTO’s website via a link from the
title’s book code listing, HB-17, in the Bookstore of www.transportation.org. An e-mail
notification will also be sent to previous purchasers notifying them that a revision is
available for download. Please check the site periodically to ensure that you have the
most up-to-date and accurate information.
The Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges are intended to serve as a stan-
dard or guide for the preparation of State specifications and for reference by bridge
engineers.
Primarily, the specifications set forth minimum requirements which are consistent
with current practice, and certain modifications may be necessary to suit local condi-
tions. They apply to ordinary highway bridges and supplemental specifications may be
required for unusual types and for bridges with spans longer than 500 feet.
Specifications of the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the
American Welding Society, the American Wood Preservers Association, and the
National Forest Products Association are referred to, or are recognized. Numerous re-
search bulletins are noted for references.
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials wishes to
express its sincere appreciation to the above organizations, as well as to those univer-
sities and representatives of industry whose research efforts and consultations have
been most helpful in continual improvement of these specifications.
Extensive references have been made to the Standard Specifications for
Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing also published by
AASHTO, including equivalent ASTM specifications which have been reproduced in
the Association’s Standard Specifications by permission of the American Society for
Testing and Materials.
v

Attention is also directed to the following publications prepared and published by
the Bridge Subcommittee:
AASHTO Guide for Commonly Recognized (CoRe) Structural Elements—1998
Edition
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Steel Girder Highway
Bridges with Design Examples for I-Girder and Box-Girder Bridges—2002
Edition
AASHTO Guide Specifications-Thermal Effects in Concrete Bridge Super-
structures—1989 Edition
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications—1998 Edition
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2nd Edition, SI—1998 Edition
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 2nd Edition, US—1998 Edition
AASHTO LRFD Movable Highway Bridge Design Specifications, 1st Edition—
2001 Edition
AASHTO/AWS-D1.5M/D1.5:2001 An American National Standard: Bridge
Welding Code and its Commentary—2002 Edition
Bridge Data Exchange (BDX) Technical Data Guide—1995 Edition
Construction Handbook for Bridge Temporary Works—1995 Edition
Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works—1995 Edition
Guide for Painting Steel Structures—1997 Edition
Guide Specifications and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway
Bridges—1991 Edition
Guide Specifications for Alternative Load Factor Design Procedures for Steel
Beam Bridges Using Braced Compact Sections—1991 Edition
Guide Specifications for Aluminum Highway Bridges—1991 Edition
Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete
Bridges, 2nd Edition—1999 Edition
Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges, 1997 Edition
Guide Specifications for Distribution of Loads for Highway Bridges—1994
Edition
Guide Specifications for Fatigue Evaluation of Existing Steel Bridges—1990
Edition
Guide Specifications for Highway Bridge Fabrication with HPS070W Steel—
2000 Edition
Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design, 2nd Edition—1999 Edition
Guide Specifications for Strength Design of Truss Bridges (Load Factor
Design)—1985 Edition
Guide Specifications for Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel and Concrete
Bridges—1989 Edition
Guide Specifications for Structural Design of Sound Barriers—1989 Edition
Guide Specification for the Design of Stress-Laminated Wood Decks—1991
Edition
Guidelines for Bridge Management Systems—1993 Edition
Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges—2000 Edition
vi

Movable Bridge Inspection, Evaluation and Maintenance Manual—1998 Edition
Standard Specifications for Movable Highway Bridges—1988 Edition
Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires
and Traffic Signals, 4th Edition—2001 Edition
Additional bridges and structures publications prepared and published by other

AASHTO committees and task forces are as follows:
Guide Specifications for Cathodic Protection of Concrete Bridge Decks—1994
Edition
Guide Specifications for Polymer Concrete Bridge Deck Overlays—1995 Edition
Guide Specifications for Shotcrete Repair of Highway Bridges—1998 Edition
Inspectors’ Guide for Shotcrete Repair of Bridges—1999 Edition
Manual for Corrosion Protection of Concrete Components in Bridges—1992
Edition
Two Parts: Guide Specifications for Concrete Overlay Pavements and Bridge
Decks—1990 Edition
AASHTO Maintenance Manual: The Maintenance and Management of
Roadways and Bridges—1999 Edition
The following have served as chairmen of the Committee since its inception in 1921:
Messrs, E.F. Kelley, who pioneered the work of the Committee, Albin L. Gemeny, R. B.
McMinn, Raymond Archiband, G. S. Paxson, E. M. Johnson, Ward Goodman, Charles
Matlock, Joseph S. Jones, Sidney Poleynard, Jack Freidenrich, Henry W. Derthick,
Robert C. Cassano, Clellon Loveall, James E. Siebels, David Pope, and Tom Lulay. The
Committee expresses its sincere appreciation of the work of these men and of those ac-
tive members of the past, whose names, because of retirement, are no longer on the roll.
Suggestions for the improvement of the specifications are welcomed. They should
be sent to the Chairman, Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures, AASHTO, 444
North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249, Washington, D.C. 20001. Inquiries as to the
intent or application of the specifications should be sent to the same address.
ABBREVIATIONS
AASHTO —American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ACI —American Concrete Institute
AISC —American Institute of Steel Construction
AITC —American Institute of Timber Construction
ASCE —American Society of Civil Engineers
ASME —American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM —American Society for Testing and Materials
ANSI —American National Standards Institute
AWS —American Welding Society
AWPA —American Wood Preservers Association
CRSI —Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute
CS —Commercial Standards
NDS —National Design Specifications for Stress Grade Lumber and Its
Fastenings
NFPA —National Forest Products Association
RMA —Rubber Manufacturers Association
SAE —Society of Automotive Engineers
SSPC —Steel Structures Painting Council
WPA —Western Pine Association
WRI —Wire Reinforcement Institute
WWPA —Western Wood Products Association
vii

1997 Interim Specifications
Table of Contents
The 1997 Interim Specifications include the following revisions and additions to articles of the 16th
edition of the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 1996.
DIVISION I—DESIGN
ARTICLE PAGE
SECTION 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
SECTION 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
8.16.4.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
8.16.8.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
8.17.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184.2
8.32.2.2 and 8.32.2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
9.16.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
9.17.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
10.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
10.32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
10.34.3.2.1, 10.34.3.2.2 and Figure 10.34.3.1A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
10.34.5.1 and 10.34.5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
10.38.1.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
10.48.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.48.6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281.1
10.49.3.1, 10.49.3.2 and 10.50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283–284
10.61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
12.4.1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
12.6.1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
12.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
12.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
SECTION 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
17.1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
17.4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
17.4.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370.1
17.6.4.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
18.4.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
DIVISION II—CONSTRUCTION
3.1.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
SECTION 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
SECTION 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
SECTION 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
COMMENTARIES:
DIVISION I: SECTIONS 8, 10, 12, 14, 17 AND 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-11–C-30
DIVISION II: SECTIONS 3 AND 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-31–C-35
viii

AASHTO STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DIVISION I
DESIGN
SECTION 1—GENERAL PROVISIONS
1.1 DESIGN ANALYSIS AND GENERAL STRUCTURAL

INTEGRITY FOR BRIDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.1.1 Design Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.1.2 Structural Integrity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.2 BRIDGE LOCATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.3 WATERWAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
1.3.2 Hydraulic Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.3.2.1 Site Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.3.2.2 Hydrologic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.3.2.3 Hydraulic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.4 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND WATERWAY OPENINGS . .4
1.5 ROADWAY DRAINAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.6 RAILROAD OVERPASSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.6.1 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.6.2 Blast Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.7 SUPERELEVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
1.8 FLOOR SURFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
1.9 UTILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
SECTION 2—GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
2.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.1.1 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.1.2 Width of Roadway and Sidewalk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.2 STANDARD HIGHWAY CLEARANCES—GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.2.1 Navigational . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.2.2 Roadway Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.2.3 Vertical Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.2.4 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.2.5 Curbs and Sidewalks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.3 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR BRIDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.3.1 Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.4 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR UNDERPASSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.4.1 Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.4.3 Curbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.5 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR TUNNELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.5.1 Roadway Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.5.2 Clearance between Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.5.3 Vertical Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.5.4 Curbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.6 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR DEPRESSED ROADWAYS . . . . . . .10
ix

x CONTENTS Division I
2.6.1 Roadway Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

2.6.2 Clearance between Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.6.3 Curbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.7 RAILINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.7.1 Vehicular Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.7.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.7.1.2 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
2.7.1.3 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
2.7.2 Bicycle Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
2.7.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
2.7.2.2 Geometry and Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
2.7.3 Pedestrian Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
2.7.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
2.7.3.2 Geometry and Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
2.7.4 Structural Specifications and Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
SECTION 3—LOADS
PART A—TYPES OF LOADS
3.1 NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

3.2 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
3.3 DEAD LOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
3.4 LIVE LOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
3.5 OVERLOAD PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
3.6 TRAFFIC LANES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
3.7 HIGHWAY LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
3.7.1 Standard Truck and Lane Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
3.7.2 Classes of Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.7.3 Designation of Loadings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.7.4 Minimum Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.7.5 H Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.7.6 HS Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.8 IMPACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.8.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.8.1.1 Group A—Impact shall be included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.8.1.2 Group B—Impact shall not be included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.8.2 Impact Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
3.9 LONGITUDINAL FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
3.10 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3.11 APPLICATION OF LIVE LOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3.11.1 Traffic Lane Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3.11.2 Number and Position of Traffic Lane Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3.11.3 Lane Loads on Continuous Spans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3.11.4 Loading for Maximum Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3.12 REDUCTION IN LOAD INTENSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3.13 ELECTRIC RAILWAY LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.14 SIDEWALK, CURB, AND RAILING LOADING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.14.1 Sidewalk Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.14.2 Curb Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.14.3 Railing Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.15 WIND LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Division I CONTENTS xi
3.15.1 Superstructure Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

3.15.1.1 Group II and Group V Loadings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.15.1.2 Group III and Group VI Loadings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
3.15.2 Substructure Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
3.15.2.1 Forces from Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
3.15.2.2 Forces Applied Directly to the Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
3.15.3 Overturning Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
3.16 THERMAL FORCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.17 UPLIFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.18 FORCES FROM STREAM CURRENT AND FLOATING ICE,
AND DRIFT CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.18.1 Force of Stream Current on Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.18.1.1 Stream Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.18.1.2 Pressure Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.18.1.3 Drift Lodged Against Pier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.18.2 Force of Ice on Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
3.18.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
3.18.2.2 Dynamic Ice Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
3.18.2.3 Static Ice Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
3.19 BUOYANCY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
3.20 EARTH PRESSURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
3.21 EARTHQUAKES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
PART B—COMBINATIONS OF LOADS
3.22 COMBINATIONS OF LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
PART C—DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS
3.23 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO STRINGERS, LONGITUDINAL

BEAMS, AND FLOOR BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
3.23.1 Position of Loads for Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
3.23.2 Bending Moments in Stringers and Longitudinal Beams . . . . . . . . . .32
3.23.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
3.23.2.2 Interior Stringers and Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
3.23.2.3 Outside Roadway Stringers and Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
3.23.2.3.1 Steel-Timber-Concrete T-Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
3.23.2.3.2 Concrete Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
3.23.2.3.3 Total Capacity of Stringers and Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
3.23.3 Bending Moments in Floor Beams (Transverse) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
3.23.4 Precast Concrete Beams Used in Multi-Beam Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
3.24 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS AND DESIGN OF CONCRETE
SLABS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
3.24.1 Span Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
3.24.2 Edge Distance of Wheel Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
3.24.3 Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35
3.24.3.1 Case A—Main Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic
(Spans 2 to 24 Feet Inclusive) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.24.3.2 Case B—Main Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.24.4 Shear and Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.24.5 Cantilever Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.24.5.1 Truck Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.24.5.1.1 Case A—Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.24.5.1.2 Case B—Reinforcement Parallel to Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

xii CONTENTS Division I
3.24.5.2 Railing Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

3.24.6 Slabs Supported on Four Sides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
3.24.7 Median Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
3.24.8 Longitudinal Edge Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
3.24.9 Unsupported Transverse Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
3.24.10 Distribution Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
3.25 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON TIMBER FLOORING . . .38
3.25.1 Transverse Flooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
3.25.2 Plank and Nail Laminated Longitudinal Flooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
3.25.3 Longitudinal Glued Laminated Timber Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
3.25.3.1 Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
3.25.3.2 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
3.25.3.3 Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
3.25.3.4 Stiffener Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
3.25.4 Continuous Flooring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
3.26 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS AND DESIGN OF
COMPOSITE WOOD-CONCRETE MEMBERS . . . . . . . . .40
3.26.1 Distribution of Concentrated Loads for Bending Moment
and Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
3.26.2 Distribution of Bending Moments in Continuous Spans . . . . . . . . . . .40
3.26.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
3.27 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON STEEL
GRID FLOORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.27.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.27.2 Floors Filled with Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.27.3 Open Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.28 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS FOR BENDING MOMENT
IN SPREAD BOX GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.28.1 Interior Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.28.2 Exterior Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.29 MOMENTS, SHEARS, AND REACTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.30 TIRE CONTACT AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
SECTION 4—FOUNDATIONS
PART A—GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS
4.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

4.2 FOUNDATION TYPE AND CAPACITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.2.1 Selection of Foundation Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.2.2 Foundation Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.2.2.1 Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.2.2.2 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.2.2.3 Overall Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.2.3 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND TESTING
PROGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.3.1 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
4.3.2 Minimum Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44
4.3.3 Minimum Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.3.4 Laboratory Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.3.5 Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

Division I CONTENTS xiii
PART B—SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD

ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
4.4 SPREAD FOOTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

4.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.4.1.1 Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.4.1.2 Footings Supporting Non-Rectangular Columns or Piers . . . . . . . . . .45
4.4.1.3 Footings in Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.4.1.4 Footings in Sloped Portions of Embankments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.4.1.5 Distribution of Bearing Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.4.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45
4.4.3 Design Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
4.4.4 Soil and Rock Property Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
4.4.5 Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
4.4.5.1 Minimum Embedment and Bench Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
4.4.5.2 Scour Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
4.4.5.3 Footing Excavations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
4.4.5.4 Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
4.4.6 Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
4.4.7 Geotechnical Design on Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
4.4.7.1.1 Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
4.4.7.1.1.1 Eccentric Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
4.4.7.1.1.2 Footing Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
4.4.7.1.1.3 Inclined Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
4.4.7.1.1.4 Ground Surface Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
4.4.7.1.1.5 Embedment Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
4.4.7.1.1.6 Ground Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
4.4.7.1.1.7 Layered Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
4.4.7.1.1.8 Inclined Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
4.4.7.1.2 Factors of Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
4.4.7.2 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
4.4.7.2.1 Stress Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
4.4.7.2.2 Elastic Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
4.4.7.2.3 Consolidation Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
4.4.7.2.4 Secondary Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.4.7.2.5 Tolerable Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.4.7.3 Dynamic Ground Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.4.8 Geotechnical Design on Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
4.4.8.1.1 Footings on Competent Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
4.4.8.1.2 Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
4.4.8.1.3 Factors of Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
4.4.8.2 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
4.4.8.2.1 Footings on Competent Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
4.4.8.2.2 Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
4.4.9 Overall Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
4.4.10 Dynamic/Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
4.4.11 Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
4.4.11.1 Loads and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
4.4.11.1.1 Action of Loads and Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
4.4.11.1.2 Isolated and Multiple Footing Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

xiv CONTENTS Division I
4.4.11.2 Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

4.4.11.2.1 Critical Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.2.2 Distribution of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.3 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.3.2 Footings on Piles or Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.4 Development of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.4.1 Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.5 Transfer of Force at Base of Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.5.1 Transfer of Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.5.2 Lateral Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
4.4.11.5.3 Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.4.11.5.4 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.4.11.5.5 Dowel Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.4.11.5.6 Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.4.11.5.7 Splicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.4.11.6 Unreinforced Concrete Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.4.11.6.1 Design Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.4.11.6.2 Pedestals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.5 DRIVEN PILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.5.1.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.5.1.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.5.1.3 Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
4.5.1.4 Lateral Tip Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.1.5 Estimated Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.1.6 Estimated and Minimum Tip Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.1.7 Piles Through Embankment Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.1.8 Test Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.2 Pile Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.2.1 Friction Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.2.2 End Bearing Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.2.3 Combination Friction and End Bearing Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.2.4 Batter Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.3 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
4.5.5 Selection of Soil and Rock Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.5.6 Selection of Design Pile Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.5.6.1 Ultimate Geotechnical Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.5.6.1.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.5.6.1.2 Axial Capacity in Cohesive Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.5.6.1.3 Axial Capacity in Cohesionless Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.5.6.1.4 Axial Capacity on Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .70
4.5.6.2 Factor of Safety Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
4.5.6.3 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
4.5.6.4 Group Pile Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
4.5.6.5 Lateral Loads on Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.5.6.6 Uplift Loads on Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.5.6.6.1 Single Pile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.5.6.6.2 Pile Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.5.6.7 Vertical Ground Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.5.6.7.1 Negative Skin Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

Division I CONTENTS xv
4.5.6.7.2 Expansive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

4.5.6.8 Dynamic/Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
4.5.7 Structural Capacity of Pile Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
4.5.7.1 Load Capacity Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
4.5.7.2 Piles Extending Above Ground Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
4.5.7.3 Allowable Stress in Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
4.5.7.4 Cross-Section Adjustment for Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
4.5.7.5 Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.8 Protection Against Corrosion and Abrasion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.9 Wave Equation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.10 Dynamic Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.11 Maximum Allowable Driving Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.12 Tolerable Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.13 Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.14 Protection Against Deterioration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.14.1 Steel Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
4.5.14.2 Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.14.3 Timber Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.15 Spacing, Clearances, and Embedment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.15.1 Pile Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.15.1.1 Pile Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.15.1.2 Minimum Projection into Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.15.2 Bent Caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.16 Precast Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.16.1 Size and Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.16.2 Minimum Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.16.3 Minimum Diameter of Tapered Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.16.4 Driving Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.16.5 Vertical Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.16.6 Spiral Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
4.5.16.7 Reinforcement Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.16.8 Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.16.9 Handling Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17.2 Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17.3 Minimum Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17.4 General Reinforcement Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17.5 Reinforcement into Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17.6 Shell Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17.7 Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.17.8 Reinforcement Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.18 Steel H-Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.18.1 Metal Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.18.2 Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
4.5.18.3 Caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.18.4 Lugs, Scabs, and Core-Stoppers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.18.5 Point Attachments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.19 Unfilled Tubular Steel Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.19.1 Metal Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.19.2 Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.19.3 Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.19.4 Column Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77

xvi CONTENTS Division I
4.5.20 Prestressed Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77

4.5.20.1 Size and Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.20.2 Main Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.20.3 Vertical Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77
4.5.20.4 Hollow Cylinder Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.5.20.5 Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.5.21 Timber Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.5.21.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.5.21.2 Limitations on Untreated Timber Pile Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.5.21.3 Limitations on Treated Timber Pile Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6 DRILLED SHAFTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6.1.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6.1.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6.1.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6.1.4 Embedment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6.1.5 Shaft Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6.1.6 Batter Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
4.6.1.7 Shafts Through Embankment Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
4.6.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
4.6.4 Selection of Soil and Rock Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
4.6.4.1 Presumptive Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
4.6.4.2 Measured Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
4.6.5 Geotechnical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
4.6.5.1 Axial Capacity in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
4.6.5.1.1 Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
4.6.5.1.2 Side Resistance in Cohesionless Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
4.6.5.1.3 Tip Resistance in Cohesive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
4.6.5.1.4 Tip Resistance in Cohesionless Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
4.6.5.2 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
4.6.5.2.1 Soil Layering and Variable Soil Strength with Depth . . . . . . . . . . . .83
4.6.5.2.2 Ground Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
4.6.5.2.3 Enlarged Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
4.6.5.2.4 Group Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
4.6.5.2.4.1 Cohesive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
4.6.5.2.4.2 Cohesionless Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
4.6.5.2.4.3 Group in Strong Soil Overlying Weaker Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
4.6.5.2.5 Vertical Ground Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
4.6.5.2.6 Method of Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
4.6.5.3 Axial Capacity in Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
4.6.5.3.1 Side Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
4.6.5.3.2 Tip Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
4.6.5.3.3 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
4.6.5.3.3.1 Rock Stratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
4.6.5.3.3.2 Rock Mass Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
4.6.5.3.3.3 Method of Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
4.6.5.4 Factors of Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
4.6.5.5 Deformation of Axially Loaded Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
4.6.5.5.1 Shafts in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
4.6.5.5.1.1 Cohesive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
4.6.5.5.1.2 Cohesionless Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
4.6.5.5.1.3 Mixed Soil Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87
4.6.5.5.2 Shafts Socketed into Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87

Division I CONTENTS xvii

4.6.5.6 Lateral Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
4.6.5.6.1 Factors Affecting Laterally Loaded Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
4.6.5.6.1.1 Soil Layering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
4.6.5.6.1.2 Ground Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
4.6.5.6.1.3 Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
4.6.5.6.1.4 Group Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88
4.6.5.6.1.5 Cyclic Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
4.6.5.6.1.6 Combined Axial and Lateral Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
4.6.5.6.1.7 Sloping Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
4.6.5.6.2 Tolerable Lateral Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
4.6.5.7 Dynamic/Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6 Structural Design and General Shaft Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.2.1 Longitudinal Bar Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.2.2 Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.2.3 Transverse Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.2.4 Handling Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.2.5 Reinforcement Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.2.6 Reinforcement into Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.3 Enlarged Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
4.6.6.4 Center-to-Center Shaft Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
4.6.7 Load Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
4.6.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
4.6.7.2 Load Testing Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
4.6.7.3 Load Test Method Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
4.7 NOTE: Article Number Intentionally Not Used
PART C—STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD

LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
4.8 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91

4.9 DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
4.10 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS,
AND RESISTANCE FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
4.10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
4.10.2 Serviceability Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
4.10.3 Strength Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
4.10.4 Strength Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.10.5 Load Combinations and Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.10.6 Performance Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.11 SPREAD FOOTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.11.1 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.11.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.11.1.2 Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.11.1.3 Scour Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.11.1.4 Frost Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.11.1.5 Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
4.11.1.6 Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
4.11.1.7 Uplift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
4.11.1.8 Deterioration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
4.11.1.9 Nearby Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
4.11.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95

xviii CONTENTS Division I
4.11.3 Movement Under Serviceability Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97

4.11.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.3.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.3.3 Movement Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.3.4 Settlement Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.3.4.1 Settlement of Footings on Cohesionless Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.3.4.2 Settlement of Footings on Cohesive Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.3.4.3 Settlement of Footings on Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.4 Safety Against Soil Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.4.1 Bearing Capacity of Foundation Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
4.11.4.1.1 Theoretical Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
4.11.4.1.2 Semi-empirical Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
4.11.4.1.3 Plate Loading Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
4.11.4.1.4 Presumptive Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
4.11.4.1.5 Effect of Load Eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
4.11.4.1.6 Effect of Groundwater Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
4.11.4.2 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
4.11.4.2.1 Semi-empirical Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
4.11.4.2.2 Analytic Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.4.2.3 Load Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.4.2.4 Presumptive Bearing Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.4.2.5 Effect of Load Eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.4.3 Failure by Sliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.4.4 Loss of Overall Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.5 Structural Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.6 Construction Considerations for Shallow Foundations . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.6.2 Excavation Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.11.6.3 Compaction Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.12 DRIVEN PILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.12.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
4.12.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
4.12.3 Selection of Design Pile Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
4.12.3.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
4.12.3.1.1 Pile Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
4.12.3.1.2 Groundwater Table and Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
4.12.3.1.3 Effect of Settling Ground and Downdrag Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . .102
4.12.3.1.4 Uplift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.2 Movement Under Serviceability Limit State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.2.2 Tolerable Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.2.3 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.2.3a Cohesive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.2.3b Cohesionless Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.2.4 Lateral Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.3 Resistance at Strength Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.3.1 Axial Loading of Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
4.12.3.3.2 Analytic Estimates of Pile Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.3 Pile of Capacity Estimates Based on In Situ Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.4 Piles Bearing on Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.5 Pile Load Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.6 Presumptive End Bearing Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.7 Uplift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104

Division I CONTENTS xix
4.12.3.3.7a Single Pile Uplift Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104

4.12.3.3.7b Pile Group Uplift Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.8 Lateral Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.9 Batter Pile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.10 Group Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.10a Cohesive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
4.12.3.3.10c Pile Group in Strong Soil Overlying a Weak
or Compressible Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4.12.3.3.11 Dynamic/Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4.12.4 Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4.12.4.1 Buckling of Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4.12.5 Construction Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4.13 DRILLED SHAFTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4.13.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4.13.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
4.13.3 Geotechnical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
4.13.3.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.1.1 Downdrag Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.1.2 Uplift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.2 Movement Under Serviceability Limit State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.2.2 Tolerable Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.2.3 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.2.3a Settlement of Single Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.2.3b Group Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.2.4 Lateral Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.3 Resistance at Strength Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.3.1 Axial Loading of Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.3.2 Analytic Estimates of Drilled Shaft Capacity
in Cohesive Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.3.3 Estimation of Drilled-Shaft Capacity in Cohesionless Soils . . . . .107
4.13.3.3.4 Axial Capacity in Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
4.13.3.3.5 Load Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.3.3.6 Uplift Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.3.3.6a Uplift Capacity of a Single Drilled Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.3.3.6b Group Uplift Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.3.3.7 Lateral Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.3.3.8 Group Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.3.3.8a Cohesive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.3.3.8c Group in Strong Soil Overlying Weaker Compressible Soil . . .108
4.13.3.3.9 Dynamic/Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.4 Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
4.13.4.1 Buckling of Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .109
SECTION 5—RETAINING WALLS
5.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111

5.2 WALL TYPE AND BEHAVIOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
5.2.1 Selection of Wall Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
5.2.1.1 Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111

xx CONTENTS Division I
5.2.1.2 Nongravity Cantilevered Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112

5.2.1.3 Anchored Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
5.2.1.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
5.2.1.5 Prefabricated Modular Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
5.2.2 Wall Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
5.2.2.1 Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
5.2.2.2 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
5.2.2.3 Overall Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
5.2.2.4 Tolerable Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
5.2.3 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
5.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND TESTING PROGRAMS . . . .116
5.3.1 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
5.3.2 Minimum Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
5.3.3 Minimum Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
5.3.4 Laboratory Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
5.3.5 Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
5.4 NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .117
PART B—SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
5.5 RIGID GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY WALL DESIGN . . . . . . . .121
5.5.1 Design Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
5.5.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
5.5.3 Water Pressure and Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
5.5.4 Seismic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
5.5.5 Structure Dimensions and External Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
5.5.6 Structure Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
5.5.6.1 Base or Footing Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
5.5.6.2 Wall Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
5.5.6.3 Counterforts and Buttresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
5.5.6.4 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
5.5.6.5 Expansion and Contraction Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
5.5.7 Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
5.5.8 Overall Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
5.6 NONGRAVITY CANTILEVERED WALL DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
5.6.8 Corrosion Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
5.7 ANCHORED WALL DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
5.7.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
5.7.6.2 Anchor Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136
5.7.9 Anchor Load Testing and Stressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138

Division I CONTENTS xxi
5.8 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH WALL DESIGN . . . . . . .138

5.8.1 Structure Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
5.8.2 External Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
5.8.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
5.8.4 Calculation of Loads for Internal Stability Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . .144
5.8.4.1 Calculation of Maximum Reinforcement Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .146
5.8.4.2 Determination of Reinforcement Tensile Load at the Connection
to the Wall Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
5.8.5 Determination of Reinforcement Length Required for
Internal Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
5.8.5.1 Location of Zone of Maximum Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
5.8.5.2 Soil Reinforcement Pullout Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
5.8.6 Reinforcement Strength Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
5.8.6.1 Design Life Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
5.8.6.1.1 Steel Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
5.8.6.1.2 Geosynthetic Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
5.8.6.2 Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
5.8.6.2.1 Steel Reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
5.8.6.2.2 Geosynthetic Reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
5.8.7 Soil Reinforcement/Facing Connection Strength Design . . . . . . . . . 158
5.8.7.1 Connection Strength for Steel Soil Reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.8.7.2 Connection Strength for Geosynthetic Reinforcements . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.8.8 Design of Facing Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5.8.8.1 Design of Stiff or Rigid Concrete, Steel, and Timber Facings . . . . . .160
5.8.8.2 Design of Flexible Wall Facings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
5.8.8.3 Corrosion Issues for MSE Facing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
5.8.9 Seismic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
5.8.9.1 External Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161
5.8.9.2 Internal Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
5.8.9.3 Facing/Soil Reinforcement Connection Design for
Seismic Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
5.8.10 Determination of Lateral Wall Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
5.8.11 Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164
5.8.12 Special Loading Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
5.8.12.1 Concentrated Dead Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165
5.8.12.2 Traffic Loads and Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169
5.8.12.3 Hydrostatic Pressures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
5.8.12.4 Design for Presence of Obstructions in the Reinforced
Soil Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
5.9 PREFABRICATED MODULAR WALL DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
5.9.1 Structure Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
5.9.2 External Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
5.9.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
5.9.4 Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
5.9.5 Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174

LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
5.10 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174

5.11 DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
5.12 NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
5.13 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS AND
RESISTANCE FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175

xxii CONTENTS Division I
5.13.1 Serviceability Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175

5.13.2 Strength Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
5.13.3 Strength Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
5.13.4 Load Combinations and Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
5.13.5 Performance Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
5.14 GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY WALL DESIGN, AND
CANTILEVER WALL DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
5.14.1 Earth Pressure Due to Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
5.14.2 Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
5.14.5 Movement Under Serviceability Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
5.14.6 Safety Against Soil Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .176
5.14.6.1 Bearing Capacity Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
5.14.6.2 Sliding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
5.14.6.3 Overturning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
5.14.6.4 Overall Stability (Revised Article 5.2.2.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
5.14.7 Safety Against Structural Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
5.14.7.1 Base of Footing Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
5.14.7.2 Wall Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
5.14.7.3 Counterforts and Buttresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
5.14.7.4 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
5.14.7.5 Expansion and Contraction Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
5.14.8 Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
SECTION 6—CULVERTS
6.1 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND WATERWAY

OPENINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
6.2 DEAD LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
6.2.1 Culvert in trench, or culvert untrenched on yielding foundation . . .181
6.2.2 Culvert untrenched on unyielding foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
6.3 FOOTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
6.4 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS THROUGH
EARTH FILLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
6.5 DISTRIBUTION REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
6.6 DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181
SECTION 7—SUBSTRUCTURES
7.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183

7.1.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
7.1.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
7.1.3 Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
7.1.4 Foundation and Retaining Wall Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
7.2 NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
PART B—SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD

7.3 PIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183

7.3.1 Pier Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183

Division I CONTENTS xxiii
7.3.1.1 Solid Wall Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183

7.3.1.2 Double Wall Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183
7.3.1.3 Bent Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.3.1.4 Single-Column Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.3.2 Pier Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.3.2.1 Collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.3.2.2 Collision Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.3.2.3 Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.3.2.4 Facing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.4 TUBULAR PIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.4.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.4.2 Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.5 ABUTMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.5.1 Abutment Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.5.1.1 Stub Abutment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.5.1.2 Partial-Depth Abutment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.5.1.3 Full-Depth Abutment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
7.5.1.4 Integral Abutment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
7.5.2 Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
7.5.2.1 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
7.5.2.2 Reinforcement for Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
7.5.2.3 Drainage and Backfilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
7.5.3 Integral Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
7.5.4 Abutments on Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
7.5.5 Abutments on Modular Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
7.5.6 Wingwalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
7.5.6.1 Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
7.5.6.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187

LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
7.6 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187
SECTION 8—REINFORCED CONCRETE
8.1 APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189

8.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
8.1.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
8.1.3 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
8.2 CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .192
8.3 REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
PART B—ANALYSIS
8.4 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193

8.5 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
8.6 STIFFNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
8.7 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND POISSON’S RATIO . . . . . . . . . .193
8.8 SPAN LENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
8.9 CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
8.9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194

xxiv CONTENTS Division I
8.9.2 Superstructure Depth Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194

8.9.3 Superstructure Deflection Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
8.10 COMPRESSION FLANGE WIDTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
8.10.1 T-Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
8.10.2 Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
8.11 SLAB AND WEB THICKNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
8.12 DIAPHRAGMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
8.13 COMPUTATION OF DEFLECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
PART C—DESIGN
8.14 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195

8.14.1 Design Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
8.14.2 Composite Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
8.14.3 Concrete Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
8.15 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD (Allowable Stress Design) . . . .197
8.15.1 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
8.15.2.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
8.15.2.1.1 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
8.15.2.1.2 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
8.15.2.1.3 Bearing Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
8.15.2.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
8.15.3 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
8.15.4 Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .197
8.15.5 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
8.15.5.1 Shear Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
8.15.5.2 Shear Stress Carried by Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
8.15.5.2.1 Shear in Beams and One-Way Slabs and Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
8.15.5.2.2 Shear in Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
8.15.5.2.3 Shear in Tension Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
8.15.5.2.4 Shear in Lightweight Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
8.15.5.3 Shear Stress Carried by Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
8.15.5.4 Shear Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
8.15.5.4.3 Shear-Friction Design Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
8.15.5.5 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite Concrete
Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
8.15.5.5.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
8.15.5.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
8.15.5.7 Special Provisions for Slabs of Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
8.15.5.8 Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201
8.16 STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD (Load Factor Design) . . . . . . . . . . .202
8.16.1 Strength Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
8.16.1.1 Required Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
8.16.1.2 Design Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
8.16.2 Design Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
8.16.3 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
8.16.3.1 Maximum Reinforcement of Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
8.16.3.2 Rectangular Sections with Tension Reinforcement Only . . . . . . . . . .203
8.16.3.3 Flanged Sections with Tension Reinforcement Only . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
8.16.3.4 Rectangular Sections with Compression Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . .204
8.16.3.5 Other Cross Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204

Division I CONTENTS xxv
8.16.4.1 General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204

8.16.4.2 Compression Member Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204
8.16.4.2.1 Pure Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .204
8.16.4.2.2 Pure Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
8.16.4.2.3 Balanced Strain Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
8.16.4.2.4 Combined Flexure and Axial Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
8.16.4.3 Biaxial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
8.16.4.4 Hollow Rectangular Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205
8.16.5 Slenderness Effects in Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
8.16.5.2 Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
8.16.6 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
8.16.6.1 Shear Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207
8.16.6.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
8.16.6.2.1 Shear in Beams and One-Way Slabs and Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
8.16.6.2.2 Shear in Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
8.16.6.2.3 Shear in Tension Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
8.16.6.2.4 Shear in Lightweight Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
8.16.6.3 Shear Strength Provided by Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
8.16.6.4 Shear Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209
8.16.6.4.4 Shear-Friction Design Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209
8.16.6.5 Horizontal Shear Strength for Composite Concrete
Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
8.16.6.5.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
8.16.6.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
8.16.6.7 Special Provisions for Slabs of Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
8.16.6.8 Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
8.16.7 Bearing Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
8.16.8 Serviceability Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
8.16.8.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
8.16.8.2 Service Load Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
8.16.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
8.16.8.4 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
PART D—REINFORCEMENT
8.17 REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213

8.17.1 Minimum Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
8.17.2 Distribution of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
8.17.2.1 Flexural Tension Reinforcement in Zones of Maximum Tension . . .213
8.17.2.2 Transverse Deck Slab Reinforcement in T-Girders
and Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
8.17.2.3 Bottom Slab Reinforcement for Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214
8.17.3 Lateral Reinforcement of Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214
8.17.4 Reinforcement for Hollow Rectangular Compression Members . . .214
8.18 REINFORCEMENT OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . .215
8.18.1 Maximum and Minimum Longitudinal Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . .215
8.18.2 Lateral Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
8.18.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
8.18.2.2 Spirals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
8.18.2.3 Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
8.18.2.4 Seismic Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
8.19 LIMITS FOR SHEAR REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216

xxvi CONTENTS Division I
8.19.1 Minimum Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216

8.19.2 Types of Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
8.19.3 Spacing of Shear Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
8.20 SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . .216
8.21 SPACING LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
8.22 PROTECTION AGAINST CORROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
8.23 HOOKS AND BENDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
8.23.1 Standard Hooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
8.23.2 Minimum Bend Diameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
8.24 DEVELOPMENT OF FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . .218
8.24.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
8.24.2 Positive Moment Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
8.24.3 Negative Moment Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
8.25 DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS AND DEFORMED
WIRE IN TENSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .219
8.26 DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS IN COMPRESSION . . . .219
8.27 DEVELOPMENT OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
8.28 DEVELOPMENT OF BUNDLED BARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220
8.29 DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD HOOKS IN TENSION . . . . . . . .220
8.30 DEVELOPMENT OF WELDED WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION . . . .221
8.30.1 Deformed Wire Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
8.30.2 Smooth Wire Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222
8.31 MECHANICAL ANCHORAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222
8.32 SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222
8.32.1 Lap Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222
8.32.2 Welded Splices and Mechanical Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222
8.32.3 Splices of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension . . . . . . . .223
8.32.4 Splices of Bars in Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
8.32.4.1 Lap Splices in Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
8.32.4.2 End-Bearing Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
8.32.4.3 Welded Splices or Mechanical Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
8.32.5 Splices of Welded Deformed Wire Fabric in Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
8.32.6 Splices of Welded Smooth Wire Fabric in Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .224
SECTION 9—PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
9.1 APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225

9.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225
9.1.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .225
9.1.3 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
9.2 CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
9.3 REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
9.3.1 Prestressing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
9.3.2 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
PART B—ANALYSIS
9.4 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228

9.6 SPAN LENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228
9.7 FRAMES AND CONTINUOUS CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228

Division I CONTENTS xxvii
9.7.1 Cast-in-Place Post-Tensioned Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228

9.7.2 Bridges Composed of Simple-Span Precast Prestressed Girders
Made Continuous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.7.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.7.2.2 Positive Moment Connection at Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.7.2.3 Negative Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.7.3 Segmental Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.7.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.7.3.2 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.7.3.3 Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.8 EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.8.1 T-Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.8.2 Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
9.8.3 Precast/Prestressed Concrete Beams with Wide Top Flanges . . . . . .230
9.9 FLANGE AND WEB THICKNESS—BOX GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.9.1 Top Flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.9.2 Bottom Flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.9.3 Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.10 DIAPHRAGMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.10.2 T-Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.10.3 Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.11 DEFLECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.11.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230
9.11.2 Segmental Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
9.11.3 Superstructure Deflection Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
9.12 DECK PANELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
9.12.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
9.12.2 Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
PART C—DESIGN
9.13 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231

9.13.1 Design Theory and General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
9.13.2 Basic Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
9.13.3 Composite Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231
9.14 LOAD FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
9.15 ALLOWABLE STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
9.15.2 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
9.15.2.1 Temporary Stresses Before Losses Due to Creep
and Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
9.15.2.2 Stress at Service Load After Losses Have Occurred . . . . . . . . . . . . .232
9.15.2.3 Cracking Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
9.15.2.4 Anchorage Bearing Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
9.16 LOSS OF PRESTRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
9.16.1 Friction Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
9.16.2 Prestress Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
9.16.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
9.16.2.1.1 Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .233
9.16.2.1.2 Elastic Shortening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
9.16.2.1.3 Creep of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
9.16.2.1.4 Relaxation of Prestressing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
9.16.2.2 Estimated Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236

xxviii CONTENTS Division I
9.17 FLEXURAL STRENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236

9.17.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
9.17.2 Rectangular Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
9.17.3 Flanged Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
9.17.4 Steel Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
9.18 DUCTILITY LIMITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
9.18.1 Maximum Prestressing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
9.18.2 Minimum Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
9.19 NON-PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
9.20 SHEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
9.20.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
9.20.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238
9.20.3 Shear Strength Provided by Web Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239
9.20.4 Horizontal Shear Design—Composite Flexural Members . . . . . . . .239
9.20.4.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
9.21 POST-TENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
9.21.1 Geometry of the Anchorage Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
9.21.2 General Zone and Local Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
9.21.2.1 General Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
9.21.2.2 Local Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
9.21.2.3 Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240
9.21.3 Design of the General Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
9.21.3.1 Design Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
9.21.3.2 Nominal Material Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
9.21.3.3 Use of Special Anchorage Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .241
9.21.3.4 General Design Principles and Detailing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . .241
9.21.3.5 Intermediate Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .242
9.21.3.6 Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
9.21.3.7 Multiple Slab Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
9.21.4 Application of Strut-and-Tie Models to the Design
of Anchorage Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
9.21.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243
9.21.4.2 Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
9.21.4.3 Struts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
9.21.4.4 Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
9.21.5 Elastic Stress Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
9.21.6 Approximate Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
9.21.6.1 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244
9.21.6.2 Compressive Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
9.21.6.3 Bursting Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
9.21.6.4 Edge-Tension Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245
9.21.7 Design of the Local Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246
9.21.7.1 Dimensions of the Local Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246
9.21.7.2 Bearing Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246
9.21.7.3 Special Anchorage Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
9.22 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
9.23 CONCRETE STRENGTH AT STRESS TRANSFER . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
9.24 DECK PANELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
PART D—DETAILING
9.25 FLANGE REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247

9.26 COVER AND SPACING OF STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247

Division I CONTENTS xxix
9.26.1 Minimum Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247

9.26.2 Minimum Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248
9.26.3 Bundling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248
9.26.4 Size of Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .248
9.27 POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND COUPLERS . . . . . . . . .248
9.28 EMBEDMENT OF PRESTRESSED STRAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249
9.29 BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249
SECTION 10—STRUCTURAL STEEL
10.1 APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251

10.1.1 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251
10.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.2 Structural Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.3 Steels for Pins, Rollers, and Expansion Rockers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.4 Fasteners—Rivets and Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.5 Weld Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.6 Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings, Malleable Castings, Cast Iron,
and Bronze or Copper Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.6.1 Cast Steel and Ductile Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.6.2 Malleable Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
10.2.6.3 Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257
PART B—DESIGN DETAILS
10.3 REPETITIVE LOADING AND TOUGHNESS

CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
10.3.1 Allowable Fatigue Stress Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
10.3.2 Load Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
10.3.3 Charpy V-Notch Impact Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
10.3.4 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
10.4 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF SPAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259
10.5 DEPTH RATIOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
10.6 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
10.7 LIMITING LENGTHS OF MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .263
10.8 MINIMUM THICKNESS OF METAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
10.9 EFFECTIVE AREA OF ANGLES AND TEE SECTIONS
IN TENSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
10.10 OUTSTANDING LEGS OF ANGLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266
10.12 FLEXURAL MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266
10.13 COVER PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266
10.14 CAMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
10.15 HEAT-CURVED ROLLED BEAMS AND WELDED
PLATE GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
10.15.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
10.15.2 Minimum Radius of Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
10.15.3 Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267
10.16 TRUSSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268

xxx CONTENTS Division I
10.16.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268

10.16.2 Truss Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
10.16.3 Secondary Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
10.16.4 Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .268
10.16.5 Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
10.16.6 Working Lines and Gravity Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
10.16.7 Portal and Sway Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
10.16.8 Perforated Cover Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
10.16.9 Stay Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .269
10.16.10 Lacing Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
10.16.11 Gusset Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
10.16.12 Half-Through Truss Spans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270
10.16.13 Fastener Pitch in Ends of Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
10.16.14 Net Section of Riveted or High-Strength Bolted
Tension Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
10.17 BENTS AND TOWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
10.17.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
10.17.2 Single Bents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
10.17.3 Batter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
10.17.4 Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .271
10.17.5 Bottom Struts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
10.18 SPLICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
10.18.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
10.18.1.1 Design Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
10.18.1.2 Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
10.18.1.3 Design Force for Flange Splice Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
10.18.1.4 Truss Chords and Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272
10.18.2 Flexural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
10.18.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
10.18.2.2 Flange Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273
10.18.2.3 Web Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275
10.18.4 Tension Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277
10.18.5 Welded Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277
10.19 STRENGTH OF CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278
10.19.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278
10.19.2 End Connections of Floor Beams and Stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
10.19.3 End Connections of Diaphragms and Cross Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
10.20 DIAPHRAGMS AND CROSS FRAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
10.20.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
10.20.2 Stresses Due to Wind Loading When Top Flanges
Are Continuously Supported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
10.20.2.1 Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
10.20.2.2 Diaphragms and Cross Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279
10.20.3 Stresses Due to Wind Load When Top Flanges
Are Not Continuously Supported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.21 LATERAL BRACING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.22 CLOSED SECTIONS AND POCKETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.23 WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.23.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.23.2 Effective Size of Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.23.2.1 Maximum Size of Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.23.2.2 Minimum Size of Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
10.23.3 Minimum Effective Length of Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281

Division I CONTENTS xxxi
10.23.4 Fillet Weld End Returns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281

10.23.5 Seal Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
10.24 FASTENERS (RIVETS AND BOLTS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
10.24.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .281
10.24.2 Hole Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282
10.24.3 Washer Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282
10.24.4 Size of Fasteners (Rivets or High-Strength Bolts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.5 Spacing of Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.5.1 Pitch and Gage of Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.5.2 Minimum Spacing of Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.5.3 Minimum Clear Distance Between Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.5.4 Maximum Spacing of Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.6 Maximum Spacing of Sealing and Stitch Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.6.1 Sealing Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.6.2 Stitch Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .283
10.24.7 Edge Distance of Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
10.24.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
10.24.8 Long Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
10.25 LINKS AND HANGERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
10.25.1 Net Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
10.25.2 Location of Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
10.25.3 Size of Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
10.25.4 Pin Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .284
10.25.5 Pins and Pin Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.26 UPSET ENDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.27 EYEBARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.27.1 Thickness and Net Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.27.2 Packing of Eyebars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.28 FORKED ENDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.29 FIXED AND EXPANSION BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.29.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.29.2 Bronze or Copper-Alloy Sliding Expansion Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.29.3 Rollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .285
10.29.4 Sole Plates and Masonry Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.29.5 Masonry Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.29.6 Anchor Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.29.7 Pedestals and Shoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.30 FLOOR SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.30.1 Stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.30.2 Floor Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.30.3 Cross Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.30.4 Expansion Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .286
10.30.5 End Floor Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
10.30.6 End Panel of Skewed Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
10.30.7 Sidewalk Brackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
10.30.8 Stay-in-Place Deck Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
10.30.8.1 Concrete Deck Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
10.30.8.2 Metal Stay-in-Place Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
PART C—SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD

10.31 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287

10.32 ALLOWABLE STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287

xxxii CONTENTS Division I
10.32.1 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287

10.32.2 Weld Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
10.32.3 Fasteners (Rivets and Bolts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
10.32.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
10.32.3.3 Applied Tension, Combined Tension, and Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
10.32.3.4 Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
10.32.4 Pins, Rollers, and Expansion Rockers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .292
10.32.5 Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings, Malleable Castings,
and Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293
10.32.5.1 Cast Steel and Ductile Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293
10.32.5.2 Malleable Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293
10.32.5.3 Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293
10.32.5.4 Bronze or Copper-Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293
10.32.6 Bearing on Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
10.33 ROLLED BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
10.33.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
10.33.2 Bearing Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
10.34 PLATE GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
10.34.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
10.34.2 Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
10.34.2.1 Welded Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
10.34.2.2 Riveted or Bolted Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .295
10.34.3 Thickness of Web Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
10.34.3.1 Girders Not Stiffened Longitudinally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
10.34.3.2 Girders Stiffened Longitudinally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
10.34.4 Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .297
10.34.5 Longitudinal Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .298
10.34.6.1 Welded Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299
10.34.6.2 Riveted or Bolted Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .299
10.35 TRUSSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300
10.35.1 Perforated Cover Plates and Lacing Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300
10.35.2 Compression Members—Thickness of Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300
10.36 COMBINED STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .301
10.37 SOLID RIB ARCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
10.37.1 Moment Amplification and Allowable Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .302
10.37.2 Web Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303
10.37.3 Flange Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303
10.38 COMPOSITE GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303
10.38.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .303
10.38.2 Shear Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
10.38.3 Effective Flange Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
10.38.4 Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304
10.38.5 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305
10.38.5.1 Horizontal Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305
10.38.5.1.1 Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .305
10.38.5.1.2 Ultimate Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .306
10.38.5.1.3 Additional Connectors to Develop Slab Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
10.38.5.2 Vertical Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
10.38.6 Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
10.39 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
10.39.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
10.39.2 Lateral Distribution of Loads for Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . .307

Division I CONTENTS xxxiii
10.39.3 Design of Web Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307

10.39.3.1 Vertical Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .307
10.39.3.2 Secondary Bending Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
10.39.4 Design of Bottom Flange Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
10.39.4.1 Tension Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
10.39.4.2 Compression Flanges Unstiffened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
10.39.4.3 Compression Flanges Stiffened Longitudinally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .308
10.39.4.4 Compression Flanges Stiffened Longitudinally and Transversely . . .311
10.39.4.5 Compression Flange Stiffeners, General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
10.39.5 Design of Flange to Web Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
10.39.6 Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
10.39.7 Lateral Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
10.39.8 Access and Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
10.40 HYBRID GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
10.40.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312
10.40.2.1 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313
10.40.2.2 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313
10.40.2.3 Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.40.3 Plate Thickness Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.40.4 Bearing Stiffener Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.41 ORTHOTROPIC-DECK SUPERSTRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.41.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.41.2 Wheel Load Contact Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.41.3 Effective Width of Deck Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.41.3.1 Ribs and Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.41.3.2 Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.41.4.1 Local Bending Stresses in Deck Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .314
10.41.4.2 Bending Stresses in Longitudinal Ribs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.3 Bending Stresses in Transverse Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.4 Intersections of Ribs, Beams, and Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.5 Thickness of Plate Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.5.1 Longitudinal Ribs and Deck Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.5.2 Girders and Transverse Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.6 Maximum Slenderness of Longitudinal Ribs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.7 Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.8 Stiffness Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.8.1 Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.8.2 Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .315
10.41.4.9 Wearing Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
10.41.4.10 Closed Ribs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
PART D—STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD

LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
10.42 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316

10.43 LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
10.44 DESIGN THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
10.45 ASSUMPTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
10.46 DESIGN STRESS FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .316
10.47 MAXIMUM DESIGN LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317
10.48 FLEXURAL MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317

xxxiv CONTENTS Division I
10.48.1 Compact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .317

10.48.2 Braced Noncompact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
10.48.3 Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
10.48.4 Partially Braced Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319
10.48.5 Transversely Stiffened Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320
10.48.6 Longitudinally Stiffened Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321
10.48.8 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321
10.49 SINGLY SYMMETRIC SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
10.49.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
10.49.2 Singly Symmetric Sections with Transverse Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . .322
10.49.3 Longitudinally Stiffened Singly Symmetric Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . .322
10.49.4 Singly Symmetric Braced Noncompact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323
10.49.5 Partially Braced Members with Singly Symmetric Sections . . . . . .323
10.50 COMPOSITE SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323
10.50.1 Positive Moment Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324
10.50.1.1 Compact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .324
10.50.1.2 Noncompact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
10.50.2 Negative Moment Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .325
10.50.2.2 Noncompact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .326
10.51 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .326
10.51.1 Maximum Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .326
10.51.2 Lateral Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
10.51.3 Web Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
10.51.4 Tension Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
10.51.5 Compression Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .327
10.51.6 Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
10.51.7 Design of Flange to Web Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
10.52 SHEAR CONNECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
10.52.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
10.52.2 Design of Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
10.52.3 Maximum Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
10.53 HYBRID GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .328
10.53.1 Noncomposite Hybrid Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329
10.53.1.2 Braced Noncompact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329
10.53.1.3 Partially Braced Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329
10.53.2 Composite Hybrid Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329
10.53.3 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .329
10.54 COMPRESSION MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
10.54.1 Axial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
10.54.1.1 Maximum Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
10.54.1.2 Effective Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
10.54.2 Combined Axial Load and Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
10.54.2.1 Maximum Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .330
10.54.2.2 Equivalent Moment Factor C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.55 SOLID RIB ARCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.55.1 Moment Amplification and Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.55.2 Web Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.55.3 Flange Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.56 SPLICES, CONNECTIONS, AND DETAILS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.56.1 Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331

Division I CONTENTS xxxv
10.56.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331

10.56.1.2 Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.56.1.3 Bolts and Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .331
10.56.1.4 Slip-Critical Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333
10.56.2 Bolts Subjected to Prying Action by Connected Parts . . . . . . . . . . .333
10.56.3 Rigid Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333
10.57 OVERLOAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .333
10.57.1 Noncomposite Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .334
10.57.2 Composite Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .334
10.57.3 Slip-Critical Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .334
10.58 FATIGUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
10.58.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
10.58.2 Composite Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
10.58.2.1 Slab Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
10.58.2.2 Shear Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
10.58.3 Hybrid Beams and Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
10.59 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
10.60 ORTHOTROPIC SUPERSTRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .335
10.61 CONSTRUCTIBILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
10.61.1 Web Bend Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
10.61.2 Web Shear Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
10.61.3 Lateral-Torsional Buckling of the Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
10.61.4 Compression Flange Local Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336
SECTION 11—ALUMINUM DESIGN
11.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337

11.2 BRIDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
11.3 SOIL-METAL PLATE INTERACTION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
11.4 STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS FOR HIGHWAY SIGNS,
LUMINAIRES, AND TRAFFIC SIGNALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
11.5 BRIDGE RAILING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .337
SECTION 12—SOIL-CORRUGATED METAL STRUCTURE

INTERACTION SYSTEMS
12.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339

12.1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339
12.1.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339
12.1.3 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .339
12.1.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
12.1.5 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
12.1.6 Soil Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
12.1.6.1 Soil Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
12.1.6.2 Pipe Arch Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
12.1.6.3 Arch Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .340
12.1.7 Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
12.1.8 Minimum Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
12.1.9 End Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
12.1.10 Construction and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
12.2 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
12.2.1 Wall Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341

xxxvi CONTENTS Division I
12.2.2 Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341

12.2.3 Seam Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
12.2.4 Handling and Installation Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .341
12.3 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
12.3.1 Wall Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
12.3.2 Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
12.3.3 Seam Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
12.4 CORRUGATED METAL PIPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
12.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
12.4.1.2 Service Load Design—safety factor, SF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342
12.4.1.3 Load Factor Design—capacity modification factor, f . . . . . . . . . . . .342
12.4.1.4 Flexibility Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343
12.4.1.5 Minimum Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343
12.4.2 Seam Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .343
12.4.3 Section Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
12.4.3.1 Steel Conduits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
12.4.3.2 Aluminum Conduits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .344
12.4.4 Chemical and Mechanical Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.4.5 Smooth-Lined Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.5 SPIRAL RIB METAL PIPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.5.2 Soil Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.5.2.3 Pipe-Arch Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.5.2.4 Special Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.5.2.5 Construction and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.5.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
12.5.3.3 Minimum Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346
12.5.4.1 Steel Conduits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346
12.5.5.1 Steel Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe-Arch Requirements—
AASHTO M 218 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346
12.5.5.2 Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe-Arch Requirements—
AASHTO M 197 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .346
12.6 STRUCTURAL PLATE PIPE STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
12.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
12.6.1.3 Load Factor Design—capacity modification
factor, f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
12.6.1.5 Minimum Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
12.6.2 Seam Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
12.6.3.1 Steel Conduits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .347
12.6.4 Chemical and Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
12.6.4.1 Aluminum Structural Plate Pipe, Pipe-Arch, and Arch Material
Requirements—AASHTO M 219, Alloy 5052 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
12.6.4.2 Steel Structural Plate Pipe, Pipe-Arch, and Arch Material
Requirements—AASHTO M 167 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348

Division I CONTENTS xxxvii
12.6.5 Structural Plate Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348

12.7 LONG-SPAN STRUCTURAL PLATE STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . .348
12.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
12.7.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
12.7.2.2 Acceptable Special Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
12.7.3 Foundation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
12.7.3.1 Settlement Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
12.7.3.2 Footing Reactions (Arch Structures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
12.7.3.3 Footing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
12.7.4 Soil Envelope Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
12.7.4.1 Soil Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
12.7.4.2 Construction Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
12.7.4.3 Service Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350
12.7.5 End Treatment Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351
12.7.5.1 Standard Shell End Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351
12.7.5.2 Balanced Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
12.7.5.3 Hydraulic Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
12.7.5.3.1 Backfill Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
12.7.5.3.2 Cut-Off (Toe) Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
12.7.5.3.3 Hydraulic Uplift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
12.7.5.3.4 Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
12.7.6 Multiple Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
12.8 STRUCTURAL PLATE BOX CULVERTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
12.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
12.8.1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
12.8.2 Structural Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
12.8.3 Structure Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
12.8.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .355
12.8.4.1 Analytical Basis for Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .355
12.8.4.2 Load Factor Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .355
12.8.4.3 Plastic Moment Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .355
12.8.4.4 Footing Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
12.8.5 Manufacturing and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
SECTION 13—WOOD STRUCTURES
13.1 GENERAL AND NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357

13.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357
13.1.2 Net Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357
13.1.3 Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357
13.1.4 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .357
13.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
13.2.1 Sawn Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
13.2.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
13.2.1.2 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
13.2.2 Glued Laminated Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
13.2.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
13.2.2.2 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358
13.2.3 Structural Composite Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.2.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.2.3.2 Laminated Veneer Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.2.3.3 Parallel Strand Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359

xxxviii CONTENTS Division I
13.2.3.4 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359

13.2.4 Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.3 PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.3.1 Requirement for Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.3.2 Treatment Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.3.3 Field Treating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.3.4 Fire Retardant Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.4 DEFLECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .359
13.5 DESIGN VALUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
13.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
13.5.2 Tabulated Values for Sawn Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
13.5.2.2 Stress Grades in Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
13.5.3 Tabulated Values for Glued Laminated Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
13.5.4 Tabulated Values for Structural Composite Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . .360
13.5.5 Adjustments to Tabulated Design Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
13.5.5.1 Wet Service Factor, CM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .360
13.5.5.2 Load Duration Factor, CD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369
13.5.5.3 Adjustment for Preservative Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369
13.6 BENDING MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369
13.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .369
13.6.2 Notching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
13.6.3 Modulus of Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
13.6.4 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
13.6.4.1 Allowable Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
13.6.4.2 Size Factor, CF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
13.6.4.3 Volume Factor, CV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .378
13.6.4.4 Beam Stability Factor, CL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .378
13.6.4.5 Form Factor, Cf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379
13.6.5 Shear Parallel to Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379
13.6.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379
13.6.5.2 Actual Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379
13.6.6 Compression Perpendicular to Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
13.6.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
13.6.6.3 Bearing Area Factor, Cb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
13.6.7 Bearing on Inclined Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
13.7 COMPRESSION MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
13.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
13.7.2 Eccentric Loading or Combined Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
13.7.3 Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
13.7.3.1 Net Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
13.7.3.3 Column Stability Factor, Cp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
13.7.3.4 Tapered Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
13.7.3.5 Round Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
13.7.4 Bearing Parallel to Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
13.8 TENSION MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
13.8.1 Tension Parallel to Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382
13.8.2 Tension Perpendicular to Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
13.9 MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
13.9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383

Division I CONTENTS xxxix
13.9.3 Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383

13.9.4 Washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .383
SECTION 14—BEARINGS
14.1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385

14.2 DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
14.3 NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
14.4 MOVEMENTS AND LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386
14.4.1 Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
14.5 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
14.5.1 Load and Movement Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
14.5.2 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
14.5.3 Forces in the Structure Caused by Restraint of Movement
at the Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
14.5.3.1 Horizontal Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .387
14.5.3.2 Bending Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
14.6 SPECIAL DESIGN PROVISIONS FOR BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
14.6.1 Metal Rocker and Roller Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
14.6.1.1 General Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
14.6.1.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
14.6.1.3 Geometric Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
14.6.1.4 Contact Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
14.6.2 PTFE Sliding Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
14.6.2.1 PTFE Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
14.6.2.2 Mating Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
14.6.2.3 Minimum Thickness Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
14.6.2.3.1 PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
14.6.2.3.2 Stainless Steel Mating Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
14.6.2.4 Contact Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
14.6.2.5 Coefficient of Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391
14.6.2.6 Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392
14.6.2.6.1 PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392
14.6.2.6.2 Mating Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392
14.6.3 Bearings with Curved Sliding Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392
14.6.3.2 Resistance to Lateral Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
14.6.4 Pot Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
14.6.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
14.6.4.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
14.6.4.4 Elastomeric Disc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
14.6.4.5 Sealing Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
14.6.4.5.1 Rings with rectangular cross-sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
14.6.4.5.2 Rings with circular cross-sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
14.6.4.6 Pot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
14.6.4.7 Piston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394
14.6.4.8 Lateral Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
14.6.5 Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings—Method B . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
14.6.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
14.6.5.2 Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .395
14.6.5.3 Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396
14.6.5.3.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396

xl CONTENTS Division I
14.6.5.3.2 Compressive Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396

14.6.5.3.3 Compressive Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
14.6.5.3.4 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
14.6.5.3.5 Combined Compression and Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .397
14.6.5.3.6 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
14.6.5.3.7 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
14.6.6 Elastomeric Pads and Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings—
Method A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
14.6.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
14.6.6.2 Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
14.6.6.3 Design Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
14.6.6.3.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .398
14.6.6.3.2 Compressive Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
14.6.6.3.3 Compressive Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
14.6.6.3.4 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
14.6.6.3.5 Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
14.6.6.3.5a PEP and CDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
14.6.6.3.5b FGP and Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . .399
14.6.6.3.6 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.6.3.7 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.6.4 Resistance to Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.7 Bronze or Copper Alloy Sliding Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.7.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.7.2 Coefficient of Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.7.3 Limits on Load and Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.7.4 Clearances and Mating Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.8 Disc Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.8.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.8.3 Overall Geometric Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400
14.6.8.4 Elastomeric Disc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.8.5 Shear Resisting Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.8.6 Steel Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.9 Guides and Restraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.9.2 Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.9.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.9.5 Design Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.9.5.1 Load Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.9.5.2 Contact Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.9.6 Attachment of Low-Friction Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401
14.6.10 Other Bearing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .402
14.7 LOAD PLATES AND ANCHORAGE FOR BEARINGS . . . . . . . . . . .402
14.7.1 Plates for Load Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .402
14.7.2 Tapered Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .402
14.7.3 Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .402
14.8 CORROSION PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .402
SECTION 15—STEEL TUNNEL LINER PLATES
15.1 GENERAL AND NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403

15.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403

Division I CONTENTS xli
15.1.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403

15.2 LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .403
15.3 DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
15.3.1 Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
15.3.2 Joint Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404
15.3.3 Minimum Stiffness for Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
15.3.4 Critical Buckling of Liner Plate Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
15.3.5 Deflection or Flattening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405
15.4 CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . .406
15.4.1 Chemical Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
15.4.2 Minimum Mechanical Properties of Flat Pipe
Before Cold Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
15.4.3 Dimensions and Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
15.5 SECTION PROPERTIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
15.6 COATINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
15.7 BOLTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
15.8 SAFETY FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .406
SECTION 16—SOIL-REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE

INTERACTION SYSTEMS
16.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407

16.1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
16.1.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407
16.1.3 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.1.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.1.5 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.1.6 Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.1.8 End Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.4.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.4.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.4.2.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.4.2.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .409
16.4.2.3 Concrete Cover for Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
16.4.3 Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
16.4.3.1 Standard Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
16.4.3.2 Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
16.4.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
16.4.4.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
16.4.4.2.1 Earth Loads and Pressure Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
16.4.4.2.1.1 Standard Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
16.4.4.2.1.2 Nonstandard Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
16.4.4.2.2 Pipe Fluid Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .411
16.4.4.2.3 Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
16.4.4.3 Minimum Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
16.4.4.4 Design Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
16.4.5 Indirect Design Method Based on Pipe Strength
and Load-Carrying Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412

xlii CONTENTS Division I
16.4.5.1 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412

16.4.5.1.1 Ultimate D-load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
16.4.5.2 Bedding Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
16.4.5.2.1 Earth Load Bedding Factor for Circular Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
16.4.5.2.2 Earth Load Bedding Factor for Arch and Elliptical Pipe . . . . . . . .415
16.4.5.2.3 Live Load Bedding Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
16.4.5.2.4 Intermediate Trench Widths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
16.4.6 Direct Design Method for Precast Reinforced Concrete
Circular Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
16.4.6.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
16.4.6.2 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .415
16.4.6.3 Strength-Reduction Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417
16.4.6.4 Process and Material Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417
16.4.6.5 Orientation Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417
16.4.6.6 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
16.4.6.6.1 Reinforcement for Flexural Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
16.4.6.6.2 Minimum Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
16.4.6.6.3 Maximum Flexural Reinforcement Without Stirrups . . . . . . . . . . .418
16.4.6.6.3.1 Limited by Radial Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
16.4.6.6.3.2 Limited by Concrete Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
16.4.6.6.4 Crack Width Control (Service Load Design) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
16.4.6.6.5 Shear Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .422
16.4.6.6.6 Radial Stirrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .422
16.4.6.6.6.1 Radial Tension Stirrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .422
16.4.6.6.6.2 Shear Stirrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .422
16.4.6.6.6.3 Stirrup Reinforcement Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.4.6.6.6.3.1 Radial Tension Stirrup Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.4.6.6.6.3.2 Shear Stirrup Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.4.6.6.6.3.3 Stirrup Embedment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.4.6.6.6.3.4 Other Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.4.7 Development of Quadrant Mat Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.5 REINFORCED CONCRETE ARCH, CAST-IN-PLACE . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.5.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.5.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.5.2.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.5.2.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.5.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .423
16.5.3.2 Minimum Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.5.3.4 Splices of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.5.3.5 Footing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX, CAST-IN-PLACE . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.6.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.6.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.6.2.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.6.2.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.6.3 Concrete Cover for Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.6.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
16.6.4.2 Modification of Earth Loads for Soil Structure
Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
16.6.4.2.1 Embankment Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
16.6.4.2.2 Trench Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425

Division I CONTENTS xliii
16.6.4.3 Distribution of Concentrated Load Effects to Bottom Slab . . . . . . . .425

16.6.4.4 Distribution of Concentrated Loads in Skewed Culverts . . . . . . . . . .425
16.6.4.5 Span Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
16.6.4.7 Crack Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .425
16.6.4.8 Minimum Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7 REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX, PRECAST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.2.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.2.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.4.2 Modification of Earth Loads for Soil-Structure Interaction . . . . . . . .426
16.7.4.2.1 Embankment Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.4.2.2 Trench Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.4.3 Distribution of Concentrated Load Effects
in Sides and Bottoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426
16.7.4.5 Span Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
16.7.4.7 Crack Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
16.8 PRECAST REINFORCED CONCRETE THREE-SIDED
STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
16.8.1 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
16.8.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
16.8.2.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
16.8.2.2 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
16.8.4 Geometric Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .427
16.8.5 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
16.8.5.2 Distribution of Concentrated Load Effects in Sides . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
16.8.5.4 Shear Transfer in Transverse Joints Between Culvert
Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
16.8.5.5 Span Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
16.8.5.6 Strength-Reduction Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
16.8.5.7 Crack Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
16.8.5.9 Deflection Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .428
16.8.5.10 Footing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .429
16.8.5.11 Structure Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .429
16.8.5.12 Scour Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .429
SECTION 17—SOIL-THERMOPLASTIC PIPE INTERACTION SYSTEMS
17.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431

17.1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
17.1.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
17.1.3 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431

xliv CONTENTS Division I-A
17.1.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431

17.1.5 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
17.1.6 Soil Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
17.1.6.1 Soil Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .431
17.1.8 Minimum Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .432
17.1.9 End Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .432
17.2.1 Wall Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .432
17.2.2 Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .432
17.3.1 Wall Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .433
17.3.2 Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .433
17.4 PLASTIC PIPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .433
17.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .433
17.4.1.3 Load Factor Design—capacity modification factor, f . . . . . . . . . . . .434
17.4.1.5 Minimum Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434
17.4.1.6 Maximum Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434
17.4.1.7 Local Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434
17.4.2.1 PE Corrugated Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434
17.4.2.2 PE Ribbed Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434
17.4.2.3 Profile Wall PVC Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434
17.4.3.1 Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435
17.4.3.1.1 Smooth wall PE pipe requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435
17.4.3.1.2 Corrugated PE pipe requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435
17.4.3.1.3 Ribbed PE pipe requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435
17.4.3.2 Poly (Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435
17.4.3.2.1 Smooth wall PVC pipe requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .435
17.4.3.2.2 Ribbed PVC pipe requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .436
DIVISION I-A
SEISMIC DESIGN
SECTION 1—INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE AND PHILOSOPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439

1.2 BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439
1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .440
1.4 PROJECT ORGANIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .440
1.5 QUALITY ASSURANCE REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .440
1.6 FLOW CHARTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .441
SECTION 2—SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS
2.1 NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .445

Division I-A CONTENTS xlv
SECTION 3—GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
3.1 APPLICABILITY OF SPECIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .447

3.2 ACCELERATION COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .447
3.3 IMPORTANCE CLASSIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449
3.4 SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449
3.5 SITE EFFECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449
3.5.1 Site Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449
3.6 ELASTIC SEISMIC RESPONSE COEFFICIENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .450
3.6.1 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient for Single Mode Analysis . . . .450
3.6.2 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient for Multimodal Analysis . . . .450
3.7 RESPONSE MODIFICATION FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .450
3.8 DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC FORCES
AND DISPLACEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .450
3.9 COMBINATION OF ORTHOGONAL SEISMIC FORCES . . . . . . . .450
3.10 MINIMUM SEAT-WIDTH REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .451
3.11 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SINGLE SPAN BRIDGES . . . . . .451
3.12 REQUIREMENTS FOR TEMPORARY BRIDGES AND STAGED
CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452
SECTION 4—ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS
4.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453

4.2 SELECTION OF ANALYSIS METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453
4.2.1 Special Requirements for Single-Span Bridges
and Bridges in SPC A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453
4.2.2 Special Requirements for Curved Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453
4.2.3 Special Requirements for Critical Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .454
4.3 UNIFORM LOAD METHOD—PROCEDURE 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .454
4.4 SINGLE MODE SPECTRAL ANALYSIS METHOD—
PROCEDURE 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .454
4.5 MULTIMODE SPECTRAL ANALYSIS METHOD—
PROCEDURE 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455
4.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455
4.5.2 Mathematical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
4.5.2(A) Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
4.5.2(B) Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
4.5.3 Mode Shapes and Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
4.5.4 Multimode Spectral Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
4.5.5 Combination of Mode Forces and Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
4.6 TIME HISTORY METHOD—PROCEDURE 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
SECTION 5—DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES

IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A
5.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457

5.2 DESIGN FORCES FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
CATEGORY A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
5.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
CATEGORY A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .457
5.4 FOUNDATION AND ABUTMENT DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A . . . . . . .457
5.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

xlvi CONTENTS Division I-A
5.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN REQUIREMENTS


IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B
6.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .459

CATEGORY B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .459
6.2.1 Design Forces for Structural Members and Connections . . . . . . . . .459
6.2.2 Design Forces for Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .459
6.2.3 Design Forces for Abutments and Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
6.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
CATEGORY B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
6.3.1 Minimum Support Length Requirements for Seismic
Performance Category B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B . . . . . . .460
6.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
6.4.2 Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
6.4.2(A) Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .460
6.4.2(B) Foundation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
6.4.2(C) Special Pile Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
6.4.3 Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
6.4.3(A) Free-Standing Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .461
6.4.3(B) Monolithic Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
6.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
6.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
6.5.2 P-delta Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
6.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
6.6.2 Minimum Transverse Reinforcement Requirements
for Seismic Performance Category B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
6.6.2(A) Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462
6.6.2(B) Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement . . . . . . . . . . .463

IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D
7.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465

CATEGORIES C AND D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
7.2.1 Modified Design Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
7.2.1(A) Modified Design Forces for Structural Members
and Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
7.2.1(B) Modified Design Forces for Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .465
7.2.2 Forces Resulting from Plastic Hinging in the Columns,
Piers, or Bents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .466

Division I-A CONTENTS xlvii
7.2.2(A) Single Columns and Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .466

7.2.2(B) Bents with Two or More Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .466
7.2.3 Column and Pile Bent Design Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
7.2.4 Pier Design Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
7.2.5 Connection Design Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
7.2.5(A) Longitudinal Linkage Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
7.2.5(B) Hold-Down Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
7.2.5(C) Column and Pier Connections to Cap Beams and Footings . . . . . . . .467
7.2.6 Foundation Design Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .467
7.2.7 Abutment and Retaining Wall Design Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
7.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENT FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
CATEGORIES C AND D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
7.3.1 Minimum Support Length Requirements for Seismic Performance
Categories C and D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES
C AND D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
7.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .468
7.4.2 Foundation Requirements for Seismic Performance
Category C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
7.4.2(A) Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
7.4.2(C) Special Pile Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .469
7.4.3 Abutment Requirements for Seismic Performance
Category C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
7.4.3(A) Free-Standing Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
7.4.3(B) Monolithic Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
7.4.4 Additional Requirements for Foundations
for Seismic Performance Category D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
7.4.4(A) Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470
7.4.5 Additional Requirements for Abutments
for Seismic Performance Category D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
7.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC
PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D . . . . . . . . . . . .471
7.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
7.5.2 P-delta Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES
C AND D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
7.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
7.6.2 Column Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
7.6.2(A) Vertical Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
7.6.2(B) Flexural Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .471
7.6.2(C) Column Shear and Transverse Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .472
7.6.2(D) Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement at Plastic Hinges . . . . . .472
7.6.2(E) Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement . . . . . . . . . . .473
7.6.2(F) Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473
7.6.3 Pier Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473
7.6.4 Column Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474
7.6.5 Construction Joints in Piers and Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474

xlviii CONTENTS Division II
DIVISION II
CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .476
SECTION I—STRUCTURE EXCAVATION AND BACKFILL
1.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477

1.2 WORKING DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
1.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
1.4 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
1.4.1 Depth of Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .477
1.4.2 Foundation Preparation and Control of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
1.4.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
1.4.2.2 Excavations Within Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
1.4.2.3 Foundations on Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
1.4.2.4 Other Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
1.4.2.5 Approval of Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
1.4.3 Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .478
1.5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .479
1.5.1 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .479
1.5.2 Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .479
SECTION 2—REMOVAL OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
2.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481

2.3 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
2.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
2.3.2 Salvage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
2.3.3 Partial Removal of Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .481
2.3.4 Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482
SECTION 3—TEMPORARY WORKS
3.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .483

3.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .483
3.1.2 Working Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .483
3.1.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .483
3.1.4 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .483
3.1.5 Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .483
3.2 FALSEWORK AND FORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
3.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
3.2.2 Falsework Design and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
3.2.2.1 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
3.2.2.2 Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
3.2.2.3 Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
3.2.2.4 Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
3.2.2.5 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484
3.2.3 Formwork Design and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .485
3.2.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .485

Division II CONTENTS xlix
3.2.3.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .485

3.2.3.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .485
3.2.3.4 Tube Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .485
3.2.3.5 Stay-in-Place Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .486
3.2.4 Removal of Falsework and Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .486
3.2.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .486
3.2.4.2 Time of Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .486
3.2.4.3 Extent of Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .486
3.3 COFFERDAMS AND SHORING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
3.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
3.3.2 Protection of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
3.3.3 Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
3.4 TEMPORARY WATER CONTROL SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
3.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
3.4.2 Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
3.4.3 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .487
3.5 TEMPORARY BRIDGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488
3.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488
3.5.2 Detour Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488
3.5.3 Haul Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488
3.5.4 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488
SECTION 4—DRIVEN FOUNDATION PILES
4.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489

4.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
4.2.1 Steel Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
4.2.1.1 Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
4.2.2 Timber Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
4.2.3 Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .489
4.3 MANUFACTURE OF PILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.1 Precast Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.1.1 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.1.2 Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.1.3 Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.1.4 Curing and Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.1.5 Prestressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.1.5.1 Working Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.1.6 Storage and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.2 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.2.1 Inspection of Metal Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.3.2.2 Placing Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .490
4.4 DRIVING PILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
4.4.1 Pile Driving Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
4.4.1.1 Hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
4.4.1.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
4.4.1.1.2 Drop Hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
4.4.1.1.3 Air Steam Hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
4.4.1.1.4 Diesel Hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .491
4.4.1.1.5 Vibratory Hammers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
4.4.1.1.6 Additional Equipment or Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492

l CONTENTS Division II
4.4.1.2 Driving Appurtenances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492

4.4.1.2.1 Hammer Cushion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
4.4.1.2.2 Pile Drive Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
4.4.1.2.3 Pile Cushion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
4.4.1.2.4 Leads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
4.4.1.2.5 Followers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492
4.4.1.2.6 Jets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2 Preparation for Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2.1 Site Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2.1.1 Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2.1.2 Preboring to Facilitate Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2.1.3 Predrilled Holes in Embankments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2.2 Preparation of Piling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2.2.1 Collars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2.2.2 Pointing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.2.2.3 Pile Shoes and Lugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.3 Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.3.1 Driving of Test Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .493
4.4.3.2 Accuracy of Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .494
4.4.4 Determination of Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .494
4.4.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .494
4.4.4.2 Method A—Empirical Pile Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .494
4.4.4.3 Method B—Wave Equation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .494
4.4.4.4 Method C—Dynamic Load Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
4.4.4.5 Method D—Static Load Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .495
4.4.5 Splicing of Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
4.4.5.1 Steel Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
4.4.5.2 Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
4.4.5.3 Timber Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
4.4.6 Defective Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
4.4.7 Pile Cut-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
4.4.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
4.4.7.2 Timber Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496
4.5.1 Method of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
4.5.1.1 Timber, Steel, and Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
4.5.1.1.1 Piles Furnished . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
4.5.1.1.2 Piles Driven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
4.5.1.2 Pile Splices, Pile Shoes, and Pile Lugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
4.5.1.3 Load Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
4.5.2 Basis of Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .497
SECTION 5—DRILLED PILES AND SHAFTS
5.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .499

5.2 SUBMITTALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .499
5.2.1 Contractor Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .499
5.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.3.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.3.2 Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.3.3 Casings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.4 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500

Division II CONTENTS li
5.4.1 Protection of Existing Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500

5.4.2 Construction Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.4.3 General Methods and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.4.4 Dry Construction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.4.5 Wet Construction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .500
5.4.6 Temporary Casing Construction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
5.4.7 Permanent Casing Construction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
5.4.8 Alternative Construction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
5.4.9 Excavations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
5.4.10 Casings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .501
5.4.11 Slurry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .502
5.4.12 Excavation Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .502
5.4.13 Reinforcing Steel Cage Construction and Placement . . . . . . . . . . . .502
5.4.14 Concrete Placement, Curing, and Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .503
5.4.15 Test Shafts and Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .503
5.4.16 Construction Tolerances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .503
5.4.17 Integrity Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .504
5.5 DRILLED SHAFT LOAD TESTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .504
5.6.1 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .504
5.6.1.1 Drilled Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .504
5.6.1.2 Bell Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .504
5.6.1.3 Test Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.1.4 Test Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.1.5 Exploration Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.1.6 Permanent Casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.1.7 Load Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2 Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2.1 Drilled Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2.2 Bell Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2.3 Test Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2.4 Test Bells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2.5 Exploration Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2.6 Permanent Casing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2.7 Load Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
5.6.2.8 Unexpected Obstructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .505
SECTION 6—GROUND ANCHORS
6.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .507

6.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .507
6.3.2 Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .507
6.3.3 Steel Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508
6.3.4 Corrosion Protection Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508
6.3.5 Miscellaneous Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508
6.4 FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508
6.4.1 Bond Length and Tendon Bond Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508
6.4.1.1 Grout Protected Ground Anchor Tendon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .508
6.4.1.2 Encapsulation Protected Ground Anchor Tendon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
6.4.2 Unbonded Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
6.4.3 Anchorage and Trumpet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
6.4.4 Tendon Storage and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509
6.5 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509

lii CONTENTS Division II
6.5.1 Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .509

6.5.2 Tendon Insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .510
6.5.3 Grouting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .510
6.5.4 Trumpet and Anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .510
6.5.5 Testing and Stressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .510
6.5.5.1 Testing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .510
6.5.5.2 Performance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .511
6.5.5.3 Proof Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .511
6.5.5.4 Creep Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .512
6.5.5.5 Ground Anchor Load Test Acceptance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .512
6.5.5.6 Lock Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .513
SECTION 7—EARTH RETAINING SYSTEMS
7.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515

7.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515
7.3.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515
7.3.1.1 Cast-in-Place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515
7.3.1.2 Pneumatically Applied Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515
7.3.1.3 Precast Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515
7.3.1.4 Segmental Concrete Facing Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .515
7.3.3 Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.4 Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.5 Drainage Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.5.1 Pipe and Perforated Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.5.2 Geotextile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.5.3 Permeable Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.5.4 Geocomposite Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.6 Structure Backfill Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.6.2 Crib and Cellular Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.3.6.3 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .516
7.4 EARTHWORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
7.4.1 Structure Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
7.4.2 Foundation Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
7.4.3 Structure Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
7.5 DRAINAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
7.5.1 Concrete Gutters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
7.5.2 Weep Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .517
7.5.3 Drainage Blankets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
7.5.4 Geocomposite Drainage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
7.6 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
7.6.1 Concrete and Masonry Gravity Walls,
Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
7.6.2 Sheet Pile and Soldier Pile Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
7.6.2.1 Sheet Pile Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518
7.6.2.2 Soldier Pile Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .519
7.6.2.3 Anchored Sheet Pile and Soldier Pile Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .519
7.6.2.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .519
7.6.2.3.2 Wales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520

Division II CONTENTS liii
7.6.2.3.3 Concrete Anchor Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520

7.6.2.3.4 Tie-rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
7.6.2.3.5 Ground Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
7.6.2.3.6 Earthwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
7.6.3 Crib Walls and Cellular Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
7.6.3.1 Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
7.6.3.2 Crib Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .520
7.6.3.3 Concrete Monolithic Cell Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
7.6.3.4 Member Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
7.6.3.5 Backfilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
7.6.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
7.6.4.1 Facing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .521
7.6.4.2 Soil Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .522
7.6.4.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .522
SECTION 8—CONCRETE STRUCTURES
8.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525

8.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.1.2 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.1.3 Construction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.2 CLASSES OF CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.2.2 Normal Weight Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.2.3 Lightweight Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.3.1 Cements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .525
8.3.2 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526
8.3.3 Fine Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526
8.3.4 Coarse Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526
8.3.5 Lightweight Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526
8.3.6 Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526
8.3.7 Mineral Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
8.3.8 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
8.4 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
8.4.1 Mix Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
8.4.1.1 Responsibility and Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
8.4.1.2 Trial Batch Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
8.4.1.3 Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
8.4.2 Water Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .527
8.4.3 Cement Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
8.4.4 Mineral Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
8.4.5 Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
8.5 MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
8.5.1 Storage of Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
8.5.2 Storage of Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528
8.5.3 Measurement of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529
8.5.4 Batching and Mixing Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529
8.5.4.1 Batching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529
8.5.4.2 Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529
8.5.5 Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529
8.5.6 Sampling and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .529

liv CONTENTS Division II
8.5.7 Evaluation of Concrete Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530

8.5.7.1 Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
8.5.7.2 For Controlling Construction Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
8.5.7.3 For Acceptance of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
8.5.7.4 For Control of Mix Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
8.5.7.5 Steam and Radiant Heat-Cured Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .530
8.6 PROTECTION OF CONCRETE FROM ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
8.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
8.6.2 Rain Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
8.6.3 Hot Weather Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
8.6.4 Cold Weather Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
8.6.4.1 Protection During Cure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
8.6.4.2 Mixing and Placing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
8.6.4.3 Heating of Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531
8.6.5 Special Requirements for Bridge Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
8.6.6 Concrete Exposed to Salt Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
8.6.7 Concrete Exposed to Sulfate Soils or Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
8.7 HANDLING AND PLACING CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
8.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
8.7.2 Sequence of Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
8.7.2.1 Vertical Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532
8.7.2.2 Superstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
8.7.2.3 Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
8.7.2.4 Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
8.7.2.5 Precast Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
8.7.3 Placing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
8.7.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
8.7.3.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .533
8.7.4 Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .534
8.7.5 Underwater Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .534
8.7.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .534
8.7.5.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .534
8.7.5.3 Cleanup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
8.8 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
8.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
8.8.2 Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
8.8.3 Bonding and Doweling to Existing Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
8.8.4 Forms at Construction Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
8.9 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
8.9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .535
8.9.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.1 Premolded Expansion Joint Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.2 Polystyrene Board Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.3 Contraction Joint Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.4 Pourable Joint Sealants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.5 Metal Armor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.6 Waterstops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.6.1 Rubber Waterstops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.6.2 Polyvinylchloride Waterstops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .536
8.9.2.6.3 Copper Waterstops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.9.2.6.4 Testing of Waterstop Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.9.3 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.9.3.1 Open Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537

Division II CONTENTS lv
8.9.3.2 Filled Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537

8.9.3.3 Sealed Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.9.3.4 Waterstops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.9.3.5 Expansion Joint Armor Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.10 FINISHING PLASTIC CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .537
8.10.2 Roadway Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
8.10.2.1 Striking Off and Floating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
8.10.2.2 Straightedging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
8.10.2.3 Texturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .538
8.10.2.3.1 Dragged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.10.2.3.2 Broomed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.10.2.3.3 Tined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.10.2.4 Surface Testing and Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.10.3 Pedestrian Walkway Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.10.4 Troweled and Brushed Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.10.5 Surface Under Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.11 CURING CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.11.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .539
8.11.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.2.1 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.2.2 Liquid Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.2.3 Waterproof Sheet Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.3.1 Forms-In-Place Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.3.2 Water Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.3.3 Liquid Membrane Curing Compound Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.3.4 Waterproof Cover Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .540
8.11.3.5 Steam or Radiant Heat Curing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .541
8.11.4 Bridge Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .541
8.12 FINISHING FORMED CONCRETE SURFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .541
8.12.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .541
8.12.2 Class 1—Ordinary Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .541
8.12.3 Class 2—Rubbed Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
8.12.4 Class 3—Tooled Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
8.12.5 Class 4—Sandblasted Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
8.12.6 Class 5—Wire Brushed or Scrubbed Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542
8.13 PRECAST CONCRETE MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
8.13.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
8.13.3 Materials and Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
8.13.4 Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
8.13.5 Storage and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543
8.13.6 Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .544
8.13.7 Epoxy Bonding Agents for Precast Segmental Box Girders . . . . . . .544
8.13.7.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .544
8.13.7.1.1 Test 1—Sag Flow of Mixed Epoxy Bonding Agent . . . . . . . . . . . .544
8.13.7.1.2 Test 2—Gel Time of Mixed Epoxy Bonding Agent . . . . . . . . . . . .544
8.13.7.1.3 Test 3—Open Time of Bonding Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .544
8.13.7.1.4 Test 4—Three-Point Tensile Bending Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .545
8.13.7.1.5 Test 5—Compression Strength of Cured Epoxy
Bonding Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .545
8.13.7.1.6 Test 6—Temperature Deflection of Epoxy Bonding Agent . . . . . .545
8.13.7.1.7 Test 7—Compression and Shear Strength of Cured Epoxy

lvi CONTENTS Division II
Bonding Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .545

8.13.7.2 Mixing and Installation of Epoxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .546
8.14 MORTAR AND GROUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .546
8.14.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .546
8.14.2 Materials and Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .546
8.14.3 Placing and Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
8.15 APPLICATION OF LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
8.15.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
8.15.2 Earth Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
8.15.3 Construction Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
8.15.4 Traffic Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
8.16.1 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547
8.16.2 Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .548
SECTION 9—REINFORCING STEEL
9.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549

9.2 MATERIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
9.2.1 Uncoated Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
9.2.2 Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
9.2.3 Stainless Steel Reinforcing Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
9.2.4 Mill Test Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
9.3 BAR LISTS AND BENDING DIAGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549
9.4 FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.4.1 Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.4.2 Hooks and Bend Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.4.3 Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.5 HANDLING, STORING, AND SURFACE CONDITION
OF REINFORCEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.6 PLACING AND FASTENING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.6.2 Support Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.6.3 Precast Concrete Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.6.4 Wire Bar Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .550
9.6.5 Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
9.6.6 Repair of Damaged Epoxy Coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
9.7 SPLICING OF BARS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
9.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
9.7.2 Lap Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
9.7.3 Welded Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
9.7.4 Mechanical Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .551
9.8 SPLICING OF WELDED WIRE FABRIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .552
9.9 SUBSTITUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .552
9.10 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .552
9.11 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .552
SECTION 10—PRESTRESSING
10.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553

10.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553
10.1.2 Details of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553
10.2 SUPPLEMENTARY DRAWINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .553

Division II CONTENTS lvii
10.2.2 Composite Placing Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554

10.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3.1 Prestressing Steel and Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3.1.1 Strand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3.1.2 Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3.1.3 Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3.2 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3.2.1 Bonded Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3.2.2 Unbonded Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .554
10.3.2.3 Special Anchorage Device Acceptance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .555
10.3.2.3.7 Cyclic Loading Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .555
10.3.2.3.8 Sustained Loading Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .555
10.3.2.3.9 Monotonic Loading Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .555
10.4 PLACEMENT OF DUCTS, STEEL, AND ANCHORAGE
HARDWARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .556
10.4.1 Placement of Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .556
10.4.1.1 Vents and Drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .556
10.4.2 Placement of Prestressing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .556
10.4.2.1 Placement for Pretensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .556
10.4.2.2 Placement for Post-Tensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .557
10.4.2.2.1 Protection of Steel After Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .557
10.4.3 Placement of Anchorage Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .557
10.5 IDENTIFICATION AND TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .557
10.5.1 Pretensioning Method Tendons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558
10.5.2 Post-Tensioning Method Tendons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558
10.5.3 Anchorage Assemblies and Couplers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558
10.6 PROTECTION OF PRESTRESSING STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558
10.7 CORROSION INHIBITOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558
10.8 DUCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .558
10.8.1 Metal Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
10.8.2 Polyethylene Duct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
10.8.3 Duct Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
10.8.4 Duct Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
10.9 GROUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
10.9.1 Portland Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
10.9.2 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .559
10.9.3 Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
10.10 TENSIONING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
10.10.1 General Tensioning Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
10.10.1.1 Concrete Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
10.10.1.2 Prestressing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .560
10.10.1.3 Sequence of Stressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
10.10.1.4 Measurement of Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
10.10.2 Pretensioning Method Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .561
10.10.3 Post-Tensioning Method Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
10.11 GROUTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
10.11.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
10.11.2 Preparation of Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
10.11.3 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
10.11.4 Mixing of Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562
10.11.5 Injection of Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
10.11.6 Temperature Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563

lviii CONTENTS Division II
10.12.1 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563

10.12.2 Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .563
SECTION 11—STEEL STRUCTURES
11.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565

11.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
11.1.2 Notice of Beginning of Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
11.1.3 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
11.1.4 Inspector’s Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .565
11.2.1 Shop Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.2.2 Erection Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.2.3 Camber Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.3.1 Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.3.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.3.1.2 Carbon Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.3.1.3 High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.3.1.4 High-Strength Low-Alloy, Quenched and Tempered Structural
Steel Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .566
11.3.1.5 High-Yield Strength, Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel Plate . . .566
11.3.1.6 Eyebars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567
11.3.1.7 Structural Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567
11.3.2 High-Strength Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567
11.3.2.1 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567
11.3.2.2 Identifying Marks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567
11.3.2.3 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .567
11.3.2.4 Galvanized High-Strength Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
11.3.2.5 Alternative Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
11.3.2.6 Load Indicator Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
11.3.3 Welded Stud Shear Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
11.3.3.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
11.3.3.2 Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
11.3.3.3 Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .568
11.3.3.4 Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.3.5 Check Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.4 Steel Forgings and Steel Shafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.4.1 Steel Forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.4.2 Cold Finished Carbon Steel Shafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.5 Steel Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.5.1 Mild Steel Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.5.2 Chromium Alloy-Steel Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.6 Iron Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.6.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.6.2 Workmanship and Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.6.3 Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.3.7 Galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .569
11.4 FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.1 Identification of Steels During Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.2 Storage of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3 Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570

Division II CONTENTS lix
11.4.3.1 Direction of Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570

11.4.3.2 Plate Cut Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3.2.1 Edge Planing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3.2.2 Oxygen Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3.2.3 Visual Inspection and Repair of Plate Cut Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3.3 Bent Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3.3.2 Cold Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .570
11.4.3.3.3 Hot Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
11.4.4 Fit of Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
11.4.5 Abutting Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
11.4.6 Facing of Bearing Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
11.4.7 Straightening Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
11.4.8 Bolt Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
11.4.8.1 Holes for High-Strength Bolts and Unfinished
Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
11.4.8.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571
11.4.8.1.2 Punched Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
11.4.8.1.3 Reamed or Drilled Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
11.4.8.1.4 Accuracy of Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
11.4.8.2 Accuracy of Hole Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
11.4.8.2.1 Accuracy Before Reaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
11.4.8.2.2 Accuracy After Reaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
11.4.8.3 Numerically Controlled Drilled Field Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
11.4.8.4 Holes for Ribbed Bolts, Turned Bolts,
or Other Approved Bearing Type Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .572
11.4.8.5 Preparation of Field Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
11.4.9 Pins and Rollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
11.4.9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
11.4.9.2 Boring Pin Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
11.4.9.3 Threads for Bolts and Pins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
11.4.10 Eyebars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
11.4.11 Annealing and Stress Relieving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .573
11.4.12 Curved Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
11.4.12.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
11.4.12.2 Heat Curving Rolled Beams and Welded Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
11.4.12.2.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
11.4.12.2.2 Type of Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
11.4.12.2.3 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
11.4.12.2.4 Position for Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .574
11.4.12.2.5 Sequence of Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
11.4.12.2.6 Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
11.4.12.2.7 Measurement of Curvature and Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
11.4.13 Orthotropic-Deck Superstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
11.4.13.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
11.4.13.2 Flatness of Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .575
11.4.13.3 Straightness of Longitudinal Stiffeners Subject to Calculated
Compressive Stress, Including Orthotropic-Deck Ribs . . . . . . .576
11.4.13.4 Straightness of Transverse Web Stiffeners and Other Stiffeners
Not Subject to Calculated Compressive Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
11.4.14 Full-Sized Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
11.4.15 Marking and Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
11.5 ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576

lx CONTENTS Division II
11.5.1 Bolting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576

11.5.2 Welded Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
11.5.3 Preassembly of Field Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
11.5.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .576
11.5.3.2 Bolted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
11.5.3.3 Check Assembly—Numerically Controlled Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
11.5.3.4 Field Welded Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
11.5.4 Match Marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
11.5.5 Connections Using Unfinished, Turned, or Ribbed Bolts . . . . . . . . .577
11.5.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
11.5.5.2 Turned Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
11.5.5.3 Ribbed Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .577
11.5.6 Connections Using High-Strength Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
11.5.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
11.5.6.2 Bolted Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
11.5.6.3 Surface Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
11.5.6.4 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
11.5.6.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
11.5.6.4.2 Rotational-Capacity Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .579
11.5.6.4.3 Requirement for Washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .580
11.5.6.4.4 Turn-of-Nut Installation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .580
11.5.6.4.5 Calibrated Wrench Installation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .580
11.5.6.4.6 Alternative Design Bolts Installation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581
11.5.6.4.7 Direct Tension Indicator Installation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581
11.5.6.4.7a Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .581
11.5.6.4.7b Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582
11.5.6.4.8 Lock-Pin and Collar Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582
11.5.6.4.9 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582
11.5.7 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
11.6 ERECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
11.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
11.6.2 Handling and Storing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
11.6.3 Bearings and Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
11.6.4 Erection Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
11.6.4.1 Conformance to Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .583
11.6.4.2 Erection Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584
11.6.4.3 Maintaining Alignment and Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584
11.6.5 Field Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584
11.6.6 Pin Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584
11.6.7 Misfits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .584
11.7.2 Basis of Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .585
SECTION 12—STEEL GRID FLOORING
12.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587

12.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
12.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
12.2.1 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
12.2.2 Protective Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587

Division II CONTENTS lxi
12.2.3 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587

12.2.4 Skid Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
12.3 ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .587
12.4 PROVISION FOR CAMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
12.5 FIELD ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
12.6 CONNECTION TO SUPPORTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
12.7 WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
12.8 REPAIRING DAMAGED GALVANIZED COATINGS . . . . . . . . . . . .588
12.9 PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE FILLER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
12.9.1 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .588
12.9.2 Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589
SECTION 13—PAINTING
13.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591

13.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
13.1.2 Protection of Public and Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
13.1.3 Protection of the Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
13.1.4 Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
13.2 PAINTING METAL STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
13.2.1 Coating Systems and Paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
13.2.2 Weather Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .591
13.2.3 Surface Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
13.2.3.1 Blast Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
13.2.3.2 Steam Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
13.2.3.3 Solvent Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
13.2.3.4 Hand Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
13.2.4 Application of Paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .593
13.2.4.1 Application of Zinc-Rich Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .594
13.2.5 Measurement and Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .594
13.3 PAINTING GALVANIZED SURFACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .594
13.4 PAINTING TIMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.4.2 Preparation of Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.4.3 Paint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.4.4 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.4.5 Painting Treated Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.4.6 Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.5 PAINTING CONCRETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.5.2 Paint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
13.5.3 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .595
SECTION 14—STONE MASONRY
14.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597

14.1.1 Rubble Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
14.1.2 Ashlar Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
14.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597

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14.2.1.1 Rubble Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597

14.2.1.2 Ashlar Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
14.2.2 Shipment and Storage of Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
14.2.3 Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
14.3 MANUFACTURE OF STONE FOR MASONRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.2 Surface Finishes of Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.3 Rubble Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.3.1 Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.3.2 Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.3.3 Dressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.4 Ashlar Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.4.1 Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.4.2 Dressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .598
14.3.4.3 Stretchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
14.3.5 Arch Ring Stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
14.4 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
14.4.2 Mixing Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
14.4.3 Selection and Placing of Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
14.4.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
14.4.3.2 Rubble Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .599
14.4.3.3 Ashlar Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
14.4.4 Beds and Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
14.4.5 Headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
14.4.6 Cores and Backing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
14.4.6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
14.4.6.2 Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
14.4.6.3 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
14.4.6.4 Leveling Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600
14.4.7 Facing for Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
14.4.8 Copings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
14.4.8.1 Stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
14.4.8.2 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
14.4.9 Dowels and Cramps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
14.4.10 Weep Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
14.4.11 Pointing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .601
14.4.12 Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .602
SECTION 15—CONCRETE BLOCK AND BRICK MASONRY
15.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603

15.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
15.2.1 Concrete Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
15.2.2 Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
15.2.4 Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
15.2.5 Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
15.2.6 Sampling and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
15.2.6.1 Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .603
15.2.6.2 Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .604

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15.3 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .604

15.3.2 Laying Block and Brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .604
15.3.3 Placement of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .604
15.3.4 Grouting of Voids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .604
15.3.5 Copings, Bridge Seats, and Backwalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605
SECTION 16—TIMBER STRUCTURES
16.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .607

16.1.1 Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .607
16.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .607
16.2.1 Lumber and Timber (Solid Sawn or Glued Laminated) . . . . . . . . . .607
16.2.2 Steel Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .607
16.2.3 Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
16.2.4 Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
16.2.5 Galvanizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
16.2.6 Timber Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
16.2.6.1 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
16.2.6.2 Split Ring Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
16.2.6.3 Shear-Plate Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
16.2.6.4 Spike-Grid Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
16.3 FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609
16.3.1 Workmanship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609
16.3.2 Storage of Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609
16.3.3 Treated Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609
16.3.3.1 Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609
16.3.3.2 Framing and Boring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609
16.3.3.3 Cuts and Abrasions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .610
16.3.3.4 Bored Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .610
16.3.3.5 Temporary Attachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .610
16.3.4 Installation of Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .610
16.3.5 Holes for Bolts, Dowels, Rods, and Lag Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .610
16.3.6 Bolts and Washers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .610
16.3.7 Countersinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.8 Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.9 Framed Bents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.9.1 Mud Sills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.9.2 Concrete Pedestals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.9.3 Sills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.9.4 Posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.9.5 Caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.9.6 Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.10 Stringers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .611
16.3.11 Plank Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
16.3.12 Nail Laminated or Strip Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
16.3.13 Glue Laminated Panel Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
16.3.14 Composite Wood-Concrete Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
16.3.15 Wheel Guards and Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .612
16.3.16 Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .613
16.4 PAINTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .613

lxiv CONTENTS Division II
16.5 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .613

16.6 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .613
SECTION 17—PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF WOOD
17.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615

17.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
17.2.1 Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
17.2.2 Preservatives and Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
17.2.3 Coal-tar Roofing Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
17.3 IDENTIFICATION AND INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
17.3.1 Branding and Job Site Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .615
17.3.2 Inspection at Treatment Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .616
17.3.3 Certificate of Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .616
18.1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .617

18.2 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .617
18.2.1 AASHTO Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .617
18.2.2 ASTM Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .617
18.2.3 Other Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618
18.3 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618
18.4 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618
18.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618
18.4.1.1 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618
18.4.2 Special Material Requirements for Metal Rocker and
Roller Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .618
18.4.3 Special Material Requirements for PTFE Sliding Surfaces . . . . . . .619
18.4.3.1 PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .619
18.4.3.2 Adhesives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .619
18.4.3.3 Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .619
18.4.3.4 Interlocked Bronze and Filled PTFE Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .619
18.4.4 Special Material Requirements for Pot Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .619
18.4.5 Special Material Requirements for Steel Reinforced
Elastomeric Bearings and Elastomeric Pads . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.5.1 Elastomer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.5.2 Fabric Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.5.3 Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.6 Special Material Requirements for Bronze or
Copper Alloy Sliding Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.6.1 Bronze and Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.6.1.1 Bronze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.6.1.2 Rolled Copper-Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.6.2 Oil Impregnated Metal Powder Sintered Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.7 Special Material Requirements for Disc Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.7.1 Elastomeric Rotational Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.8 Special Material Requirements for Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.8.1 Low-friction Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .620
18.4.8.2 Adhesive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.4.9 Special Requirements for Bedding Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623

Division II CONTENTS lxv
18.4.9.1 Fabric-Reinforced Elastomeric Bedding Pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623

18.4.9.2 Sheet Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.4.9.3 Caulk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.4.9.4 Grout and Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.5 FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.5.2 Special Fabrication Requirements for Metal Rocker and
Roller Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.5.2.1 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.5.2.2 Lubricant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
18.5.3 Special Fabrication Requirements for PTFE Sliding Bearings . . . .625
18.5.3.1 Fabrication of PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.3.2 Attachment of PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.3.2.1 Flat Sheet PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.3.2.2 Curved Sheet PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.3.2.3 Woven PTFE Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.3.3 Stainless Steel Mating Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.3.4 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.4 Special Fabrication Requirements for Curved Sliding Bearings . . .625
18.5.5 Special Fabrication Requirements for Pot Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.5.1 Pot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.5.2 Sealing Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .625
18.5.6 Special Fabrication Requirements for Steel Reinforced
Elastomeric Bearings and Elastomeric Pads . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.6.1 Requirements for All Elastomeric Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.6.2 Steel Laminated Elastomeric Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.6.3 Fabric Reinforced Elastomeric Pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.6.4 Plain Elastomeric Pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.7 Special Fabrication Requirements for Bronze and
Copper Alloy Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.7.1 Bronze Sliding Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.7.2 Copper Alloy Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.8 Special Fabrication Requirements for Disc Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.8.1 Steel Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.9 Special Fabrication Requirements for Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .626
18.5.10 Special Requirements for Load Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.5.11 Special Requirements for Anchor Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.6 CORROSION PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7 TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7.1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7.1.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7.1.3 Test Pieces to be Supplied to the Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7.1.4 Tapered Sole Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7.2 Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7.2.1 Material Certification Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .627
18.7.2.2 Material Friction Test (Sliding Surfaces Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628
18.7.2.3 Dimensional Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628
18.7.2.4 Clearance Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628
18.7.2.5 Short-term Compression Proof Load Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628
18.7.2.6 Long-term Compression Proof Load Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628

lxvi CONTENTS Division II
18.7.2.7 Bearing Friction Test (for sliding surfaces only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628

18.7.2.8 Long-term Deterioration Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .629
18.7.2.9 Bearing Horizontal Force Capacity (Fixed or
Guided Bearings Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .629
18.7.3 Performance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .629
18.7.4 Special Testing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .629
18.7.4.1 Special Test Requirements for Rocker and Roller Bearings . . . . . . . .629
18.7.4.2 Special Test Requirements for PTFE Sliding Bearings . . . . . . . . . . .629
18.7.4.3 Special Test Requirements for Curved Sliding Bearings . . . . . . . . . .630
18.7.4.4 Special Test Requirements for Pot Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
18.7.4.4.1 Material Certification Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
18.7.4.4.2 Testing by the Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
18.7.4.4.3 Bearing Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
18.7.4.5 Test Requirements for Elastomeric Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
18.7.4.5.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
18.7.4.5.2 Frequency of Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .630
18.7.4.5.3 Ambient Temperature Tests on the Elastomer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .631
18.7.4.5.4 Low Temperature Tests on the Elastomer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .631
18.7.4.5.5 Visual Inspection of the Finished Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .631
18.7.4.5.6 Short-Duration Compression Tests on Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .631
18.7.4.5.7 Long-Duration Compression Tests on Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .631
18.7.4.5.8 Shear Modulus Tests on Materials from Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . .631
18.7.4.7 Test Requirements for Bronze and Copper Alloy Bearings . . . . . . . .631
18.7.4.8 Test Requirements for Disc Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.7.4.8.1 Material Certification Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.7.4.8.2 Testing by the Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.7.4.8.3 Bearing Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.7.5 Cost of Transporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.7.6 Use of Tested Bearings in the Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.8 PACKING, SHIPPING AND STORING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.9 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.9.1 General Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .632
18.9.2 Special Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
18.9.2.1 Installation of Rocker and Roller Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
18.9.2.2 Installation of Elastomeric Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
18.9.2.3 Installation of Guideways and Restraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
18.9.2.4 Installation of Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
18.10 DOCUMENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
18.10.2 Marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
18.10.3 Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .633
18.11 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634
18.12 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .634
SECTION 19—BRIDGE DECK JOINT SEALS
19.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635

19.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635
19.4 MANUFACTURE AND FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635
19.4.1 Compression Seal Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635
19.4.2 Joint Seal Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635

Division II CONTENTS lxvii
19.5 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635

19.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635
19.5.2 Compression Seal Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .636
19.5.3 Joint Seal Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .636
SECTION 20—RAILINGS
20.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637

20.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.1.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.1.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.1.4 Line and Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.2 METAL RAILING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.2.1 Materials and Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.2.1.1 Steel Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.2.1.2 Aluminum Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.2.1.3 Metal Beam Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.2.1.4 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.2.2 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .637
20.2.3 Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
20.3 CONCRETE RAILING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
20.3.1 Materials and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
20.4 TIMBER RAILING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
20.5 STONE AND BRICK RAILINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
20.6 TEMPORARY RAILING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
20.7.1 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
20.7.2 Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .638
SECTION 21—WATERPROOFING
21.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639

21.1.1 Waterproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.1.2 Dampproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2.1 Asphalt Membrane Waterproofing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2.1.1 Asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2.1.2 Primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2.1.3 Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2.2 Preformed Membrane Waterproofing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2.2.1 Primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2.2.2 Preformed Membrane Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .639
21.2.2.3 Mastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .640
21.2.3 Protective Covers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .640
21.2.4 Dampproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .640
21.2.5 Inspection and Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .640
21.3 SURFACE PREPARATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .640
21.4 APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .640
21.4.1 Asphalt Membrane Waterproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .641

lxviii CONTENTS Division II
21.4.1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .641

21.4.1.2 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .641
21.4.1.3 Special Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .641
21.4.1.4 Damage Patching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .641
21.4.2 Preformed Membrane Waterproofing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .642
21.4.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .642
21.4.2.2 Installation on Bridge Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .642
21.4.2.3 Installation on Other Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .642
21.4.3 Protective Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .642
21.4.4 Dampproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .643
SECTION 22—SLOPE PROTECTION
22.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645

22.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
22.1.2 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
22.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
22.3.1 Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
22.3.2 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
22.3.3 Filter Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .645
22.3.4 Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.3.5 Sacked Concrete Riprap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.3.6 Portland Cement Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.3.7 Pneumatically Applied Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.3.8 Precast Portland Cement Concrete Blocks
and Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.3.10 Geocomposite Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.4 CONSTRUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.4.1 Preparation of Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.4.2 Bedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.4.3 Filter Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .646
22.4.4 Geocomposite Drain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
22.4.5 Hand Placing Stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
22.4.6 Machine-Placed Stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
22.4.6.1 Dry Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
22.4.6.2 Underwater Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
22.4.7 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
22.4.7.1 Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .647
22.4.7.2 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .648
22.4.8 Grouted Riprap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .648
22.4.9 Sacked Concrete Riprap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .648
22.4.10 Concrete Slope Paving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .648
22.4.10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .648
22.4.10.2 Cast-in-Place Slope Paving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .649
22.4.10.3 Precast Slope Paving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .649
22.5.1.1 Stone Riprap and Filter Blanket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .649
22.5.1.2 Sacked Concrete Riprap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .649
22.5.1.3 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .649

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22.5.1.4 Cast-in-Place Concrete Slope Paving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650

22.5.1.5 Precast Concrete Slope Paving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.1.6 Filter Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2 Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.2 Stone Riprap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.3 Sacked Concrete Riprap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.4 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.5 Cast-in-Place Concrete Slope Paving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.6 Precast Concrete Slope Paving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.7 Filter Blanket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.8 Filter Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
22.5.2.9 Geocomposite Drain System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650
SECTION 23—MISCELLANEOUS METAL
23.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651

23.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
23.3 FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
23.4 GALVANIZING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
23.5 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
23.6 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .651
SECTION 24—PNEUMATICALLY APPLIED MORTAR
24.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653

24.2 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
24.2.1 Cement, Aggregate, Water, and Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
24.2.3 Anchor Bolts or Studs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
24.3 PROPORTIONING AND MIXING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
24.3.1 Proportioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
24.3.2 Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .653
24.4 SURFACE PREPARATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
24.4.1 Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
24.4.2 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
24.4.3 Concrete or Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
24.5 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
24.5.1 Placement of Reinforcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
24.5.2 Placement of Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .654
24.5.2.1 Weather Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
24.5.2.2 Protection of Adjacent Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
24.5.3 Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
24.5.4 Curing and Protecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .655
SECTION 25—STEEL AND CONCRETE TUNNEL LINERS
25.1 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657

25.2 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657

lxx CONTENTS Division II
25.3 MATERIALS AND FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657

25.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
25.3.2 Forming and Punching of Steel Liner Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .657
25.4 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
25.4.1 Steel Liner Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
25.4.2 Precast Concrete Liner Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
25.4.3 Grouting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
25.5 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
25.6 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .658
SECTION 26—METAL CULVERTS
26.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659

26.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
26.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
26.3.1 Corrugated Metal Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
26.3.2 Structural Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
26.3.3 Nuts and Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
26.3.4 Mixing of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
26.3.5 Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .659
26.3.6 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.3.7 Protective Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.3.8 Bedding and Backfill Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.3.8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.3.8.2 Long-Span Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.3.8.3 Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.4 ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.4.2 Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660
26.4.2.1 Field Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .661
26.4.2.2 Joint Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .661
26.4.2.3 Soil Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .661
26.4.2.4 Joint Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .661
26.4.3 Assembly of Long-Span Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662
26.5 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662
26.5.1 Placing Culverts—General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662
26.5.2 Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .662
26.5.3 Bedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .664
26.5.4 Structural Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .665
26.5.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .665
26.5.4.2 Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .665
26.5.4.3 Long-Span Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .665
26.5.4.4 Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
26.5.4.5 Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
26.5.5 Arch Substructures and Headwalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
26.5.6 Inspection Requirements for CMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
26.6 CONSTRUCTION PRECAUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
26.7 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
26.8 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
SECTION 27—CONCRETE CULVERTS
27.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .669

Division II CONTENTS lxxi

27.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .669
27.3.1 Reinforced Concrete Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .669
27.3.2 Joint Sealants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .669
27.3.2.1 Cement Mortar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .669
27.3.2.2 Flexible Watertight Gaskets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .669
27.3.2.3 Other Joint Sealant Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.3.3 Bedding, Haunch, Lower Side and Backfill or Overfill Material . . .670
27.3.3.1 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular, Arch, and Elliptical Pipe . . . .670
27.3.3.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete Box Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.4 ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.4.2 Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.5 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.5.2 Bedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.5.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .670
27.5.2.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular Arch and Elliptical Pipe . . . . .673
27.5.3 Placing Culvert Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .673
27.5.4 Haunch, Lower Side and Backfill or Overfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .674
27.5.4.1 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular Arch and Elliptical Pipe . . . . .674
27.5.4.1.1 Haunch Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .674
27.5.4.1.2 Lower Side Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
27.5.4.1.3 Overfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
27.5.4.2.1 Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
27.5.4.3 Placing of Haunch, Lower Side and Backfill or Overfill . . . . . . . . . .677
27.5.4.4 Cover Over Culvert During Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .678
27.6 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .678
27.7 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .678
SECTION 28—WEARING SURFACES
28.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679

28.2 LATEX MODIFIED CONCRETE TYPE WEARING SURFACE . . .679
28.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
28.2.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
28.2.2.1 Portland Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
28.2.2.2 Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
28.2.2.3 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
28.2.2.4 Latex Emulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .679
28.2.2.5 Latex Modified Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .680
28.2.3.1 New Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .680
28.2.3.2 Existing Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .680
28.2.4 Proportioning and Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .681
28.2.5 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .681
28.2.5.1 Weather Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .681
28.2.5.2 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .681
28.2.5.3 Placing and Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
28.2.5.3.1 Construction Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
28.2.5.3.2 Placing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682

lxxii CONTENTS Figures
28.2.5.3.3 Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682

28.2.6 Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
28.2.7 Acceptance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .682
SECTION 29—EMBEDMENT ANCHORS
29.1 DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .685

29.2 PREQUALIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .685
29.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .685
29.4 CONSTRUCTION METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .685
29.5 INSPECTION AND TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .685
29.6 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .686
29.7 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .686
SECTION 30—THERMOPLASTIC PIPE
30.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .687

30.1.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .687
30.1.2 Workmanship and Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .687
30.3 MATERIALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .687
30.3.1 Thermoplastic Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .687
30.3.2 Bedding Material and Structural Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .687
30.4 ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
30.4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
30.4.2 Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
30.4.2.1 Field Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
30.5 INSTALLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
30.5.1 General Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
30.5.2 Trench Widths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
30.5.3 Foundation and Bedding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
30.5.4 Structural Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
30.5.5 Minimum Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
30.5.6 Installation Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
30.6 MEASUREMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
30.7 PAYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .689
LIST OF FIGURES
DIVISION I
DESIGN
SECTION 2—GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
Figure 2.3.1 Clearance Diagram for Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Figure 2.4A Clearance Diagrams for Underpasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Figure 2.5 Clearance Diagram for Tunnels—Two-Lane Highway Traffic . .9
Figure 2.7.4A Pedestrian Railing, Bicycle Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Figure 2.7.4B Traffic Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
SECTION 3—LOADS
Figure 3.7.6A Standard H Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

Figures CONTENTS lxxiii
Figure 3.7.6B Lane Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Figure 3.7.7A Standard HS Trucks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
Figure 4.4.3A Design Terminology for Spread Footing Foundations . . . . . . .48

Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1A Definition Sketch for Loading and Dimensions
for Footings Subjected to Eccentric or Inclined Loads,
Modified after EPRI (1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1B Contact Pressure for Footing Loaded Eccentrically
About One Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1C Contact Pressure for Footing Loaded Eccentrically
About Two Axes, Modified after AREA (1980) . . . . . . . . . .53
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.4A Modified Bearing Capacity Factors for Footings
on Sloping Ground, Modified after Meyerhof (1957) . . . . .54
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.4B Modified Bearing Capacity Factors for Footing Adjacent
Sloping Ground, Modified after Meyerhof (1957) . . . . . . . . .54
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.6A Definition Sketch for Influence of Ground Water Table
on Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.7A Typical Two-Layer Soil Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.7B Modified Bearing Capacity Factor for Two-Layer Cohesive
Soil with Softer Soil Overlying Stiffer Soil, EPRI (1983) . .56
Figure 4.4.7.1.1.8A Definition Sketch for Footing Base Inclination . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Figure 4.4.7.2.1A Boussinesg Vertical Stress Contours for Continuous
and Square Footings, Modified after Sowers (1979) . . . . . .58
Figure 4.4.7.2.3A Typical Consolidation Compression Curve
for Overconsolidated Soil—Void Ratio
Versus Vertical Effective Stress, EPRI (1983) . . . . . . . . . . .60
Figure 4.4.7.2.3B Typical Consolidation Compression Curve
for Overconsolidated Soil—Void Strain
Versus Vertical Effective Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Figure 4.4.7.2.3C Reduction Factor to Account for Effects of Three-
Dimensional Consolidation Settlement, EPRI (1983) . . . . .60
Figure 4.4.7.2.3D Percentage of Consolidation as a Function of Time
Factor, T, EPRI (1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Figure 4.4.8.1.1A Allowable Contact Stress for Footings on Rock with Tight
Discontinuities, Peck, et al. (1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
Figure 4.4.8.2.2A Relationship Between Elastic Modulus and Uniaxial
Compressive Strength for Intact Rock, Modified
after Deere (1968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Figure 4.5.4A Design Terminology for Driven Pile Foundations . . . . . . . . . .71
Figure 4.6.3A Design Terminology for Drilled Shaft Foundations . . . . . . . . .81
Figure 4.6.5.1.1A Identification of Portions of Drilled Shafts Neglected
for Estimation of Drilled Shaft Side Resistance
in Cohesive Soil, Reese and O’Neill (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
Figure 4.6.5.3.1A Procedure for Estimating Average Unit Shear for Smooth
Wall Rock-Socketed Shafts, Horvath et al. (1983) . . . . . . . .85
Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1A Load Transfer in Side Resistance Versus Settlement Drilled
Shafts in Cohesive Soil, after Reese and O’Neill (1988) . . .87
Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1B Load Transfer in Tip Bearing Settlement Drilled Shafts
in Cohesive Soil, after Reese and O’Neill (1988) . . . . . . . . .87
Figure 4.6.5.5.1.2A Load Transfer in Side Resistance Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts
in Cohesionless Soil, after Reese and O’Neill (1988) . . . . . .88

lxxiv CONTENTS Figures
Figure 4.6.5.5.1.2B Load Transfer in Tip Bearing Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts
in Cohesionless Soil, after Reese and O’Neill (1988) . . . . . .88
Figure 4.6.5.5.2A Influence Coefficient for Elastic Settlement of Rock-Socketed
Drilled Shafts, Modified after Pells and Turner (1979) . . . .89
Figure 4.6.5.5.2B Influence Coefficient for Elastic Uplift Displacement of
Rock-Socketed Drilled Shafts, Modified after Pells and
Turner (1979) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1 Location of Equivalent Footing after Duncan and Buchignami
(1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104.1
Figure 5.2A Typical Mechanically Stabilized Earth Gravity Walls . . . . .112
Figure 5.2B Typical Prefabricated Modular Gravity Walls . . . . . . . . . . .113
Figure 5.2C Typical Rigid Gravity, Semi-Gravity Cantilever, Nongravity
Cantilever, and Anchored Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
Figure 5.5.1A Terms Used in Design of Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity
Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
Figure 5.5.2A Computational Procedures for Active Earth Pressures
(Coulomb Analysis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Figure 5.5.2B Procedure to Determine Lateral Pressure Due to Point and
Line Loads, Modified after Terzaghi (1954) . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Figure 5.5.2C Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Slop-
ing Wall with Horizontal Backfill (Caquot and Kerisel Analy-
sis), Modified after U.S. Department of Navy (1982) . . . . . .124
Figure 5.5.2D Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Ver-
tical Wall with Sloping Backfill (Caquot and Kerisel Analysis),
Modified after U.S. Department of Navy (1982) . . . . . . . . .125
Figure 5.5.5A Design Criteria for Rigid Retaining Walls,
(Coulomb Analysis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
Figure 5.6.2A Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Permanent
Flexible Cantilevered Walls with Discrete Vertical Wall
Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
Figure 5.6.2B Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions and Design
Procedures for Permanent Flexible Cantilevered Walls
with Continuous Vertical Wall Elements, Modified after
Teng (1962) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Figure 5.6.2C Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary
Flexible Cantilevered Walls with Discrete Vertical Wall
Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Figure 5.6.2D Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary
Flexible Cantilevered Walls with Continuous Vertical
Wall Elements, Modified after Teng (1962) . . . . . . . . . . . .131
Figure 5.7.1A Typical Terms Used in Flexible Anchored Wall Design . . . .133
Figure 5.7.2A Guidelines for Estimating Earth Pressure on Walls with
Two or More Levels of Anchors Constructed from the Top
Down, Modified after Terzaghi and Peck (1967) . . . . . . . .134
Figure 5.7.2B Settlement Profiles Behind Braced or Anchored Walls,
Modified after Clough and O’Rourke (1990) . . . . . . . . . . .135
Figure 5.8.1A MSE Wall Element Dimensions Needed for Design . . . . . . .139
Figure 5.8.2A External Stability for Wall with Horizontal Backslope
and Traffic Surcharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
Figure 5.8.2B External Stability for Wall with Sloping Backslope . . . . . . .141
Figure 5.8.2C External Stability for Wall with Broken Backslope . . . . . . .142
Figure 5.8.2D Overall and Compound Stability of Complex MSE
Wall Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
Figure 5.8.3A Calculation of Vertical Stress for Bearing Capacity
Calculations (for Horizontal Backslope Condition) . . . . .144

Figures CONTENTS lxxv
Figure 5.8.3B Calculation of Vertical Stress for Bearing Capacity

Calculations (for Sloping Backslope Condition) . . . . . . . .145
Figure 5.8.4.1A Calculation of Vertical Stress for Horizontal Backslope
Condition, Including Live Load and Dead Load
Surcharges for Internal Stability Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . .147
Figure 5.8.4.1B Calculation of Vertical Stress for Sloping Backslope
Condition for Internal Stability Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
Figure 5.8.4.1C Variation of the Coefficient of Lateral Stress Ratio Kr/Ka
with Depth in a Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall . . . .149
Figure 5.8.5.1A Location of Potential Failure Surface for Internal Stability
Design of MSE Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .150
Figure 5.8.5.2A Default Values for the Pullout Friction Factor, F* . . . . . . . .151
Figure 5.8.6A Parameters for Metal Reinforcement Strength
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .153
Figure 5.8.6B Parameters for Geosynthetic Reinforcement Strength
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
Figure 5.8.7.2A Determination of Hinge Height for Segmental Concrete
Block Faced MSE Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
Figure 5.8.9.1A Seismic External Stability of a MSE Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .162
Figure 5.8.9.2A Seismic Internal Stability of a MSE Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163
Figure 5.8.10A Empirical Curve for Estimating Anticipated Lateral
Displacement During Construction for MSE Walls . . . . .165
Figure 5.8.12.1A Distribution of Stress from Concentrated Vertical Load
Pv for Internal and External Stability Calculations . . . . .166
Figure 5.8.12.1B Distribution of Stress from Concentrated Horizontal
Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .167
Figure 5.8.12.1C Superposition of Concentrated Dead Loads for External
Stability Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
Figure 5.8.12.1D Location of Maximum Tensile Force Line in Case of
Large Surcharge Slabs (Inextensible Reinforcements) . . .169
Figure 5.8.12.4A Structural Connection of Soil Reinforcement Around
Backfill Obstructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170
Figure 5.9.2A Lateral Earth Pressures for Prefabricated Modular Walls,
Case I—Continuous Pressure Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172
Figure 5.9.3B Lateral Earth Pressures for Prefabricated Modular Walls,
Case II—Irregular Pressure Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .173
Figure 5.14.6-1 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Clayey
Soils in the Backfill or Foundation (after Duncan et al.,
1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
Figure 5.14.6-2 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Granular
Backfills and Foundations on Sand or Gravel
(after Duncan et al., 1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
Figure 5.14.6-3 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Granular
Backfills and Foundations on Rock
(after Duncan et al., 1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .178
Figure 5.14.7-1 Contact Pressure Distribution for Structural Design
of Footings on Soil and Rock at Strength Limit States . . .179
SECTION 7—SUBSTRUCTURES
Figure 7.5.4A Limiting Values of Differential Settlement Based on Field

Surveys of Simple and Continuous Span Structures
of Various Span Lengths, Moulton, et al. (1985) . . . . . . . .186

lxxvi CONTENTS Figures
Figure 8.15.5.8 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202

Figure 8.16.4.4.1 Definition of Wall Slenderness Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
Figure 8.16.6.8 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
Figure 8.29.1 Hooked-Bar Details for Development of Standard Hooks . .221
Figure 8.29.4 Hooked-Bar Tie Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
Figure 9.16.2.1.1 Mean Annual Relative Humidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
Figure 10.3.1C Illustrative Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .264

Figure C10.18.2.3.4 Positive Flexure Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-101
Figure C10.18.2.3.4 Negative Flexure Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-101
Figure 10.18.5A Splice Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .278
Figure 10.34.3.1A Web Thickness Versus Girder Depth for Noncomposite
Symmetrical Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .296
Figure 10.39.4.3A Longitudinal Stiffeners—Box Girder Compression
Flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309
Figure 10.39.4.3B Spacing and Size of Transverse Stiffeners (for Flange
Stiffened Longitudinally and Transversely) . . . . . . . . . . . .310
Figure 10.40.2.1A Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313
Figure 10.40.2.1B Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313
Figure 10.50A Plastic Stress Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .323
Figure 1 Article C10.50.1.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-130

INTERACTION SYSTEMS
Figure 12.7.1A Standard Terminology of Structural Plate Shapes

Including Long-Span Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .349
Figure 12.7.4A Typical Structural Backfill Envelope and Zone
of Structure Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .351
Figure 12.7.4B Assumed Pressure Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .352
Figure 12.7.5A Standard Structure End Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .353
Figure 12.8.2A Standard Terminology of Structural Plate Box Culvert
Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .355
Figure 13.7.1A Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .381
Figure 14.4 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .388

Figure 14.5.2-1 Typical Bearing Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389
Figure 14.6.3.2-1 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .393
Figure C14.6.4.3-1 Pot Bearing—Critical Dimensions for Clearances . . . . . . .C-17

Figures CONTENTS lxxvii
Figure 14.6.5.2-1 Map of Low Temperature Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396

Figure 14.6.5.3.3-1 Load Deflection Behavior of Elastomeric Bearings . . . . . . . .396
Figure C14.6.5.3.3-1 Load Deflection Behavior of Elastomeric Bearings . . . . . . .C-21
Figure C14.6.5.3.6-1 Elastomeric Bearing—Interaction Between Compressive
Stress and Rotation Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-22
SECTION 15—STEEL TUNNEL LINER PLATES
Figure 15.2.3A Diagram for Coefficient Cd for Tunnels in Soil

(φ = Friction Angle) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .404

INTERACTION SYSTEMS
Figure 16.4A Heger Pressure Distribution and Arching Factors . . . . . . . .413

Figure 16.4B Standard Embankment Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .414
Figure 16.4C Standard Trench Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .414
Figure 16.4D Trench Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .416
Figure 16.4E Embankment Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes . . . . . . . . . . .417
Figure 16.4F Suggested Design Pressure Distribution Around a Buried
Concrete Pipe for Analysis by Direct Design . . . . . . . . . . .420
Figure 16.4G Essential Features of Types of Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .420
Figure 16.4H General Relationship of Vertical Earth Load
and Lateral Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .421
Figure 16.6A Concrete Box Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .424
DIVISION I-A
SEISMIC DESIGN
SECTION 1—INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.6A Design Procedure Flow Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .442

Figure 1.6B Sub Flow Chart for Seismic Performance Categories B,
C, and D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .443
Figure C3.2 Schematic Representation Showing How Effective

Peak Acceleration and Effective Peak Velocity
Are Obtained from a Response Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . .C-42
Figure 3.2A Acceleration Coefficient—Continental United States . . . . . .447
Figure 3.2B Acceleration Coefficient—Alaska, Hawaii
and Puerto Rico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .448
Figure C3.5A Average Acceleration Spectra for Different Site Conditions
(after Seed, et al., 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-44
Figure C3.5B Normalized Response Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-45
Figure C3.5C Ground Motion Spectra for A = 0.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-46
Figure C3.5D Ground Motion Spectra for A = 0.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-46
Figure C3.5E Comparison of Free Field Ground Motion Spectra and
Lateral Design Force Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-47
Figure 3.10 Dimensions for Minimum Support Length
Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .452

lxxviii CONTENTS Figures
Figure 4.4A Bridge Deck Subjected to Assumed Transverse

and Longitudinal Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455
Figure C4.4A Plan View of a Bridge Subjected to a Transverse
Earthquake Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-54
Figure 4.4B Bridge Deck Subjected to Equivalent Transverse
and Longitudinal Seismic Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .455
Figure C4.4B Displacement Function Describing the Transverse
Position of the Bridge Deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-54
Figure C4.4C Deflected Shape Due to Uniform Static Loading . . . . . . . . .C-55
Figure C4.4D Transverse Free Vibration of the Bridge in
Assumed Mode Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-55
Figure C4.4E Characteristic Static Loading Applied to the
Bridge System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-56
Figure C4.5.2 Iterative Procedure for Including Abutment Soil
Effects in the Seismic Analysis of Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . .C-57
SECTION 7—DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES IN SEISMIC

PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D
Figure C7.2.2A Development of Approximate Overstrength

Interaction Curves from Nominal Strength
Curves (after Gajer and Wagh) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-65
Figure C7.6.2A Confining Pressure Provided by a Spirally
Reinforced Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-69
Figure C7.6.2B Confining Pressure Provided by a Rectangular
Reinforced Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-70
Figure C7.6.2C Tie Details in a Rectangular Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-71
Figure C7.6.2D Tie Details in a Square Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-71
DIVISION II
CONSTRUCTION
Figure 16.3 Nail Placement Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .613
Figure 26.5 Typical Cross-Section Showing Materials

Around the Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .663
Figure 26.5.2 A-D: Foundation Improvement Methods When Required . .664
Figure 26.5.3 “V” Shaped Bed (Foundation) for Larger Pipe Arch,
Horizontal Ellipse and Underpass Structures . . . . . . . . . .665
Figure 26.5.4 End Treatment of Skewed Flexible Culvert . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666
Figure 27.5A Standard Embankment Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .671

Figure 27.5B Standard Trench Installations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .672
Figure 27.5C Trench Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .673

Tables CONTENTS lxxix
Figure 27.5D Embankment Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes . . . . . . . . . . .674

Figure 27.5E Box Sections, Embankment/Trench Bedding . . . . . . . . . . . . .678
SECTION 30—THERMOPLASTIC PIPE
Figure 30.5.1 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .688
LIST OF TABLES
DIVISION I
DESIGN
SECTION 3—LOADS
Table 3.22.1A Table of Coefficients g and b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

Table 3.23.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads in Longitudinal Beams . . . . . . .33
Table 3.23.3.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads in Transverse Beams . . . . . . . . .34
Table 4.2.3A Problem Conditions Requiring Special Consideration . . . . . 44

Table 4.4.7.1A Bearing Capacity Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Table 4.4.7.2.2A Elastic Constants of Various Soils, Modified after U.S.
Department of Navy (1982) and Bowles (1982) . . . . . . . . . .59
Table 4.4.7.2.2B Elastic Shape and Rigidity Factor, EPRI (1983) . . . . . . . . . . .59
Table 4.4.8.1.2A Values of Coefficient Nms for Estimation of the Ultimate
Bearing Capacity of Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock
(Modified after Hoek (1983)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Table 4.4.8.1.2B Typical Range of Uniaxial Compressive Strength (Co) as a
Function of Rock Category and Rock Type . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
Table 4.4.8.2.2A Summary of Poisson’s Ration for Intact Rock, Modified
after Kulhawy (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Table 4.4.8.2.2B Summary of Elastic Moduli for Intact Rock, Modified after
Kulhawy (1978) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Table 4.5.6.2A Recommended Factor of Safety on Ultimate Geotechnical
Capacity Based on Specified Construction Control . . . . . .72
Table 4.5.7.3A Allowable Working Stress for Round Timber Piles . . . . . . . . .73
Table 4.6.5.1.1A Recommended Values of a and fsi for Estimation of
Drilled Shaft Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil,
Reese and O’Neill (1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82
Table 4.6.5.1.4A Recommended Values of qT* for Estimation of Drilled Shaft
Tip Resistance in Cohesionless Soil, after Reese and O’Neill
(1988) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83
Table 4.10.6-1 Performance Factors for Strength Limit States for Shallow
Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
Table 4.10.6-2 Performance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit States
in Axially Loaded Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
Table 4.10.6-3 Performance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit
States in Axially Loaded Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96
Table 4.11.4.1.4-1 Presumptive Allowable Bearing Pressures for Spread
Footing Foundations, Modified after U.S. Department
of the Navy, 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
Table 4.11.4.2.4-1 Presumptive Bearing Pressures (tsf) for Foundations on
Rock (after Putnam, 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101

lxxx CONTENTS Tables
Table 5.5.2A Relationship Between Soil Backfill Type and Wall

Rotation to Mobilize Active and Passive Earth Pressures
Behind Rigid Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Table 5.5.2B Ultimate Friction Factors and Friction Angles
for Dissimilar Materials, after U.S. Department
of the Navy (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
Table 5.6.2A General Notes and Legend Simplified Earth Pressure
Distributions for Permanent and Temporary Flexible
Cantilevered Walls with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements . .131
Table 5.7.6.2A Presumptive Ultimate Values of Load Transfer
for Preliminary Design of Anchors in Soil, Modified
after Cheney (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
Table 5.7.6.2B Presumptive Ultimate Values of Load Transfer
for Preliminary Design of Anchors in Rock, Modified
after Cheney (1982) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
Table 5.8.5.2A Default Values for the Scale Effect Correction Factor,
(infinity sign*) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Table 5.8.6.1.2A Minimum Requirements for Geosynthetic Products
to Allow Use of Defaulted Reduction Factor
for Long-Term Degradation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156
Table 5.8.6.1.2B Default of Minimum Values for the Total Geosynthetic
Ultimate Limit State Strength Reduction Factor, RF . . . .157
Table 5.8.7.2A Default and Minimum Values for the Total Geosynthetic
Ultimate Limit State Strength Reduction Factor
at the Facing Connection, RFc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .158
Table 8.9.2 Recommended Minimum Depths for Constant Depth

Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194
Table 8.14.3 Effective Length Factors, k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
Table 8.23.2.1 Minimum Diameters of Bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .217
Table 8.32.3.2 Tension Lap Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
Table 9.16.2.2 Estimate of Prestress Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .236
Table 10.2A Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258

Table 10.2B Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
Table 10.3.1A Allowable Fatigue Stress Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260
Table 10.3.1B Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .261
Table 10.3.2A Stress Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
Table 10.3.3A Temperature Zone Designations for Charpy V-Notch
Impact Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265
Table 10.24.2 Nominal Hole Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .282
Table 10.32.1A Allowable Stresses—Structural Steel (In pounds per
square inch) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .288
Table 10.32.3A Allowable Stresses for Low-Carbon Steel Bolts and Power
Driven Rivets (in psi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290

Tables CONTENTS lxxxi
Table 10.32.3B Allowable Stresses on High-Strength Bolts or Connected

Material (ksi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
Table 10.32.3C Nominal Slip Resistance for Slip-Critical Connections
(Slip Resistance per Unit of Bolt Area, Fs, ksi) . . . . . . . . . .291
Table 10.32.4.3A Allowable Stresses—Steel Bars and Steel Forgings . . . . . . . .293
Table 10.32.5.1A Allowable Stresses—Cast Steel and Ductile Iron . . . . . . . . .294
Table 10.36A Bending-Compression Interaction Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . .302
Table 10.48.1.2A Limitations for Compact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .318
Table 10.48.2.1A Limitations for Braced Noncompact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . .318
Table 10.56A Design Strength of Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332
Table 10.57A Design Slip Resistance for Slip-Critical Connections (Slip
Resistance per Unit of Bolt Area, fFs = fTbm, ksi) . . . . . . .334

INTERACTION SYSTEMS
Table 12.7.2A Minimum Requirements for Long-Span Structures

with Acceptable Special Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .348
Table 12.8.2A Geometric Requirements for Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . .354
Table 12.8.4A C2, Adjustment Coefficient Values for Number
of Wheels Per Axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
Table 12.8.4B P, Crown Moment Proportioning Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
Table 12.8.4C Rh, Haunch Moment Reduction Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .356
Table 13.2.1A Net Dry Dimensions for Dressed Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .358

Table 13.2.2A Standard Net Finished Widths of Glue Laminated Timber
Manufactured from Western Species or Southern Pine . . .359
Table 13.5.1A Tabulated Design Values for Visually Graded
Lumber and Timbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .361
Table 13.5.1B Tabulated Design Values for Mechanically Graded
Dimension Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .368
Table 13.5.2A Tabulated Design Values for Bearing Parallel to Grain . . . .369
Table 13.5.3A Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood
Timber with Members Stressed Primarily in Bending . . .370
Table 13.5.3B Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood
Timber with Members Stressed Primarily in Axial Tension
or Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .373
Table 13.5.4A Representative Tabulated Design Values for Laminated
Veneer Lumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .375
Table 13.5.4B Representative Tabulated Design Values for Parallel Strand
Lumber, Design Values in Pounds Per Square Inch (psi) . . .376
Table 13.5.5A Load Duration Factor, CD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377
Table 13.6.1A Values of the Bearing Area Factor, Cb, for Small
Bearing Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
Table 13.7.1A Support Condition Coefficients for Tapered Columns . . . . .382
Table 14.5.2-1 Bearing Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .389

Table 14.6.2.4-1 Limits on Contact Stress for PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392
Table 14.6.2.5-1 Design Coefficients of Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392

lxxxii CONTENTS Tables
Table 14.6.5.2-1 Elastomer Properties at Different Hardnesses . . . . . . . . . . .395

Table 14.6.5.2-2 Low Temperature Zones and Elastomer Grades . . . . . . . . . .396
SECTION 15 —STEEL TUNNEL LINER PLATES
Table 15.3.2.2 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .405

Table 15.5A Section Properties for Four-Flange Liner Plate . . . . . . . . . . .406
Table 15.5B Section Properties for Two-Flange Liner Plate . . . . . . . . . . .406

INTERACTION SYSTEMS
Table 16.4A Standard Embankment Installation Soils and Minimum

Compaction Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .410
Table 16.4B Standard Trench Installation Soils and Minimum
Table 16.4C Equivalent USCS and AASHTO Soil Classifications
for SIDD Soil Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .412
Table 16.4D Design Values of Parameters in Bedding
Factor Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
Table 16.4E Bedding Factors for Circular Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .419
Table 16.4F Bedding Factors, BLL, for HS 20 Live Loadings . . . . . . . . . . .419
DIVISION I-A
SEISMIC DESIGN
Table 3.4 Seismic Performance Category (SPC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .449

Table 3.5.1 Site Coefficient (S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .450
Table 3.7 Response Modification Factor (R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .451
Table 4.2A Minimum Analysis Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453

Table 4.2B Regular Bridge Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .453
SECTION 7—DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES IN SEISMIC

Table C7.2.2A Recommended Increased Values of Materials Properties . . .C-66
DIVISION II
CONSTRUCTION
SECTION 8—CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Table 8.2 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .526

Table 8.3 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528

Tables CONTENTS lxxxiii
SECTION 11—STEEL STRUCTURES
Table 11.4.3.3.2 Minimum Cold-Bending Radii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .571

Table 11.5A Required Fastener Tension Minimum Bolt Tension
in Pounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578
Table 11.5B Nut Rotation from the Snug-Tight Condition Geometry
of Outer Faces of Bolted Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .579
Table 11.5C Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .582
SECTION 13—PAINTING
Table 13.2.1 Untitled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .592
SECTION 15—CONCRETE BLOCK AND BRICK MASONRY
Table 15.1 Grouting Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .605
Table 16.1 Typical Dimensions of Timber Connectors

(dimensions in inches) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608
Table 18.4.3.1-1 Physical Properties of PTFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .619

Table 18.4.5.1-1A Material Tests—polychloroprene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .621
Table 18.4.5.1-1B Material Tests—polyisoprene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .622
Table 18.4.7.1-1 Physical Properties of Polyether Urethane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .623
Table 18.5.1.5-1 Fabrication Tolerances and Surface Finish Requirements . .624
Table 26.4 Categories of Pipe Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .661

Table 26.6 Minimum Cover for Construction Loads (Round,
Pipe-Arch, Ellipse and Underpass Shapes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .667
Table 27.5A Standard Embankment Installation Soils and Minimum

Table 27.5B Standard Trench Installation Soils and Minimum
Compaction Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
Table 27.5C Equivalent USCS and AASHTO Soil Classifications
or SIDD Soil Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .677
APPENDICES:
A—Live Load Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .691
B—Truck Train Loadings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .695
C—Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .696

lxxxiv CONTENTS Commentary
D—Plastic Section Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .700

E—Metric Equivalents and Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .701
INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .797
COMMENTARY—Interim Specifications—Bridges—1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-1
COMMENTARY—Interim Specifications—Bridges—1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-11
COMMENTARY—Interim Specifications—Bridges—1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-39
COMMENTARY—Interim Specifications—Bridges—1999/2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . .C-91
As referenced in Section 4.12.3.3.7b and 4.13.2, the following figures have been reprinted
from the 1993 Commentary of the 1993 Interims to the Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges:
Figure C4.12.3.7.2-1 Uplift of Group of Closely-Spaced Piles in Cohesionless

Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104.1
Figure C4.12.3.7.2-2 Uplift of Group of Piles in Cohesive Soils after Tomlinson
(1987) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104.1
Figure C4.13.3.3.4-1 Elastic Settlement Influence Factor as a Function of Embed-
ment Ratio and Modulus Ratio after Donald, Sloan and
Chiu, 1980, as presented by Reese and O’Neill (1988) . . . .104.1
Figure C4.13.3.3.4-4 Bearing Capacity Coefficient, Ksp after Canadian
Geotechnical Society (1985) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104.1

Division I
DESIGN
Copyright 2002 AASHTO. All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
Section 1
GENERAL PROVISIONS
1.1 DESIGN ANALYSIS AND GENERAL 1.3 WATERWAYS

STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY FOR BRIDGES
1.3.1 General
The intent of these Specifications is to produce in-
tegrity of design in bridges. 1.3.1.1 Selecting favorable stream crossings should
be considered in the preliminary route determination to
minimize construction, maintenance, and replacement
costs. Natural stream meanders should be studied and, if
1.1.1 Design Analysis
necessary, channel changes, river training works, and
other construction that would reduce erosion problems
When these Specifications provide for empirical for-
and prevent possible loss of the structure should be con-
mulae, alternate rational analyses, based on theories or
sidered. The foundations of bridges constructed across
tests and accepted by the authority having jurisdiction,
channels that have been realigned should be designed for
will be considered as compliance with these Specifica-
possible deepening and widening of the relocated channel
tions.
due to natural causes. On wide flood plains, the lowering
of approach embankments to provide overflow sections
that would pass unusual floods over the highway is a
1.1.2 Structural Integrity means of preventing loss of structures. Where relief
bridges are needed to maintain the natural flow distribu-
Designs and details for new bridges should address tion and reduce backwater, caution must be exercised in
structural integrity by considering the following: proportioning the size and in locating such structures to
avoid undue scour or changes in the course of the main
(a) The use of continuity and redundancy to provide river channel.
one or more alternate load paths.
(b) Structural members and bearing seat widths that 1.3.1.2 Usually, bridge waterways are sized to pass
are resistant to damage or instability. a design flood of a magnitude and frequency consistent
(c) External protection systems to minimize the ef- with the type or class of highway. In the selection of the
fects of reasonably conceived severe loads. waterway opening, consideration should be given to the
amount of upstream ponding, the passage of ice and de-
bris and possible scour of the bridge foundations. Where
floods exceeding the design flood have occurred, or where
1.2 BRIDGE LOCATIONS superfloods would cause extensive damage to adjoining
property or the loss of a costly structure, a larger water-
The general location of a bridge is governed by the way opening may be warranted. Due consideration should
route of the highway it carries, which, in the case of a new be given to any federal, state, and local requirements.
highway, could be one of several routes under considera-
tion. The bridge location should be selected to suit the par- 1.3.1.3 Relief openings, spur-dikes, debris deflectors
ticular obstacle being crossed. Stream crossings should be and channel training works should be used where needed
located with regard to initial capital cost of bridgeworks to minimize the effect of adverse flood flow conditions.
and the minimization of total cost including river channel Where scour is likely to occur, protection against damage
training works and the maintenance measures necessary from scour should be provided in the design of bridge
to reduce erosion. Highway and railroad crossings should piers and abutments. Embankment slopes adjacent to
provide for possible future works such as road widening. structures subject to erosion should be adequately pro-
3
4 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 1.3.1.3
tected by rip-rap, flexible mattresses, retards, spur dikes 1.4 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND
or other appropriate construction. Clearing of brush and WATERWAY OPENINGS
trees along embankments in the vicinity of bridge open-
ings should be avoided to prevent high flow velocities and Culvert location, length, and waterway openings
possible scour. Borrow pits should not be located in areas should be in accordance with the AASHTO Guide on the
which would increase velocities and the possibility of Hydraulic Design of Culverts in Highway Drainage
scour at bridges. Guidelines.
1.5 ROADWAY DRAINAGE

1.3.2 Hydraulic Studies
The transverse drainage of the roadway should be pro-
Hydraulic studies of bridge sites are a necessary part of vided by a suitable crown in the roadway surface and lon-
the preliminary design of a bridge and reports of such gitudinal drainage by camber or gradient. Water flowing
studies should include applicable parts of the following downgrade in a gutter section should be intercepted and
outline: not permitted to run onto the bridge. Short, continuous
span bridges, particularly overpasses, may be built with-
out inlets and the water from the bridge roadway carried
1.3.2.1 Site Data downslope by open or closed chutes near the end of the
bridge structure. Longitudinal drainage on long bridges
(a) Maps, stream cross sections, aerial photographs. should be provided by scuppers or inlets which should be
(b) Complete data on existing bridges, including dates of sufficient size and number to drain the gutters ade-
of construction and performance during past floods. quately. Downspouts, where required, should be made of
(c) Available high water marks with dates of occur- rigid corrosion-resistant material not less than 4 inches in
rence. least dimension and should be provided with cleanouts.
(d) Information on ice, debris, and channel stability. The details of deck drains should be such as to prevent the
(e) Factors affecting water stages such as high water discharge of drainage water against any portion of the
from other streams, reservoirs, flood control projects, structure or on moving traffic below, and to prevent ero-
and tides. sion at the outlet of the downspout. Deck drains may be
(f) Geomorphic changes in channel flow. connected to conduits leading to storm water outfalls at
ground level. Overhanging portions of concrete decks
should be provided with a drip bead or notch.
1.3.2.2 Hydrologic Analysis
1.6 RAILROAD OVERPASSES
(a) Flood data applicable to estimating floods at site,
including both historical floods and maximum floods 1.6.1 Clearances
of record.
(b) Flood-frequency curve for site. Structures designed to overpass a railroad shall be in
(c) Distribution of flow and velocities at site for flood accordance with standards established and used by the af-
discharges to be considered in design of structure. fected railroad in its normal practice. These overpass
(d) Stage-discharge curve for site. structures shall comply with applicable Federal, State, and
local laws.
Regulations, codes, and standards should, as a mini-
1.3.2.3 Hydraulic Analysis mum, meet the specifications and design standards of the
American Railway Engineering Association, the Associa-
(a) Backwater and mean velocities at bridge opening tion of American Railroads, and AASHTO.
for various trial bridge lengths and selected discharges.
(b) Estimated scour depth at piers and abutments of 1.6.2 Blast Protection
proposed structures.
(c) Effect of natural geomorphic stream pattern On bridges over railroads with steam locomotives,
changes on the proposed structure. metal likely to be damaged by locomotive gases, and all
(d) Consideration of geomorphic changes on nearby concrete surfaces less than 20 feet above the tracks, shall
structures in the vicinity of the proposed structure. be protected by blast plates. The plates shall be placed to
1.6.2 DIVISION I—DESIGN 5
take account of the direction of blast when the locomotive the standard practice of the commission for the highway
is on level or superelevated tracks by centering them on a construction, except that the superelevation shall not ex-
line normal to the plane of the two rails at the centerline ceed 0.10 foot per foot width of roadway.
of the tracks. The plates shall be not less than 4 feet wide
and shall be cast-iron, a corrosion and blast-resisting alloy,
or asbestos-board shields, so supported that they may be
readily replaced. The thickness of plates and other parts in 1.8 FLOOR SURFACES
direct contact with locomotive blast shall be not less than
3 ⁄ 4 inch for cast iron, 3 ⁄ 8 inch for alloy, 1 ⁄ 2 inch for plain as-
All bridge floors shall have skid-resistant characteris-
bestos-board, and 7 ⁄ 16 inch for corrugated asbestos-board. tics.
Bolts shall be not less than 5 ⁄ 8 inch in diameter. Pockets
which may hold locomotive gases shall be avoided as far
as practical. All fastenings shall be galvanized or made of
corrosion-resistant material.
1.9 UTILITIES
1.7 SUPERELEVATION Where required, provisions shall be made for trolley

wire supports and poles, lighting pillars, electric conduits,
The superelevation of the floor surface of a bridge on telephone conduits, water pipes, gas pipes, sanitary sew-
a horizontal curve shall be provided in accordance with ers, and other utility appurtenances.
Section 2
GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
2.1 GENERAL 2.2 STANDARD HIGHWAY CLEARANCES—

GENERAL
2.1.1 Notations
2.2.1 Navigational
Af 5 area of flanges (Article 2.7.4.3)
b 5 flange width (Article 2.7.4.3) Permits for the construction of crossings over naviga-
C 5 modification factor for concentrated load, P, used in ble streams must be obtained from the U.S. Coast Guard
the design of rail members (Article 2.7.1.3.1) and other appropriate agencies. Requests for such permits
D 5 clear unsupported distance between flange compo- from the U.S. Coast Guard should be addressed to the ap-
nents (Article 2.7.4.3) propriate District Commander. Permit exemptions are al-
d 5 depth of W or I section (Article 2.7.4.3) lowed on nontidal waterways which are not used as a
Fa 5 allowable axial stress (Article 2.7.4.3) means to transport interstate or foreign commerce, and are
Fb 5 allowable bending stress (Article 2.7.4.2) not susceptible to such use in their natural condition or by
Fv 5 allowable shear stress (Article 2.7.4.2) reasonable improvement.
Fy 5 minimum yield stress (Article 2.7.4.2)
fa 5 axial compression stress (Article 2.7.4.3) 2.2.2 Roadway Width
h 5 height of top rail above reference surface (Figure
2.7.4B) For recommendations on roadway widths for various
L 5 post spacing (Figure 2.7.4B) volumes of traffic, see AASHTO A Policy on Geometric
P 5 railing design loading 5 10 kips (Article 2.7.1.3 Design of Highways and Streets, or A Policy on Design
and Figure 2.7.4B) Standards—Interstate System.
P9 5 railing design loading equal to P, P/2 or P/3 (Article
2.7.1.3.5) 2.2.3 Vertical Clearance
t 5 flange or web thickness (Article 2.7.4.3)
w 5 pedestrian or bicycle loading (Articles 2.7.2.2 and Vertical clearance on state trunk highways and inter-
2.7.3.2) state systems in rural areas shall be at least 16 feet over
the entire roadway width with an allowance for resurfac-
ing. On state trunk highways and interstate routes through
2.1.2 Width of Roadway and Sidewalk urban areas, a 16-foot clearance shall be provided except
in highly developed areas. A 16-foot clearance should be
The width of roadway shall be the clear width mea- provided in both rural and urban areas where such clear-
sured at right angles to the longitudinal center line of the ance is not unreasonably costly and where needed for de-
bridge between the bottoms of curbs. If brush curbs or fense requirements. Vertical clearance on all other high-
curbs are not used, the clear width shall be the minimum ways shall be at least 14 feet over the entire roadway
width measured between the nearest faces of the bridge width with an allowance for resurfacing.
railing.
The width of the sidewalk shall be the clear width, 2.2.4 Other
measured at right angles to the longitudinal center line of
the bridge, from the extreme inside portion of the handrail The channel openings and clearances shall be accept-
to the bottom of the curb or guardtimber. If there is a truss, able to agencies having jurisdiction over such matters.
girder, or parapet wall adjacent to the roadway curb, the Channel openings and clearances shall conform in
width shall be measured to the extreme walk side of these width, height, and location to all federal, state, and local
members. requirements.
7
8 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 2.2.5
2.2.5 Curbs and Sidewalks
The face of the curb is defined as the vertical or slop-

ing surface on the roadway side of the curb. Horizontal
measurements of roadway curbs are from the bottom of
the face, or, in the case of stepped back curbs, from the
bottom of the lower face. Maximum width of brush curbs,
if used, shall be 9 inches.
Where curb and gutter sections are used on the road-
way approach, at either or both ends of the bridge, the
curb height on the bridge may equal or exceed the curb
height on the roadway approach. Where no curbs are used
on the roadway approaches, the height of the bridge curb
above the roadway shall be not less than 8 inches, and
preferably not more than 10 inches.
Where sidewalks are used for pedestrian traffic on
urban expressways, they shall be separated from the
FIGURE 2.3.1 Clearance Diagram for Bridges
bridge roadway by the use of a combination railing as
shown in Figure 2.7.4B.
limits of structure costs, type of structure, volume and de-
In those cases where a New Jersey type parapet or a
sign speed of through traffic, span arrangement, skew, and
curb is constructed on a bridge, particularly in urban areas
terrain make the 30-foot offset impractical, the pier or
that have curbs and gutters leading to a bridge, the same
wall may be placed closer than 30 feet and protected by
widths between curbs on the approach roadways will be
the use of guardrail or other barrier devices. The guardrail
maintained across the bridge structure. A parapet or other
or other device shall be independently supported with the
railing installed at or near the curb line shall have its ends
roadway face at least 2 feet 0 inches from the face of pier
properly flared, sloped, or shielded.
or abutment.
The face of the guardrail or other device shall be at
2.3 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR BRIDGES
least 2 feet 0 inches outside the normal shoulder line.
2.3.1 Width
2.4.2 Vertical Clearance
The horizontal clearance shall be the clear width and
the vertical clearance the clear height for the passage of A vertical clearance of not less than 14 feet shall be
vehicular traffic as shown in Figure 2.3.1. provided between curbs, or if curbs are not used, over the
entire width that is available for traffic.
The roadway width shall generally equal the width of
the approach roadway section including shoulders. Where
curbed roadway sections approach a structure, the same 2.4.3 Curbs
section shall be carried across the structure.
Curbs, if used, shall match those of the approach road-
2.3.2 Vertical Clearance way section.
The provisions of Article 2.2.3 shall be used. 2.5 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR TUNNELS
2.4 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES See Figure 2.5.

FOR UNDERPASSES
2.5.1 Roadway Width
See Figure 2.4A.
The horizontal clearance shall be the clear width and
2.4.1 Width the vertical clearance the clear height for the passage of
vehicular traffic as shown in Figure 2.5.
The pier columns or walls for grade separation struc- Unless otherwise provided, the several parts of the
tures shall generally be located a minimum of 30 feet from structures shall be constructed to secure the following
the edges of the through-traffic lanes. Where the practical limiting dimensions or clearances for traffic.
*The barrier to face of wall or pier distance should not be less than the dynamic deflection of the barrier for impact by a full-sized automobile at
impact conditions of approximately 25 degrees and 60 miles per hour. For information on dynamic deflection of various barriers, see AASHTO Road-
side Design Guide.
FIGURE 2.4A Clearance Diagrams for Underpasses (See Article 2.4 for General Requirements.)
FIGURE 2.5 Clearance Diagram for Tunnels—Two-Lane Highway Traffic
The clearances and width of roadway for two-lane traf- railing or barrier with a pedestrian railing along the edge
fic shall be not less than those shown in Figure 2.5. The of the structure. On urban expressways, the separation
roadway width shall be increased at least 10 feet and shall be made by a combination railing.
preferably 12 feet for each additional traffic lane.
2.7.1 Vehicular Railing
2.5.2 Clearance between Walls
2.7.1.1 General
The minimum width between walls of two-lane tunnels
shall be 30 feet. 2.7.1.1.1 Although the primary purpose of traffic
railing is to contain the average vehicle using the struc-
2.5.3 Vertical Clearance ture, consideration should also be given to (a) protection
of the occupants of a vehicle in collision with the railing,
The vertical clearance between curbs shall be not less (b) protection of other vehicles near the collision, (c) pro-
than 14 feet. tection of vehicles or pedestrians on roadways underneath
the structure, and (d) appearance and freedom of view
2.5.4 Curbs from passing vehicles.
The width of curbs shall be not less than 18 inches. The 2.7.1.1.2 Materials for traffic railings shall be con-
height of curbs shall be as specified for bridges. crete, metal, timber, or a combination thereof. Metal ma-
For heavy traffic roads, roadway widths greater than terials with less than 10-percent tested elongation shall
the above minima are recommended. not be used.
If traffic lane widths exceed 12 feet the roadway width
may be reduced 2 feet 0 inches from that calculated from 2.7.1.1.3 Traffic railings should provide a smooth,
Figure 2.5. continuous face of rail on the traffic side with the posts set
back from the face of rail. Structural continuity in the rail
members, including anchorage of ends, is essential. The
2.6 HIGHWAY CLEARANCES FOR
railing system shall be able to resist the applied loads at
DEPRESSED ROADWAYS
all locations.
2.6.1 Roadway Width
2.7.1.1.4 Protrusions or depressions at rail joints
shall be acceptable provided their thickness or depth is no
The clear width between curbs shall be not less than
greater than the wall thickness of the rail member or 3 ⁄ 8
that specified for tunnels.
inch, whichever is less.
2.6.2 Clearance between Walls
2.7.1.1.5 Careful attention shall be given to the treat-
ment of railings at the bridge ends. Exposed rail ends,
The minimum width between walls for depressed road-
posts, and sharp changes in the geometry of the railing
ways carrying two lanes of traffic shall be 30 feet.
shall be avoided. A smooth transition by means of a con-
tinuation of the bridge barrier, guardrail anchored to the
2.6.3 Curbs
bridge end, or other effective means shall be provided to
protect the traffic from direct collision with the bridge rail
The width of curbs shall be not less than 18 inches. The
ends.
height of curbs shall be as specified for bridges.
2.7.1.2 Geometry
2.7 RAILINGS
2.7.1.2.1 The heights of rails shall be measured rela-
Railings shall be provided along the edges of struc- tive to the reference surface which shall be the top of the
tures for protection of traffic and pedestrians. Other suit- roadway, the top of the future overlay if resurfacing is an-
able applications may be warranted on bridge-length cul- ticipated, or the top of curb when the curb projection is
verts as addressed in the AASHTO Roadside Design greater than 9 inches from the traffic face of the railing.
Guide.
Except on urban expressways, a pedestrian walkway 2.7.1.2.2 Traffic railings and traffic portions of
may be separated from an adjacent roadway by a traffic combination railings shall not be less than 2 feet 3 inches
2.7.1.2.2 DIVISION I—DESIGN 11
from the top of the reference surface. Parapets designed load of the rail. The vertical load shall be applied alter-
with sloping traffic faces intended to allow vehicles to nately upward or downward. The attachment shall also be
ride up them under low angle contacts shall be at least 2 designed to resist an inward transverse load equal to one-
feet 8 inches in height. fourth the transverse rail design load.
2.7.1.2.3 The lower element of a traffic or combina- 2.7.1.3.5 Rail members shall be designed for a mo-
tion railing should consist of either a parapet projecting ment, due to concentrated loads, at the center of the panel
at least 18 inches above the reference surface or a rail and at the posts of P9L/6 where L is the post spacing and
centered between 15 and 20 inches above the reference P9 is equal to P, P/2, or P/3, as modified by the factor C
surface. where required. The handrail members of combination
railings shall be designed for a moment at the center of the
2.7.1.2.4 For traffic railings, the maximum clear panel and at the posts of 0.1wL2.
opening below the bottom rail shall not exceed 17 inches
and the maximum opening between succeeding rails shall 2.7.1.3.6 The transverse force on concrete parapet
not exceed 15 inches. For combination railings, accom- and barrier walls shall be spread over a longitudinal length
modating pedestrian or bicycle traffic, the maximum of 5 feet.
opening between railing members shall be governed by
Articles 2.7.2.2.2 and 2.7.3.2.1, respectively. 2.7.1.3.7 Railings other than those shown in Figure
2.7.4B are permissible provided they meet the require-
2.7.1.2.5 The traffic faces of all traffic rails must be ments of this Article. Railing configurations that have
within 1 inch of a vertical plane through the traffic face of been successfully tested by full-scale impact tests are ex-
the rail closest to traffic. empt from the provisions of this Article.
2.7.1.3 Loads 2.7.2 Bicycle Railing
2.7.1.3.1 When the height of the top of the top traffic 2.7.2.1 General
rail exceeds 2 feet 9 inches, the total transverse load dis-
tributed to the traffic rails and posts shall be increased by 2.7.2.1.1 Bicycle railing shall be used on bridges
the factor C. However, the maximum load applied to any specifically designed to carry bicycle traffic, and on
one element need not exceed P, the transverse design load. bridges where specific protection of bicyclists is deemed
necessary.
2.7.1.3.2 Rails whose traffic face is more than 1 inch
behind a vertical plane through the face of the traffic rail 2.7.2.1.2 Railing components shall be designed
closest to traffic or centered less than 15 inches above the with consideration to safety, appearance, and when the
reference surface shall not be considered to be traffic rails bridge carries mixed traffic freedom of view from passing
for the purpose of distributing P or CP, but may be con- vehicles.
sidered in determining the maximum clear vertical open-
ing, provided they are designed for a transverse loading 2.7.2.2 Geometry and Loads
equal to that applied to an adjacent traffic rail or P/2,
whichever is less. 2.7.2.2.1 The minimum height of a railing used to
protect a bicyclist shall be 54 inches, measured from the
2.7.1.3.3 Transverse loads on posts, equal to P, or CP, top of the surface on which the bicycle rides to the top of
shall be distributed as shown in Figure 2.7.4B. A load the top rail.
equal to one-half the transverse load on a post shall si-
multaneously be applied longitudinally, divided among 2.7.2.2.2 Within a band bordered by the bikeway
not more than four posts in a continuous rail length. Each surface and a line 27 inches above it, all elements of the
traffic post shall also be designed to resist an indepen- railing assembly shall be spaced such that a 6-inch sphere
dently applied inward load equal to one-fourth the out- will not pass through any opening. Within a band bor-
ward transverse load. dered by lines 27 and 54 inches, elements shall be spaced
such that an 8-inch sphere will not pass through any
2.7.1.3.4 The attachment of each rail required in a opening. If a railing assembly employs both horizontal
traffic or combination railing shall be designed to resist a and vertical elements, the spacing requirements shall
vertical load equal to one-fourth of the transverse design apply to one or the other, but not to both. Chain link fence
12 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 2.7.2.2.2
is exempt from the rail spacing requirements listed ter of gravity of the upper rail, but at a height not greater
above. In general, rails should project beyond the face of than 54 inches.
posts and/or pickets.
2.7.2.2.3 The minimum design loadings for bicycle 2.7.2.2.6 Refer to Figures 2.7.4A and 2.7.4B for
railing shall be w 5 50 pounds per linear foot transversely more information concerning the application of loads.
and vertically, acting simultaneously on each rail.
2.7.2.2.4 Design loads for rails located more than 54 2.7.3 Pedestrian Railing
inches above the riding surface shall be determined by the
designer. 2.7.3.1 General
2.7.2.2.5 Posts shall be designed for a transverse 2.7.3.1.1 Railing components shall be proportioned
load of wL (where L is the post spacing) acting at the cen- commensurate with the type and volume of anticipated
FIGURE 2.7.4A Pedestrian Railing, Bicycle Railing
pedestrian traffic. Consideration should be given to ap- 2.7.3.2.2 The minimum design loading for pedestrian
pearance, safety and freedom of view from passing vehi- railing shall be w 5 50 pounds per linear foot, transversely
cles. and vertically, acting simultaneously on each longitudinal
member. Rail members located more than 5 feet 0 inches
2.7.3.1.2 Materials for pedestrian railing may be above the walkway are excluded from these requirements.
concrete, metal, timber, or a combination thereof.
2.7.3.2.3 Posts shall be designed for a transverse load
2.7.3.2 Geometry and Loads of wL (where L is the post spacing) acting at the center of
gravity of the upper rail or, for high rails, at 5 feet 0 inches
2.7.3.2.1 The minimum height of a pedestrian railing maximum above the walkway.
shall be 42 inches measured from the top of the walkway
to the top of the upper rail member. Within a band bor- 2.7.3.2.4 Refer to Figures 2.7.4A and 2.7.4B for
dered by the walkway surface and a line 27 inches above more information concerning the application of loads.
it, all elements of the railing assembly shall be spaced
such that a 6-inch sphere will not pass through any open- 2.7.4 Structural Specifications and Guidelines
ing. For elements between 27 and 42 inches above the
walking surface, elements shall be spaced such that an 2.7.4.1 Railings shall be designed by the elastic meth-
eight-inch sphere will not pass through any opening. od to the allowable stresses for the appropriate material.
TRAFFIC RAILING
FIGURE 2.7.4B Traffic Railing
FIGURE 2.7.4B (Continued)
For aluminum alloys the design stresses given in the Square and rectangular steel tubes and steel W and
Specifications for Aluminum Structures Fifth Edition, De- I sections in bending with tension and compression
cember 1986, for Bridge and Similar Type Structures pub- on extreme fibers of laterally supported compact sec-
lished by the Aluminum Association, Inc. for alloys 6061- tions having an axis of symmetry in the plane of
T6 (Table A.6), 6351-T5 (Table A.6) and 6063-T6 (Table loading may be designed for an allowable stress Fb 5
A.6) shall apply, and for cast aluminum alloys the design 0.60Fy.
stresses given for alloys A444.0-T4 (Table A.9), A356.0-
T61 (Table A.9) and A356.0-T6 (Table A.9) shall apply. 2.7.4.3 The requirements for a compact section are
For fabrication and welding of aluminum railing, see as follows:
Article 11.5. (a) The width to thickness ratio of projecting elements
of the compression flange of W and I sections shall not
2.7.4.2 The allowable unit stresses for steel shall be exceed
as given in Article 10.32, except as modified below.
For steels not generally covered by these Specifica-
b 1600
tions, but having a guaranteed yield strength, Fy, the al- ≤ (2 - 1)
lowable unit stress, shall be derived by applying the gen- t Fy
eral formulas as given in these Specifications under “Unit
Stresses” except as indicated below. (b) The width to thickness ratio of the compression
The allowable unit stress for shear shall be Fv 5 flange of square or rectangular tubes shall not exceed
0.33Fy.
Round or oval steel tubes may be proportioned using b 6000
an allowable bending stress, Fb 5 0.66Fy, provided the R/t ≤ (2 - 2)
ratio (radius/thickness) is less than or equal to 40. t Fy
2.7.4.3 DIVISION I—DESIGN 15
(c) The D/t ratio of webs shall not exceed (e) the distance between lateral supports in inches of
W or I sections shall not exceed
D 13, 000
≤ (2 - 3)
t Fy 2, 400 b
≤ (2 - 6)
Fy
(d) If subject to combined axial force and bending, the
D/t ratio of webs shall not exceed or
  f  20, 000, 000 A f
13, 300 1 − 1.43  a   ≤ (2 - 7)
D   Fa   dFy
< (2 - 4)
t Fy
but need not be less than
D 7, 000
< (2 - 5)
t Fy
Section 3
LOADS
Part A
TYPES OF LOADS
3.1 NOTATIONS
A 5 maximum expected acceleration of bedrock at the site

a 5 length of short span of slab (Article 3.24.6)
B 5 buoyancy (Article 3.22)
b 5 width of pier or diameter of pile (Article 3.18.2.2.4)
b 5 length of long span of slab (Article 3.24.6)
C 5 combined response coefficient
C 5 stiffness parameter 5 K(W/L) (Article 3.23.4.3)
C 5 centrifugal force in percent of live load (Article 3.10.1)
CF 5 centrifugal force (Article 3.22)
Cn 5 coefficient for nose inclination (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
CM 5 steel bending stress coefficient (Article 3.25.1.5)
CR 5 steel shear stress coefficient (Article 3.25.1.5)
D 5 parameter used in determination of load fraction of wheel load (Article 3.23.4.3)
D 5 degree of curve (Article 3.10.1)
D 5 dead load (Article 3.22)
D.F. 5 fraction of wheel load applied to beam (Article 3.28.1)
DL 5 contributing dead load
E 5 width of slab over which a wheel load is distributed (Article 3.24.3)
E 5 earth pressure (Article 3.22)
EQ 5 equivalent static horizontal force applied at the center of gravity of the structure
Ec 5 modulus of elasticity of concrete (Article 3.26.3)
Es 5 modulus of elasticity of steel (Article 3.26.3)
Ew 5 modulus of elasticity of wood (Article 3.26.3)
F 5 horizontal ice force on pier (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
Fb 5 allowable bending stress (Article 3.25.1.3)
Fv 5 allowable shear stress (Article 3.25.1.3)
g 5 32.2 ft./sec.2
I 5 impact fraction (Article 3.8.2)
I 5 gross flexural moment of inertia of the precast member (Article 3.23.4.3)
ICE 5 ice pressure (Article 3.22)
J 5 gross Saint-Venant torsional constant of the precast member (Article 3.23.4.3)
K 5 stream flow force constant (Article 3.18.1)
K 5 stiffness constant (Article 3.23.4)
K 5 wheel load distribution constant for timber flooring (Article 3.25.1.3)
k 5 live load distribution constant for spread box girders (Article 3.28.1)
L 5 loaded length of span (Article 3.8.2)
L 5 loaded length of sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1)
17
18 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 3.1
L 5 live load (Article 3.22)

L 5 span length (Article 3.23.4)
LF 5 longitudinal force from live load (Article 3.22)
MD 5 moment capacity of dowel (Article 3.25.1.4)
Mx 5 primary bending moment (Article 3.25.1.3)
w
Mwy 5 total transferred secondary moment (Article 3.25.1.4)
NB 5 number of beams (Article 3.28.1)
NL 5 number of traffic lanes (Article 3.23.4)
n 5 number of dowels (Article 3.25.1.4)
P 5 live load on sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1)
P 5 stream flow pressure (Article 3.18.1)
P 5 total uniform force required to cause unit horizontal deflection of whole structure
P 5 load on one rear wheel of truck (Article 3.24.3)
P 5 wheel load (Article 3.24.5)
P 5 design wheel load (Article 3.25.1.3)
P15 5 12,000 pounds (Article 3.24.3)
P20 5 16,000 pounds (Article 3.24.3)
p 5 effective ice strength (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
p 5 proportion of load carried by short span (Article 3.24.6.1)
R 5 radius of curve (Article 3.10.1)
R 5 normalized rock response
R 5 rib shortening (Article 3.22)
RD 5 shear capacity of dowel (Article 3.25.1.4)
Rx 5 primary shear (Article 3.25.1.3)
w
Rwy 5 total secondary shear transferred (Article 3.25.1.4)
S 5 design speed (Article 3.10.1)
S 5 soil amplification spectral ratio
S 5 shrinkage (Article 3.22)
S 5 average stringer spacing (Article 3.23.2.3.1)
S 5 spacing of beams (Article 3.23.3)
S 5 width of precast member (Article 3.23.4.3)
S 5 effective span length (Article 3.24.1)
S 5 span length (Article 3.24.8.2)
S 5 beam spacing (Article 3.28.1)
s 5 effective deck span (Article 3.25.1.3)
SF 5 stream flow (Article 3.22)
T 5 period of vibration
T 5 temperature (Article 3.22)
t 5 thickness of ice (Article 3.18.2.2.4)
t 5 deck thickness (Article 3.25.1.3)
V 5 variable spacing of truck axles (Figure 3.7.3A)
V 5 velocity of water (Article 3.18.1)
W 5 combined weight on the first two axles of a standard HS Truck (Figure 3.7.7A)
W 5 width of sidewalk (Article 3.14.1.1)
W 5 wind load on structure (Article 3.22)
W 5 total dead weight of the structure
We 5 width of exterior girder (Article 3.23.2.3.2)
W 5 overall width of bridge (Article 3.23.4.3)
W 5 roadway width between curbs (Article 3.28.1)
WL 5 wind load on live load (Article 3.22)
w 5 width of pier or diameter of circular-shaft pier at the level of ice action (Article 3.18.2.2.1)
X 5 distance from load to point of support (Article 3.24.5.1)
x 5 subscript denoting direction perpendicular to longitudinal stringers (Article 3.25.1.3)
3.1 DIVISION I—DESIGN 19
Z 5 reduction for ductility and risk assessment

b 5 (with appropriate script) coefficient applied to actual loads for service load and load factor designs (Article 3.22)
g 5 load factor (Article 3.22)
sPL 5 proportional limit stress perpendicular to grain (Article 3.25.1.4)
bB 5 load combination coefficient for buoyancy (Article 3.22.1)
bC 5 load combination coefficient for centrifugal force (Article 3.22.1)
bD 5 load combination coefficient for dead load (Article 3.22.1)
bE 5 load combination coefficient for earth pressure (Article 3.22.1)
bEQ 5 load combination coefficient for earthquake (Article 3.22.1)
bICE 5 load combination coefficient for ice (Article 3.22.1)
bL 5 load combination coefficient for live load (Article 3.22.1)
bR 5 load combination coefficient for rib shortening, shrinkage, and temperature (Article 3.22.1)
bS 5 load combination coefficient for stream flow (Article 3.22.1)
bW 5 load combination coefficient for wind (Article 3.22.1)
bWL 5 load combination coefficient for wind on live load (Article 3.22.1)
µ 5 Poisson’s ratio (Article 3.23.4.3)
3.2 GENERAL 3.2.5 The loading combinations shall be in accordance

with Article 3.22.
3.2.1 Structures shall be designed to carry the following
loads and forces: 3.2.6 When a bridge is skewed, the loads and forces car-
ried by the bridge through the deck system to pin connec-
Dead load. tions and hangers should be resolved into vertical, lateral,
Live load. and longitudinal force components to be considered in the
Impact or dynamic effect of the live load. design.
Wind loads.
Other forces, when they exist, as follows:
Longitudinal forces; centrifugal force; thermal forces; 3.3 DEAD LOAD
earth pressure; buoyancy; shrinkage stresses; rib short-
ening; erection stresses; ice and current pressure; and 3.3.1 The dead load shall consist of the weight of the
earthquake stresses. entire structure, including the roadway, sidewalks, car
tracks, pipes, conduits, cables, and other public utility
Provision shall be made for the transfer of forces be- services.
tween the superstructure and substructure to reflect the ef-
fect of friction at expansion bearings or shear resistance at 3.3.2 The snow and ice load is considered to be offset
elastomeric bearings. by an accompanying decrease in live load and impact and
shall not be included except under special conditions.
3.2.2 Members shall be proportioned either with refer-

3.3.2.1 If differential settlement is anticipated in a
ence to service loads and allowable stresses as provided
structure, consideration should be given to stresses result-
in Service Load Design (Allowable Stress Design) or, al-
ing from this settlement.
ternatively, with reference to load factors and factored
strength as provided in Strength Design (Load Factor De-
sign). 3.3.3 If a separate wearing surface is to be placed when
the bridge is constructed, or is expected to be placed in the
future, adequate allowance shall be made for its weight in
3.2.3 When stress sheets are required, a diagram or no- the design dead load. Otherwise, provision for a future
tation of the assumed loads shall be shown and the wearing surface is not required.
stresses due to the various loads shall be shown separately.
3.3.4 Special consideration shall be given to the neces-
3.2.4 Where required by design conditions, the concrete sity for a separate wearing surface for those regions where
placing sequence shall be indicated on the plans or in the the use of chains on tires or studded snow tires can be
special provisions. anticipated.
3.3.5 Where the abrasion of concrete is not expected, traffic lanes, spaced across the entire bridge roadway
the traffic may bear directly on the concrete slab. If con- width measured between curbs.
sidered desirable, 1⁄ 4 inch or more may be added to the
slab for a wearing surface. 3.6.3 Fractional parts of design lanes shall not be used,
but roadway widths from 20 to 24 feet shall have two de-
3.3.6 The following weights are to be used in comput- sign lanes each equal to one-half the roadway width.
ing the dead load:
3.6.4 The traffic lanes shall be placed in such numbers
#/cu.ft. and positions on the roadway, and the loads shall be
Steel or cast steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 placed in such positions within their individual traffic
Cast iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 lanes, so as to produce the maximum stress in the mem-
Aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 ber under consideration.
Timber (treated or untreated) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Concrete, plain or reinforced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Compacted sand, earth, gravel, or ballast . . . . . 120 3.7 HIGHWAY LOADS
Loose sand, earth, and gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Macadam or gravel, rolled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 3.7.1 Standard Truck and Lane Loads*
Cinder filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Pavement, other than wood block . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Railway rails, guardrails, and fastenings 3.7.1.1 The highway live loadings on the roadways
(per linear foot of track) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 of bridges or incidental structures shall consist of standard
Stone masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 trucks or lane loads that are equivalent to truck trains. Two
Asphalt plank, 1 in. thick . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 lb. sq. ft. systems of loading are provided, the H loadings and the
HS loadings—the HS loadings being heavier than the cor-
responding H loadings.
3.4 LIVE LOAD
3.7.1.2 Each lane load shall consist of a uniform load
The live load shall consist of the weight of the applied per linear foot of traffic lane combined with a single con-
moving load of vehicles, cars, and pedestrians. centrated load (or two concentrated loads in the case of
continuous spans—see Article 3.11.3), so placed on the
3.5 OVERLOAD PROVISIONS span as to produce maximum stress. The concentrated
load and uniform load shall be considered as uniformly
3.5.1 For all loadings less than H 20, provision shall be distributed over a 10-foot width on a line normal to the
made for an infrequent heavy load by applying Loading center line of the lane.
Combination IA (see Article 3.22), with the live load as-
sumed to be H or HS truck and to occupy a single lane 3.7.1.3 For the computation of moments and shears,
without concurrent loading in any other lane. The over- different concentrated loads shall be used as indicated in
load shall apply to all parts of the structure affected, ex- Figure 3.7.6B. The lighter concentrated loads shall be
cept the roadway deck, or roadway deck plates and stiff- used when the stresses are primarily bending stresses, and
ening ribs in the case of orthotropic bridge super- the heavier concentrated loads shall be used when the
structures. stresses are primarily shearing stresses.
3.5.2 Structures may be analyzed for an overload that is

selected by the operating agency in accordance with
Loading Combination Group IB in Article 3.22.
*Note: The system of lane loads defined here (and illustrated in Figure
3.6 TRAFFIC LANES 3.7.6.B) was developed in order to give a simpler method of calculating
moments and shears than that based on wheel loads of the truck.
3.6.1 The lane loading or standard truck shall be as- Appendix B shows the truck train loadings of the 1935 Specifications
of AASHO and the corresponding lane loadings.
sumed to occupy a width of 10 feet. In 1944, the HS series of trucks was developed. These approximate the
effect of the corresponding 1935 truck preceded and followed by a train
3.6.2 These loads shall be placed in 12-foot wide design of trucks weighing three-fourths as much as the basic truck.
3.7.2 Classes of Loading gross weight in tons of the tractor truck. The variable axle
spacing has been introduced in order that the spacing of
There are four standard classes of highway loading: axles may approximate more closely the tractor trailers
H 20, H 15, HS 20, and HS 15. Loading H 15 is 75% of now in use. The variable spacing also provides a more sat-
Loading H 20. Loading HS 15 is 75% of Loading HS 20. isfactory loading for continuous spans, in that heavy axle
If loadings other than those designated are desired, they loads may be so placed on adjoining spans as to produce
shall be obtained by proportionately changing the weights maximum negative moments.
shown for both the standard truck and the corresponding
lane loads.
3.8 IMPACT
3.7.3 Designation of Loadings
3.8.1 Application
The policy of affixing the year to loadings to identify
Highway Live Loads shall be increased for those struc-
them was instituted with the publication of the 1944 Edi-
tural elements in Group A, below, to allow for dynamic,
tion in the following manner:
vibratory and impact effects. Impact allowances shall not
H 15 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be be applied to items in Group B. It is intended that impact
designated................................................. H 15-44 be included as part of the loads transferred from super-
H 20 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be structure to substructure, but shall not be included in loads
designated................................................. H 20-44 transferred to footings nor to those parts of piles or
H 15-S 12 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be columns that are below ground.
designated................................................. HS 15-44
H 20-S 16 Loading, 1944 Edition shall be 3.8.1.1 Group A—Impact shall be included.
designated................................................. HS 20-44
(1) Superstructure, including legs of rigid frames.
The affix shall remain unchanged until such time as the (2) Piers, (with or without bearings regardless of type)
loading specification is revised. The same policy for iden- excluding footings and those portions below the
tification shall be applied, for future reference, to loadings ground line.
previously adopted by AASHTO. (3) The portions above the ground line of concrete or
steel piles that support the superstructure.
3.7.4 Minimum Loading
3.8.1.2 Group B—Impact shall not be included.
Bridges supporting Interstate highways or other high-
ways which carry, or which may carry, heavy truck traf- (1) Abutments, retaining walls, piles except as speci-
fic, shall be designed for HS 20-44 Loading or an Alter- fied in Article 3.8.1.1 (3).
nate Military Loading of two axles four feet apart with (2) Foundation pressures and footings.
each axle weighing 24,000 pounds, whichever produces (3) Timber structures.
the greatest stress. (4) Sidewalk loads.
(5) Culverts and structures having 3 feet or more
3.7.5 H Loading cover.
The H loadings consist of a two-axle truck or the cor- 3.8.2 Impact Formula
responding lane loading as illustrated in Figures 3.7.6A
and 3.7.6B. The H loadings are designated H followed by 3.8.2.1 The amount of the impact allowance or in-
a number indicating the gross weight in tons of the stan- crement is expressed as a fraction of the live load stress,
dard truck. and shall be determined by the formula:
3.7.6 HS Loading
50
I= (3 - 1)
The HS loadings consist of a tractor truck with semi- L + 125
trailer or the corresponding lane load as illustrated in Fig- in which,
ures 3.7.7A and 3.7.6B. The HS loadings are designated
by the letters HS followed by a number indicating the I 5 impact fraction (maximum 30 percent);
FIGURE 3.7.6A Standard H Trucks
*In the design of timber floors and orthotropic steel decks (excluding transverse beams) for H 20 Loading, one
axle load of 24,000 pounds or two axle loads of 16,000 pounds each spaced 4 feet apart may be used, whichever
produces the greater stress, instead of the 32,000-pound axle shown.
**For slab design, the center line of wheels shall be assumed to be 1 foot from face of curb. (See Article 3.24.2.)
FIGURE 3.7.6B Lane Loading
*For the loading of continuous spans involving lane loading refer to Article 3.11.3 which provides for an
additional concentrated load.
L 5 length in feet of the portion of the span that is 3.8.2.3 For culverts with cover
loaded to produce the maximum stress in the 0900 to 19-00 inc. I 5 30%
member. 19-10 to 29-00 inc. I 5 20%
29-10 to 29-110 inc. I 5 10%
3.8.2.2 For uniformity of application, in this formula,
the loaded length, L, shall be as follows:
(a) For roadway floors: the design span length. 3.9 LONGITUDINAL FORCES
(b) For transverse members, such as floor beams: the
span length of member center to center of supports. Provision shall be made for the effect of a longitudinal
(c) For computing truck load moments: the span force of 5% of the live load in all lanes carrying traffic
length, or for cantilever arms the length from the mo- headed in the same direction. All lanes shall be loaded for
ment center to the farthermost axle. bridges likely to become one directional in the future. The
(d) For shear due to truck loads: the length of the load used, without impact, shall be the lane load plus the
loaded portion of span from the point under consider- concentrated load for moment specified in Article 3.7,
ation to the far reaction; except, for cantilever arms, with reduction for multiple-loaded lanes as specified in
use a 30% impact factor. Article 3.12. The center of gravity of the longitudinal
(e) For continuous spans: the length of span under force shall be assumed to be located 6 feet above the floor
consideration for positive moment, and the average of slab and to be transmitted to the substructure through the
two adjacent loaded spans for negative moment. superstructure.
FIGURE 3.7.7A Standard HS Trucks
*In the design of timber floors and orthotropic steel decks (excluding transverse beams) for H 20 Loading, one
axle load of 24,000 pounds or two axle loads of 16,000 pounds each, spaced 4 feet apart may be used, whichever
produces the greater stress, instead of the 32,000-pound axle shown.
**For slab design, the center line of wheels shall be assumed to be 1 foot from face of curb. (See Article 3.24.2.)
3.10 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES 3.11.3 Lane Loads on Continuous Spans
3.10.1 Structures on curves shall be designed for a hor- For the determination of maximum negative moment
izontal radial force equal to the following percentage of in the design of continuous spans, the lane load shown in
the live load, without impact, in all traffic lanes: Figure 3.7.6B shall be modified by the addition of a sec-
ond, equal weight concentrated load placed in one other
6.68S 2 span in the series in such position to produce the maxi-
C = 0.00117S2 D = (3 - 2 ) mum effect. For maximum positive moment, only one
R
concentrated load shall be used per lane, combined with
where, as many spans loaded uniformly as are required to pro-
duce maximum moment.
C 5 the centrifugal force in percent of the live load,
without impact;
S 5 the design speed in miles per hour; 3.11.4 Loading for Maximum Stress
D 5 the degree of curve;
R 5 the radius of the curve in feet. 3.11.4.1 On both simple and continuous spans, the
type of loading, whether lane load or truck load, to be
3.10.2 The effects of superelevation shall be taken into used shall be the loading which produces the maximum
account. stress. The moment and shear tables given in Appendix
A show which types of loading controls for simple
3.10.3 The centrifugal force shall be applied 6 feet spans.
above the roadway surface, measured along the center line
of the roadway. The design speed shall be determined with
3.11.4.2 For continuous spans, the lane loading shall
regard to the amount of superelevation provided in the
be continuous or discontinuous; only one standard H or
roadway. The traffic lanes shall be loaded in accordance
with the provisions of Article 3.7 with one standard truck HS truck per lane shall be considered on the structure.
on each design traffic lane placed in position for maxi-
mum loading.
3.12 REDUCTION IN LOAD INTENSITY
3.10.4 Lane loads shall not be used in the computation
of centrifugal forces. 3.12.1 Where maximum stresses are produced in any
member by loading a number of traffic lanes simultane-
3.10.5 When a reinforced concrete floor slab or a steel ously, the following percentages of the live loads may be
grid deck is keyed to or attached to its supporting mem- used in view of the improbability of coincident maximum
bers, it may be assumed that the deck resists, within its loading:
plane, the shear resulting from the centrifugal forces act-
ing on the live load. Percent
One or two lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
Three lanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.11 APPLICATION OF LIVE LOAD
Four lanes or more . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.11.1 Traffic Lane Units
3.12.2 The reduction in load intensity specified in Arti-
In computing stresses, each 10-foot lane load or single cle 3.12.1 shall not be applicable when distribution factors
standard truck shall be considered as a unit, and fractions from Table 3.23.1 are used to determine moments in lon-
of load lane widths or trucks shall not be used. gitudinal beams.
3.11.2 Number and Position of Traffic Lane Units 3.12.3 The reduction in intensity of loads on transverse
members such as floor beams shall be determined as
The number and position of the lane load or truck loads in the case of main trusses or girders, using the number
shall be as specified in Article 3.7 and, whether lane or of traffic lanes across the width of roadway that must
truck loads, shall be such as to produce maximum stress, be loaded to produce maximum stresses in the floor
subject to the reduction specified in Article 3.12. beam.
3.13 ELECTRIC RAILWAY LOADS 3.14.2.2 Where sidewalk, curb, and traffic rail form
an integral system, the traffic railing loading shall be ap-
If highway bridges carry electric railway traffic, the plied and stresses in curbs computed accordingly.
railway loads shall be determined from the class of traffic
which the bridge may be expected to carry. The possibil- 3.14.3 Railing Loading
ity that the bridge may be required to carry railroad freight
cars shall be given consideration. For Railing Loads, see Article 2.7.1.3.
3.14 SIDEWALK, CURB, AND RAILING 3.15 WIND LOADS

LOADING
The wind load shall consist of moving uniformly dis-
3.14.1 Sidewalk Loading tributed loads applied to the exposed area of the structure.
The exposed area shall be the sum of the areas of all mem-
3.14.1.1 Sidewalk floors, stringers, and their imme- bers, including floor system and railing, as seen in eleva-
diate supports shall be designed for a live load of 85 tion at 90 degrees to the longitudinal axis of the structure.
pounds per square foot of sidewalk area. Girders, trusses, The forces and loads given herein are for a base wind ve-
arches, and other members shall be designed for the fol- locity of 100 miles per hour. For Group II and Group V
lowing sidewalk live loads: loadings, but not for Group III and Group VI loadings,
they may be reduced or increased in the ratio of the square
Spans 0 to 25 feet in length . . . . . . . . . . . . .85 lb./ft.2 of the design wind velocity to the square of the base wind
Spans 26 to 100 feet in length . . . . . . . . . . .60 lb./ft.2 velocity provided that the maximum probable wind ve-
Spans over 100 feet in length according to the formula locity can be ascertained with reasonable accuracy, or
provided that there are permanent features of the terrain
3, 000   55 − W  which make such changes safe and advisable. If a change
P =  30 + (3 - 3)
 L   50  in the design wind velocity is made, the design wind ve-
locity shall be shown on the plans.
in which
3.15.1 Superstructure Design
P 5 live load per square foot, max. 60-lb. per sq. ft.
L 5 loaded length of sidewalk in feet.
3.15.1.1 Group II and Group V Loadings
W 5 width of sidewalk in feet.
3.15.1.1.1 A wind load of the following intensity
3.14.1.2 In calculating stresses in structures that sup- shall be applied horizontally at right angles to the longi-
port cantilevered sidewalks, the sidewalk shall be fully tudinal axis of the structure:
loaded on only one side of the structure if this condition
produces maximum stress. For trusses and arches ........75 pounds per square foot
For girders and beams ........50 pounds per square foot
3.14.1.3 Bridges for pedestrian and/or bicycle traffic
3.15.1.1.2 The total force shall not be less than 300
shall be designed for a live load of 85 PSF.
pounds per linear foot in the plane of the windward chord
and 150 pounds per linear foot in the plane of the leeward
3.14.1.4 Where bicycle or pedestrian bridges are ex- chord on truss spans, and not less than 300 pounds per lin-
pected to be used by maintenance vehicles, special design ear foot on girder spans.
consideration should be made for these loads.
3.15.1.2 Group III and Group VI Loadings
3.14.2 Curb Loading
Group III and Group VI loadings shall comprise the
3.14.2.1 Curbs shall be designed to resist a lateral loads used for Group II and Group V loadings reduced by
force of not less than 500 pounds per linear foot of curb, 70% and a load of 100 pounds per linear foot applied at
applied at the top of the curb, or at an elevation 10 inches right angles to the longitudinal axis of the structure and
above the floor if the curb is higher than 10 inches. 6 feet above the deck as a wind load on a moving live load.
When a reinforced concrete floor slab or a steel grid This load shall be applied at a point 6 feet above the
deck is keyed to or attached to its supporting members, deck.
it may be assumed that the deck resists, within its plane,
the shear resulting from the wind load on the moving 3.15.2.1.3 For the usual girder and slab bridges hav-
live load. ing maximum span lengths of 125 feet, the following
wind loading may be used in lieu of the more precise load-
3.15.2 Substructure Design ing specified above:
Forces transmitted to the substructure by the super- W (wind load on structure)

structure and forces applied directly to the substructure by 50 pounds per square foot, transverse
wind loads shall be as follows: 12 pounds per square foot, longitudinal
Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.
3.15.2.1 Forces from Superstructure
WL (wind load on live load)
3.15.2.1.1 The transverse and longitudinal forces 100 pounds per linear foot, transverse
transmitted by the superstructure to the substructure for 40 pounds per linear foot, longitudinal
various angles of wind direction shall be as set forth in the Both forces shall be applied simultaneously.
following table. The skew angle is measured from the per-
pendicular to the longitudinal axis and the assumed wind
direction shall be that which produces the maximum 3.15.2.2 Forces Applied Directly
stress in the substructure. The transverse and longitudinal to the Substructure
forces shall be applied simultaneously at the elevation of
the center of gravity of the exposed area of the super- The transverse and longitudinal forces to be applied di-
structure. rectly to the substructure for a 100-mile per hour wind
shall be calculated from an assumed wind force of 40
pounds per square foot. For wind directions assumed
skewed to the substructure, this force shall be resolved
into components perpendicular to the end and front ele-
vations of the substructure. The component perpendicular
to the end elevation shall act on the exposed substructure
area as seen in end elevation and the component perpen-
dicular to the front elevation shall act on the exposed areas
and shall be applied simultaneously with the wind loads
from the superstructure. The above loads are for Group II
and Group V loadings and may be reduced by 70%
The loads listed above shall be used in Group II and for Group III and Group VI loadings, as indicated in Arti-
Group V loadings as given in Article 3.22. cle 3.22.
3.15.2.1.2 For Group III and Group VI loadings,

these loads may be reduced by 70% and a load per linear 3.15.3 Overturning Forces
foot added as a wind load on a moving live load, as given
in the following table: The effect of forces tending to overturn structures
shall be calculated under Groups II, III, V, and VI of
Article 3.22 assuming that the wind direction is at right
angles to the longitudinal axis of the structure. In addition,
an upward force shall be applied at the windward quarter
point of the transverse superstructure width. This force
shall be 20 pounds per square foot of deck and sidewalk
plan area for Group II and Group V combinations and
6 pounds per square foot for Group III and Group VI
combinations.
3.16 THERMAL FORCES ity distribution and thus a triangular pressure distribution,
shall be calculated by the formula:
Provision shall be made for stresses or movements re-
sulting from variations in temperature. The rise and fall in Pavg 5 K(Vavg)2 (3-4)
temperature shall be fixed for the locality in which the
structure is to be constructed and shall be computed from where,
an assumed temperature at the time of erection. Due con- Pavg 5 average stream pressure, in pounds per square
sideration shall be given to the lag between air tempera- foot,
ture and the interior temperature of massive concrete Vavg 5 average velocity of water in feet per second,
members or structures. computed by dividing the flow rate by the flow
The range of temperature shall generally be as follows:
area,
K 5 a constant, being 1.4 for all piers subjected to
drift build-up and square-ended piers, 0.7 for
circular piers, and 0.5 for angle-ended piers
where the angle is 30 degrees or less.
The maximum stream flow pressure, Pmax, shall be

equal to twice the average stream flow pressure, Pavg, com-
puted by Equation 3-4. Stream flow pressure shall be a tri-
angular distribution with Pmax located at the top of water
3.17 UPLIFT elevation and a zero pressure located at the flow line.
3.17.1 Provision shall be made for adequate attachment 3.18.1.1.2 The stream flow forces shall be computed
of the superstructure to the substructure by ensuring that by the product of the stream flow pressure, taking into ac-
the calculated uplift at any support is resisted by tension count the pressure distribution, and the exposed pier area.
members engaging a mass of masonry equal to the largest In cases where the corresponding top of water elevation is
force obtained under one of the following conditions: above the low beam elevation, stream flow loading on the
superstructure shall be investigated. The stream flow pres-
(a) 100% of the calculated uplift caused by any load- sure acting on the superstructure may be taken as Pmax with
ing or combination of loadings in which the live plus a uniform distribution.
impact loading is increased by 100%.
(b) 150% of the calculated uplift at working load
3.18.1.2 Pressure Components
level.
3.17.2 Anchor bolts subject to tension or other elements When the direction of stream flow is other than normal
of the structure stressed under the above conditions shall to the exposed surface area, or when bank migration or a
be designed at 150% of the allowable basic stress. change of stream bed meander is anticipated, the effects
of the directional components of stream flow pressure
shall be investigated.
3.18 FORCES FROM STREAM CURRENT AND
FLOATING ICE, AND DRIFT CONDITIONS
3.18.1.3 Drift Lodged Against Pier
All piers and other portions of structures that are sub-
ject to the force of flowing water, floating ice, or drift shall Where a significant amount of drift lodged against a
be designed to resist the maximum stresses induced pier is anticipated, the effects of this drift buildup shall be
thereby. considered in the design of the bridge opening and the
bridge components. The overall dimensions of the drift
3.18.1 Force of Stream Current on Piers buildup shall reflect the selected pier locations, site con-
ditions, and known drift supply upstream. When it is an-
3.18.1.1 Stream Pressure ticipated that the flow area will be significantly blocked
by drift buildup, increases in high water elevations,
3.18.1.1.1 The effect of flowing water on piers and stream velocities, stream flow pressures, and the potential
drift build-up, assuming a second-degree parabolic veloc- increases in scour depths shall be investigated.
3.18.2 Force of Ice on Piers 3.18.2.2.3 The following values of effective ice
strength appropriate to various situations may be used as
3.18.2.1 General a guide.
Ice forces on piers shall be selected, having regard (a) In the order of 100 psi where breakup occurs
to site conditions and the mode of ice action to be ex- at melting temperatures and where the ice runs as
pected. Consideration shall be given to the following small “cakes” and is substantially disintegrated in its
modes: structure.
(b) In the order of 200 psi where breakup occurs at
(a) Dynamic ice pressure due to moving ice-sheets melting temperatures, but the ice moves in large pieces
and ice-floes carried by streamflow, wind, or currents. and is internally sound.
(b) Static ice pressure due to thermal movements of (c) In the order of 300 psi where at breakup there is an
continuous stationary ice-sheets on large bodies of initial movement of the ice sheet as a whole or where
water. large sheets of sound ice may strike the piers.
(c) Static pressure resulting from ice-jams. (d) In the order of 400 psi where breakup or major ice
(d) Static uplift or vertical loads resulting from adher- movement may occur with ice temperatures signifi-
ing ice in waters of fluctuating level. cantly below the melting point.
3.18.2.2 Dynamic Ice Force 3.18.2.2.4 The preceding values for effective ice
strength are intended for use with piers of substantial mass
3.18.2.2.1 Horizontal forces resulting from the pres- and dimensions. The values shall be modified as neces-
sure of moving ice shall be calculated by the formula: sary for variations in pier width or pile diameter, and de-
sign ice thickness by multiplying by the appropriate coef-
F 5 Cnp ? t ? w (3-5) ficient obtained from the following table:
where,
F 5 horizontal ice force on pier in pounds;
Cn 5 coefficient for nose inclination from table;
p 5 effective ice strength in pounds per square inch;
t 5 thickness of ice in contact with pier in inches;
w 5 width of pier or diameter of circular-shaft pier at
the level of ice action in inches.
Inclination of Nose to vertical Cn
0° to 15° 1.00
15° to 30° 0.75
30° to 45° 0.50
3.18.2.2.5 Piers should be placed with their longitu-
3.18.2.2.2 The effective ice strength p shall normally dinal axis parallel to the principal direction of ice action.
be taken in the range of 100 to 400 pounds per square inch The force calculated by the formula shall then be taken to
on the assumption that crushing or splitting of the ice act along the direction of the longitudinal axis. A force
takes place on contact with the pier. The value used shall transverse to the longitudinal axis and amounting to not
be based on an assessment of the probable condition of the less than 15% of the longitudinal force shall be considered
ice at time of movement, on previous local experience, to act simultaneously.
and on assessment of existing structure performance. Rel-
evant ice conditions include the expected temperature of 3.18.2.2.6 Where the longitudinal axis of a pier can-
the ice at time of movement, the size of moving sheets and not be placed parallel to the principal direction of ice ac-
floes, and the velocity at contact. Due consideration shall tion, or where the direction of ice action may shift, the
be given to the probability of extreme rather than average total force on the pier shall be computed by the formula
conditions at the site in question. and resolved into vector components. In such conditions,
forces transverse to the longitudinal axis shall in no case holes and crushed rock, pipe drains or gravel drains, or by
be taken as less than 20% of the total force. perforated drains.
3.18.2.2.7 In the case of slender and flexible piers, 3.21 EARTHQUAKES

consideration should be given to the vibrating nature of
dynamic ice forces and to the possibility of high momen- In regions where earthquakes may be anticipated,
tary pressures and structural resonance. structures shall be designed to resist earthquake motions
by considering the relationship of the site to active faults,
3.18.2.3 Static Ice Pressure the seismic response of the soils at the site, and the dy-
namic response characteristics of the total structure in ac-
cordance with Division I-A—Seismic Design.
Ice pressure on piers frozen into ice sheets on large
bodies of water shall receive special consideration where
there is reason to believe that the ice sheets are subject to
Part B
significant thermal movements relative to the piers. COMBINATIONS OF LOADS
3.19 BUOYANCY
3.22 COMBINATIONS OF LOADS
Buoyancy shall be considered where it affects the de-
3.22.1 The following Groups represent various combi-
sign of either substructure, including piling, or the super-
nations of loads and forces to which a structure may be
structure.
subjected. Each component of the structure, or the foun-
dation on which it rests, shall be proportioned to with-
3.20 EARTH PRESSURE stand safely all group combinations of these forces that
are applicable to the particular site or type. Group loading
combinations for Service Load Design and Load Factor
3.20.1 Structures which retain fills shall be proportioned Design are given by:
to withstand pressure as given by Coulomb’s Equation or
by other expressions given in Section 5, “Retaining Group (N) 5 g[bD ? D 1 bL (L 1 I) 1 bCCF 1 bEE
Walls”; provided, however, that no structure shall be de- 1 bBB 1 bSSF 1 bWW 1 bWLWL
signed for less than an equivalent fluid weight (mass) of 1 bL ? LF 1 bR (R 1 S 1 T)
30 pounds per cubic foot. 1 bEQEQ 1 bICEICE] (3-10)
where,
3.20.2 For rigid frames a maximum of one-half of the
N 5 group number;
moment caused by earth pressure (lateral) may be used to
g 5 load factor, see Table 3.22.1A;
reduce the positive moment in the beams, in the top slab,
b 5 coefficient, see Table 3.22.1A;
or in the top and bottom slab, as the case may be. D 5 dead load;
L 5 live load;
3.20.3 When highway traffic can come within a hori- I 5 live load impact;
zontal distance from the top of the structure equal to one- E 5 earth pressure;
half its height, the pressure shall have added to it a live B 5 buoyancy;
W 5 wind load on structure;
load surcharge pressure equal to not less than 2 feet of
WL 5 wind load on live load—100 pounds per linear
earth.
foot;
LF 5 longitudinal force from live load;
3.20.4 Where an adequately designed reinforced con- CF 5 centrifugal force;
crete approach slab supported at one end by the bridge is R 5 rib shortening;
provided, no live load surcharge need be considered. S 5 shrinkage;
T 5 temperature;
EQ 5 earthquake;
3.20.5 All designs shall provide for the thorough SF 5 stream flow pressure;
drainage of the back-filling material by means of weep ICE 5 ice pressure.
TABLE 3.22.1A Table of Coefficients g and b
3.22.2 For service load design, the percentage of the culations of horizontal shear in rectangular timber beams
basic unit stress for the various groups is given in Table shall be in accordance with Article 13.3.
3.22.1A.
The loads and forces in each group shall be taken as ap- 3.23.2 Bending Moments in Stringers and
propriate from Articles 3.3 to 3.21. The maximum section Longitudinal Beams**
required shall be used.
3.23.2.1 General
3.22.3 For load factor design, the gamma and beta fac-
tors given in Table 3.22.1A shall be used for designing In calculating bending moments in longitudinal beams
structural members and foundations by the load factor or stringers, no longitudinal distribution of the wheel
concept. loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution shall be
determined as follows.
3.22.4 When long span structures are being designed by
load factor design, the gamma and beta factors specified 3.23.2.2 Interior Stringers and Beams
for Load Factor Design represent general conditions and
should be increased if, in the Engineer’s judgment, The live load bending moment for each interior
expected loads, service conditions, or materials of stringer shall be determined by applying to the stringer the
construction are different from those anticipated by the fraction of a wheel load (both front and rear) determined
specifications. in Table 3.23.1.
3.22.5 Structures may be analyzed for an overload that 3.23.2.3 Outside Roadway Stringers and Beams
is selected by the operating agency. Size and configuration
of the overload, loading combinations, and load distribu- 3.23.2.3.1 Steel-Timber-Concrete T-Beams
tion will be consistent with procedures defined in permit
policy of that agency. The load shall be applied in Group 3.23.2.3.1.1 The dead load supported by the outside
IB as defined in Table 3.22.1A. For all loadings less than roadway stringer or beam shall be that portion of the floor
H 20, Group IA loading combination shall be used (see slab carried by the stringer or beam. Curbs, railings, and
Article 3.5). wearing surface, if placed after the slab has cured, may be
distributed equally to all roadway stringers or beams.
Part C 3.23.2.3.1.2 The live load bending moment for out-

DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS side roadway stringers or beams shall be determined by
applying to the stringer or beam the reaction of the wheel
load obtained by assuming the flooring to act as a simple
3.23 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO span between stringers or beams.
STRINGERS, LONGITUDINAL BEAMS,
AND FLOOR BEAMS* 3.23.2.3.1.3 When the outside roadway beam or
stringer supports the sidewalk live load as well as traffic
3.23.1 Position of Loads for Shear live load and impact and the structure is to be designed by
the service load method, the allowable stress in the beam
3.23.1.1 In calculating end shears and end reactions or stringer may be increased by 25% for the combination
in transverse floor beams and longitudinal beams and of dead load, sidewalk live load, traffic live load, and im-
stringers, no longitudinal distribution of the wheel load pact, providing the beam is of no less carrying capacity
shall be assumed for the wheel or axle load adjacent to the than would be required if there were no sidewalks. When
transverse floor beam or the end of the longitudinal beam the combination of sidewalk live load and traffic live load
or stringer at which the stress is being determined. plus impact governs the design and the structure is to be
designed by the load factor method, 1.25 may be used as
3.23.1.2 Lateral distribution of the wheel loads at
the beta factor in place of 1.67.
ends of the beams or stringers shall be that produced by
assuming the flooring to act as a simple span between
3.23.2.3.1.4 In no case shall an exterior stringer have
stringers or beams. For wheels or axles in other positions
less carrying capacity than an interior stringer.
on the span, the distribution for shear shall be determined
by the method prescribed for moment, except that the cal-
**In view of the complexity of the theoretical analysis involved in the
distribution of wheel loads to stringers, the empirical method herein de-
*Provisions in this Article shall not apply to orthotropic deck bridges. scribed is authorized for the design of normal highway bridges.
3.23.2.3.1.4 DIVISION I—DESIGN 33
TABLE 3.23.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads in members with the narrow edges of the laminations bearing on the sup-
Longitudinal Beams ports (see Article 16.3.13—Division II).
f
In this case the load on each stringer shall be the reaction of the
wheel loads, assuming the flooring between the stringers to act as a sim-
Bridge Designed ple beam.
g
Bridge Designed for for Two or more “Design of I-Beam Bridges” by N. M. Newmark—Proceedings,
Kind of Floor One Traffic Lane Traffic Lanes ASCE, March 1948.
hThe sidewalk live load (see Article 3.14) shall be omitted for inte-
Timber:a rior and exterior box girders designed in accordance with the wheel load
Plankb S/4.0 S/3.75 distribution indicated herein.
iDistribution factors for Steel Bridge Corrugated Plank set forth
Nail laminatedc
4” thick or multiple above are based substantially on the following reference:
layerd floors over 5”
thick S/4.5 S/4.0 Journal of Washington Academy of Sciences, Vol. 67, No. 2, 1977
Nail laminatedc “Wheel Load Distribution of Steel Bridge Plank,” by Conrad P. Heins,
6” or more thick S/5.0 S/4.25 Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Maryland.
If S exceeds 59 If S exceeds 6.59 These distribution factors were developed based on studies using
use footnote f. use footnote f. 6” 3 2” steel corrugated plank. The factors should yield safe results for
Glued laminatede other corrugated configurations provided primary bending stiffness is
Panels on glued the same as or greater than the 6” 3 2” corrugated plank used in the stud-
laminated stringers ies.
4” thick S/4.5 S/4.0
6” or more thick S/6.0 S/5.0 3.23.2.3.1.5 In the case of a span with concrete floor
If S exceeds 69 If S exceeds 7.59
use footnote f. use footnote f.
supported by 4 or more steel stringers, the fraction of the
On steel stringers wheel load shall not be less than:
4” thick S/4.5 S/4.0
6” or more thick S/5.25 S/4.5
If S exceeds 5.59 If S exceeds 79 S
use footnote f. use footnote f. 5.5
Concrete:
On steel I-Beam
stringersg and where, S 5 6 feet or less and is the distance in feet be-
prestressed tween outside and adjacent interior stringers, and
concrete girders S/7.0 S/5.5
If S exceeds 109 If S exceeds 149
use footnote f. use footnote f. S
On concrete
T-Beams S/6.5 S/6.0 4.0 + 0.25S
On timber where, S is more than 6 feet and less than 14 feet. When
stringers S/6.0 S/5.0 S is 14 feet or more, use footnote f, Table 3.23.1.
Concrete box 3.23.2.3.2 Concrete Box Girders
girdersh S/8.0 S/7.0
use footnote f. use footnote f. 3.23.2.3.2.1 The dead load supported by the exterior
On steel box girders See Article 10.39.2. girder shall be determined in the same manner as for steel,
On prestressed con-
crete spread box
timber, or concrete T-beams, as given in Article
Beams See Article 3.28. 3.23.2.3.1.
Steel grid:
(Less than 4” thick) S/4.5 S/4.0 3.23.2.3.2.2 The factor for the wheel load distribu-
(4” or more) S/6.0 S/5.0 tion to the exterior girder shall be We/7, where We is the
If S exceeds 69 If S exceeds 10.59
use footnote f. use footnote f. width of exterior girder which shall be taken as the top
Steel bridge slab width, measured from the midpoint between girders
Corrugated planki to the outside edge of the slab. The cantilever dimension
(2” min. depth) S/5.5 S/4.5
of any slab extending beyond the exterior girder shall
S = average stringer spacing in feet. preferably not exceed half the girder spacing.
aTimber dimensions shown are for nominal thickness.
bPlank floors consist of pieces of lumber laid edge to edge with the
wide faces bearing on the supports (see Article 16.3.11—Division II).

cNail laminated floors consist of pieces of lumber laid face to face 3.23.2.3.3 Total Capacity of Stringers and Beams
with the narrow edges bearing on the supports, each piece being nailed
to the preceding piece (see Article 16.3.12—Division II). The combined design load capacity of all the beams
dMultiple layer floors consist of two or more layers of planks, each
layer being laid at an angle to the other (see Article 16.3.11—Division II). and stringers in a span shall not be less than required to
eGlued laminated panel floors consist of vertically glued laminated
support the total live and dead load in the span.
3.23.3 Bending Moments in Floor Beams TABLE 3.23.3.1 Distribution of Wheel Loads
(Transverse) in Transverse Beams
3.23.3.1 In calculating bending moments in floor

beams, no transverse distribution of the wheel loads shall
be assumed.
3.23.3.2 If longitudinal stringers are omitted and the

floor is supported directly on floor beams, the beams shall
be designed for loads determined in accordance with
Table 3.23.3.1.
3.23.4 Precast Concrete Beams Used

in Multi-Beam Decks
3.23.4.1 A multi-beam bridge is constructed with

precast reinforced or prestressed concrete beams that are
placed side by side on the supports. The interaction be-
tween the beams is developed by continuous longitudinal
shear keys used in combination with transverse tie as-
semblies which may, or may not, be prestressed, such as
bolts, rods, or prestressing strands, or other mechanical
means. Full-depth rigid end diaphragms are needed to en-
sure proper load distribution for channel, single- and
multi-stemmed tee beams.
3.23.4.2 In calculating bending moments in multi-

beam precast concrete bridges, conventional or pre-
stressed, no longitudinal distribution of wheel load shall
be assumed.
3.23.4.3 The live load bending moment for each sec-

tion shall be determined by applying to the beam the frac- L 5 span length measured parallel to longitudinal
tion of a wheel load (both front and rear) determined by girders in feet; for girders with cast-in-place end
the following equation: diaphragms, use the length between end dia-
phragms;
S K 5 {(1 1 µ) I/J}1/2
Load Fraction = (3 -11)
D
If the value of ÏI/
wJw exceeds 5.0, or the skew exceeds
45 degrees, the live load distribution should be deter-
where,
mined using a more precise method, such as the Articulate
Plate Theory or Grillage Analysis. The Load Fraction,
S 5 width of precast member;
S/D, need not be greater than 1.
D 5 (5.75 2 0.5NL) 1 0.7NL(1 2 0.2C)2 (3-12)
NL 5 number of traffic lanes from Article 3.6;
where,
C 5 K(W/L) fow W/L < 1
5 K for W/L ≥ 1 (3-13) I 5 moment of inertia;
J 5 Saint-Venant torsion constant;
where, µ 5 Poisson’s ratio for girders.
W 5 overall width of bridge measured perpendicular In lieu of more exact methods, “J” may be estimated using
to the longitudinal girders in feet; the following equations:
For Non-voided Rectangular Beams, Channels, Tee 3.24.1.2 The following effective span lengths shall
Beams: be used in calculating the distribution of loads and bend-
ing moments for slabs continuous over more than two
J 5 S{(1/3)bt3(1 2 0.630t/b)} supports:
where, (a) Slabs monolithic with beams or slabs monolithic

b 5 the length of each rectangular component within with walls without haunches and rigid top flange pre-
the section, stressed beams with top flange width to minimum
t 5 the thickness of each rectangular component thickness ratio less than 4.0. “S” shall be the clear span.
within the section. (b) Slabs supported on steel stringers, or slabs sup-
ported on thin top flange prestressed beams with top
flange width to minimum thickness ratio equal to or
The flanges and stems of stemmed or channel sections are
greater than 4.0. “S” shall be the distance between
considered as separate rectangular components whose
edges of top flange plus one-half of stringer top flange
values are summed together to calculate “J”. Note that for
width.
“Rectangular Beams with Circular Voids” the value of “J”
(c) Slabs supported on timber stringers. S shall be the
can usually be approximated by using the equation above
clear span plus one-half thickness of stringer.
for rectangular sections and neglecting the voids.
For Box-Section Beams: 3.24.2 Edge Distance of Wheel Loads
2 tt f ( b − t )2 (d − t f ) 2 3.24.2.1 In designing slabs, the center line of the

J=
bt + dt f − t 2 − t 2f wheel load shall be 1 foot from the face of the curb. If
curbs or sidewalks are not used, the wheel load shall be 1
where foot from the face of the rail.
b 5 the overall width of the box,

d 5 the overall depth of the box, 3.24.2.2 In designing sidewalks, slabs and support-
t 5 the thickness of either web, ing members, a wheel load located on the sidewalk shall
tf 5 the thickness of either flange. be 1 foot from the face of the rail. In service load design,
the combined dead, live, and impact stresses for this load-
ing shall be not greater than 150% of the allowable
The formula assumes that both flanges are the same thick-
stresses. In load factor design, 1.0 may be used as the beta
ness and uses the thickness of only one flange. The same
factor in place of 1.67 for the design of deck slabs. Wheel
is true of the webs.
loads shall not be applied on sidewalks protected by a
For preliminary design, the following values of K may
traffic barrier.
be used:
3.24.3 Bending Moment
The bending moment per foot width of slab shall be

calculated according to methods given under Cases A and
*The slab distribution set forth herein is based substantially on the

“Westergaard” theory. The following references are furnished concern-
3.24 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS AND DESIGN ing the subject of slab design.
OF CONCRETE SLABS* Public Roads, March 1930, “Computation of Stresses in Bridge Slabs
Due to Wheel Loads,” by H. M. Westergaard.
University of Illinois, Bulletin No. 303, “Solutions for Certain Rec-
3.24.1 Span Lengths (See Article 8.8) tangular Slabs Continuous over Flexible Supports,” by Vernon P. Jensen;
Bulletin 304, “A Distribution Procedure for the Analysis of Slabs Con-
3.24.1.1 For simple spans the span length shall be the tinuous over Flexible Beams,” by Nathan M. Newmark; Bulletin 315,
“Moments in Simple Span Bridge Slabs with Stiffened Edges,” by Ver-
distance center to center of supports but need not exceed non P. Jensen; and Bulletin 346, “Highway Slab Bridges with Curbs;
clear span plus thickness of slab. Laboratory Tests and Proposed Design Method.”
B, unless more exact methods are used considering tire HS 15 Loading:

contact area. The tire contact area needed for exact meth-
Use 3 ⁄ 4 of the values obtained from the formulas for
ods is given in Article 3.30.
HS 20 Loading
In Cases A and B:
S 5 effective span length, in feet, as defined under Moments in continuous spans shall be determined by
“Span Lengths” Articles 3.24.1 and 8.8; suitable analysis using the truck or appropriate lane
E 5 width of slab in feet over which a wheel load is loading.
distributed;
P 5 load on one rear wheel of truck (P15 or P20); 3.24.4 Shear and Bond
P15 5 12,000 pounds for H 15 loading;
P20 5 16,000 pounds for H 20 loading. Slabs designed for bending moment in accordance
with Article 3.24.3 shall be considered satisfactory in
3.24.3.1 Case A—Main Reinforcement bond and shear.
Perpendicular to Traffic (Spans 2 to 24
Feet Inclusive) 3.24.5 Cantilever Slabs
The live load moment for simple spans shall be deter- 3.24.5.1 Truck Loads
mined by the following formulas (impact not included):
Under the following formulas for distribution of loads
HS 20 Loading:
on cantilever slabs, the slab is designed to support the load
 S + 2  P = Moment in foot − pounds (3 -15) independently of the effects of any edge support along the
 32  20 end of the cantilever. The distribution given includes the
per foot − width of slab
effect of wheels on parallel elements.
HS 15 Loading:
3.24.5.1.1 Case A—Reinforcement
 S + 2  P = Moment in foot − pounds (3 -16) Perpendicular to Traffic
 32  15
per foot − width of slab Each wheel on the element perpendicular to traffic
shall be distributed over a width according to the follow-
In slabs continuous over three or more supports, a conti- ing formula:
nuity factor of 0.8 shall be applied to the above formulas E 5 0.8X 1 3.75 (3-17)
for both positive and negative moment.
The moment per foot of slab shall be (P/E) X foot-
3.24.3.2 Case B—Main Reinforcement Parallel pounds, in which X is the distance in feet from load to
to Traffic point of support.
For wheel loads, the distribution width, E, shall be 3.24.5.1.2 Case B—Reinforcement
(4 1 0.06S) but shall not exceed 7.0 feet. Lane loads are Parallel to Traffic
distributed over a width of 2E. Longitudinally reinforced The distribution width for each wheel load on the ele-
slabs shall be designed for the appropriate HS loading. ment parallel to traffic shall be as follows:
For simple spans, the maximum live load moment per
foot width of slab, without impact, is closely approxi- E 5 0.35X 1 3.2, but shall not exceed 7.0 feet (3-18)
mated by the following formulas:
The moment per foot of slab shall be (P/E) X foot-
pounds.
HS 20 Loading:
Spans up to and including 50 feet: LLM 5 900S 3.24.5.2 Railing Loads
foot-pounds
Spans 50 feet to 100 feet: LLM 5 1,000 Railing loads shall be applied in accordance with Arti-
(1.30S-20.0) cle 2.7. The effective length of slab resisting post loadings
foot-pounds shall be equal to E 5 0.8X 1 3.75 feet where no parapet
is used and equal to E 5 0.8X 1 5.0 feet where a parapet beam integral with and deeper than the slab, or an integral
is used, where X is the distance in feet from the center of reinforced section of slab and curb.
the post to the point under investigation. Railing and
wheel loads shall not be applied simultaneously. 3.24.8.2 The edge beam of a simple span shall be de-
signed to resist a live load moment of 0.10 PS, where,
3.24.6 Slabs Supported on Four Sides
P 5 wheel load in pounds P15 or P20;
3.24.6.1 For slabs supported along four edges and re- S 5 span length in feet.
inforced in both directions, the proportion of the load car-
ried by the short span of the slab shall be given by the fol- 3.24.8.3 For continuous spans, the moment may be
lowing equations: reduced by 20% unless a greater reduction results from a
more exact analysis.
b4
For uniformly distributed load, p = (3 -19)
a 4 + b4
3.24.9 Unsupported Transverse Edges
3
b
For concentrated load at center, p = (3 - 20) The design assumptions of this article do not provide for
a + b3
3
the effect of loads near unsupported edges. Therefore, at the
where, ends of the bridge and at intermediate points where the con-
tinuity of the slab is broken, the edges shall be supported by
p 5 proportion of load carried by short span; diaphragms or other suitable means. The diaphragms shall
a 5 length of short span of slab; be designed to resist the full moment and shear produced
b 5 length of long span of slab. by the wheel loads which can come on them.
3.24.6.2 Where the length of the slab exceeds 11⁄ 2 3.24.10 Distribution Reinforcement
times its width, the entire load shall be carried by the
transverse reinforcement. 3.24.10.1 To provide for the lateral distribution of the
concentrated live loads, reinforcement shall be placed
3.24.6.3 The distribution width, E, for the load taken transverse to the main steel reinforcement in the bottoms
by either span shall be determined as provided for other of all slabs except culvert or bridge slabs where the depth
slabs. The moments obtained shall be used in designing of fill over the slab exceeds 2 feet.
the center half of the short and long slabs. The reinforce-
ment steel in the outer quarters of both short and long
3.24.10.2 The amount of distribution reinforcement
spans may be reduced by 50%. In the design of the sup-
shall be the percentage of the main reinforcement steel
porting beams, consideration shall be given to the fact that
required for positive moment as given by the following
the loads delivered to the supporting beams are not uni-
formulas:
formly distributed along the beams.
For main reinforcement parallel to traffic,
3.24.7 Median Slabs
100
Percentage = Maximum 50% (3 - 21)
Raised median slabs shall be designed in accordance S
with the provisions of this article with truck loadings so For main reinforcement perpendicular to traffic,
placed as to produce maximum stresses. Combined dead, 220
live, and impact stresses shall not be greater than 150% of Percentage = Maximum 67% (3 - 22)
S
the allowable stresses. Flush median slabs shall be de-
signed without overstress. where, S 5 the effective span length in feet.
3.24.8 Longitudinal Edge Beams 3.24.10.3 For main reinforcement perpendicular to

traffic, the specified amount of distribution reinforcement
3.24.8.1 Edge beams shall be provided for all slabs shall be used in the middle half of the slab span, and not
having main reinforcement parallel to traffic. The beam less than 50% of the specified amount shall be used in the
may consist of a slab section additionally reinforced, a outer quarters of the slab span.
3.25 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON support. The maximum moment is for a wheel position as-
TIMBER FLOORING sumed to be centered between the supports.
For the calculation of bending moments in timber M x = P(.51 log10 s − K ) (3 - 23)

flooring each wheel load shall be distributed as follows.
R x = .034 P (3 - 24)
3.25.1 Transverse Flooring 6M x

Thus, t= (3 - 25)
Fb
3.25.1.1 In the direction of flooring span, the wheel
or,
load shall be distributed over the width of tire as given in
Article 3.30. 3R x
t= whichever is greater (3 - 26)
Normal to the direction of flooring span, the wheel load 2Fv
shall be distributed as follows:
Plank floor: the width of plank, but not less than 10 where,
inches.
Non-interconnected* nail laminated panel floor: 15 Mx 5 primary bending moment in inch-pounds per
inches, but not to exceed panel width. inch;
Rx 5 primary shear in pounds per inch;
Non-interconnected glued laminated panel floor: 15
x 5 denotes direction perpendicular to longitudinal
inches plus thickness of floor, but not to exceed panel
stringers;
width. Continuous nail laminated floor and interconnected
P 5 design wheel load in pounds;
nail laminated panel floor, with adequate shear transfer
s 5 effective deck span in inches;
between panels**: 15 inches plus thickness of floor, but
t 5 deck thickness, in inches, based on moment or
not to exceed panel width.
shear, whichever controls;
Interconnected* glued laminated panel floor, with ad-
K 5 design constant depending on design load as
equate shear transfer between panels**, not less than 6
follows:
inches thick: 15 inches plus twice thickness of floor, but
not to exceed panel width. H 15 K 5 0.47
3.25.1.2 For transverse flooring the span shall be H 20 K 5 0.51

taken as the clear distance between stringers plus one-half Fb 5 allowable bending stress, in pounds per square
the width of one stringer, but shall not exceed the clear inch, based on load applied parallel to the wide
span plus the floor thickness. face of the laminations (see Tables 13.2.2Aand B);
Fv 5 allowable shear stress, in pounds per square inch,
3.25.1.3 One design method for interconnected based on load applied parallel to the wide face of
glued laminated panel floors is as follows: For glued lam- the laminations (see Tables 13.2.2A and B).
inated panel decks using vertically laminated lumber with
the panel placed in a transverse direction to the stringers 3.25.1.4 The determination of the minimum size and
and with panels interconnected using steel dowels, the de- spacing required of the steel dowels required to transfer
termination of the deck thickness shall be based on the fol- the load between panels shall be based on the following
lowing equations for maximum unit primary moment and equation:
shear.† The maximum shear is for a wheel position as-
1, 000  R y M y 
sumed to be 15 inches or less from the center line of the n= × +  (3 - 27)
σ PL  R D M D 
where,
*The terms interconnected and non-interconnected refer to the joints n 5 number of steel dowels required for the given
between the individual nail laminated or glued laminated panels.
spans;
**This shear transfer may be accomplished using mechanical fasten-
ers, splines, or dowels along the panel joint or other suitable means.
sPL 5 proportional limit stress perpendicular to grain
(for Douglas fir or Southern pine, use 1,000 psi);
†The equations are developed for deck panel spans equal to or greater
than the width of the tire (as specified in Article 3.30), but not greater w
Rwy 5 total secondary shear transferred, in pounds, de-
than 200 inches. termined by the relationship:
R y = 6 Ps / 1, 000 for s ≤ 50 inches (3 - 28) 3.25.2.2 Normal to the direction of the span the
wheel load shall be distributed as follows:
or,
Plank floor: 20 inches;
P Non-interconnected nail laminated floor: width of tire
Ry = (s − 20) for s > 50 inches (3 - 29) plus thickness of floor, but not to exceed panel
2s
width. Continuous nail laminated floor and inter-
wyw 5 total secondary moment transferred, in inch-
M connected nail laminated floor, with adequate shear
pound, determined by the relationship, transfer between panels*, not less than 6 inches
thick: width of tire plus twice thickness of floor.
Ps
My = (s − 10) for s ≤ 50 inches (3 - 30) 3.25.2.3 For longitudinal flooring the span shall be
1, 600
taken as the clear distance between floor beams plus one-
Ps (s − 30) half the width of one beam but shall not exceed the clear
My = for s > 50 inches (3 - 31) span plus the floor thickness.
20 (s − 10)
3.25.3 Longitudinal Glued Laminated Timber

RD and MD 5 shear and moment capacities, respec-
Decks
tively, as given in the following table:
3.25.3.1 Bending Moment
In calculating bending moments in glued laminated

timber longitudinal decks, no longitudinal distribution of
wheel loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution
shall be determined as follows.
The live load bending moment for each panel shall be
determined by applying to the panel the fraction of a
wheel load determined from the following equations:
TWO OR MORE TRAFFIC LANES
Wp Wp
Load Fraction = or , whichever is
L 5.00
3.25.1.5 In addition, the dowels shall be checked to 3.75 +
28
ensure that the allowable stress of the steel is not exceeded
using the following equation: greater.
1 ONE TRAFFIC LANE

σ= (C R R y + C M M y ) (3 - 32)
n
Wp Wp
Load Fraction = or , whichever is
where, L 5.50
4.25 +
28
s 5 minimum yield point of steel pins in
pounds per square inch (see Table greater.
10.32.1A);
ww,
n, R y w
Mw
y 5 as previously defined; where, Wp 5 Width of Panel; in feet (3.5 # Wp # 4.5)
CR, CM 5 steel stress coefficients as given in pre-
ceding table. L 5 Length of span for simple span bridges and the
length of the shortest span for continuous bridges in
3.25.2 Plank and Nail Laminated Longitudinal feet.
Flooring
*This shear transfer may be accomplished using mechanical fasteners,
3.25.2.1 In the direction of the span, the wheel load splines, or dowels along the panel joint or spreader beams located at in-
shall be distributed over 10 inches. tervals along the panels or other suitable means.
3.25.3.2 Shear shall be distributed over a transverse width of 5 feet for

bending moment and a width of 4 feet for shear.
When calculating the end shears and end reactions for
each panel, no longitudinal distribution of the wheel 3.26.1.2 For composite T-beams of wood and con-
loads shall be assumed. The lateral distribution of the crete, as described in Article 16.3.14, Division II, the ef-
wheel load at the supports shall be that determined by the fective flange width shall not exceed that given in Article
equation: 10.38.3. Shear connectors shall be capable of resisting
Wheel Load Fraction per Panel both vertical and horizontal movement.
3.26.2 Distribution of Bending Moments in

Wp Continuous Spans
= but not less than 1.
4.00
3.26.2.1 Both positive and negative moments shall
For wheel loads in other positions on the span, the lateral be distributed in accordance with the following table:
distribution for shear shall be determined by the method
prescribed for moment.
3.25.3.3 Deflections
The maximum deflection may be calculated by apply-

ing to the panel the wheel load fraction determined by the
method prescribed for moment.
3.25.3.4 Stiffener Arrangement
The transverse stiffeners shall be adequately attached

to each panel, at points near the panel edges, with either
steel plates, thru-bolts, C-clips or aluminum brackets. The
stiffener spacing required will depend upon the spacing 3.26.2.2 Impact should be considered in computing
needed in order to prevent differential panel movement; stresses for concrete and steel, but neglected for wood.
however, a stiffener shall be placed at mid-span with ad-
ditional stiffeners placed at intervals not to exceed 10 feet. 3.26.3 Design
The stiffness factor EI of the stiffener shall not be less than
80,000 kip-in2. The analysis and design of composite wood-concrete
members shall be based on assumptions that account for
3.25.4 Continuous Flooring the different mechanical properties of the components. A
suitable procedure may be based on the elastic properties
If the flooring is continuous over more than two spans, of the materials as follows:
the maximum bending moment shall be assumed as being E
}c 5 1 for slab in which the net concrete thickness is
80% of that obtained for a simple span. Ew
less than half the overall depth of the compos-
ite section
3.26 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS AND Ec
} 5 2 for slab in which the net concrete thickness is
DESIGN OF COMPOSITE WOOD- Ew
at least half the overall depth of the composite
CONCRETE MEMBERS section
Es
3.26.1 Distribution of Concentrated Loads for } 5 18.75 (for Douglas fir and Southern pine)
Ew
Bending Moment and Shear
in which,
3.26.1.1 For freely supported or continuous slab Ec 5 modulus of elasticity of concrete;
spans of composite wood-concrete construction, as de- Ew 5 modulus of elasticity of wood;
scribed in Article 16.3.14, Division II, the wheel loads Es 5 modulus of elasticity of steel.
3.27 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS ON 3.27.3.3 Edges of open grid steel floors shall be sup-
STEEL GRID FLOORS* ported by suitable means as required. These supports may
be longitudinal or transverse, or both, as may be required
3.27.1 General to support all edges properly.
3.27.1.1 The grid floor shall be designed as continu-

3.27.3.4 When investigating for fatigue, the mini-
ous, but simple span moments may be used and reduced mum cycles of maximum stress shall be used.
as provided in Article 3.24.
3.28 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS FOR BENDING

3.27.1.2 The following rules for distribution of loads MOMENT IN SPREAD BOX GIRDERS**
assume that the grid floor is composed of main elements
that span between girders, stringers, or cross beams, and 3.28.1 Interior Beams
secondary elements that are capable of transferring load
between the main elements. The live load bending moment for each interior beam in
a spread box beam superstructure shall be determined by
3.27.1.3 Reinforcement for secondary elements shall applying to the beam the fraction (D.F.) of the wheel load
consist of bars or shapes welded to the main steel. (both front and rear) determined by the following equation:
2N L S
3.27.2 Floors Filled with Concrete D.F. = +k (3 - 33)
NB L
3.27.2.1 The distribution and bending moment shall where,
be as specified for concrete slabs, Article 3.24. The fol- NL5 number of design traffic lanes (Article 3.6);
lowing items specified in that article shall also apply to NB5 number of beams (4 # NB # 10);
concrete filled steel grid floors: S 5 beam spacing in feet (6.57 # S # 11.00);
L 5 span length in feet;
Longitudinal edge beams k 5 0.07 W 2 NL (0.10NL 2 0.26) 2 0.20NB 2 0.12;
Unsupported transverse edges (3-34)
Span lengths W 5 numeric value of the roadway width between
curbs expressed in feet (32 # W # 66).
3.27.2.2 The strength of the composite steel and con-
crete slab shall be determined by means of the “trans-
3.28.2 Exterior Beams
formed area” method. The allowable stresses shall be as
set forth in Articles 8.15.2, 8.16.1, and 10.32.
The live load bending moment in the exterior beams
shall be determined by applying to the beams the reaction
3.27.3 Open Floors of the wheel loads obtained by assuming the flooring to
3.27.3.1 A wheel load shall be distributed, normal to act as a simple span (of length S) between beams, but shall
the main elements, over a width equal to 11⁄ 4 inches per not be less than 2NL/NB.
ton of axle load plus twice the distance center to center of
3.29 MOMENTS, SHEARS, AND REACTIONS
main elements. The portion of the load assigned to each
main element shall be applied uniformly over a length
Maximum moments, shears, and reactions are given
equal to the rear tire width (20 inches for H 20, 15 inches
in tables, Appendix A, for H 15, H 20, HS 15, and HS 20
for H 15).
loadings. They are calculated for the standard truck or
the lane loading applied to a single lane on freely sup-
3.27.3.2 The strength of the section shall be deter- ported spans. It is indicated in the table whether the
mined by the moment of inertia method. The allowable standard truck or the lane loadings produces the maxi-
stresses shall be as set forth in Article 10.32. mum stress.
**The provisions of Article 3.12, Reduction in Load Intensity, were

*Provisions in this article shall not apply to orthotropic bridge super- not applied in the development of the provisions presented in Articles
structures. 3.28.1 and 3.28.2.
3.30 TIRE CONTACT AREA
The tire contact area for the Alternate Military Load-

ing or HS 20-44 shall be assumed as a rectangle with a
length in the direction of traffic of 10 inches, and a width
of tire of 20 inches. For other design vehicles, the tire con-
tact should be determined by the engineer.
Section 4
FOUNDATIONS
Part A
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS
4.1 GENERAL 4.2.2.2 Settlement
Foundations shall be designed to support all live and The settlement of foundations may be determined
dead loads, and earth and water pressure loadings in ac- using procedures described in Articles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6 for
cordance with the general principles specified in this sec- service load design and Articles 4.11, 4.12, or 4.13 for
tion. The design shall be made either with reference to ser- strength design, or other generally accepted methodolo-
vice loads and allowable stresses as provided in SERVICE gies. Such methods are based on soil and rock parameters
LOAD DESIGN or, alternatively, with reference to load measured directly or inferred from the results of in situ
factors, and factored strength as provided in STRENGTH and/or laboratory tests.
DESIGN.
4.2.2.3 Overall Stability
4.2 FOUNDATION TYPE AND CAPACITY The overall stability of slopes in the vicinity of
foundations shall be considered as part of the design of
4.2.1 Selection of Foundation Type foundations.
Selection of foundation type shall be based on an 4.2.3 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions
assessment of the magnitude and direction of loading,
depth to suitable bearing materials, evidence of previous Geologic and environmental conditions can influence
flooding, potential for liquefaction, undermining or the performance of foundations and may require special
scour, swelling potential, frost depth and ease and cost of consideration during design. To the extent possible, the
construction. presence and influence of such conditions shall be evalu-
ated as part of the subsurface exploration program. A rep-
4.2.2 Foundation Capacity resentative, but not exclusive, listing of problem condi-
tions requiring special consideration is presented in Table
Foundations shall be designed to provide adequate 4.2.3A for general guidance.
structural capacity, adequate foundation bearing capacity
with acceptable settlements, and acceptable overall sta- 4.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND
bility of slopes adjacent to the foundations. The tolerable TESTING PROGRAMS
level of structural deformation is controlled by the type
and span of the superstructure. The elements of the subsurface exploration and testing
programs shall be the responsibility of the designer based
4.2.2.1 Bearing Capacity on the specific requirements of the project and his or her
experience with local geologic conditions.
The bearing capacity of foundations may be estimated
4.3.1 General Requirements
using procedures described in Articles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6 for
service load design and Articles 4.11, 4.12, or 4.13 for
As a minimum, the subsurface exploration and testing
strength design, or other generally accepted theories. Such
programs shall define the following, where applicable:
theories are based on soil and rock parameters measured
by in situ and/or laboratory tests. The bearing capacity • Soil strata
may also be determined using load tests. —Depth, thickness, and variability
43
TABLE 4.2.3A Problem Conditions Requiring Special Consideration
Problem
Type Description Comments
Organic soil; highly plastic clay Low strength and high compressibility
Sensitive clay Potentially large strength loss upon large straining
Micaceous soil Potentially high compressibility (often saprolitic)
Soil Expansive clay/silt; expansive slag Potentially large expansion upon wetting
Liquefiable soil Complete strength loss and high deformations due to earthquake
loading
Collapsible soil Potentially large deformations upon wetting (Caliche; Loess)
Pyritic soil Potentially large expansion upon oxidation
Laminated rock Low strength when loaded parallel to bedding
Expansive shale Potentially large expansion upon wetting; degrades readily upon
exposure to air/water
Pyritic shale Expands upon exposure to air/water
Rock Soluble rock Soluble in flowing and standing water (Limestone, Limerock,
Gypsum)
Cretaceous shale Indicator of potentially corrosive ground water
Weak claystone (Red Beds) Low strength and readily degradable upon exposure to air/water
Gneissic and Schistose Rock Highly distorted with irregular weathering profiles and steep
discontinuities
Subsidence Typical in areas of underground mining or high ground water
extraction
Sinkholes/solutioning Karst topography; typical of areas underlain by carbonate rock
strata
Condition Negative skin friction/ Additional compressive/uplift load on deep foundations due to
expansion loading settlement/uplift of soil
Corrosive environments Acid mine drainage; degradation of certain soil/rock types
Permafrost/frost Typical in northern climates
Capillary water Rise of water level in silts and fine sands leading to strength loss
—Identification and classification qc), and sample recovery and RQD for rock strata. The
—Relevant engineering properties (i.e., shear drilling equipment and method, use of drilling mud, type
strength, compressibility, stiffness, permeability, of SPT hammer (i.e. safety, donut, hydraulic) or cone pen-
expansion or collapse potential, and frost suscep- etrometer (i.e., mechanical or electrical), and any unusual
tibility) subsurface conditions such as artesian pressures, boulders
• Rock strata or other obstructions, or voids shall also be noted on the
—Depth to rock exploration logs.
—Identification and classification
—Quality (i.e., soundness, hardness, jointing and 4.3.2 Minimum Depth
presence of joint filling, resistance to weathering,
if exposed, and solutioning) Where substructure units will be supported on spread
—Compressive strength (e.g., uniaxial compres- footings, the minimum depth of the subsurface explo-
sion, point load index) ration shall extend below the anticipated bearing level a
—Expansion potential minimum of two footing widths for isolated, individual
• Ground water elevation footings where L # 2B, and four footing widths for foot-
• Ground surface elevation ings where L . 5B. For intermediate footing lengths, the
• Local conditions requiring special consideration minimum depth of exploration may be estimated by lin-
ear interpolation as a function of L between depths of 2B
Exploration logs shall include soil and rock strata de- and 5B below the bearing level. Greater depths may be re-
scriptions, penetration resistance for soils (e.g., SPT or quired where warranted by local conditions.
Where substructure units will be supported on deep 4.4.1.2 Footings Supporting Non-Rectangular
foundations, the depth of the subsurface exploration shall Columns or Piers
extend a minimum of 20 feet below the anticipated pile or
shaft tip elevation. Where pile or shaft groups will be Footings supporting circular or regular polygon-
used, the subsurface exploration shall extend at least two shaped concrete columns or piers may be designed as-
times the maximum pile group dimension below the an- suming that the columns or piers act as square members
ticipated tip elevation, unless the foundations will be end with the same area for location of critical sections for mo-
bearing on or in rock. For piles bearing on rock, a mini- ment, shear, and development of reinforcement.
mum of 10 feet of rock core shall be obtained at each ex-
ploration location to insure the exploration has not been 4.4.1.3 Footings in Fill
terminated on a boulder. For shafts supported on or ex-
tending into rock, a minimum of 10 feet of rock core, or a Footings located in fill are subject to the same bearing
length of rock core equal to at least three times the shaft capacity, settlement, and dynamic ground stability con-
diameter for isolated shafts or two times the maximum siderations as footings in natural soil in accordance with
shaft group dimension for a shaft group, whichever is Articles 4.4.7.1 through 4.4.7.3. The behavior of both the
greater, shall be obtained to insure the exploration has not fill and underlying natural soil shall be considered.
terminated in a boulder and to determine the physical
characteristics of rock within the zone of foundation in- 4.4.1.4 Footings in Sloped Portions of
fluence for design. Embankments
4.3.3 Minimum Coverage The earth pressure against the back of footings and
columns within the sloped portion of an embankment
A minimum of one soil boring shall be made for each
shall be equal to the at-rest earth pressure in accordance
substructure unit. (See Article 7.1.1 for definition of sub-
with Article 5.5.2. The resistance due to the passive earth
structure unit.) For substructure units over 100 feet in
pressure of the embankment in front of the footing shall
width, a minimum of two borings shall be required.
be neglected to a depth equal to a minimum depth of
4.3.4 Laboratory Testing 3 feet, the depth of anticipated scour, freeze thaw action,
and/or trench excavation in front of the footing,
Laboratory testing shall be performed as necessary to whichever is greater.
determine engineering properties including unit weight,
shear strength, compressive strength and compressibility. 4.4.1.5 Distribution of Bearing Pressure
In the absence of laboratory testing, engineering proper-
ties may be estimated based on published test results or Footings shall be designed to keep the maximum soil
local experience. and rock pressures within safe bearing values. To prevent
unequal settlement, footings shall be designed to keep the
4.3.5 Scour bearing pressure as nearly uniform as practical. For foot-
ings supported on piles or drilled shafts, the spacing be-
The probable depth of scour shall be determined by
tween piles and drilled shafts shall be designed to ensure
subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies. Refer to
nearly equal loads on deep foundation elements as may be
Article 1.3.2 and FHWA (1988) for general guidance
practical.
regarding hydraulic studies and design.
When footings support more than one column, pier, or
Part B wall, distribution of soil pressure shall be consistent with
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD properties of the foundation materials and the structure,
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN and with the principles of geotechnical engineering.
4.4.2 Notations
4.4 SPREAD FOOTINGS
4.4.1 General The following notations shall apply for the design of
spread footings on soil and rock:
4.4.1.1 Applicability
A 5 Contact area of footing (ft2)
Provisions of this Article shall apply for design of iso- A9 5 Effective footing area for computation of
lated footings, and to combined footings and mats (foot- bearing capacity of a footing subjected to
ings supporting more than one column, pier, or wall). eccentric load (ft2); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.1)
bc, bg, bq 5 Base inclination factors (dim); (See Article Es 5 Soil modulus (ksf)
4.4.7.1.1.8) F 5 Total force on footing subjected to an in-
B 5 Width of footing (ft); (Minimum plan di- clined load (k); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.1)
mension of footing unless otherwise noted) fc9 5 Unconfined compressive strength of con-
B9 5 Effective width for load eccentric in direc- crete (ksf)
tion of short side, L unchanged (ft) FS 5 Factor of safety against bearing capacity,
c 5 Soil cohesion (ksf) overturning or sliding shear failure (dim)
c9 5 Effective stress soil cohesion (ksf) H 5 Depth from footing base to top of second
c* 5 Reduced effective stress soil cohesion for cohesive soil layer for two-layer cohesive
punching shear (ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.1) soil profile below footing (ft); (See Article
ca 5 Adhesion between footing and foundation 4.4.7.1.1.7)
soil or rock (ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.3) Hc 5 Height of compressible soil layer (ft)
cv 5 Coefficient of consolidation (ft2/yr); (See Hcrit 5 Critical thickness of the upper layer of a
Article 4.4.7.2.3) two-layer system beyond which the under-
c1 5 Shear strength of upper cohesive soil lying layer will have little effect on the bear-
layer below footing (ksf); (See Article ing capacity of footings bearing in the upper
4.4.7.1.1.7) layer (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
c2 5 Shear strength of lower cohesive soil Hd 5 Height of longest drainage path in com-
layer below footing (ksf); (See Article pressible soil layer (ft)
4.4.7.1.1.7) Hs 5 Height of slope (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.4)
Cc 5 Compression index (dim); (See Article i 5 Slope angle from horizontal of ground sur-
4.4.7.2.3) face below footing (deg)
Ccr 5 Recompression index (dim); (See Article ic, ig, iq 5 Load inclination factors (dim); (See Article
4.4.7.2.3) 4.4.7.1.1.3)
Cce 5 Compression ratio (dim); (See Article Ir 5 Influence coefficient to account for rigidity
4.4.7.2.3) and dimensions of footing (dim); (See Arti-
Co 5 Uniaxial compressive strength of intact cle 4.4.8.2.2)
rock (ksf) , 5 Center-to-center spacing between adjacent
Cre 5 Recompression ratio (dim); (See Article footings (ft)
4.4.7.2.3) L 5 Length of footing (ft)
Cae 5 Coefficient of secondary compression de- L9 5 Effective footing length for load eccentric
fined as change in height per log cycle of in direction of long side, B unchanged (ft)
time (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.4) L1 5 Length (or width) of footing having positive
D 5 Influence depth for water below footing contact pressure (compression) for footing
(ft); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.6) loaded eccentrically about one axis (ft)
Df 5 Depth to base of footing (ft) n 5 Exponential factor relating B/L or L/B ra-
e 5 Void ratio (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3) tios for inclined loading (dim); (See Article
ef 5 Void ratio at final vertical effective stress 4.4.7.1.1.3)
(dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3) N 5 Standard penetration resistance (blows/ft)
eo 5 Void ratio at initial vertical effective stress N1 5 Standard penetration resistance corrected
(dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3) for effects of overburden pressure (blows/
ep 5 Void ratio at maximum past vertical effec- ft); (See Article 4.4.7.2.2)
tive stress (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3) Nc, Ng, Nq 5 Bearing capacity factors based on the value
eB 5 Eccentricity of load in the B direction mea- of internal friction of the foundation soil
sured from centroid of footing (ft); (See Ar- (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1)
ticle 4.4.7.1.1.1) Nm 5 Modified bearing capacity factor to account
eL 5 Eccentricity of load in the L direction mea- for layered cohesive soils below footing
sured from centroid of footing (ft); (See (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
Article 4.4.7.1.1.1) Nms 5 Coefficient factor to estimate qult for rock
Eo 5 Modulus of intact rock (ksf) (dim); (See Article 4.4.8.1.2)
Em 5 Rock mass modulus (ksf); (See Article Ns 5 Stability number (dim); (See Article
4.4.8.2.2) 4.4.7.1.1.4)
Ncq, Ngq 5 Modified bearing capacity factors for ef- T 5 Time factor (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
fects of footing on or adjacent sloping zw 5 Depth from footing base down to the high-
ground (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.4) est anticipated ground water level (ft); (See
P 5 Tangential component of force on footing Article 4.4.7.1.1.6)
(k) a 5 Angle of inclination of the footing base
Pmax 5 Maximum resisting force between footing from the horizontal (radian)
base and foundation soil or rock for sliding ae 5 Reduction factor (dim); (See Article
failure (k) 4.4.8.2.2)
q 5 Effective overburden pressure at base of b 5 Length to width ratio of footing (dim)
footing (ksf) bm 5 Punching index 5 BL/[2(B 1 L)H] (dim);
Q 5 Normal component of force on footing (k) (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
qaii 5 Allowable uniform bearing pressure or con- bz 5 Factor to account for footing shape and
tact stress (ksf) rigidity (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.2)
qc 5 Cone penetration resistance (ksf) g 5 Total unit weight of soil or rock (kcf)
qmax 5 Maximum footing contact pressure (ksf) g9 5 Buoyant unit weight of soil or rock (kcf)
Qmax 5 Maximum normal component of load sup- gm 5 Moist unit weight of soil (kcf)
ported by foundation soil or rock at ultimate d 5 Angle of friction between footing and foun-
bearing capacity (k) dation soil or rock (deg); (See Article
qmin 5 Minimum magnitude of footing contact 4.4.7.1.1.3)
pressure (ksf) d9 5 Differential settlement between adjacent
qo 5 Vertical stress at base of loaded area (ksf); footings (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.2.5)
(See Article 4.4.7.2.1) ev 5 Vertical strain (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
qult 5 Ultimate bearing capacity for uniform bear- evf 5 Vertical strain at final vertical effective
ing pressure (ksf) stress (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
q1 5 Ultimate bearing capacity of footing sup- evo 5 Initial vertical strain (dim); (See Article
ported in the upper layer of a two-layer sys- 4.4.7.2.3)
tem assuming the upper layer is infinitely evp 5 Vertical strain at maximum past vertical
thick (ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7) effective stress (dim); (See Article
q2 5 Ultimate bearing capacity of a fictitious 4.4.7.2.3)
footing of the same size and shape as the ac- u 5 Angle of load eccentricity (deg)
tual footing, but supported on surface of the k 5 Shear strength ratio (c2/c1) for two layered
second (lower) layer of a two-layer system cohesive soil system below footing (dim);
(ksf); (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7) (See Article 4.4.7.1.1.7)
R 5 Resultant of pressure on base of footing (k) µc 5 Reduction factor to account for three-di-
r 5 Radius of circular footing or B/2 for square mensional effects in settlement analysis
footing (ft); (See Article 4.4.8.2.2) (dim); (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
RQD 5 Rock Quality Designation (dim) n 5 Poisson’s ratio (dim)
sc, sg, sq 5 Footing shape factors (dim); (See Article s9f 5 Final vertical effective stress in soil at depth
4.4.7.1.1.2) interval below footing (ksf); (See Article
su 5 Undrained shear strength of soil (ksf) 4.4.7.2.3)
Sc 5 Consolidation settlement (ft); (See Article so9 5 Initial vertical effective stress in soil at
4.4.7.2.3) depth interval below footing (ksf); (See Ar-
Se 5 Elastic or immediate settlement (ft); (See ticle 4.4.7.2.3)
Article 4.4.7.2.2) sp9 5 Maximum past vertical effective stress in
Ss 5 Secondary settlement (ft); (See Article soil at depth interval below footing (ksf);
4.4.7.2.4) (See Article 4.4.7.2.3)
St 5 Total settlement (ft); (See Article 4.4.7.2) f 5 Angle of internal friction (deg)
t 5 Time to reach specified average degree f9 5 Effective stress angle of internal friction
of consolidation (yr); (See Article (deg)
4.4.7.2.3) f* 5 Reduced effective stress soil friction angle
t1, t2 5 Arbitrary time intervals for determination for punching shear (ksf); (See Article
of Ss (yr); (See Article 4.4.7.2.4) 4.4.7.1)
The notations for dimension units include the follow- 4.4.4 Soil and Rock Property Selection
ing: dim 5 Dimensionless; deg 5 degree; ft 5 foot; k 5
kip; k/ft 5 kip/ft; ksf 5 kip/ft2; kcf 5 kip/ft3; lb 5 pound; Soil and rock properties defining the strength and com-
in. 5 inch; and psi 5 pound per square inch. The dimen- pressibility characteristics of the foundation materials are
sional units provided with each notation are presented for required for footing design. Foundation stability and set-
illustration only to demonstrate a dimensionally correct tlement analyses for design shall be conducted using soil
combination of units for the footing capacity procedures and rock properties based on the results of field and/or
presented herein. If other units are used, the dimensional laboratory testing.
correctness of the equations shall be confirmed.
4.4.5 Depth
4.4.3 Design Terminology 4.4.5.1 Minimum Embedment and Bench Width
Refer to Figure 4.4.3A for terminology used in the de- Footings not otherwise founded on sound, non-de-
sign of spread footing foundations. gradeable rock surfaces shall be embedded a sufficient
FIGURE 4.4.3A Design Terminology for Spread Footing Foundations
depth to provide adequate bearing, scour and frost heave vented by properly designed, graded soil filters or geotex-
protection, or 2 feet to the bottom of footing, whichever is tile drainage systems.
greatest. For footings constructed on slopes, a minimum
horizontal distance of 4 feet, measured at the top of foot- 4.4.6 Anchorage
ing, shall be provided between the near face of the foot-
ing and the face of the finished slope. Footings founded on inclined, smooth rock surfaces
and which are not restrained by an overburden of resistant
material shall be effectively anchored by means of rock
4.4.5.2 Scour Protection anchors, rock bolts, dowels, keys, benching or other suit-
able means. Shallow keying or benching of large footing
Footings supported on soil or degradable rock strata areas shall be avoided where blasting is required for rock
shall be embedded below the maximum computed scour removal.
depth or protected with a scour countermeasure. Footings
supported on massive, competent rock formations which
are highly resistant to scour shall be placed directly on the 4.4.7 Geotechnical Design on Soil
cleaned rock surface. Where required, additional lateral
resistance should be provided by drilling and grouting Spread footings on soil shall be designed to support the
steel dowels into the rock surface rather than blasting to design loads with adequate bearing and structural capac-
embed the footing below the rock surface. ity, and with tolerable settlements in conformance with
Footings on piles may be located above the lowest an- Articles 4.4.7 and 4.4.11. In addition, the capacity of
ticipated scour level provided the piles are designed for footings subjected to seismic and dynamic loads, shall
this condition. Assume that only one-half of the maximum be evaluated in conformance with Articles 4.4.7.3 and
anticipated scour has occurred when designing for earth- 4.4.10.
quake loading. Where footings on piles are subject to The location of the resultant of pressure (R) on the base
damage by boulders or debris during flood scour, ade- of the footings shall be maintained within B/6 of the cen-
quate protection shall be provided. Footings shall be con- ter of the footing.
structed so as to neither pose an obstacle to water traffic
nor be exposed to view during low flow. 4.4.7.1 Bearing Capacity
4.4.5.3 Footing Excavations The ultimate bearing capacity (for general shear fail-
ure) may be estimated using the following relationship for
Footing excavations below the ground water table, par- continuous footings (i.e., L . 5B):
ticularly in granular soils having relatively high perme-
ability, shall be made such that the hydraulic gradient in qult 5 cNc 1 0.5gBNg 1 qNq (4.4.7.1-1)
the excavation bottom is not increased to a magnitude that
would cause the foundation soils to loosen or soften due The allowable bearing capacity shall be determined
to the upward flow of water. Further, footing excavations as:
shall be made such that hydraulic gradients and material
removal do not adversely affect adjacent structures. Seep- qall 5 qult/FS (4.4.7.1-2)
age forces and gradients may be evaluated by flow net
procedures or other appropriate methods. Dewatering or Refer to Table 4.4.7.1A for values of Nc, Ng, and Nq.
cutoff methods to control seepage shall be used where If local or punching shear failure is possible, the value
necessary. of qult may be estimated using reduced shear strength pa-
Footing excavations in nonresistant, easily weathered rameters c* and f* in Equation (4.4.7.1-1) as follows:
moisture sensitive rocks shall be protected from weather-
ing immediately after excavation with a lean mix concrete c* 5 0.67c (4.4.7.1-3)
or other approved materials.
f* 5 tan21 (0.67tan f) (4.4.7.1-4)
4.4.5.4 Piping Effective stress methods of analysis and drained shear

strength parameters shall be used to determine bearing
Piping failures of fine materials through rip-rap or capacity factors for drained loading conditions in all soils.
through drainage backfills behind abutments shall be pre- Additionally, the bearing capacity of cohesive soils shall
TABLE 4.4.7.1A Bearing Capacity Factors
be checked for undrained loading conditions using bear- calculate the ultimate load capacity of the footing. The re-
ing capacity factors based on undrained shear strength duced footing dimensions shall be determined as follows:
parameters.
B9 5 B 2 2eB (4.4.7.1.1.1-1)
4.4.7.1.1 Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity
A modified form of the general bearing capacity equa- L9 5 L 2 2eL (4.4.7.1.1.1-2)
tion may be used to account for the effects of footing
shape, ground surface slope, base inclination, and inclined The effective footing area shall be determined as
loading as follows: follows:
qult 5 cNcscbcic 1 0.5gBNgsgbgig 1 qNqsqbqiq A9 5 B9L9 (4.4.7.1.1.1-3)
(4.4.7.1.1-1) Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1A for loading definitions and

footing dimensions.
Reduced footing dimensions shall be used to account The value of qult obtained using the reduced footing di-
for the effects of eccentric loading. mensions represents an equivalent uniform bearing pres-
sure and not the actual contact pressure distribution be-
4.4.7.1.1.1 Eccentric Loading
neath the footing. This equivalent pressure may be
For loads eccentric relative to the centroid of the foot- multiplied by the reduced area to determine the ultimate
ing, reduced footing dimensions (B9 and L9) shall be used load capacity of the footing from the standpoint of bear-
to determine bearing capacity factors and modifiers (i.e., ing capacity. The actual contact pressure distribution (i.e.,
slope, footing shape, and load inclination factors), and to trapezoidal for the conventional assumption of a rigid
footing and a positive pressure along each footing edge) ic 5 1 2 (nP/BLcNc) (for f 5 0) (4.4.7.1.1.3-2)
shall be used for structural design of the footing.
The actual distribution of contact pressure for a rigid iq 5 [1 2 P/(Q 1 BLc cotf)]n (4.4.7.1.1.3-3)
footing with eccentric loading about one axis is shown
in Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1B. For an eccentricity (eL) in the L ig 5 [1 2 P/(Q 1 BLc cotf)](n 1 1) (4.4.7.1.1.3-4)
direction, the actual maximum and minimum contact
pressures may be determined as follows: n 5 [(2 1 L/B)/(1 1 L/B)]cos2u
1 [(2 1 B/L)/(1 1 B/L)]sin2u (4.4.7.1.1.3-5)
for eL , L/6:
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1A for loading definitions and
qmax 5 Q[1 1 (6eL/L)]/BL (4.4.7.1.1.1-4) footing dimensions. For cases in which the loading is ec-
centric, the terms L and B shall be replaced by L9 and B9,
qmin 5 Q[1 2 (6eL/L)]/BL (4.4.7.1.1.1-5) respectively, in the above equations.
Failure by sliding shall be considered by comparing
for L/6 , eL , L/2: the tangential component of force on the footing (P) to the
maximum resisting force (Pmax) by the following:
qmax 5 2Q/(3B[L/2) 2 eL]) (4.4.7.1.1.1-6)
Pmax 5 Qtand 1 BLca (4.4.7.1.1.3-6)
qmin 5 0 (4.4.7.1.1.1-7)
FS 5 Pmax/P $ 1.5 (4.4.7.1.1.3-7)
L1 5 3[(L/2) 2 eL] (4.4.7.1.1.1-8)
In determining Pmax, the effect of passive resistance
For an eccentricity (eb) in the B direction, the maxi- provided by footing embedment shall be ignored, and BL
mum and minimum contact pressures may be determined shall represent the actual footing area in compression as
using Equations 4.4.7.1.1.1-4 through 4.4.7.1.1.1-8 by re- shown in Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1B or Figure 4.4.7.1.1.1C.
placing terms labeled L by B, and terms labeled B by L.
Footings on soil shall be designed so that the eccen-
4.4.7.1.1.4 Ground Surface Slope
tricity of loading is less than 1⁄6 of the footing dimension
in any direction. For footings located on slopes or within 3B of a slope
crest, qult may be determined using the following revised
4.4.7.1.1.2 Footing Shape version of Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1:
For footing shapes other than continuous footings (i.e., qult 5 cNcqscbcic 1 0.5g9BNgqsgbgig (4.4.7.1.1.4-1)
L , 5B), the following shape factors shall be applied to
Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1: Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.4A for values of Ncq and Ngq
for footings on slopes and Figures 4.4.7.1.1.4B for values
sc 5 1 1 (B/L) (Nq/Nc) (4.4.7.1.1.2-1) of Ncq and Ngq for footings at the top of slopes. For foot-
ings in or above cohesive soil slopes, the stability number
sq 5 1 1 (B/L) tan f (4.4.7.1.1.2-2) in the figures, Ns, is defined as follows:
sg 5 1 2 0.4 (B/L) (4.4.7.1.1.2-3) Ns 5 gHs/c (4.4.7.1.1.4-2)
For circular footings, B equals L. For cases in which Overall stability shall be evaluated for footings on or
the loading is eccentric, the terms L and B shall be re- adjacent to sloping ground surfaces as described in Arti-
placed by L9 and B9, respectively, in the above equations. cle 4.4.9.
4.4.7.1.1.3 Inclined Loading 4.4.7.1.1.5 Embedment Depth

For inclined loads, the following inclination factors The shear strength of soil above the base of footings is
shall be applied in Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1: neglected in determining qult using Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1.
If other procedures are used, the effect of embedment
ic 5 iq 2 [(1 2 iq)/Nc tan f] (for f . 0) shall be consistent with the requirements of the procedure
(4.4.7.1.1.3-1) followed.
52 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 4.4.7.1.1.5
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.1A Definition Sketch for Loading and Dimensions for Footings
Subjected to Eccentric or Inclined Loads
Modified after EPRI (1983)
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.1B Contact Pressure for Footing Loaded Eccentrically About One Axis
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.1C Contact Pressure for Footing Loaded Eccentrically About Two Axes
Modified after AREA (1980)
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.4A Modified Bearing Capacity Factors for Footing on Sloping Ground
Modified after Meyerhof (1957)
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.4B Modified Bearing Capacity Factors for Footing Adjacent Sloping Ground
Modified after Meyerhof (1957)
4.4.7.1.1.6 Ground Water g 5 (2D 2 zw)(zwgm/D2) 1 (g9/D2)(D 2 zw)2

Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined using (4.4.7.1.1.6-4)
the highest anticipated ground water level at the footing
location. The effect of ground water level on the ultimate D 5 0.5Btan(45° 1 f/2)
bearing capacity shall be considered by using a weighted (4.4.7.1.1.6-5)
average soil unit weight in Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1. If f ,
37°, the following equations may be used to determine the
weighted average unit weight: 4.4.7.1.1.7 Layered Soils
If the soil profile is layered, the general bearing capac-
for zw $ B: use g 5 gm (no effect) (4.4.7.1.1.6-1) ity equation shall be modified to account for differences
in failure modes between the layered case and the homo-
for zw , B: use g 5 g9 1 (zw/B)(gm 2 g9) geneous soil case assumed in Equation 4.4.7.1.1-1.
(4.4.7.1.1.6-2)
Undrained Loading
for zw # 0: use g 5 g9 (4.4.7.1.1.6-3) For undrained loading of a footing supported on the
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.6A for definition of terms upper layer of a two-layer cohesive soil system, qult may
used in these equations. If f $ 37°, the following equa- be determined by the following:
tions may be used to determine the weighted average unit
weight: qult 5 c1Nm 1 q (4.4.7.1.1.7-1)
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.6A Definition Sketch for Influence of Ground Water Table on Bearing Capacity
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.7A for the definition of c1. For The subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the upper and lower
undrained loading, c1 equals the undrained soil shear layers, respectively. K 5 (1 2 sin2f19)/(1 1 sin2f19)
strength sul, and f1 5 0. and q2 equals qult of a fictitious footing of the same size and
If the bearing stratum is a cohesive soil which overlies shape as the actual footing but supported on the
a stiffer cohesive soil, refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.7B to de- second (or lower) layer. Reduced shear strength values shall
termine Nm. If the bearing stratum overlies a softer layer, be used to determine q2 in accordance with Article 4.4.7.1.
punching shear should be assumed and Nm may be calcu- If the upper layer is a cohesionless soil and f9 equals
lated by the following: 25° to 50°, Equation 4.4.7.1.1.7-3 reduces to
Nm 5 (1/bm 1 kscNc) # scNc (4.4.7.1.1.7-2) qult 5 q2 exp{0.67[1 1 (B/L)]H/B} (4.4.7.1.1.7-4)

Drained Loading
The critical depth of the upper layer beyond which the
For drained loading of a footing supported on a strong bearing capacity will generally be unaffected by the pres-
layer overlying a weak layer in a two-layer system, qult ence of the lower layer is given by the following:
may be determined using the following:
Hcrit 5 [3B1n(q1/q2)]/[2(1 1 B/L)] (4.4.7.1.1.7-5)
qult 5 [q2 1 (1/K)c19cotf19] exp{2[1
1 (B/L)]Ktanf19(H/B)} 2 (1/K)c19 cotf19
In the equation, q1 equals the bearing capacity of the
(4.4.7.1.1.7-3) upper layer assuming the upper layer is of infinite extent.
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.7B Modified Bearing Capacity Factor for

FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.7A Two-Layer Cohesive Soil with Softer Soil Overlying
Typical Two-Layer Soil Profiles Stiffer Soil EPRI (1983)
4.4.7.1.1.8 Inclined Base St 5 Se 1 Sc 1 Ss (4.4.7.2-1)

Footings with inclined bases are generally not recom-
Elastic settlement shall be determined using the unfac-
mended. Where footings with inclined bases are neces-
tored dead load, plus the unfactored component of live
sary, the following factors shall be applied in Equation
and impact loads assumed to extend to the footing level.
4.4.7.1.1-1:
Consolidation and secondary settlement may be deter-
mined using the full unfactored dead load only.
bq 5 bg 5 (1 2 atanf)2 (4.4.7.1.1.8-1)
Other factors which can affect settlement (e.g., em-
bc 5 bg 2 (1 2 bg)/(Nctanf) (for f . 0) bankment loading, lateral and/or eccentric loading, and
for footings on granular soils, vibration loading from dy-
(4.4.7.1.1.8-2) namic live loads or earthquake loads) should also be con-
sidered, where appropriate. Refer to Gifford, et al., (1987)
bc 5 1 2 [2a/(p 1 2)] (for f 5 0) for general guidance regarding static loading conditions
(4.4.7.1.1.8-3) and Lam and Martin (1986) for guidance regarding dy-
namic/seismic loading conditions.
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.1.1.8A for definition sketch.
Where footings must be placed on sloping surfaces,
refer to Article 4.4.6 for anchorage requirements.
4.4.7.2.1 Stress Distribution
4.4.7.1.2 Factors of Safety Figure 4.4.7.2.1A may be used to estimate the distri-
Spread footings on soil shall be designed for Group 1 bution of vertical stress increase below circular (or
loadings using a minimum factor of safety (FS) of 3.0 square) and long rectangular footings (i.e., where L .
against a bearing capacity failure. 5B). For other footing geometries, refer to Poulos and
Davis (1974).
4.4.7.2 Settlement Some methods used for estimating settlement of foot-
ings on sand include an integral method to account for the
The total settlement includes elastic, consolidation, effects of vertical stress increase variations. Refer to Gif-
and secondary components and may be determined using ford, et al., (1987) for guidance regarding application of
the following: these procedures.
FIGURE 4.4.7.1.1.8A Definition Sketch for Footing Base Inclination
4.4.7.2.2 Elastic Settlement termined at a depth of about 1⁄ 2 to 2⁄ 3 of B below the foot-

ing. If the soil modulus varies significantly with depth, a
The elastic settlement of footings on cohesionless
weighted average value of Es may be used.
soils and stiff cohesive soils may be estimated using the
Refer to Gifford, et al., (1987) for general guidance re-
following:
garding the estimation of elastic settlement of footings on
sand.
w]/Esbz
Se 5 [qo(1 2 n2)ÏA (4.4.7.2.2-1)
Refer to Table 4.4.7.2.2A for approximate values of Es

4.4.7.2.3 Consolidation Settlement
and n for various soil types, and Table 4.4.7.2.2B for val-
ues of bz for various shapes of flexible and rigid footings. The consolidation settlement of footings on saturated
Unless Es varies significantly with depth, Es should be de- or nearly saturated cohesive soils may be estimated using
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.1A Boussinesg Vertical Stress Contours for Continuous and Square Footings
Modified after Sowers (1979)
TABLE 4.4.7.2.2A Elastic Constants of Various Soils

Modified after U.S. Department of the Navy (1982) and Bowles (1982)
TABLE 4.4.7.2.2B Elastic Shape and Rigidity

Factors EPRI (1983)
the following when laboratory test results are expressed in

terms of void ratio (e):
• For initial overconsolidated soils (i.e., sp9 . s09):
Sc 5 [Hc /(1 1 eo)][(Ccr log{sp9/so9}

1 Cc log{sf9/sp9})] (4.4.7.2.3-1)
• For initial normally consolidated soils (i.e., sp9 5

so9):
Sc 5 [Hc /(1 1 eo)][Cclog(sf9/sp9)] (4.4.7.2.3-2)
If laboratory test results are expressed in terms of ver-

tical strain (ev), consolidation settlement may be estimated
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.3A Typical Consolidation
using the following:
Compression Curve for Overconsolidated Soil—
Void Ratio Versus Vertical Effective Stress
• For initial overconsolidated soils (i.e., sp9 . so9): EPRI (1983)
Sc 5 Hc[Crelog(sp9/so9) 1 Cce log(sf9/sp9)]

(4.4.7.2.3-3)
• For initial normally consolidated soils (i.e., sp9 5

so9):
Sc 5 HcCcelog(sf9/sp9) (4.4.7.2.3-4)
Refer to Figures 4.4.7.2.3A and 4.4.7.2.3B for the de-

finition of terms used in the equations.
To account for the decreasing stress with increased
depth below a footing, and variations in soil compress-
ibility with depth, the compressible layer should be di-
vided into vertical increments (i.e., typically 5 to 10 feet
for most normal width footings for highway applications),
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.3B Typical Consolidation
and the consolidation settlement of each increment ana-
Compression Curve for Overconsolidated Soil—
lyzed separately. The total value of Sc is the summation of Void Strain Versus Vertical Effective Stress
Sc for each increment.
If the footing width is small relative to the thickness
of the compressible soil, the effect of three-dimensional
(3-D) loading may be considered using the following:
Sc(3-D) 5 µcSc(1-D) (4.4.7.2.3-5)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.2.3C for values of µc.

The time (t) to achieve a given percentage of the total
estimated 1-D consolidation settlement may be estimated
using the following:
t 5 THd2/cv (4.4.7.2.3-6)
Refer to Figure 4.4.7.2.3D for values of T for constant FIGURE 4.4.7.2.3C Reduction Factor to Account for
and linearly varying excess pressure distributions. See Effects of Three-Dimensional Consolidation Settlement
Winterkorn and Fang (1975) for values of T for other ex- EPRI (1983)
cess pressure distributions. Values of cv may be estimated (d9/,) between adjacent footings. d9/, shall be limited to
from the results of laboratory consolidation testing of 0.005 for simple span bridges and 0.004 for continuous
undisturbed soil samples or from in-situ measurements span bridges (Moulton, et al., 1985). These d9/, limits are
using devices such as a piezoprobe or piezocone. not applicable to rigid frame structures. Rigid frames shall
be designed for anticipated differential settlements based
4.4.7.2.4 Secondary Settlement on the results of special analysis.
Tolerable movement criteria for horizontal foundations
Secondary settlement of footings on cohesive soil may
displacement shall be developed considering the potential
be estimated using the following:
effects of combined vertical and horizontal movement.
Where combined horizontal and vertical displacements
Ss 5 CaeHclog(t2/t1) (4.4.7.2.4-1)
are possible, horizontal movements should be limited to 1
inch or less. Where vertical displacements are small, hor-
t1 is the time when secondary settlement begins (typi-
izontal displacements should be limited to 11⁄ 2 inch or less
cally at a time equivalent to 90-percent average degree of
(Moulton, et al. 1985). If estimated or actual movements
consolidation), and t2 is an arbitrary time which could rep-
exceed these levels, special analysis and/or measures to
resent the service life of the structure. Values of Cae may
limit movements should be considered.
be estimated from the results of consolidation testing of
undisturbed soil samples in the laboratory.
4.4.7.3 Dynamic Ground Stability
4.4.7.2.5 Tolerable Movement
Refer to Division I-A—Seismic Design and Lam and
Tolerable movement criteria (vertical and horizontal) Martin (1986a; 1986b) for guidance regarding the devel-
for footings shall be developed consistent with the func- opment of ground and seismic parameters and methods
tion and type of structure, anticipated service life, and used for evaluation of dynamic ground stability.
consequences of unacceptable movements on structure
performance. Foundation displacement analyses shall be 4.4.8 Geotechnical Design on Rock
based on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to
characterize the load-deformation behavior of the foun- Spread footings supported on rock shall be designed to
dation soils. Displacement analyses should be conducted support the design loads with adequate bearing and struc-
to determine the relationship between estimated settle- tural capacity and with tolerable settlements in confor-
ment and footing bearing pressure to optimize footing size mance with Articles 4.4.8 and 4.4.11. In addition, the re-
with respect to supported loads. sponse of footings subjected to seismic and dynamic
Tolerable movement criteria for foundation settlement loading shall be evaluated in conformance with Article
shall be developed considering the angular distortion 4.4.10. For footings on rock, the location of the resultant
FIGURE 4.4.7.2.3D Percentage of Consolidation as a Function of Time Factor, T

EPRI (1983)
of pressure (R) on the base of footings shall be maintained Figure 4.4.8.1.1A (Peck, et al. 1974). In no instance shall
within B/4 of the center of the footing. the maximum allowable contact stress exceed the allow-
The bearing capacity and settlement of footings on able bearing stress in the concrete. The RQD used in Fig-
rock is influenced by the presence, orientation and condi- ure 4.4.8.1.1A shall be the average RQD for the rock
tion of discontinuities, weathering profiles, and other sim- within a depth of B below the base of the footing, where
ilar features. The methods used for design of footings on the RQD values are relatively uniform within that inter-
rock should consider these factors as they apply at a par- val. If rock within a depth of 0.5B below the base of the
ticular site, and the degree to which they should be incor- footing is of poorer quality, the RQD of the poorer rock
porated in the design. shall be used to determine qall.
For footings on competent rock, reliance on simple and
direct analyses based on uniaxial compressive rock 4.4.8.1.2 Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock
strengths and RQD may be applicable. Competent rock is
The design of footings on broken or jointed rock must
defined as a rock mass with discontinuities that are tight
account for the condition and spacing of joints and other
or open not wider than 1⁄ 8 inch. For footings on less com-
discontinuities. The ultimate bearing capacity of footings
petent rock, more detailed investigations and analyses
on broken or jointed rock may be estimated using the fol-
should be used to account for the effects of weathering,
lowing relationship:
the presence and condition of discontinuities, and other
geologic factors.
qult 5 NmsCo (4.4.8.1.2-1)
4.4.8.1 Bearing Capacity
Refer to Table 4.4.8.1.2A for values of Nms. Values of
Co should preferably be determined from the results of
4.4.8.1.1 Footings on Competent Rock
laboratory testing of rock cores obtained within 2B of the
The allowable contact stress for footings supported on base of the footing. Where rock strata within this interval
level surfaces in competent rock may be determined using are variable in strength, the rock with the lowest capacity
FIGURE 4.4.8.1.1A Allowable Contact Stress for Footings on Rock with Tight Discontinuities
Peck, et al. (1974)
should be used to determine qult. Alternatively, Table mass characteristics must be made. For rock masses which
4.4.8.1.2B may be used as a guide to estimate Co. For have time-dependent settlement characteristics, the proce-
rocks defined by very poor quality, the value of qult should dure in Article 4.4.7.2.3 may be followed to determine the
be determined as the value of qult for an equivalent soil time-dependent component of settlement.
mass.
4.4.8.2.2 Footings on Broken or Jointed Rock
4.4.8.1.3 Factors of Safety Where the criteria for competent rock are not met, the
influence of rock type, condition of discontinuities and de-
Spread footings on rock shall be designed for Group 1
gree of weathering shall be considered in the settlement
loadings using a minimum factor of safety (FS) of 3.0
analysis.
against a bearing capacity failure.
The elastic settlement of footings on broken or jointed
rock may be determined using the following:
4.4.8.2 Settlement
4.4.8.2.1 Footings on Competent Rock • For circular (or square) footings;
For footings on competent rock, elastic settlements will w)/bz

r 5 qo (1 2 n2)rIr/Em, with Ir 5 (Ïp
generally be less than 1⁄ 2 inch when footings are designed
in accordance with Article 4.4.8.1.1. When elastic settle- (4.4.8.2.2-1)
ments of this magnitude are unacceptable or when the rock
is not competent, an analysis of settlement based on rock • For rectangular footings;
TABLE 4.4.8.1.2A Values of Coefficient Nms for Estimation of the Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Footings on
Broken or Jointed Rock (Modified after Hoek, (1983))
TABLE 4.4.8.1.2B Typical Range of Uniaxial Compressive Strength (Co) as a Function of

Rock Category and Rock Type
r 5 qo (1 2 n2)BIr/Em, with Ir 5 (L/B)1/2/bz aE 5 0.0231(RQD) 2 1.32 $ 0.15 (4.4.8.2.2-4)

(4.4.8.2.2-2)
For preliminary design or when site-specific test data can-
not be obtained, guidelines for estimating values of Eo
Values of Ip may be computed using the bz values pre-
(such as presented in Table 4.4.8.2.2B or Figure
sented in Table 4.4.7.2.2B from Article 4.4.7.2.2 for rigid
4.4.8.2.2A) may be used. For preliminary analyses or for
footings. Values of Poisson’s ratio (y) for typical rock
final design when in-situ test results are not available, a
types are presented in Table 4.4.8.2.2A. Determination of
value of aE 5 0.15 should be used to estimate Em.
the rock mass modulus (Em) should be based on the results
of in-situ and laboratory tests. Alternatively, values of Em
may be estimated by multiplying the intact rock modulus
(Eo) obtained from uniaxial compression tests by a reduc- Refer to Article 4.4.7.2.3.
tion factor (aE) which accounts for frequency of disconti-
nuities by the rock quality designation (RQD), using the 4.4.9 Overall Stability
following relationships (Gardner, 1987):
The overall stability of footings, slopes, and founda-
Em 5 aEEo (4.4.8.2.2-3) tion soil or rock shall be evaluated for footings located on
TABLE 4.4.8.2.2A Summary of Poisson’s Ratio for Intact Rock

Modified after Kulhawy (1978)
TABLE 4.4.8.2.2B Summary of Elastic Moduli for Intact Rock

Modified after Kulhawy (1978)
FIGURE 4.4.8.2.2A Relationship Between Elastic Modulus and Uniaxial Compressive Strength for Intact Rock
Modified after Deere (1968)
or near a slope by limiting equilibrium methods of analy- 4.4.11 Structural Design

sis which employ the Modified Bishop, simplified Janbu,
Spenser or other generally accepted methods of slope sta- 4.4.11.1 Loads and Reactions
bility analysis. Where soil and rock parameters and
ground water levels are based on in-situ and/or laboratory 4.4.11.1.1 Action of Loads and Reactions
tests, the minimum factor of safety shall be 1.3 (or 1.5
where abutments are supported above a slope). Otherwise, Footings shall be considered as under the action of
the minimum factor of safety shall be 1.5 (or 1.8 where downward forces, due to the superimposed loads, resisted
abutments are supported above a retaining wall). by an upward pressure exerted by the foundation materi-
als and distributed over the area of the footings as deter-
mined by the eccentricity of the resultant of the downward
4.4.10 Dynamic/Seismic Design forces. Where piles are used under footings, the upward
reaction of the foundation shall be considered as a series
Refer to Division I-A and Lam and Martin (1986a; of concentrated loads applied at the pile centers, each pile
1986b) for guidance regarding the design of footings sub- being assumed to carry the computed portion of the total
jected to dynamic and seismic loads. footing load.
4.4.11.1.2 Isolated and Multiple Footing Reactions porting a column, pier, or wall. For footings supporting
a column or pier with metallic base plates, the critical
When a single isolated footing supports a column, pier
section shall be measured from the location defined in
or wall, the footing shall be assumed to act as a cantilever.
Article 4.4.11.2.
When footings support more than one column, pier, or
wall, the footing slab shall be designed for the actual con-
ditions of continuity and restraint. 4.4.11.3.2 Footings on Piles or Drilled Shafts
Shear on the critical section shall be in accordance with
4.4.11.2 Moments the following:
4.4.11.2.1 Critical Section • Entire reaction from any pile or drilled shaft whose
center is located dp /2 or more outside the critical
External moment on any section of a footing shall be
section shall be considered as producing shear on
determined by passing a vertical plane through the foot-
that section.
ing, and computing the moment of the forces acting over
• Reaction from any pile or drilled shaft whose center
the entire area of the footing on one side of that vertical
is located dp /2 or more inside the critical section
plane. The critical section for bending shall be taken at the
shall be considered as producing no shear on that
face of the column, pier, or wall. In the case of columns
section.
that are not square or rectangular, the section shall be
• For the intermediate position of pile or drilled shaft
taken at the side of the concentric square of equivalent
centers, the portion of the pile or shaft reaction to be
area. For footings under masonry walls, the critical sec-
considered as producing shear on the critical section
tion shall be taken halfway between the middle and edge
shall be based on linear interpolation between full
of the wall. For footings under metallic column bases, the
value at dp /2 outside the section and zero value at
critical section shall be taken halfway between the column
dp /2 inside the section.
face and the edge of the metallic base.
4.4.11.2.2 Distribution of Reinforcement

4.4.11.4 Development of Reinforcement
Reinforcement of one-way and two-way square foot-
ings shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width 4.4.11.4.1 Development Length
of footing.
Computation of development of reinforcement in
Reinforcement of two-way rectangular footings shall
footings shall be in accordance with Articles 8.24
be distributed uniformly across the entire width of footing
through 8.32.
in the long direction. In the short direction, the portion of
the total reinforcement given by Equation 4.4.11.2.2-1
shall be distributed uniformly over a band width (centered 4.4.11.4.2 Critical Section
on center line of column or pier) equal to the length of the Critical sections for development of reinforcement
short side of the footing. The remainder of reinforcement shall be assumed at the same locations as defined in Arti-
required in the short direction shall be distributed uni- cle 4.4.11.2 and at all other vertical planes where changes
formly outside the center band width of footing. in section or reinforcement occur. See also Article
8.24.1.5.
Reinforcement in band width 2
=
Total reinforcement in short direction (β + 1)
4.4.11.5 Transfer of Force at Base of Column
( 4.4.11.2.2 -1)
b is the ratio of the footing length to width. 4.4.11.5.1 Transfer of Force

All forces and moments applied at base of column or
4.4.11.3 Shear pier shall be transferred to top of footing by bearing on
concrete and by reinforcement.
4.4.11.3.1 Critical Section
4.4.11.5.2 Lateral Forces
Computation of shear in footings, and location of crit-
ical section, shall be in accordance with Articles 8.15.5.6 Lateral forces shall be transferred to supporting foot-
or 8.16.6.6. Location of critical section shall be measured ing in accordance with shear-transfer provisions of Arti-
from the face of column, pier or wall, for footings sup- cles 8.15.5.4 or 8.16.6.4.
4.4.11.5.3 Bearing overall thickness minus 3 inches. Extreme fiber stress in

tension shall not exceed that specified in Article
Bearing on concrete at contact surface between sup-
8.15.2.1.1. Bending need not be considered unless pro-
porting and supported member shall not exceed concrete
jection of footing from face to support member exceeds
bearing strength for either surface as given in Articles
footing thickness.
8.15.2 or 8.16.7.
4.4.11.6.2 Pedestals
4.4.11.5.4 Reinforcement
The ratio of unsupported height to average least lateral
Reinforcement shall be provided across interface be-
dimension of plain concrete pedestals shall not exceed 3.
tween supporting and supported member either by ex-
tending main longitudinal reinforcement into footings or
by dowels. Reinforcement across interface shall be suffi-
4.5 DRIVEN PILES
cient to satisfy all of the following:
• Reinforcement shall be provided to transfer all force 4.5.1 General

that exceeds concrete bearing strength in supporting
or supported member. The provisions of this article shall apply to the design
• If required loading conditions include uplift, total of axially and laterally loaded driven piles in soil or ex-
tensile force shall be resisted by reinforcement. tending through soil to rock.
• Area of reinforcement shall not be less than 0.005
times gross area of supported member, with a mini- 4.5.1.1 Application
mum of four bars.
Piling may be considered when footings cannot be
4.4.11.5.5 Dowel Size founded on rock, or on granular or stiff cohesive soils
Diameter of dowels, if used, shall not exceed diameter within a reasonable depth. At locations where soil condi-
of longitudinal reinforcement by more than 0.15 inch. tions would normally permit the use of spread footings but
the potential for scour exists, piles may be used as a pro-
4.4.11.5.6 Development Length tection against scour. Piles may also be used where an un-
acceptable amount of settlement of spread footings may
For transfer of force by reinforcement, development of occur.
reinforcement in supporting and supported member shall
be in accordance with Articles 8.24 through 8.32.
4.5.1.2 Materials
4.4.11.5.7 Splicing
Piles may be structural steel sections, steel pipe, pre-
At footings, No. 14 and 18 main longitudinal rein- cast concrete, cast-in-place concrete, prestressed con-
forcement, in compression only, may be lap spliced with crete, timber, or a combination of materials. In every case,
footing dowels to provide the required area, but not less materials shall be supplied in accordance with the provi-
than that required by Article 4.4.11.5.4. Dowels shall not sions of this article.
be larger than No. 11 and shall extend into the column a
distance of not less than the development length of the No.
4.5.1.3 Penetration
14 or 18 bars or the splice length of the dowels, whichever
is greater; and into the footing a distance of not less than
Pile penetration shall be determined based on vertical
the development length of the dowels.
and lateral load capacities of both the pile and subsurface
materials. In general, the design penetration for any pile
shall be not less than 10 feet into hard cohesive or dense
4.4.11.6 Unreinforced Concrete Footings
granular material nor less than 20 feet into soft cohesive
or loose granular material. Where the depth to dense ma-
4.4.11.6.1 Design Stress
terial or rock is less than 10 feet, spread footings should
Design stresses in plain concrete footings or pedestals be considered. Piles for trestle or pile bents shall meet the
shall be computed assuming a linear stress distribution. above requirements and, additionally, unless refusal is en-
For footings and pedestals cast against soil, effective countered, shall penetrate not less than 1⁄ 3 the unsupported
thickness used in computing stresses shall be taken as the length of the pile.
4.5.1.4 Lateral Tip Restraint 4.5.2 Pile Types
No piling shall be used to penetrate a soft or loose Piles shall be classified as “friction” or “end bearing”
upper stratum overlying a hard or firm stratum unless the or a combination of both according to the manner in
piles penetrate the hard or firm stratum by a sufficient dis- which load transfer is developed.
tance to fix the ends against lateral movement of the pile
tip. Driving points or shoes may be necessary to accom-
4.5.2.1 Friction Piles
plish this penetration.
A pile shall be considered to be a friction pile if the
4.5.1.5 Estimated Lengths
major portion of support capacity is derived from soil re-
sistance mobilized along the side of the embedded pile.
Estimated pile lengths for each substructure shall be
shown on the plans and shall be based upon careful eval-
uation of available subsurface information, static and lat- 4.5.2.2 End Bearing Piles
eral capacity calculations, and/or past experience.
A pile shall be considered to be an end bearing pile if
4.5.1.6 Estimated and Minimum Tip Elevation the major portion of support capacity is derived from the
resistance of the foundation material on which the pile tip
Estimated and minimum pile tip elevations for each rests.
substructure should be shown on the contract plans. Esti-
mated pile tip elevations shall reflect the elevation where
4.5.2.3 Combination Friction and End Bearing
the required ultimate pile capacity can be obtained. Min-
Piles
imum pile tip elevations shall reflect the penetration re-
quired to support lateral pile loads (including scour con-
Under certain soil conditions and for certain pile ma-
siderations where appropriate) and/or penetration of
terials, the bearing capacity of a pile may be considered as
overlying, unsuitable soil strata.
the sum of the resistance mobilized on the embedded shaft
and that developed at the pile tip, even though the forces
4.5.1.7 Piles Through Embankment Fill that are mobilized simultaneously are not necessarily
maximum values.
Piles to be driven through embankments shall pene-
trate a minimum of 10 feet through original ground unless
refusal on bedrock or competent bearing strata occurs at a 4.5.2.4 Batter Piles
lesser penetration. Fill used for embankment construction
shall be a select material which shall not obstruct pile pen- When the lateral resistance of the soil surrounding the
etration to the required depth. The maximum size of any piles is inadequate to counteract the horizontal forces
rock particles in the fill shall not exceed 6 inches. Pre- transmitted to the foundation, or when increased rigidity
drilling or spudding pile locations may be required, par- of the entire structure is required, batter piles should be
ticularly for displacement piles. used in the foundation. Where negative skin friction loads
are expected, batter piles should be avoided, and an alter-
4.5.1.8 Test Piles nate method of providing lateral restraint should be used.
Test piles shall be considered for each substructure unit 4.5.3 Notations
(See Article 7.1.1 for definition of substructure unit) to de-
termine pile installation characteristics, evaluate pile ca- The following notations shall apply for the design of
pacity with depth and to establish contractor pile order driven pile foundations:
lengths. Piles may be tested by static loading, dynamic
testing, conducting driveability studies, or a combination As 5 Area of pile circumference (ft2)
thereof, based upon the knowledge of subsurface condi- At 5 Area of pile tip (ft2)
tions. The number of test piles required may be increased B 5 Pile diameter or width (ft)
in non-uniform subsurface conditions. Test piles may not fc95 Concrete compression strength (ksi)
be required where previous experience exists with the fpe5 Concrete compression stress due to prestressing
same pile type and ultimate pile capacity in similar sub- after all losses (ksi)
surface conditions. FS 5 Factor of safety (dim)
Fy 5 Yield strength of steel (ksi) The allowable design axial capacity shall be deter-
L 5 Pile length (ft) mined from:
Qall 5 Design capacity (k)
QS 5 Ultimate shaft resistance (k) Qall 5 Qult/FS (4.5.6.1-2)
QT 5 Ultimate tip resistance (k)
Qult 5 Ultimate pile capacity (k) 4.5.6.1.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity
rs 5 Unit side resistance (ksi)
In determining the design axial capacity, consideration
Rs 5 Side resistance (k)
shall be given to:
rt 5 Unit tip resistance (ksi)
Rt 5 Tip resistance (k)
• The difference between the supporting capacity of a
r 5 Percentage of reinforcement (dim)
single pile and that of a group of piles;
sa 5 Allowable stress (ksi)
• The capacity of an underlying strata to support the
load of the pile group;
The notations for dimension units include the follow- • The effects of driving piles on adjacent structures or
ing: dim 5 Dimensionless; ft 5 foot; square feet 5 ft2; slopes;
k 5 kip; ksi 5 kip/in.2; and in. 5 inch. The dimensional • The possibility of scour and its effect on axial and
units provided with each notation are presented for illus- lateral capacity;
tration only to demonstrate a dimensionally correct com- • The effects of negative skin friction or downdrag
bination of units for the footing capacity procedures pre- loads from consolidating soil and the effects of up-
sented herein. If other units are used, the dimensional lift loads from expansive or swelling soils;
correctness of the equations shall be confirmed. • The influence of construction techniques such as
augering or jetting on capacity; and
4.5.4 Design Terminology • The influence of fluctuations in the elevation of the
ground water table on capacity.
Refer to Figure 4.5.4A for terminology used in the de-
sign of driven pile foundations. 4.5.6.1.2 Axial Capacity in Cohesive Soils
The ultimate axial capacity of piles in cohesive soils
4.5.5 Selection of Soil and Rock Properties
may be calculated using a total stress method (e.g., Tom-
linson, 1957) for undrained loading conditions, or an ef-
Soil and rock properties defining the strength and com-
fective stress method (e.g., Meyerhof, 1976) for drained
pressibility characteristics of the foundation materials, are
loading conditions. The axial capacity may also be calcu-
required for driven pile design. Refer to Article 4.3 for
lated from in-situ testing methods such as the cone pene-
guidelines for subsurface exploration to obtain soil and
tration (e.g., Schmertmann, 1978) or pressuremeter tests
rock properties.
(e.g., Baguelin, 1978).
4.5.6 Selection of Design Pile Capacity 4.5.6.1.3 Axial Capacity in Cohesionless Soils
The design pile capacity is the maximum load the The ultimate axial capacity of piles in cohesionless
pile shall support with tolerable movement. In determin- soils may be calculated using an empirical effective stress
ing the design pile capacity, the following items shall be method (e.g., Nordlund, 1963) or from in-situ testing
considered: methods and analysis such as the cone penetration (e.g.,
Schmertmann, 1978) or pressuremeter tests (e.g.,
• Ultimate geotechnical capacity; and Baguelin, 1978).
• Structural capacity of the pile section.
4.5.6.1.4 Axial Capacity on Rock
4.5.6.1 Ultimate Geotechnical Capacity For piles driven to competent rock, the structural ca-
pacity in Article 4.5.7 will generally govern the design
The ultimate axial capacity of a driven pile shall be de- axial capacity. For piles driven to weak rock such as shale
termined from: and mudstone or poor quality weathered rock, a static load
test is recommended. Pile relaxation should be considered
Qult 5 QS 1 QT (4.5.6.1-1) in certain kinds of rock when performing load tests.
FIGURE 4.5.4A Design Terminology for Driven Pile Foundations
4.5.6.2 Factor of Safety Selection 4.5.6.3 Settlement
The selection of the factor of safety to be applied to The settlement of axially loaded piles and pile groups
the ultimate axial geotechnical capacity shall consider at the allowable loads shall be estimated. Elastic analysis,
the reliability of the ultimate soil capacity determination load transfer and/or finite element techniques (e.g., Vesic,
and pile installation control. Recommended values for 1977 or Poulos and Davis, 1980) may be used. The set-
the factor of safety depending upon the degree of con- tlement of the pile or pile group shall not exceed the tol-
struction control specified on the plans are presented in erable movement limits of the structure.
Table 4.5.6.2A. All factors of safety are based on full-
time observation of pile installation. The design pile ca- 4.5.6.4 Group Pile Loading
pacity shall be specified on the plans so the factor of
safety can be adjusted if the specified construction con- Group pile capacity should be determined as the prod-
trol is altered. uct of the group efficiency, number of piles in the group,
TABLE 4.5.6.2A Recommended Factor of Safety on 4.5.6.6.2 Pile Group

Ultimate Geotechnical Capacity Based on Specified
Construction Control The uplift design capacity for a pile group shall be the
lesser of: (1) The single pile uplift design capacity multi-
Increasing Construction plied by the number of piles in the group, or (2) two-thirds
Control of the effective weight of the pile group and the soils con-
(1)
tained within a block defined by the perimeter of the
Subsurface exploration X X X X X
Static calculation X X X X X group and the embedded length of the piles, or (3) one-
Dynamic formula X half the effective weight of the pile group and the soil con-
Wave equation X X X X tained within a block defined by the perimeter of the
Dynamic measurement X X
and analysis group and the embedded pile length plus one-half the total
Static load test X X soil shear on the peripheral surface of the group.
(2)
Factor of safety 3.50 2.75 2.25 2.00 1.90
X 5 Construction Control Specified on Contract Plans.

(1) 4.5.6.7 Vertical Ground Movement
(2)
For any combination of construction control that includes an
approved static load test, a factor of safety of 2.0 may be used.
The potential for external loading on a pile by vertical
ground movements shall be considered as part of the de-
sign. Vertical ground movements may result in negative
and the capacity of a single pile. In general, a group effi- skin friction or downdrag loads due to settlement of com-
ciency value of 1.0 should be used except for friction piles pressible soils or may result in uplift loads due to heave of
in cohesive soils. The efficiency factor for friction piles in expansive soils. For design purposes, the full magnitude
cohesive soils with a center-to-center pile spacing less of maximum vertical ground movement shall be assumed.
than 3.0B should be 0.7. Center-to-center pile spacings
less than 2.5B are not recommended. 4.5.6.7.1 Negative Skin Friction
The potential for external loading on a pile by negative
4.5.6.5 Lateral Loads on Piles skin friction/downdrag due to settlement of compressible
soil shall be considered as a part of the design. Evaluation
The design of laterally loaded piles is usually governed of negative skin friction shall include a load-transfer
by lateral movement criteria. The design of laterally method of analysis to determine the neutral point (i.e.,
loaded piles shall account for the effects of soil/rock- point of zero relative displacement) and load distribution
structure interaction between the pile and ground (e.g., along shaft (e.g., Fellenius, 1984, Reese and O’Neill,
Reese, 1984). Methods of analysis evaluating the ultimate 1988). Due to the possible time dependence associated
capacity or deflection of laterally loaded piles (e.g., with vertical ground movement, the analysis shall con-
Broms, 1964a and 1964b; Singh, et al., 1971) may be used sider the effect of time on load transfer between the
for preliminary design only as a means to evaluate appro- ground and shaft and the analysis shall be performed for
priate pile sections. the time period relating to the maximum axial load trans-
fer to the pile. If necessary, negative skin friction loads
4.5.6.6 Uplift Loads on Piles that cause excessive settlement may be reduced by appli-
cation of bitumen or other viscous coatings to the pile sur-
The uplift design capacity of single piles and pile faces before installation.
groups shall be determined in accordance with Articles
4.5.6.6.1 and 4.5.6.6.2, respectively. Proper provision 4.5.6.7.2 Expansive Soil
shall be made for anchorage of the pile into the pile cap.
Piles driven in swelling soils may be subjected to up-
lift forces in the zone of seasonal moisture change. Piles
4.5.6.6.1 Single Pile
shall extend a sufficient distance into moisture—stable
The uplift design capacity for a single pile shall not ex- soils to provide adequate resistance to swelling uplift
ceed one-third of the ultimate frictional capacity deter- forces. In addition, sufficient clearance shall be provided
mined by a static analysis method. Alternatively, the uplift between the ground surface and the underside of pile caps
capacity of a single pile can be determined by uplift load or grade beams to preclude the application of uplift loads
tests in conformance with ASTM D 3689 (ASTM, 1988). at the pile cap. Uplift loads may be reduced by application
If determined by load tests, the allowable uplift design ca- of bitumen or other viscous coatings to the pile surface in
pacity shall not exceed 50% of the failure uplift load. the swelling zone.
4.5.6.8 Dynamic/Seismic Design TABLE 4.5.7.3A Allowable Working Stress for

Round Timber Piles
Refer to Division I-A for guidance regarding the design
of driven piles subjected to dynamic and seismic loads. Allowable Unit Working
Stress Compression
Parallel to Grain for
4.5.7 Structural Capacity of Pile Section
Normal Duration of
Species Loading sa (psi)
4.5.7.1 Load Capacity Requirements
Ash, white 1,200
Piles shall be designed as structural members capable Beech 1,300
of safely supporting all loads imposed on them by the Birch 1,300
structure or surrounding soil. Chestnut , 900
Cypress, Southern 1,200
Cypress, Tidewater red 1,200
4.5.7.2 Piles Extending Above Ground Surface
Douglas Fir, coast type 1,200
Douglas Fir, inland 1,100
For portions of piles in air or water, or in soil not ca- Elm, rock 1,300
pable of providing adequate lateral support throughout the Elm, soft , 850
pile length to prevent buckling, the structural design pro- Gum, black and red , 850
visions for compression members of Sections 8, 9, 10, and Hemlock, Eastern , 800
13 shall apply except: timber piles shall be designed in ac- Hemlock, West Coast 1,000
cordance with Article 13.5 using the allowable unit Hickory 1,650
stresses given in Article 13.2 for lumber and in Table Larch 1,200
4.5.7.3A. Maple, hard 1,300
Oak, red and white 1,100
Pecan 1,650
4.5.7.3 Allowable Stresses in Piles
Pine, Lodgepole , 800
Pine, Norway , 850
The maximum allowable stress on a pile shall not ex- Pine, Southern 1,200
ceed the following limits in severe subsurface conditions. Pine, Southern, dense 1,400
Where pile damage or deterioration is possible, it may be Poplar, yellow , 800
prudent to use a lower stress level than the maximum al- Redwood 1,100
lowable stress. Spruce, Eastern , 850
Tupelo , 850
• For steel H-piles, the maximum allowable stress
shall not exceed 0.25Fy over the cross-sectional area
of the pile, not including the area of any tip rein-
forcement. The maximum allowable stress may be • For precast concrete piles, the maximum allowable
increased to 0.33Fy in conditions where pile damage stress shall not exceed 0.33f9c on the gross cross-sec-
is unlikely. Static and/or dynamic load test and eval- tional area of the concrete.
uation confirming satisfactory results should be per- • For prestressed concrete piles fully embedded in
formed when using 0.33Fy. soils providing lateral support, the maximum allow-
• For unfilled steel pipe piles, the maximum allowable able stress shall not exceed 0.33fc9 2 0.27fpe on the
stress shall not exceed 0.25Fy over the minimum gross cross-sectional area of the concrete.
cross-sectional area of the pile. The maximum al- • For round timber piles, the maximum allowable
lowable stress may be increased to 0.33Fy in condi- stress shall not exceed the values in Table 4.5.7.3A
tions where pile damage is unlikely. Static and/or for the pile tip area. For sawn timber piles, the val-
dynamic load test and evaluation confirming satis- ues applicable to “wet condition” for allowable com-
factory results should be performed when using pression parallel to grain shall be used in accordance
0.33Fy. with Article 13.2.
• For concrete filled steel pipe piles, the maximum
allowable stress shall not exceed 0.25Fy 1 0.40fc9 4.5.7.4 Cross-Section Adjustment for Corrosion
applied over the cross-sectional area of the steel
pipe and on the cross-sectional area of the concrete, For concrete-filled pipe piles where corrosion may be
respectively. expected, 1⁄ 16 inch shall be deducted from the shell thick-
ness to allow for reduction in section due to corrosion.

Steel piles 0.90Fy (Compression)
Area of shell shall be included in determining percentage
0.90Fy (Tension)
of reinforcement, r.
Concrete piles 0.85fc9 (Compression)
0.70Fy of Steel Reinforcement
4.5.7.5 Scour (Tension)
Prestressed concrete piles 0.85fc9 2 fpe (Compression)
The probable depth of scour shall be determined by Normal environments 3 Ïfw9cw 1 fpe (Tension)
subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies as described (fc9 and fpe must be in psi.
in Article 4.3.5. If heavy scour is expected, consideration The resulting max stress
shall be given to designing the portion of the pile that is also in psi.)
would be exposed as a column. In all cases, the pile length Severe corrosive
shall be determined such that the design structural load environments fpe (Tension)
may be safely supported entirely below the probable scour Timber piles 3sa (Compression)
depth. The pile shall be of adequate cross-section to with- 3sa (Tension)
stand the driving necessary to penetrate through the an-
ticipated scour depth to the design embedment. Driving stresses may be estimated by performing wave
equation analyses or by dynamic monitoring of force and
4.5.8 Protection Against Corrosion and Abrasion acceleration at the pile head during pile driving.
Where conditions of exposure warrant, concrete en-

4.5.12 Tolerable Movement
casement or other corrosion protection shall be used on
steel piles and steel shells. Exposed steel piles or steel
Tolerable axial and lateral displacement criteria for driv-
shells shall not be used in salt or brackish water, and only
en pile foundations shall be developed by the structural
with caution in fresh water. Where the piling is exposed to
engineer consistent with the function and type of struc-
the abrasive action of the bed load of materials, the sec-
ture, fixity of bearings, anticipated service life, and con-
tion shall be increased in thickness or positive protection
sequences of unacceptable displacements on the structural
shall be provided.
performance. Driven pile displacement analyses shall be
based on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to
4.5.9 Wave Equation Analysis characterize the load deformation behavior of the founda-
tion materials. Refer to Article 4.4.7.2.5 for additional
The constructability of the pile foundation design guidance regarding tolerable vertical and horizontal
should be evaluated using a wave equation computer pro- movement criteria.
gram. The wave equation should be used to confirm that
the design pile section can be installed to the desired
depth, ultimate capacity, and within the allowable driving 4.5.13 Buoyancy
stress levels specified in Article 4.5.11 using an appropri-
ately sized driving system. The effect of hydrostatic pressure shall be considered
in the design as provided in Article 3.19.
4.5.10 Dynamic Monitoring
4.5.14 Protection Against Deterioration
Dynamic monitoring may be specified for piles in-
stalled in difficult subsurface conditions such as soils with 4.5.14.1 Steel Piles
obstructions and boulders, or a steeply sloping bedrock
surface to evaluate compliance with structural pile capac- A steel pile foundation design shall consider that steel
ity. Dynamic monitoring may also be considered for ge- piles may be subject to corrosion, particularly in fill soils,
otechnical capacity verification where the size of the proj- low ph soils (acidic) and marine environments. A field
ect or other limitations deter static load testing. electric resistivity survey, or resistivity testing and ph test-
ing of soil and ground water samples should be used to
4.5.11 Maximum Allowable Driving Stresses evaluate the corrosion potential. Methods of protecting
steel piling in corrosive environments include use of pro-
Maximum allowable driving stresses in pile material tective coatings, cathodic protection, and increased pile
for top driven piles shall not exceed the following limits: steel area.
4.5.14.2 Concrete Piles 4.5.16 Precast Concrete Piles
A concrete pile foundation design shall consider that 4.5.16.1 Size and Shape
deterioration of concrete piles can occur due to sulfates in
soil, ground water, or sea water; chlorides in soils and Precast concrete piles shall be of approved size and
chemical wastes; acidic ground water and organic acids. shape but may be either of uniform section or tapered. In
Laboratory testing of soil and ground water samples for general, tapered piling shall not be used for trestle con-
sulfates and ph is usually sufficient to assess pile deterio- struction except for the portion of the pile which lies
ration potential. A full chemical analysis of soil and below the ground line; nor shall tapered piles be used in
ground water samples is recommended when chemical any location where the piles are to act as columns.
wastes are suspected. Methods of protecting concrete pil-
ing can include dense impermeable concrete, sulfate re- 4.5.16.2 Minimum Area
sisting portland cement, minimum cover requirements for
reinforcing steel, and use of epoxies, resins, or other pro- In general, concrete piles shall have a cross-sectional
tective coatings. area, measured above the taper, of not less than 98 square
inches. In saltwater a minimum cross-sectional area of
4.5.14.3 Timber Piles 140 square inches shall be used. If a square section is em-
ployed, the corners shall be chamfered at least 1 inch.
A timber pile foundation design shall consider that de-
terioration of timber piles can occur due to decay from 4.5.16.3 Minimum Diameter of Tapered Piles
wetting and drying cycles or from insects or marine bor-
ers. Methods of protecting timber piling include pressure The diameter of tapered piles measured at the point
treating with creosote or other wood preservers. shall be not less than 8 inches. In all cases the diameter
shall be considered as the least dimension through the
4.5.15 Spacing, Clearances, and Embedment center.
4.5.15.1 Pile Footings 4.5.16.4 Driving Points
4.5.15.1.1 Pile Spacing Piles preferably shall be cast with a driving point and,
Pile footings shall be proportioned such that the mini- for hard driving, preferably shall be shod with a metal
mum center-to-center pile spacing shall exceed the greater shoe of approved pattern.
of 2 feet 6 inches or 2.5 pile diameters/widths. The dis-
tance from the side of any pile to the nearest edge of the 4.5.16.5 Vertical Reinforcement
pile footing shall not be less than 9 inches.
Vertical reinforcement shall consist of not less than
4.5.15.1.2 Minimum Projection into Cap four bars spaced uniformly around the perimeter of the
pile, except that if more than four bars are used, the num-
The tops of piles shall project not less than 12 inches ber may be reduced to four in the bottom 4 feet of the pile.
into concrete after all damaged pile material has been re- The amount of reinforcement shall be at least 11⁄ 2 percent
moved, but in special cases, it may be reduced to 6 of the total section measured above the taper.
inches.
4.5.16.6 Spiral Reinforcement
4.5.15.2 Bent Caps
The full length of vertical steel shall be enclosed with
Where a reinforced concrete beam is cast-in-place spiral reinforcement or equivalent hoops. The spiral rein-
and used as a bent cap supported by piles, the concrete forcement at the ends of the pile shall have a pitch of 3
cover at the sides of the piles shall be a minimum of 6 inches and gage of not less than No. 5 (U.S. Steel Wire
inches. The piles shall project at least 6 inches and Gage). In addition, the top 6 inches of the pile shall have
preferably 9 inches into the cap, although concrete piles five turns of spiral winding at 1-inch pitch. For the re-
may project a lesser distance into the cap if the projec- mainder of the pile, the lateral reinforcement shall be a
tion of the pile reinforcement is sufficient to provide ad- No. 5 gage spiral with not more than 6-inch pitch, or 1⁄ 4-
equate bond. inch round hoops spaced on not more than 6-inch centers.
4.5.16.7 Reinforcement Cover equate lateral restraint. Where the shell is smooth pipe and
more than 0.12 inch in thickness, it may be considered as
The reinforcement shall be placed at a clear distance load carrying in the absence of corrosion. Where the shell
from the face of the pile of not less than 2 inches and, is corrugated and is at least 0.075 inch in thickness, it may
when piles are used in saltwater or alkali soils, this clear be considered as providing confinement in the absence of
distance shall not be less than 3 inches. corrosion.
4.5.16.8 Splices 4.5.17.5 Reinforcement into Superstructure
Piles may be spliced provided that the splice develops Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided at the junc-
the full strength of the pile. Splices should be detailed on tion of the pile with the superstructure to make a suitable
the contract plans. Any alternative method of splicing that connection. The embedment of the reinforcement into the
provides equal results may be considered for approval. cap shall be as specified for precast piles.
4.5.16.9 Handling Stresses 4.5.17.6 Shell Requirements
In computing stresses due to handling, the static loads The shell shall be of sufficient thickness and strength
shall be increased by 50% as an allowance for impact and so that it will hold its original form and show no harmful
shock. distortion after it and adjacent shells have been driven and
the driving core, if any, has been withdrawn. The plans
4.5.17 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles shall stipulate that alternative designs of the shell must be
approved by the Engineer before any driving is done.
4.5.17.1 Materials
4.5.17.7 Splices
Cast-in-place concrete piles shall be, in general, cast in
metal shells that shall remain permanently in place. How- Piles may be spliced provided the splice develops the
ever, other types of cast-in-place piles, plain or reinforced, full strength of the pile. Splices should be detailed on the
cased or uncased, may be used if the soil conditions per- contract plans. Any alternative method of splicing pro-
mit their use and if their design and method of placing are viding equal results may be considered for approval.
satisfactory.
4.5.17.8 Reinforcement Cover
4.5.17.2 Shape
The reinforcement shall be placed a clear distance of
Cast-in-place concrete piles may have a uniform cross- not less than 2 inches from the cased or uncased sides.
section or may be tapered over any portion. When piles are in corrosive or marine environments, or
when concrete is placed by the water or slurry displace-
4.5.17.3 Minimum Area ment methods, the clear distance shall not be less than
3 inches for uncased piles and piles with shells not suffi-
The minimum area at the butt of the pile shall be 100 ciently corrosion resistant.
inches and the minimum diameter at the tip of the pile
shall be 8 inches. Above the butt or taper, the minimum 4.5.18 Steel H-Piles
size shall be as specified for precast piles.
4.5.18.1 Metal Thickness
4.5.17.4 General Reinforcement Requirements
Steel piles shall have a minimum thickness of web of
Cast-in-place piles, carrying axial loads only where the 0.400 inch. Splice plates shall not be less than 3⁄ 8 in. thick.
possibility of lateral forces being applied to the piles is in-
significant, need not be reinforced where the soil provides 4.5.18.2 Splices
adequate lateral support. Those portions of cast-in-place
concrete piles that are not supported laterally shall be de- Piles shall be spliced to develop the net section of pile.
signed as reinforced concrete columns in accordance with The flanges and web shall be either spliced by butt weld-
Articles 8.15.4 and 8.16.4, and the reinforcing steel shall ing or with plates that are welded, riveted, or bolted.
extend 10 feet below the plane where the soil provides ad- Splices shall be detailed on the contract plans. Prefabri-
cated splicers may be used if the splice can develop the a portion of the pile, the pile will be investigated for col-
net section of the pile in compression, tension, shear, and umn action. The provisions of Article 4.5.8 shall apply to
bending. unfilled tubular steel piles.
4.5.18.3 Caps 4.5.20 Prestressed Concrete Piles
In general, caps are not required for steel piles embed- 4.5.20.1 Size and Shape
ded in concrete.
Prestressed concrete piles that are generally octagonal,
4.5.18.4 Lugs, Scabs, and Core-Stoppers square or circular shall be of approved size and shape. Air
entrained concrete shall be used in piles that are subject to
These devices may be used to increase the bearing ca- freezing and thawing or wetting and drying. Concrete in
pacity of the pile where necessary. They may consist of prestressed piles shall have a minimum compressive
structural shapes—welded, riveted, or bolted—of plates strength, fc9, of 5,000 psi at 28 days. Prestressed concrete
welded between the flanges, or of timber or concrete piles may be solid or hollow. For hollow piles, precau-
blocks securely fastened. tionary measures should be taken to prevent breakage due
to internal water pressure during driving, ice pressure in
4.5.18.5 Point Attachments trestle piles, and gas pressure due to decomposition of ma-
terial used to form the void.
If pile penetration through cobbles, boulders, debris fill
or obstructions is anticipated, pile tips shall be reinforced 4.5.20.2 Main Reinforcement
with structural shapes or with prefabricated cast steel
points. Cast steel points shall meet the requirements of Main reinforcement shall be spaced and stressed so as
ASTM A 27. to provide a compressive stress on the pile after losses, fpe,
general not less than 700 psi to prevent cracking during
4.5.19 Unfilled Tubular Steel Piles handling and installation. Piles shall be designed to resist
stresses developed during handling as well as under ser-
4.5.19.1 Metal Thickness vice load conditions. Bending stresses shall be investi-
gated for all conditions of handling, taking into account
Piles shall have a minimum thickness not less than in- the weight of the pile plus 50-percent allowance for im-
dicated in the following table: pact, with tensile stresses limited to 5Ïfw9cw.
Outside Diameter Less than 14 inches 4.5.20.3 Vertical Reinforcement

14 inches and over
Wall Thickness 0.25 inch 0.375 inch The full length of vertical reinforcement shall be en-
closed within spiral reinforcement. For piles up to 24
4.5.19.2 Splices inches in diameter, spiral wire shall be No. 5 (U.S. Steel
Wire Gage). Spiral reinforcement at the ends of these piles
Piles shall be spliced to develop the full section of the shall have a pitch of 3 inches for approximately 16 turns.
pile. The piles shall be spliced either by butt welding or In addition, the top 6 inches of pile shall have five turns of
by the use of welded sleeves. Splices shall be detailed on spiral winding at 1-inch pitch. For the remainder of the
the contract plans. pile, the vertical steel shall be enclosed with spiral rein-
forcement with not more than 6-inch pitch. For piles hav-
4.5.19.3 Driving ing diameters greater than 24 inches, spiral wire shall be
No. 4 (U.S. Steel Wire Gage). Spiral reinforcement at the
Tubular steel piles may be driven either closed or open end of these piles shall have a pitch of 2 inches for ap-
ended. Closure plates should not extend beyond the proximately 16 turns. In addition, the top 6 inches of pile
perimeter of the pile. shall have four turns of spiral winding at 11⁄ 2 inches. For
the remainder of the pile, the vertical steel shall be en-
4.5.19.4 Column Action closed with spiral reinforcement with not more than 4-
inch pitch. The reinforcement shall be placed at a clear
Where the piles are to be used as part of a bent struc- distance from the face of the prestressed pile of not less
ture or where heavy scour is anticipated that would expose than 2 inches.
4.5.20.4 Hollow Cylinder Piles 4.6.1.1 Application
Large diameter hollow cylinder piles shall be of ap- Drilled shafts may be considered when spread footings
proved size and shape. The wall thickness for cylinder cannot be founded on suitable soil or rock strata within a
piles shall not be less than 5 inches. The grouting of post- reasonable depth and when piles are not economically vi-
tensioning tendons shall be in accordance with Article able due to high loads or obstructions to driving. Drilled
4.33.9, Division II. shafts may be used in lieu of spread footings as a protec-
tion against scour. Drilled shafts may also be considered
4.5.20.5 Splices to resist high lateral or uplift loads when deformation tol-
erances are small.
When prestressed concrete piles are spliced, the splice
shall be capable of developing the full section of the pile. 4.6.1.2 Materials
Splices shall be detailed on the contract plans.
Shafts shall be cast-in-place concrete and may include
4.5.21 Timber Piles deformed bar steel reinforcement, structural steel sections,
and/or permanent steel casing as required by design. In
4.5.21.1 Materials every case, materials shall be supplied in accordance with
the provisions of this Standard.
Timber piles shall conform to the requirements of the
“Specifications for Wood Products,” AASHTO M 168.
Timber piles shall be treated or untreated as indicated on 4.6.1.3 Construction
the contract plans. Preservative treatment shall conform to
the requirements of Section 16, “Preservative Treatments Drilled shafts may be constructed using the dry, casing,
for Lumber.” or wet method of construction, or a combination of meth-
ods. In every case, hole excavation, concrete placement,
4.5.21.2 Limitations on Untreated Timber and all other aspects of shaft construction shall be
Pile Use performed in conformance with the provisions of this
Standard.
Untreated timber piles may be used for temporary con-
struction, revetments, fenders, and similar work, and in 4.6.1.4 Embedment
permanent construction under the following conditions:
Shaft embedment shall be determined based on verti-
• For foundation piling when the cutoff is below per- cal and lateral load capacities of both the shaft and sub-
manent ground water level. surface materials.
• For trestle construction when it is economical to do
so, although treated piles are preferable.
• They shall not be used where they will, or may, be 4.6.1.5 Shaft Diameter
exposed to marine borers.
• They shall not be used where seismic design con- For rock-socketed shafts which require casing through
siderations are critical. the overburden soils, the socket diameter should be at
least 6 inches less than the inside diameter of the casing
4.5.21.3 Limitations on Treated Timber Pile Use to facilitate drill tool insertion and removal through the
casing. For rock-socketed shafts not requiring casing
Treated timber piles shall not be used where seismic through the overburden soils, the socket diameter can be
design considerations are critical. equal to the shaft diameter through the soil.
4.6 DRILLED SHAFTS 4.6.1.6 Batter Shafts
4.6.1 General The use of battered shafts to increase the lateral capac-
ity of foundations is not recommended due to their diffi-
The provisions of this article shall apply to the design culty of construction and high cost. Instead, consideration
of axially and laterally loaded drilled shafts in soil or ex- should first be given to increasing the shaft diameter to ob-
tending through soil to or into rock. tain the required lateral capacity.
4.6.1.7 Shafts Through Embankment Fill N 5 Standard penetration resistance (blows/ft)

N9 5 Standard penetration test blow count corrected
Shafts extending through embankments shall extend a for effects of overburden (blows/ft)
minimum of 10 feet into original ground unless bedrock Nc 5 Bearing capacity factor (dim); (See Article
or competent bearing strata occurs at a lesser penetration. 4.6.5.1.3)
Fill used for embankment construction shall be random Ni 5 Number of depth intervals into which shaft is di-
fill material having adequate capacity which shall not ob- vided for determination of side resistance (dim);
struct shaft construction to the required depth. Negative (See Articles 4.6.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.1.2)
skin friction loads due to settlement and consolidation of P 5 Lateral load on shaft (k)
embankment or underlying soils shall be evaluated for Q 5 Total axial compression load applied to shaft butt
shafts in embankments. (See Article 4.6.5.2.5.) (k)
qE 5 Ultimate unit tip capacity for an equivalent shaft
4.6.2 Notations for a group of shafts supported in strong layer
overlying weaker layer (ksf); (See Article
The following notations shall apply for the design of 4.6.5.2.4.3)
drilled shaft foundations in soil and rock: qLo 5 Ultimate unit tip capacity of an equivalent shaft
bearing in weaker underlying soil layer (ksf);
a 5 Tip bearing factor to account for large diameter (See Article 4.6.5.2.4.3)
shaft tip (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3) Qu 5 Total axial uplift load applied to shaft butt (k)
A 5 Area of shaft (ft2) qUP 5 Ultimate unit tip capacity of an equivalent shaft
At 5 Area of shaft tip (ft2) bearing in stronger upper soil layer (ksf); (See
b 5 Tip bearing factor to account for large diameter Article 4.6.5.2.4.3)
shaft tip (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3) QS 5 Ultimate side resistance in soil (k); (See Articles
B 5 Shaft diameter (ft); (See Article 4.6.3) 4.6.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.1.2)
Bb 5 Diameter of enlarged base (ft); (See Article qSR 5 Ultimate unit shear resistance along shaft/rock
4.6.3) interface (psi); (See Article 4.6.5.3.1)
Bl 5 Least width of shaft group (ft); (See Article QSR 5 Ultimate side resistance of rock socket (k); (See
4.6.5.2.4.3) Article 4.6.5.3.1)
Br 5 Diameter of rock socket (ft); (See Article 4.6.3) qT 5 Ultimate unit tip resistance for shafts (ksf); (See
Bt 5 Tip diameter (ft); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3) Articles 4.6.5.1.3 and 4.6.5.1.4)
Cm 5 Uniaxial compressive strength of rock mass qTR 5 Ultimate unit tip resistance for shafts reduced for
(ksf); (See Article 4.6.5.3.1) size effects (ksf); (See Equations 4.6.5.1.3-3 and
Co 5 Uniaxial compressive strength of intact rock 4.6.5.1.4-2)
(ksf) QT 5 Ultimate tip resistance in soil (k); (See Articles
D 5 Shaft length (ft); (See Article 4.6.3) 4.6.5.1.3 and 4.6.5.1.4)
Dr 5 Length of rock socket (ft); (See Article 4.6.3) QTR 5 Ultimate tip resistance of rock socket (k); (See
Ec 5 Elastic modulus of concrete shaft or reinforced Article 4.6.5.3.2)
shaft (ksf) Qult 5 Ultimate axial load capacity (k); (See Article
Eo 5 Elastic modulus of intact rock (ksf) 4.6.5.1)
Em 5 Elastic modulus of rock mass (ksf) RQD 5 Rock Quality Designation (dim)
FS 5 Factor of safety (dim) sui 5 Incremental undrained shear strength as a func-
fsi 5 Ultimate load transfer along shaft (ksf); (See Ar- tion over ith depth interval (ksf); (See Article
ticles 4.6.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.1.2) 4.6.5.1.1)
H 5 Distance from shaft tip to top of weak soil layer sut 5 Undrained shear strength within 2B below shaft
(ft); (See Article 4.6.5.2.4.3) tip (ksf); (See Article 4.6.5.1.3)
i 5 Depth interval (dim); (See Articles 4.6.5.1.1 and W 5 Weight of shaft (k)
4.6.5.1.2) zi 5 Depth to midpoint of ith interval (ft); (See Arti-
Irs 5 Displacement influence factor for rock-socketed cle 4.6.5.1.2)
shafts loaded in compression (dim); (See Article a 5 Adhesion factor (dim)
4.6.5.5.2) ai 5 Adhesion factor as a function over ith depth in-
Iru 5 Displacement influence factor for rock-socketed terval (dim); (See Article 4.6.5.1.1)
shafts loaded in uplift (dim); (See Article aE 5 Reduction factor to estimate rock mass modulus
4.6.5.5.2) and uniaxial strength from the modulus and
uniaxial strength of intact rock (dim); (See Article values used for design shall be confirmed by field and/or
4.6.5.3.1) laboratory testing.
bi 5 Load transfer factor in the ith interval (dim); (See
Article 4.6.5.1.2) 4.6.4.2 Measured Values
g9i 5 Effective soil unit weight in ith interval (kcf);
(See Article 4.6.5.1.2) Foundation stability and settlement analyses for final
Dzi 5 ith increment of shaft length (ft) design shall be performed using soil and rock properties
z 5 Factor to account for reduced individual capac- based on the results of field and/or laboratory testing.
ity of closely spaced shafts in group (dim); (See
Article 4.6.5.2.4.1)
re 5 Elastic shortening of shaft (ft); (See Articles 4.6.5 Geotechnical Design
4.6.5.5.1.1 and 4.6.5.5.1.2)
rs 5 Total settlement displacement at butt for shaft Drilled shafts shall be designed to support the design
with rock socket (ft); (See Article 4.6.5.5.2) loads with adequate bearing and structural capacity, and
ru 5 Total uplift displacement at butt for shaft with with tolerable settlements in conformance with Articles
rock socket (ft); (See Equation 4.6.5.5.2) 4.6.5 and 4.6.6. In addition, the response of drilled shafts
p 5 3.1415 (dim) subjected to seismic and dynamic loads, materials and
y 5 Poisson’s ratio (dim) shaft shall be evaluated in conformance with Articles
sc 5 Unconfined compressive strength of rock mass 4.4.7.3 (dynamic ground stability) and 4.6.5.7, respec-
or concrete, whichever is weaker (psi); (See Ar- tively.
ticle 4.6.5.3.1) Shaft design shall be based on working stress princi-
svi9 5 Effective vertical stress at midpoint of ith depth ples using maximum unfactored loads derived from cal-
interval (ksf); (See Article 4.6.5.1.2) culations of dead and live loads from superstructures, sub-
structures, earth (i.e., sloping ground), wind and traffic.
The notations for dimension units include the follow- Allowable axial and lateral loads may be determined by
ing: dim 5 Dimensionless; deg 5 degree; ft 5 foot; k 5 separate methods of analysis.
kip; k/ft 5 kip/ft; ksf 5 kip/ft2; and kcf 5 kip/ft3. The di- The design methods presented herein for determining
mensional units provided with each notation are presented axial load capacity assume drilled shafts of uniform cross-
for illustration only to demonstrate a dimensionally cor- section, with vertical alignment, concentric axial loading,
rect combination of units for the shaft capacity and settle- and a relatively horizontal ground surface. The effects of
ment procedures presented below. If other units are used, an enlarged base, group action, and sloping ground are
the dimensional correctness of the equations should be treated separately.
confirmed.
4.6.5.1 Axial Capacity in Soil
4.6.3 Design Terminology
The ultimate axial capacity (Qult) of drilled shafts shall
Refer to Figure 4.6.3A for terminology used in design be determined in accordance with the following for com-
of drilled shafts. pression and uplift loading, respectively:
Qult 5 QS 1 QT 2 W (4.6.5.1-1)
4.6.4 Selection of Soil and Rock Properties
Qult # 0.7QS 1 W (4.6.5.1-2)
Soil and rock properties defining the strength and com-
pressibility characteristics of the foundation materials are The allowable or working axial load shall be deter-
required for drilled shaft design. mined as:
4.6.4.1 Presumptive Values Qall 5 Qult/FS (4.6.5.1-3)
Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures on Shafts in cohesive soils may be designed by total and
soil and rock may be used only for guidance, preliminary effective stress methods of analysis, for undrained and
design or design of temporary structures. The use of pre- drained loading conditions, respectively. Shafts in cohe-
sumptive values shall be based on the results of subsur- sionless soils shall be designed by effective stress meth-
face exploration to identify soil and rock conditions. All ods of analysis for drained loading conditions.
FIGURE 4.6.3A Design Terminology for Drilled Shaft Foundations
4.6.5.1.1 Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil from a consolidating clay), effective stress methods (Ar-
ticle 4.6.5.1.2) should be used to compute QS in the zone
For shafts in cohesive soil loaded under undrained
where such changes may occur.
loading conditions, the ultimate side resistance may be es-
timated using the following:
4.6.5.1.2 Side Resistance in Cohesionless Soil
N
Q S = πB Σ α i Sui ∆z i ( 4.6.5.1.1 -1) For shafts in cohesionless soil or for effective stress
i =1
analysis of shafts in cohesive soils under drained loading
The ultimate unit load transfer in side resistance at any conditions, the ultimate side resistance of axially loaded
depth fsi is equal to the product of ai and sui. Refer to Table drilled shafts may be estimated using the following:
4.6.5.1.1A for guidance regarding selection of ai and lim- N
iting values of fsi for shafts excavated dry in open or cased Q S = πB Σ γ ′i z i β i ∆z i ( 4.6.5.1.2 -1)
i =1
holes. Environmental, long-term loading or construction
factors may dictate that a depth greater than 5 feet should The value of bi may be determined using the follow-
be ignored in estimating QS. Refer to Figure 4.6.5.1.1A ing:
for identification of portions of drilled shaft not consid-
ered in contributing to the computed value of QS. For β i = 1.5 − 0.135 z i ; 1.2 > β i > 0.25 ( 4.6.5.1.2 − 2)
shafts in cohesive soil under drained loading conditions,
QS may be determined using the procedure in Article The value of g9i should be determined from measure-
4.6.5.1.2. ments from undisturbed samples along the length of the
Where time-dependent changes in soil shear strength shaft or from empirical correlations with SPT or other in-
may occur (e.g., swelling of expansive clay or downdrag situ test methods. The ultimate unit load transfer in side
TABLE 4.6.5.1.1A Recommended Values of a and fsi resistance at any depth, fsi, is equal to the product of bi and
for Estimation of Drilled Shaft Side Resistance in svi9. The limiting value of fsi for shafts in cohesionless soil
Cohesive Soil Reese and O’Neill (1988) is 4 ksf.
4.6.5.1.3 Tip Resistance in Cohesive Soil

For axially loaded shafts in cohesive soil subjected to
undrained loading conditions, the ultimate tip resistance
of drilled shafts may be estimated using the following:
QT 5 qTAt 5 NcsutAt (4.6.5.1.3-1)
Values of the bearing capacity factor Nc may be deter-

mined using the following:
Nc 5 6.0[1 1 0.2(D/Bt)]; Nc # 9 (4.6.5.1.3-2)
The limiting value of unit end bearing (qT 5 Ncsut) is

80 ksf.
The value of sut should be determined from the results
of in-situ and/or laboratory testing of undisturbed samples
FIGURE 4.6.5.1.1A Identification of Portions of Drilled Shafts Neglected for Estimation of

Drilled Shaft Side Resistance in Cohesive Soil
Reese and O’Neill (1988)
obtained within a depth of 2B below the tip of the shaft. TABLE 4.6.5.1.4A Recommended Values of qT*
If the soil within 2B of the tip is of soft consistency, the for Estimation of Drilled Shaft Tip Resistance in
value of Nc should be reduced by one-third. Cohesionless Soil after Reese and O’Neill (1988)
If Bt . 6.25 feet (75 inches) and shaft settlements will Standard
not be evaluated, the value of qT should be reduced to qTR Penetration Resistance
as follows: N
(Blows/Foot) Value of qT
qTR 5 FrqT 5 (2.5/[aBt/12 1 2.5b])qT (4.6.5.1.3-3) (uncorrected) (ksf)
a 5 0.0071 1 0.0021(D/Bt); a # 0.015 (4.6.5.1.3-4) 0 to 75 1.20 N

Above 75 90
b 5 0.45(sut)0.5; 0.5 # b # 1.5 (4.6.5.1.3-5) *Ultimate value or value at settlement of 5 percent of base diameter.
The limiting value of qTR is 80 ksf.

For shafts in cohesive soil under drained loading con- given to the effects of negative skin friction (Article
ditions, QT may be estimated using the procedure de- 4.6.5.2.5) due to the consolidation settlement of soils sur-
scribed in Article 4.6.5.1.4. rounding the shaft. Where the shaft tip would bear on a
thin firm soil layer underlain by a softer soil unit, the shaft
4.6.5.1.4 Tip Resistance in Cohesionless Soil shall be extended through the softer soil unit to eliminate
the potential for a punching shear failure into the softer
For axially loaded drilled shafts in cohesionless soils
deposit.
or for effective stress analysis of axially loaded drilled
shafts in cohesive soil, the ultimate tip resistance may be
4.6.5.2.2 Ground Water
estimated using the following:
The highest anticipated water level shall be used for
QT 5 qTAt (4.6.5.1.4-1) design.
The value of qT may be determined from the results of 4.6.5.2.3 Enlarged Bases
standard penetration testing using uncorrected blow count
An enlarged base (bell or underream) may be used at
readings within a depth of 2B below the tip of the shaft.
the shaft tip in stiff cohesive soil to increase the tip bear-
Refer to Table 4.6.5.1.4A for recommended values of qT.
ing area and reduce the unit end bearing pressure, or to
If Bt . 4.2 feet (50 inches) and shaft settlements will
provide additional resistance to uplift loads.
not be evaluated, the value of qT should be reduced to qTR
The tip capacity of an enlarged base shall be deter-
as follows:
mined assuming that the entire base area is effective in
transferring load. Allowance of full effectiveness of the
qTR 5 (50/12Bt)qT (4.6.5.1.4-2)
enlarged base shall be permitted only when cleaning of
the bottom of the drilled hole is specified and can be ac-
4.6.5.2 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Soil
ceptably completed before concrete placement.
4.6.5.2.1 Soil Layering and Variable Soil Strength
4.6.5.2.4 Group Action
with Depth
Evaluation of group shaft capacity assumes the effects
The design of shafts in layered soil deposits or soil de-
of negative skin friction (if any) are negligible.
posits having variable strength with depth requires evalu-
ation of soil parameters characteristic of the respective
4.6.5.2.4.1 Cohesive Soil
layers or depths. QS in such soil deposits may be estimated
by dividing the shaft into layers according to soil type and Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesive soil
properties, determining QS for each layer, and summing shall consider the presence and contact of a cap with the
values for each layer to obtain the total QS. If the soil ground surface and the spacing between adjacent shafts.
below the shaft tip is of variable consistency, QT may be For a shaft group with a cap in firm contact with the
estimated using the predominant soil strata within 2B ground, Qult may be computed as the lesser of (1) the sum
below the shaft tip. of the individual capacities of each shaft in the group or
For shafts extending through soft compressible layers (2) the capacity of an equivalent pier defined in the
to tip bearing on firm soil or rock, consideration shall be perimeter area of the group. For the equivalent pier, the
shear strength of soil shall not be reduced by any factor design. For design purposes, it shall be assumed that the
(e.g., a1) to determine the QS component of Qult, the total full magnitude of maximum potential vertical ground
base area of the equivalent pier shall be used to determine movement occurs.
the QT component of Qult, and the additional capacity of Evaluation of negative skin friction shall include a
the cap shall be ignored. load-transfer method of analysis to determine the neutral
If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground, or if point (i.e., point of zero relative displacement) and load
the soil at the surface is loose or soft, the individual ca- distribution along shaft (e.g., Reese and O’Neill, 1988).
pacity of each shaft should be reduced to z times QT for an Due to the possible time dependence associated with ver-
isolated shaft, where z 5 0.67 for a center-to-center tical ground movement, the analysis shall consider the ef-
(CTC) spacing of 3B and z 5 1.0 for a CTC spacing of fect of time on load transfer between the ground and shaft
6B. For intermediate spacings, the value of z may be de- and the analysis shall be performed for the time period re-
termined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may lating to the maximum axial load transfer to the shaft.
then be computed as the lesser of (1) the sum of the mod- Shafts designed for and constructed in expansive soil
ified individual capacities of each shaft in the group, or (2) shall extend to a sufficient depth into moisture-stable soils
the capacity of an equivalent pier as described above. to provide adequate anchorage to resist uplift movement.
In addition, sufficient clearance shall be provided between
4.6.5.2.4.2 Cohesionless Soil the ground surface and underside of caps or beams con-
necting shafts to preclude the application of uplift loads at
Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesionless the shaft/cap connection from swelling ground conditions.
soil shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts. Uplift capacity shall rely only on side resistance in con-
Regardless of cap contact with the ground, the individual formance with Article 4.6.5.1. If the shaft has an enlarged
capacity of each shaft should be reduced to z times QT for base, QS shall be determined in conformance with Article
an isolated shaft, where z 5 0.67 for a center-to-center 4.6.5.2.3.
(CTC) spacing of 3B and z 5 1.0 for a CTC spacing of
8B. For intermediate spacings, the value of z may be de-
4.6.5.2.6 Method of Construction
termined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may
be computed as the lesser of (1) the sum of the modified The load capacity and deformation behavior of drilled
individual capacities of each shaft in the group or (2) the shafts can be greatly affected by the quality and method(s)
capacity of an equivalent pier circumscribing the group, of construction. The effects of construction methods are
including resistance over the entire perimeter and base incorporated in design by application of a factor of safety
areas. consistent with the expected construction method(s) and
level of field quality control measures (Article 4.6.5.4).
4.6.5.2.4.3 Group in Strong Soil Overlying Where the spacing between shafts in a group is re-
Weaker Soil stricted, consideration shall be given to the sequence of
construction to minimize the effect of adjacent shaft con-
If a group of shafts is embedded in a strong soil deposit struction operations on recently constructed shafts.
which overlies a weaker deposit (cohesionless and cohe-
sive soil), consideration shall be given to the potential for
4.6.5.3 Axial Capacity in Rock
a punching failure of the tip into the weaker soil strata. For
this case, the unit tip capacity of the equivalent shaft (qE)
Drilled shafts are socketed into rock to limit axial dis-
may be determined using the following:
placements, increase load capacity and/or provide fixity
for resistance to lateral loading. In determining the axial
qE 5 qLO 1 (H/10B1)(qUP 2 qLO) # qUP (4.6.5.2.4.3-1)
capacity of drilled shafts with rock sockets, the side resis-
tance from overlying soil deposits may be ignored.
If the underlying soil unit is a weaker cohesive soil
Typically, axial compression load is carried solely by
strata, careful consideration shall be given to the potential
the side resistance on a shaft socketed into rock until a
for large settlements in the weaker layer.
total shaft settlement (rs) on the order of 0.4 inches oc-
curs. At this displacement, the ultimate side resistance,
4.6.5.2.5 Vertical Ground Movement
QSR, is mobilized and slip occurs between the concrete
The potential for external loading on a shaft by verti- and rock. As a result of this slip, any additional load is
cal ground movement (i.e., negative skin friction/down- transferred to the tip.
drag due to settlement of compressible soil or uplift due The design procedures assume the socket is con-
to heave of expansive soil) shall be considered as a part of structed in reasonably sound rock that is little affected by
construction (i.e., does not rapidly degrade upon excava- 4.6.5.3.2 Tip Resistance
tion and/or exposure to air or water) and which is cleaned
Evaluation of ultimate tip resistance (QTR) for rock-
prior to concrete placement (i.e., free of soil and other de-
socketed drilled shafts shall consider the influence of rock
bris). If the rock is degradable, consideration of special
discontinuities. QTR for rock-socketed drilled shafts may
construction procedures, larger socket dimensions, or re-
be determined using the following:
duced socket capacities should be considered.
QTR 5 NmsCoAt (4.6.5.3.2-1)
4.6.5.3.1 Side Resistance
The ultimate side resistance (QSR) for shafts socketed Preferably, values of Co should be determined from the
into rock may be determined using the following: results of laboratory testing of rock cores obtained within
2B of the base of the footing. Where rock strata within this
QSR 5 pBrDr (0.144qSR) (4.6.5.3.1-1) interval are variable in strength, the rock with the lowest
capacity should be used to determine QTR. Alternatively,
Refer to Figure 4.6.5.3.1A for values of qSR. For uplift Table 4.4.8.1.2B may be used as a guide to estimate Co.
loading Qult of a rock socket shall be limited to 0.7QSR. For rocks defined by very poor quality, the value of QTR
The design of rock sockets shall be based on the un- cannot be less than the value of QT for an equivalent soil
confined compressive strength of the rock mass (Cm) or mass.
concrete, whichever is weaker (sc). Cm may be estimated
using the following relationship: 4.6.5.3.3 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity in Rock
Cm 5 aECo (4.6.5.3.1-2)
4.6.5.3.3.1 Rock Stratification
Refer to Article 4.4.8.2.2 for the procedure to deter- Rock stratification shall be considered in the design of
mine aE as a function of RQD. rock sockets as follows:
FIGURE 4.6.5.3.1A Procedure for Estimating Average Unit Shear for Smooth Wall Rock-Socketed Shafts
Horvath, et al. (1983)
• Sockets embedded in alternating layers of weak and 4.6.5.5 Deformation of Axially Loaded Shafts
strong rock shall be designed using the strength of
the weaker rock. The settlement of axially loaded shafts at working or
• The side resistance provided by soft or weathered allowable loads shall be estimated using elastic or load
rock should be neglected in determining the required transfer analysis methods. For most cases, elastic analysis
socket length where a socket extends into more com- will be applicable for design provided the stress levels in
petent underlying rock. Rock is defined as soft when the shaft are moderate relative to Qult. Where stress levels
the uniaxial compressive strength of the weaker rock are high, consideration should be given to methods of load
is less than 20% of that of the stronger rock, or transfer analysis.
weathered when the RQD is less than 20%.
• Where the tip of a shaft would bear on thin rigid rock 4.6.5.5.1 Shafts in Soil
strata underlain by a weaker unit, the shaft shall be
extended into or through the weaker unit (depending Settlements should be estimated for the design or
on load capacity or deformation requirements) to working load.
eliminate the potential for failure due to flexural ten-
sion or punching failure of the thin rigid stratum. 4.6.5.5.1.1 Cohesive Soil
• Shafts designed to bear on strata in which the rock
The short-term settlement of shafts in cohesive soil
surface is inclined should extend to a sufficient depth
may be estimated using Figures 4.6.5.5.1.1A and
to ensure that the shaft tip is fully bearing on the rock.
4.6.5.5.1.1B. The curves presented indicate the propor-
• Shafts designed to bear on rock strata in which bed-
tions of the ultimate side resistance (QS) and ultimate tip
ding planes are not perpendicular to the shaft axis resistance (QT) mobilized at various magnitudes of settle-
shall extend a minimum depth of 2B into the dipping ment. The total axial load on the shaft (Q) is equal to the
strata to minimize the potential for shear failure sum of the mobilized side resistance (QS) and mobilized
along natural bedding planes and other slippage sur- tip resistance (Qt).
faces associated with stratification. The settlement in Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1A incorporates the
effects of elastic shortening of the shaft provided the shaft
4.6.5.3.3.2 Rock Mass Discontinuities is of typical length (i.e., D , 100 ft). For longer shafts, the
The strength and compressibility of rock will be af- effects of elastic shortening may be estimated using the
fected by the presence of discontinuities (joints and frac- following:
tures). The influence of discontinuities on shaft behavior
will be dependent on their attitude, frequency and condi- re 5 PD/AEc (4.6.5.5.1.1-1)
tion, and shall be evaluated on a case-by-case basis as nec-
essary. For a shaft with an enlarged base in cohesive soil, the
diameter of the shaft at the base (Bb) should be used in
4.6.5.3.3.3 Method of Construction Figure 4.6.5.5.1.1B to estimate shaft settlement at the tip.
Refer to Article 4.4.7.2.3 for procedures to estimate the
The effect of the method of construction on the engi- consolidation settlement component for shafts extending
neering properties of the rock and the contact between the into cohesive soil deposits.
rock and shaft shall be considered as a part of the design
process.
4.6.5.5.1.2 Cohesionless Soil
4.6.5.4 Factors of Safety The short-term settlement of shafts in cohesion-
less soil may be estimated using Figures 4.6.5.5.1.2A
Drilled shafts in soil or socketed in rock shall be de- and 4.6.5.5.1.2B. The curves presented indicate the
signed for a minimum factor of safety of 2.0 against bear- proportions of the ultimate side resistance (QS) and
ing capacity failure (end bearing, side resistance or com- ultimate tip resistance (QT) mobilized at various magni-
bined) when the design is based on the results of a load test tudes of settlement. The total axial load on the shaft (Q)
conducted at the site. Otherwise, shafts shall be designed is equal to the sum of the mobilized side resistance (QS)
for a minimum factor of safety 2.5. The minimum recom- and mobilized tip resistance (Qt). Elastic shortening
mended factors of safety are based on an assumed normal of the shaft shall be estimated using the following rela-
level of field quality control during shaft construction. If a tionship:
normal level of field quality control cannot be assured,
higher minimum factors of safety shall be used. re 5 PD/AEc (4.6.5.5.1.2-1)
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.1.1A Load Transfer in

Side Resistance Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts in FIGURE 4.6.5.5.1.1B Load Transfer in
Cohesive Soil Tip Bearing Settlement Drilled Shafts in
After Reese and O’Neill (1988) Cohesive Soil
After Reese and O’Neill (1988)
4.6.5.5.1.3 Mixed Soil Profile
ru 5 Qu[(Iru/BrEm) 1 (D/AEc)] (4.6.5.5.2-2)
The short-term settlement of shafts in a mixed soil pro-
file may be estimated by summing the proportional settle-
Refer to Figure 4.6.5.5.2B to determine Ipu.
ment components from layers of cohesive and cohesion-
The rock mass modulus (Em) should be deter-
less soil comprising the subsurface profile.
mined based on the results of in-situ testing (e.g.,
pressure-meter) or estimated from the results of labora-
4.6.5.5.2 Shafts Socketed into Rock tory tests in which Em is the modulus of intact rock spec-
imens, and (Eo) is estimated in accordance with Article
In estimating the displacement of rock-socketed drilled 4.4.8.2.2.
shafts, the resistance to deformation provided by overly- For preliminary design or when site-specific test
ing soil deposits may be ignored. Otherwise, the load data cannot be obtained, guidelines for estimating
transfer to soil as a function of displacement may be esti- values of Eo, such as presented in Table 4.4.8.2.2B or
mated in accordance with Article 4.6.5.5.1. Figure 4.4.8.2.2A, may be used. For preliminary analyses
The butt settlement (rs) of drilled shafts fully sock- or for final design when in-situ test results are not
eted into rock may be determined using the following available, a value of aE 5 0.15 should be used to esti-
which is modified to include elastic shortening of the mate Em.
shaft:
rs 5 Q[(Irs/BrEm) 1 (Dr /AEc)] (4.6.5.5.2-1)
Tolerable axial displacement criteria for drilled shaft
foundations shall be developed by the structural designer
Refer to Figure 4.6.5.5.2A to determine Ips. consistent with the function and type of structure, fixity of
The uplift displacement (ru) at the butt of drilled shafts bearings, anticipated service life, and consequences of un-
fully socketed into rock may be determined using the fol- acceptable displacements on the structure performance.
lowing which is modified to include elastic shortening of Drilled shaft displacement analyses shall be based on the
the shaft: results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to characterize
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.1.2A Load Transfer in

FIGURE 4.6.5.5.1.2B Load Transfer in
Side Resistance Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts in
Tip Bearing Versus Settlement Drilled Shafts in
Cohesionless Soil
Cohesionless Soil
the load-deformation behavior of the foundation materials.

4.6.5.6.1.3 Scour
Refer to Article 4.4.7.2.5 for additional guidance regarding
tolerable vertical and horizontal movement criteria. The potential for loss of lateral capacity due to scour
shall be considered in the design. Refer to Article 1.3.2
4.6.5.6 Lateral Loading and FHWA (1988) for general guidance regarding hy-
draulic studies and design. If heavy scour is expected,
The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts shall ac- consideration shall be given to designing the portion of
count for the effects of soil/rock-structure interaction be- the shaft that would be exposed as a column. In all cases,
tween the shaft and ground (e.g., Reese, 1984; Borden and the shaft length shall be determined such that the design
Gabr, 1987). Methods of analysis evaluating the ultimate structural load can be safely supported entirely below the
capacity or deflection of laterally loaded shafts (e.g., probable scour depth.
Broms, 1964a,b; Singh, et al., 1971) may be used for pre-
liminary design only as a means to determine approximate 4.6.5.6.1.4 Group Action
shaft dimensions.
There is no reliable rational method for evaluating
4.6.5.6.1 Factors Affecting Laterally Loaded Shafts the group action for closely spaced, laterally loaded
shafts. Therefore, as a general guide, drilled shafts
4.6.5.6.1.1 Soil Layering in a group may be considered to act individually when
the center-to-center (CTC) spacing is greater than 2.5B
The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts in layered in the direction normal to loading, and CTC . 8B in
soils shall be based on evaluation of the soil parameters the direction parallel to loading. For shaft layouts
characteristic of the respective layers.
not conforming to these criteria, the effects of shaft inter-
action shall be considered in the design. As a general
4.6.5.6.1.2 Ground Water
guide, the effects of group action for in-line CTC , 8B
The highest anticipated water level shall be used for may be considered using the ratios (CGS, 1985) appear-
design. ing on page 89.
FIGURE 4.6.5.5.2B Influence Coefficient for

Elastic Uplift Displacement of Rock-Socketed
Drilled Shafts
Modified after Pells and Turner (1979)
4.6.5.6.1.7 Sloping Ground

FIGURE 4.6.5.5.2A Influence Coefficient for For drilled shafts which extend through or below
Elastic Settlement of Rock-Socketed Drilled Shafts sloping ground, the potential for additional lateral
Modified after Pells and Turner (1979)
loading shall be considered in the design. The
general method of analysis developed by Borden
Ratio of Lateral and Gabr (1987) may be used for the analysis of shafts
CTC Shaft Spacing Resistance of Shaft in in stable slopes. For shafts in marginally stable slopes,
for In-line Loading Group to Single Shaft additional consideration should be given for low
8B 1.00 factors of safety against slope failure or slopes showing
6B 0.70 ground creep, or when shafts extend through fills over-
4B 0.40 lying soft foundation soils and bear into more competent
3B 0.25 underlying soil or rock formations. For unstable ground,
detailed explorations, testing and analysis are required to
4.6.5.6.1.5 Cyclic Loading evaluate potential additional lateral loads due to slope
movements.
The effects of traffic, wind, and other nonseismic
cyclic loading on the load-deformation behavior of later-
ally loaded drilled shafts shall be considered during de- 4.6.5.6.2 Tolerable Lateral Movements
sign. Analysis of drilled shafts subjected to cyclic load- Tolerable lateral displacement criteria for drilled shaft
ing may be considered in the COM624 analysis (Reese,
foundations shall be developed by the structural designer
1984).
consistent with the function and type of structure, fixity of
bearings, anticipated service life, and consequences of un-
4.6.5.6.1.6 Combined Axial and Lateral Loading acceptable displacements on the structure performance.
The effects of lateral loading in combination with axial Drilled shaft lateral displacement analysis shall be based
loading shall be considered in the design. Analysis of on the results of in-situ and/or laboratory testing to char-
drilled shafts subjected to combined loading may be con- acterize the load-deformation behavior of the foundation
sidered in the COM624 analysis (Reese, 1984). materials.
4.6.5.7 Dynamic/Seismic Design not be less than 3 times the diameter of the bundled bars.
Where heavy reinforcement is required, consideration
Refer to Division I-A and Lam and Martin (1986a; may be given to an inner and outer reinforcing cage.
1986b) for guidance regarding the design of drilled shafts
subjected to dynamic and seismic loads. 4.6.6.2.2 Splices
Splices shall develop the full capacity of the bar in ten-
4.6.6 Structural Design and General Shaft sion and compression. The location of splices shall be
Dimensions staggered around the perimeter of the reinforcing cage so
as not to occur at the same horizontal plane. Splices may
4.6.6.1 General be developed by lapping, welding, and special approved
connectors. Splices shall be in conformance with the re-
Drilled shafts shall be designed to insure that the shaft quirements of Article 8.32.
will not collapse or suffer loss of serviceability due to ex-
cessive stress and/or deformation. Shafts shall be de- 4.6.6.2.3 Transverse Reinforcement
signed to resist failure following applicable procedures Transverse reinforcement shall be designed to resist
presented in Section 8. stresses caused by fresh concrete flowing from inside the
All shafts should be sized in 6-inch increments with a cage to the side of the excavated hole. Transverse rein-
minimum shaft diameter of 18 inches. The diameter of forcement may be constructed of hoops or spiral steel.
shafts with rock sockets should be sized a minimum of 6
inches larger than the diameter of the socket. The diame-
4.6.6.2.4 Handling Stresses
ter of columns supported by shafts shall be less than or
equal to B. Reinforcement cages shall be designed to resist han-
dling and placement stresses.
4.6.6.2 Reinforcement 4.6.6.2.5 Reinforcement Cover

Where the potential for lateral loading is insignificant, The reinforcement shall be placed a clear distance of
drilled shafts need to be reinforced for axial loads only. not less than 2 inches from the permanently cased or 3
Those portions of drilled shafts that are not supported inches from the uncased sides. When shafts are con-
laterally shall be designed as reinforced concrete structed in corrosive or marine environments, or when
columns in accordance with Articles 8.15.4 and 8.16.4, concrete is placed by the water or slurry displacement
and the reinforcing steel shall extend a minimum of 10 methods, the clear distance shall not be less than 4 inches
feet below the plane where the soil provides adequate for uncased shafts and shafts with permanent casings not
lateral restraint. sufficiently corrosion resistant.
Where permanent steel casing is used and the shell The reinforcement cage shall be centered in the hole
is smooth pipe and more than 0.12 inch in thickness, it using centering devices. All steel centering devices shall
may be considered as load carrying in the absence of be epoxy coated.
corrosion.
The design of longitudinal and spiral reinforcement 4.6.6.2.6 Reinforcement into Superstructure
shall be in conformance with the requirements of Articles
Sufficient reinforcement shall be provided at the
8.18.1 and 8.18.2.2, respectively. Development of de-
junction of the shaft with the superstructure to make a
formed reinforcement shall be in conformance with the
suitable connection. The embedment of the reinforcement
requirements of Articles 8.24, 8.26, and 8.27.
into the cap shall be in conformance with Articles 8.24
and 8.25.
4.6.6.2.1 Longitudinal Bar Spacing
4.6.6.3 Enlarged Bases
The minimum clear distance between longitudinal
reinforcement shall not be less than 3 times the bar diam- Enlarged bases shall be designed to insure that plain
eter nor 3 times the maximum aggregate size. If bars are concrete is not overstressed. The enlarged base shall slope
bundled in forming the reinforcing cage, the minimum at a side angle not less than 30 degrees from the vertical
clear distance between longitudinal reinforcement shall and have a bottom diameter not greater than 3 times the
diameter of the shaft. The thickness of the bottom edge of • Apparatus for measuring movements.
the enlarged base shall not be less than 6 inches. • Apparatus for measuring loads.
• Procedures for loading including rates of load appli-
4.6.6.4 Center-to-Center Shaft Spacing cation, load cycling and maximum load.
• Procedures for measuring movements.
The center-to-center spacing of drilled shafts should be • Safety requirements.
3B or greater to avoid interference between adjacent • Data presentation requirements and methods of data
shafts during construction. If closer spacing is required, analysis.
the sequence of construction shall be specified and the in- • Drawings showing the procedures and materials to
teraction effects between adjacent shafts shall be evalu- be used to construct the load test apparatus.
ated by the designer.
As a minimum, the results of the load test(s) shall pro-
4.6.7 Load Testing vide the load-deformation response at the butt of the shaft.
When appropriate, information concerning ultimate load
4.6.7.1 General capacity, load transfer, lateral load-displacement with
depth, the effects of shaft group interaction, the degree of
Where necessary, a full scale load test (or tests) should fixity provided by caps and footings, and other data perti-
be conducted on a drilled shaft foundation(s) to confirm nent to the anticipated loading conditions on the produc-
response to load. Load tests shall be conducted using a test tion shafts shall be obtained.
shaft(s) constructed in a manner and of dimensions and
materials identical to those planned for the production
4.6.7.3 Load Test Method Selection
shafts into the materials planned for support. Load testing
should be conducted whenever special site conditions or
Selection of an appropriate load test method shall be
combinations of load are encountered, or when structures
based on an evaluation of the anticipated types and dura-
of special design or sensitivity (e.g., large bridges) are to
tion of loads during service, and shall include considera-
be supported on drilled shaft foundations.
tion of the following:
4.6.7.2 Load Testing Procedures
• The immediate goals of the load test (i.e., to proof
load the foundation and verify design capacity).
Load tests shall be conducted following prescribed
• The loads expected to act on the production founda-
written procedures which have been developed from ac-
tion (compressive and/or uplift, dead and/or live),
cepted standards (e.g., ASTM, 1989; Crowther, 1988) and
and the soil conditions predominant in the region of
modified, as appropriate, for the conditions at the site.
concern.
Standard pile load testing procedures developed by
• The local practice or traditional method used in sim-
ASTM which may be modified for testing drilled shafts
ilar soil/rock deposits.
include:
• Time and budget constraints.
• ASTM D 1143, Standard Method of Testing Piles
Under Static Axial Compressive Load;
• ASTM D 3689, Standard Method of Testing Indi-
vidual Piles Under Static Axial Tensile Load; and Part C
• ASTM D 3966, Standard Method for Testing Piles STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD
Under Lateral Loads. LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
A simplified procedure for testing drilled shafts per- Note to User: Article Number 4.7 has been omitted in-
mitting determination of the relative contribution of side tentionally.
resistance and tip resistance to overall shaft capacity is
also available (Osterberg, 1984).
As a minimum, the written test procedures should in- 4.8 SCOPE
clude the following:
Provisions of this section shall apply for the design
• Apparatus for applying loads including reaction sys- of spread footings, driven piles, and drilled shaft
tem and loading system. foundations.
4.9 DEFINITIONS Nominal Resistance—The analytically estimated load-

carrying capacity of a foundation calculated using nomi-
Batter Pile—A pile driven at an angle inclined to the nal dimensions and material properties, and established
vertical to provide higher resistance to lateral loads. soil mechanics principles.
Combination End-Bearing and Friction Pile—Pile that Performance Factor—A factor used to modify a nom-
derives its capacity from the contributions of both end inal resistance, which accounts for the uncertainties asso-
bearing developed at the pile tip and resistance mobilized ciated with the determination of the nominal resistance
along the embedded shaft. and the variability of the actual capacity.
Deep Foundation—A foundation which derives its Pile—A relatively slender deep foundation unit,
support by transferring loads to soil or rock at some depth wholly or partly embedded in the ground, installed by driv-
below the structure by end bearing, by adhesion or fric- ing, drilling, augering, jetting, or otherwise, and which de-
tion or both. rives its capacity from the surrounding soil and/or from
Design Load—All applicable loads and forces or their the soil or rock strata below its tip.
related internal moments and forces used to proportion a Piping—Progressive erosion of soil by seeping water,
foundation. In load factor design, design load refers to producing an open pipe through the soil, through which
nominal loads multiplied by appropriate load factors. water flows in an uncontrolled and dangerous manner.
Design Strength—The maximum load-carrying capac- Shallow Foundation—A foundation which derives its
ity of the foundation, as defined by a particular limit state. support by transferring load directly to the soil or rock at
In load factor design, design strength is computed as the shallow depth. If a single slab covers the supporting stra-
product of the nominal resistance and the appropriate per- tum beneath the entire area of the superstructure, the foun-
formance factor. dation is known as a combined footing. If various parts of
Drilled Shaft—A deep foundation unit, wholly or the structure are supported individually, the individual
partly embedded in the ground, constructed by placing supports are known as spread footings, and the foundation
fresh concrete in a drilled hole with or without steel rein- is called a footing foundation.
forcement. Drilled shafts derive their capacities from the
surrounding soil and/or from the soil or rock strata below 4.10 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS, AND
their tips. Drilled shafts are also commonly referred to as RESISTANCE FACTORS
caissons, drilled caissons, bored piles or drilled piers.
End-Bearing Pile—A pile whose support capacity is 4.10.1 General
derived principally from the resistance of the foundation
material on which the pile tip rests. All relevant limit states shall be considered in the de-
Factored Load—Load, multiplied by appropriate load sign to ensure an adequate degree of safety and service-
factors, used to proportion a foundation in load factor ability.
design.
Friction Pile—A pile whose support capacity is de- 4.10.2 Serviceability Limit States
rived principally from soil resistance mobilized along the
side of the embedded pile. Service limit states for foundation design shall include:
Limit State—A limiting condition in which the foun-
dation and/or the structure it supports are deemed to be —settlements, and
unsafe (i.e., strength limit state), or to be no longer fully —lateral displacements.
useful for their intended function (i.e., serviceability limit
state). The limit state for settlement shall be based upon ride-
Load Effect—The force in a foundation system (e.g., ability and economy. The cost of limiting foundation
axial force, sliding force, bending moment, etc.) due to the movements shall be compared to the cost of designing the
applied loads. superstructure so that it can tolerate larger movements, or
Load Factor—A factor used to modify a nominal load of correcting the consequences of movements through
effect, which accounts for the uncertainties associated maintenance, to determine minimum lifetime cost. More
with the determination and variability of the load effect. stringent criteria may be established by the owner.
Load Factor Design—A design method in which safety
provisions are incorporated by separately accounting for 4.10.3 Strength Limit States
uncertainties relative to load and resistance.
Nominal Load—A typical value or a code-specified Strength limit states for foundation design shall
value for a load. include:
—bearing resistance failure, 4.11 SPREAD FOOTINGS

—excessive loss of contact,
—sliding at the base of footing, 4.11.1 General Considerations
—loss of overall stability, and
—structural capacity. 4.11.1.1 General
Foundations shall be proportioned such that the fac- Provisions of this article shall apply to design of iso-
tored resistance is not less than the effects of factored lated footings, and where applicable, to combined foot-
loads specified in Section 3. ings. Special attention shall be given to footings on fill.
Footings shall be designed to keep the soil pressure
as nearly uniform as practicable. The distribution of soil
4.10.4 Strength Requirement pressure shall be consistent with properties of the soil
and the structure, and with established principles of soil
Foundations shall be proportioned by the methods mechanics.
specified in Articles 4.11 through 4.13 so that their design
strengths are at least equal to the required strengths. 4.11.1.2 Depth
The required strength is the combined effect of the fac-
tored loads for each applicable load combination stipu- The depth of footings shall be determined with respect
lated in Article 3.22. The design strength is calculated for to the character of the foundation materials and the possi-
each applicable limit state as the nominal resistance, Rn, bility of undermining. Footings at stream crossings shall
multiplied by an appropriate performance (or resistance) be founded at depth below the maximum anticipated
factor, f. Methods for calculating nominal resistance are depth of scour as specified in Article 4.11.1.3.
provided in Articles 4.11 through 4.13, and values of per- Footings not exposed to the action of stream current
formance factors are given in Article 4.10.6. shall be founded on a firm foundation and below frost
level.
Consideration shall be given to the use of either a
4.10.5 Load Combinations and Load Factors geotextile or graded granular filter layer to reduce sus-
ceptibility to piping in rip rap or abutment backfill.
Foundations shall be proportioned to withstand safely
all load combinations stipulated in Article 3.22 which are 4.11.1.3 Scour Protection
applicable to the particular site or foundation type. With
the exception of the portions of concrete or steel piles that Footings supported on soil or degradable rock strata
are above the ground line and are rigidly connected to the shall be embedded below the maximum computed scour
superstructure as in rigid frame or continuous structures, depth or protected with a scour counter-measure. Footings
impact forces shall not be considered in foundation design. supported on massive, competent rock formations which
(See Article 3.8.1.) are highly resistant to scour shall be placed directly on the
Values of g and b coefficients for load factor design, as cleaned rock surface. Where required, additional lateral
given in Table 3.22.1A, shall apply to strength limit state resistance shall be provided by drilling and grouting steel
considerations; while those for service load design (also dowels into the rock surface rather than blasting to embed
given in Table 3.22.1A) shall apply to serviceability con- the footing below the rock surface.
siderations.
4.11.1.4 Frost Action
4.10.6 Performance Factors In regions where freezing of the ground occurs during
the winter months, footings shall be founded below the
Values of performance factors for different types of maximum depth of frost penetration in order to prevent
foundation systems at strength limit states shall be as damage from frost heave.
specified in Tables 4.10.6-1, 4.10.6-2, and 4.10.6-3, unless
regionally specific values are available. 4.11.1.5 Anchorage
If methods other than those given in Tables 4.10.6-1,
4.10.6-2, and 4.10.6-3 are used to estimate the soil capac- Footings which are founded on inclined smooth solid
ity, the performance factors chosen shall provide the same rock surfaces and which are not restrained by an overbur-
reliability as those given in these tables. den of resistant material shall be effectively anchored by
TABLE 4.10.6-1 Performance Factors for Strength Limit States for Shallow Foundations
means of rock anchors, rock bolts, dowels, keys or other 4.11.1.7 Uplift
suitable means. Shallow keying of large footing areas
shall be avoided where blasting is required for rock Where foundations may be subjected to uplift forces,
removal. they shall be investigated both for resistance to pullout
and for their structural strength.
4.11.1.6 Groundwater
4.11.1.8 Deterioration
Footings shall be designed for the highest anticipated
position of the groundwater table. Deterioration of the concrete in a foundation by
The influence of the groundwater table on bearing sulfate, chloride, and acid attack should be investi-
capacity of soils or rocks, and settlements of the struc- gated. Laboratory testing of soil and groundwater
ture shall be considered. In cases where seepage samples for sulfates, chloride and pH should be suffi-
forces are present, they should also be included in the cient to assess deterioration potential. When chemical
analyses. wastes are suspected, a more thorough chemical anal-
TABLE 4.10.6-2 Performance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit States in Axially Loaded Piles
ysis of soil and groundwater samples should be con- i 5 type of load

sidered. L9 5 reduced effective length (see Article
4.11.4.1.5) (in length units)
4.11.1.9 Nearby Structures Li 5 load type i
w
N 5 average value of standard penetration
In cases where foundations are placed adjacent to ex- test blow count (dimensionless)
isting structures, the influence of the existing structures on Nm, Ncm, Nqm 5 modified bearing capacity factors used in
the behavior of the foundation, and the effect of the foun- analytic theory (dimensionless)
dation on the existing structures, shall be investigated. qc 5 cone resistance (in units of force/length2)
qult 5 ultimate bearing capacity (in units of
4.11.2 Notations force/length2)
RI 5 reduction factor due to the effect of load
B 5 footing width (in length units) inclination (dimensionless)
B9 5 reduced effective footing width (see Rn 5 nominal resistance
Article 4.11.4.1.5) (in length units) RQD 5 rock quality designation
c 5 soil cohesion (in units of force/length2) s 5 span length (in length units)
Cw1, Cw2 5 correction factors for groundwater effect su 5 undrained shear strength of soil (in units
(dimensionless) of force/length2)
Df 5 depth to footing base (in length units) bi 5 load factor coefficient for load type i (see
Dw 5 depth to groundwater table (in length Article C 4.10.4)
units) g 5 load factor (see Article C 4.10.4)
Em 5 elastic modulus of rock masses (in units g 5 total (moist) unit weight of soil (see Arti-
of force/length2) cle C 4.11.4.1.1)
TABLE 4.10.6-3 Performance Factors for Geotechnical Strength Limit States

in Axially Loaded Drilled Shafts
d 5 differential settlement between adjacent 4.11.3.4 Settlement Analyses

footings
f 5 performance factor Foundation settlements shall be estimated using de-
ff 5 friction angle of soil formation analyses based on the results of laboratory or
in situ testing. The soil parameters used in the analyses
4.11.3 Movement Under Serviceability shall be chosen to reflect the loading history of the
Limit States ground, the construction sequence and the effect of soil
layering.
4.11.3.1 General Both total and differential settlements, including time
effects, shall be considered.
Movement of foundations in both vertical settlement
and lateral displacement directions shall be investigated at
4.11.3.4.1 Settlement of Footings on
service limit states.
Cohesionless Soils
Lateral displacement of a structure shall be evaluated
when: Estimates of settlement of cohesionless soils shall
make allowance for the fact that settlements in these soils
—horizontal or inclined loads are present, can be highly erratic.
—the foundation is placed on an embankment slope, No method should be considered capable of predicting
—possibility of loss of foundation support through settlements of footings on sand with precision.
erosion or scour exists, or Settlements of footings on cohesionless soils may be
—bearing strata are significantly inclined. estimated using empirical procedures or elastic theory.
4.11.3.2 Loads 4.11.3.4.2 Settlement of Footings on Cohesive Soils

Immediate settlement shall be determined using the For foundations on cohesive soils, both immediate and
service load combinations given in Table 3.22.1A. Time- consolidation settlements shall be investigated. If the
dependent settlement shall be determined using only the footing width is small relative to the thickness of a com-
permanent loads. pressible soil, the effect of three-dimensional loading
Settlement and horizontal movements caused by em- shall be considered. In highly plastic and organic clay,
bankment loadings behind bridge abutments should be in- secondary settlements are significant and shall be in-
vestigated. cluded in the analysis.
In seismically active areas, consideration shall be
given to the potential settlement of footings on sand re-
4.11.3.4.3 Settlements of Footings on Rock
sulting from ground motions induced by earthquake load-
ings. For guidance in design, refer to Division I-A of these The magnitude of consolidation and secondary settle-
Specifications. ments in rock masses containing soft seams shall be esti-
mated by applying procedures discussed in Article
4.11.3.3 Movement Criteria 4.11.3.4.2.
Vertical and horizontal movement criteria for footings

4.11.4 Safety Against Soil Failure
shall be developed consistent with the function and type
of structure, anticipated service life, and consequences of
unacceptable movements on structure performance. The 4.11.4.1 Bearing Capacity of Foundation Soils
tolerable movement criteria shall be established by em-
pirical procedures or structural analyses. Several methods may be used to calculate ultimate
The maximum angular distortion (d/s) between bearing capacity of foundation soils. The calculated value
adjacent foundations shall be limited to 0.008 for sim- of ultimate bearing capacity shall be multiplied by an ap-
ple span bridges and 0.004 for continuous span bridges. propriate performance factor, as given in Article 4.10.6, to
These d/s limits shall not be applicable to rigid frame determine the factored bearing capacity.
structures. Rigid frames shall be designed for anticipated Footings are considered to be adequate against soil
differential settlements based on the results of special failure if the factored bearing capacity exceeds the effect
analyses. of design loads.
4.11.4.1.1 Theoretical Estimation sure that: (1) the product of the bearing capacity and an
appropriate performance factor exceeds the effect of ver-
The bearing capacity should be estimated using ac-
tical design loads, and (2) eccentricity of loading, evalu-
cepted soil mechanics theories based on measured soil pa-
ated based on factored loads, is less than 1⁄4 of the footing
rameters. The soil parameter used in the analysis shall be
dimension in any direction for footings on soils.
representative of the soil shear strength under the consid-
For structural design of an eccentrically loaded foun-
ered loading and subsurface conditions.
dation, a triangular or trapezoidal contact pressure distri-
bution based on factored loads shall be used.
4.11.4.1.2 Semi-empirical Procedures
The bearing capacity of foundation soils may be esti-
4.11.4.1.6 Effect of Groundwater Table
mated from the results of in situ tests or by observing
foundations on similar soils. The use of a particular in situ Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined based
test and the interpretation of the results shall take local ex- on the highest anticipated position of groundwater level
perience into consideration. The following in situ tests at the footing location. In cases where the groundwater
may be used: table is at a depth less than 1.5 times the footing width
below the bottom of the footing, reduction of bearing
—Standard penetration test (SPT), capacity, as a result of submergence effects, shall be
—Cone penetration test (CPT), and considered.
—Pressuremeter test.
4.11.4.1.3 Plate Loading Test 4.11.4.2 Bearing Capacity of

Foundations on Rock
Bearing capacity may be determined by load tests pro-
viding that adequate subsurface explorations have been The bearing capacity of footings on rock shall consider
made to determine the soil profile below the foundation. the presence, orientation and condition of discontinuities,
The bearing capacity determined from a load test may weathering profiles and other similar profiles as they
be extrapolated to adjacent footings where the subsurface apply at a particular site, and the degree to which they
profile is similar. shall be incorporated in the design.
Plate load test shall be performed in accordance with For footings on competent rock, reliance on simple and
the procedures specified in ASTM Standard D 1194-87 or direct analyses based on uniaxial compressive rock
AASHTO Standard T 235. strengths and RQD may be applicable. Competent
rock shall be defined as a rock mass with discontinuities
4.11.4.1.4 Presumptive Values that are tight or open not wider than 1⁄8 inch. For footings
on less competent rock, more detailed investigations and
Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures on
analyses shall be performed to account for the effects
soil and rock, given in Table 4.11.4.1.4-1, shall be used
of weathering, and the presence and condition of discon-
only for guidance, preliminary design or design of tem-
tinuities.
porary structures. The use of presumptive values shall be
Footings on rocks are considered to be adequate
based on the results of subsurface exploration to identify
against bearing capacity failure if the product of the ulti-
soil and rock conditions. All values used for design shall
mate bearing capacity determined using procedures de-
be confirmed by field and/or laboratory testing.
scribed in Articles 4.11.4.2.1 through 4.11.4.2.3 and
The values given in Table 4.11.4.1.4-1 are applicable
an appropriate performance factor exceeds the effect of
directly for working stress procedures. When these values
design loads.
are used for preliminary design, all load factors shall be
taken as unity.
4.11.4.2.1 Semi-empirical Procedures
4.11.4.1.5 Effect of Load Eccentricity
Bearing capacity of foundations on rock may be deter-
For loads eccentric to the centroid of the footing, a re- mined using empirical correlation with RQD, or other sys-
duced effective footing area (B9 3 L9) shall be used in de- tems for evaluating rock mass quality, such as the Geo-
sign. The reduced effective area is always concentrically mechanic Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system, or
loaded, so that the design bearing pressure on the reduced Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) Rock Mass
effective area is always uniform. Classification System. The use of these semi-empirical
Footings under eccentric loads shall be designed to en- procedures shall take local experience into consideration.
TABLE 4.11.4.1.4-1 Presumptive Allowable Bearing Pressures for Spread Footing Foundations
Modified after U.S. Department of the Navy, 1982
4.11.4.2.2 Analytic Method 4.11.5 Structural Capacity

The ultimate bearing capacity of foundations on rock
The structural design of footings shall comply to the
shall be determined using established rock mechanics
provisions given in Articles 4.4.11 and 8.16.
principles based on the rock mass strength parameters.
The influence of discontinuities on the failure mode shall
4.11.6 Construction Considerations for
also be considered.
Shallow Foundations
4.11.4.2.3 Load Test
4.11.6.1 General
Where appropriate, load tests may be performed to de-
termine the bearing capacity of foundations on rock. The ground conditions should be monitored closely
during construction to determine whether or not the
4.11.4.2.4 Presumptive Bearing Values ground conditions are as foreseen and to enable prompt
intervention, if necessary. The control investigation
For simple structures on good quality rock masses, val-
should be performed and interpreted by experienced and
ues of presumptive bearing pressure given in Table
qualified engineers. Records of the control investigations
4.11.4.2.4-1 may be used for preliminary design. The use
should be kept as part of the final project data, among
of presumptive values shall be based on the results of sub-
other things, to permit a later assessment of the founda-
surface exploration to identify rock conditions. All values
tion in connection with rehabilitation, change of neigh-
used in design shall be confirmed by field and/or labora-
boring structures, etc.
tory testing. The values given in Table 4.11.4.2.4-1 are di-
rectly applicable to working stress procedure, i.e., all the
4.11.6.2 Excavation Monitoring
load factors shall be taken as unity.
Prior to concreting footings or placing backfill, an ex-
4.11.4.2.5 Effect of Load Eccentricity
cavation shall be free of debris and excessive water.
If the eccentricity of loading on a footing is less than Monitoring by an experienced and trained person
1
⁄ 6 of the footing width, a trapezoidal bearing pressure should always include a thorough examination of the sides
shall be used in evaluating the bearing capacity. If the ec- and bottom of the excavation, with the possible addition
centricity is between 1⁄ 6 and 1⁄ 4 of the footing width, a of pits or borings to evaluate the geological conditions.
triangular bearing pressure shall be used. The maximum The assumptions made during the design of the foun-
bearing pressure shall not exceed the product of the ulti- dations regarding strength, density, and groundwater con-
mate bearing capacity multiplied by a suitable perfor- ditions should be verified during construction, by visual
mance factor. The eccentricity of loading evaluated using inspection.
factored loads shall not exceed 3⁄8 (37.5%) of the footing
dimensions in any direction. 4.11.6.3 Compaction Monitoring
4.11.4.3 Failure by Sliding Compaction shall be carried out in a manner so that the
fill material within the section under inspection is as close
Failure by sliding shall be investigated for footings that as practicable to uniform. The layering and compaction of
support inclined loads and/or are founded on slopes. the fill material should be systematic everywhere, with the
For foundations on clay soils, possible presence of a same thickness of layer and number of passes with the
shrinkage gap between the soil and the foundation shall be compaction equipment used as for the inspected fill. The
considered. If passive resistance is included as part of the control measurements should be undertaken in the form
shear resistance required for resisting sliding, considera- of random samples.
tion shall also be given to possible future removal of the
soil in front of the foundation. 4.12 DRIVEN PILES
4.11.4.4 Loss of Overall Stability 4.12.1 General
The overall stability of footings, slopes and foundation The provisions of the specifications in Articles 4.5.1
soil or rock, shall be evaluated for footings located on or through 4.5.21 with the exception of Article 4.5.6, shall
near a slope using applicable factored load combinations apply to strength design (load factor design) of driven
in Article 3.22 and a performance factor of 0.75. piles. Article 4.5.6 covers the allowable stress design of
TABLE 4.11.4.2.4-1 Presumptive Bearing Pressures (tsf) for Foundations on Rock (After Putnam, 1981)
piles and shall be replaced by the articles in this section Es 5 soil modulus
for load factor design of driven piles, unless otherwise fs 5 sleeve friction measured from a CPT at point con-
stated. sidered
H 5 distance between pile tip and a weaker underly-
4.12.2 Notations ing soil layer
Hs 5 depth of embedment of pile socketed into rock
as 5 pile perimeter I 5 influence factor for the effective group embed-
Ap 5 area of pile tip ment
As 5 surface area of shaft of pile Ip 5 moment of inertia of a pile
CPT 5 cone penetration test K 5 coefficient of lateral earth pressure
d 5 dimensionless depth factor for estimating tip ca- Kc 5 correction factor for sleeve friction in clay
pacity of piles in rock Ks 5 correction factor for sleeve friction in sand
D 5 pile width or diameter Ksp 5 dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient
D9 5 effective depth of pile group Lf 5 depth to point considered when measuring sleeve
Db 5 depth of embedment of pile into a bearing stratum friction
Ds 5 diameter of socket nh 5 rate of increase of soil modulus with depth
ex 5 eccentricity of load in the x-direction N 5 Standard Penetration Test (SPT) blow count
ey 5 eccentricity of load in the y-direction w
N 5 average uncorrected SPT blow count along pile
Ep 5 Young’s modulus of a pile shaft
Ncorr 5 average SPT-N value corrected for effect of s9v 5 vertical effective stress
overburden yav 5 average shear stress along side of pile
Npile 5 number of piles in a pile group f 5 performance factor
OCR 5 overconsolidation ratio øg 5 performance factor for the bearing capacity of a
PD 5 unfactored dead load pile group failing as a unit consisting of the piles
Pg 5 factored total axial load acting on a pile group and the block of soil contained within the piles
Px,y 5 factored axial load acting on a pile in a pile group; øq 5 performance factor for the total ultimate bearing
the pile has coordinates (X,Y) with respect to the capacity of a pile
centroidal origin in the pile group øqs 5 performance factor for the ultimate shaft capacity
PI 5 plasticity index of a pile
q 5 net foundation pressure øqp 5 performance factor for the ultimate tip capacity of
qc 5 static cone resistance a pile
ql 5 limiting tip resistance øu 5 Performance factor for the uplift capacity of a sin-
qo 5 limiting tip resistance in lower stratum gle pile
qp 5 ultimate unit tip resistance øug 5 performance factor for the uplift capacity of pile
qs 5 ultimate unit side resistance groups
qu 5 average uniaxial compressive strength of rock
cores 4.12.3 Selection of Design Pile Capacity
qult 5 ultimate bearing capacity
Qp 5 ultimate load carried by tip of pile Piles shall be designed to have adequate bearing and
Qs 5 ultimate load carried by shaft of pile structural capacity, under tolerable settlements and toler-
Qug 5 ultimate uplift resistance of a pile group or a able lateral displacements.
group of drilled shafts The supporting capacity of piles shall be determined by
Qult 5 ultimate bearing capacity static analysis methods based on soil-structure interaction.
R 5 characteristic length of soil-pile system in cohe- Capacity may be verified with pile load test results, use of
sive soils wave equation analysis, use of the dynamic pile analyzer
sd 5 spacing of discontinuities or, less preferably, use of dynamic formulas.
S 5 average spacing of piles
Su 5 undrained shear strength 4.12.3.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity
SPT 5 Standard Penetration Test
wu 5 average undrained shear strength along pile shaft
S See Article 4.5.6.1.1. The following sub-articles shall
td 5 width of discontinuities supplement Article 4.5.6.1.1.
T 5 characteristic length of soil-pile system in cohe-
sionless soils 4.12.3.1.1 Pile Penetration
Wg 5 weight of block of soil, piles and pile cap
x 5 distance of the centroid of the pile from the cen- Piling used to penetrate a soft or loose upper stratum
troid of the pile cap in the x-direction overlying a hard or firm stratum, shall penetrate the hard
X 5 width of smallest dimension of pile group or firm stratum by a sufficient distance to limit lateral and
y 5 distance of the centroid of the pile from the cen- vertical movement of the piles, as well as to attain suffi-
troid of the pile cap in the y-direction cient vertical bearing capacity.
Y 5 length of pile group or group of drilled shafts
Z 5 total embedded pile length 4.12.3.1.2 Groundwater Table and Buoyancy
a 5 adhesion factor applied to Su Ultimate bearing capacity shall be determined using
b 5 coefficient relating the vertical effective stress the groundwater level consistent with that used to calcu-
and the unit skin friction of a pile or drilled shaft late load effects. For drained loading, the effect of hydro-
g9 5 effective unit weight of soil static pressure shall be considered in the design.
d 5 angle of shearing resistance between soil and pile
l 5 empirical coefficient relating the passive lateral
4.12.3.1.3 Effect Of Settling Ground and
earth pressure and the unit skin friction of a pile
Downdrag Forces
h 5 pile group efficiency factor
r 5 settlement Possible development of downdrag loads on piles shall
rtol 5 tolerable settlement be considered where sites are underlain by compressible
s9h 5 horizontal effective stress clays, silts or peats, especially where fill has recently been
placed on the earlier surface, or where the groundwater is veloped considering the potential effects of combined ver-
substantially lowered. Downdrag loads shall be consid- tical and horizontal movement. Where combined hori-
ered as a load when the bearing capacity and settlement of zontal and vertical displacements are possible, horizontal
pile foundations are investigated. Downdrag loads shall movement shall be limited to 1.0 inch or less. Where ver-
not be combined with transient loads. tical displacements are small, horizontal displacements
The downdrag loads may be calculated, as specified in shall be limited to 2.0 inches or less (Moulton et al.,
Article 4.12.3.3.2 with the direction of the skin friction 1985). If estimated or actual movements exceed these lev-
forces reversed. The factored downdrag loads shall be els, special analysis and/or measures shall be considered.
added to the factored vertical dead load applied to the
deep foundation in the assessment of bearing capacity. 4.12.3.2.3 Settlement
The effect of reduced overburden pressure caused by the
The settlement of a pile foundation shall not exceed the
downdrag shall be considered in calculating the bearing
tolerable settlement, as selected according to Article
capacity of the foundation.
4.12.3.2.2.
The downdrag loads shall be added to the vertical dead
load applied to the deep foundation in the assessment of 4.12.3.2.3a Cohesive Soil
settlement at service limit states.
Procedures used for shallow foundations shall be used
4.12.3.1.4 Uplift to estimate the settlement of a pile group, using the equiv-
alent footing location shown in Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1.
Pile foundations designed to resist uplift forces should
be checked both for resistance to pullout and for structural 4.12.3.2.3b Cohesionless Soil
capacity to carry tensile stresses. Uplift forces can be
caused by lateral loads, buoyancy effects, and expansive The settlement of pile groups in cohesionless soils can
soils. be estimated using results of in situ tests, and the equiva-
lent footing location shown in Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1.
4.12.3.2 Movement Under Serviceability
4.12.3.2.4 Lateral Displacement
Limit State
The lateral displacement of a pile foundation shall not
4.12.3.2.1 General exceed the tolerable lateral displacement, as selected ac-
cording to Article 4.12.3.2.2.
For purposes of calculating the settlements of pile The lateral displacement of pile groups shall be esti-
groups, loads shall be assumed to act on an equivalent mated using procedures that consider soil-structure inter-
footing located at two-thirds of the depth of embedment action.
of the piles into the layer which provide support as shown
in Figure 4.12.3.2.1-1. 4.12.3.3 Resistance at Strength Limit States
Service loads for evaluating foundation settlement
shall include both the unfactored dead and live loads for The strength limit states that shall be considered in-
piles in cohesionless soils and only the unfactored dead clude:
load for piles in cohesive soils.
Service loads for evaluating lateral displacement of —bearing capacity of piles,
foundations shall include all lateral loads in each of the —uplift capacity of piles,
load combinations as given in Article 3.22. —punching of piles in strong soil into a weaker layer,
and
4.12.3.2.2 Tolerable Movement —structural capacity of the piles.
Tolerable axial and lateral movements for driven pile
4.12.3.3.1 Axial Loading of Piles
foundations shall be developed consistent with the func-
tion and type of structure, fixity of bearings, anticipated Preference shall be given to a design process based
service life and consequences of unacceptable displace- upon static analyses in combination with either field mon-
ments on performance of the structure. itoring during driving or load tests. Load test results may
Tolerable settlement criteria for foundations shall be be extrapolated to adjacent substructures with similar sub-
developed considering the maximum angular distortion surface conditions. The ultimate bearing capacity of piles
according to Article 4.11.3.3. may be estimated using analytic methods or in situ test
Tolerable horizontal displacement criteria shall be de- methods.
4.12.3.3.2 Analytic Estimates of Pile Capacity When piles are subjected to uplift, they should be in-
vestigated for both resistance to pullout and structural
Analytic methods may be used to estimate the ultimate
ability to resist tension.
bearing capacity of piles in cohesive and cohesionless
soils. Both total and effective stress methods may be used
4.12.3.3.7a Single Pile Uplift Capacity
provided the appropriate soil strength parameters are eval-
uated. The performance factors for skin friction and tip re- The ultimate uplift capacity of a single pile shall be es-
sistance, estimated using three analytic methods, shall be timated in a manner similar to that for estimating the skin
as provided in Table 4.10.6-2. If another analytic method friction resistance of piles in compression in Article
is used, application of performance factors presented in 4.12.3.3.2 for piles in cohesive soils and Article 4.12.3.3.3
Table 4.10.6-2 may not be appropriate. for piles in cohesionless soils. Performance factors for
the uplift capacity of single piles shall be as provided in
4.12.3.3.3 Pile of Capacity Estimates Based Table 4.10.6-2.
on In Situ Tests
4.12.3.3.7b Pile Group Uplift Capacity
In situ test methods may be used to estimate the ulti-
mate axial capacity of piles. The performance factors for The ultimate uplift capacity of a pile group shall be es-
the ultimate skin friction and ultimate tip resistance, esti- timated as the lesser of the sum of the individual pile up-
mated using in situ methods, shall be as provided in Table lift capacities, or the uplift capacity of the pile group con-
4.10.6-2. sidered as a block. The block mechanism for cohesionless
soil shall be taken as provided in Figure C4.12.3.7.2-1 and
4.12.3.3.4 Piles Bearing on Rock for cohesive soils as given in Figure C4.12.3.7.2-2. Buoy-
ant unit weights shall be used for soil below the ground-
For piles driven to weak rock such as shales and mud-
water level.
stones or poor quality weathered rock, the ultimate tip
The performance factor for the group uplift capacity
capacity shall be estimated using semi-empirical meth-
calculated as the sum of the individual pile capacities shall
ods. The performance factor for the ultimate tip resistance
be the same as those for the uplift capacity of single piles
of piles bearing on rock shall be as provided in Table
as given in Table 4.10.6-2. The performance factor for the
4.10.6-2.
uplift capacity of the pile group considered as a block
shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-2 for pile groups in
4.12.3.3.5 Pile Load Test
clay and in sand.
The load test method specified in ASTM D 1143-81
may be used to verify the pile capacity. Tensile load test- 4.12.3.3.8 Lateral Load
ing of piles shall be done in accordance with ASTM D
For piles subjected to lateral loads, the pile heads shall
3689-83 Lateral load testing of piles shall be done in ac-
be fixed into the pile cap. Any disturbed soil or voids cre-
cordance with ASTM D 3966-81. The performance factor
ated from the driving of the piles shall be replaced with
for the axial compressive capacity, axial uplift capacity
compacted granular material.
and lateral capacity obtained from pile load tests shall be
The effects of soil-structure or rock-structure interac-
as provided in Table 4.10.6-2.
tion between the piles and ground, including the number
and spacing of the piles in the group, shall be accounted
4.12.3.3.6 Presumptive End Bearing Capacities
for in the design of laterally loaded piles.
Presumptive values for allowable bearing pressures
given in Table 4.11.4.1.4-1 on soil and rock shall be used 4.12.3.3.9 Batter Pile
only for guidance, preliminary design or design of tem-
The bearing capacity of a pile group containing batter
porary structures. The use of presumptive values shall be
piles may be estimated by treating the batter piles as ver-
based on the results of subsurface exploration to identify
tical piles.
soil and rock conditions. All values used for design shall
be confirmed by field and/or laboratory testing.
4.12.3.3.10 Group Capacity
4.12.3.3.7 Uplift
4.12.3.3.10a Cohesive Soil
Uplift shall be considered when the force effects cal-
culated based on the appropriate strength limit state load If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground, and if
combinations are tensile. the soil at the surface is soft, the individual capacity of
4.12.3.3.10A DIVISION I—DESIGN 105
each pile shall be multiplied by an efficiency factor h, sign of driven piles subjected to dynamic and seismic
where h 5 0.7 for a center-to-center spacing of three di- loads.
ameters and h 5 1.0 for a center-to-center spacing of six
diameters. For intermediate spacings, the value of h may 4.12.4 Structural Design
be determined by linear interpolation.
If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground and The structural design of driven piles shall be in accor-
if the soil is stiff, then no reduction in efficiency shall be dance with the provisions of Articles 4.5.7, which was de-
required. veloped for allowable stress design procedures. To use
If the cap is in firm contact with the ground, then no re- load factor design procedures for the structural design of
duction in efficiency shall be required. driven piles, the load factor design procedures for rein-
The group capacity shall be the lesser of: forced concrete, prestressed concrete and steel in Sections
8, 9, and 10, respectively, shall be used in place of the al-
—the sum of the modified individual capacities of each lowable stress design procedures.
pile in the group, or
—the capacity of an equivalent pier consisting of the 4.12.4.1 Buckling of Piles
piles and a block of soil within the area bounded by
the piles. Stability of piles shall be considered when the piles ex-
tend through water or air for a portion of their lengths.
For the equivalent pier, the full shear strength of soil
shall be used to determine the skin friction resistance, the 4.12.5 Construction Considerations
total base area of the equivalent pier shall be used to de-
termine the end bearing resistance, and the additional ca- Foundation design shall not be uncoupled from con-
pacity of the cap shall be ignored. struction considerations. Factors such as pile driving, pile
The performance factor for the capacity of an equiva- splicing, and pile inspection shall be done in accordance
lent pier or block failure shall be as provided in Table with the provisions of this specification and Division II.
4.10.6-2. The performance factors for the group capacity
calculated using the sum of the individual pile capacities, 4.13 DRILLED SHAFTS
are the same as those for the single pile capacity as given
in Table 4.10.6-2. 4.13.1 General
4.12.3.3.10b Cohesionless Soil The provisions of the specifications in Articles 4.6.1

through 4.6.7, with the exception of Article 4.6.5, shall
The ultimate bearing capacity of pile groups in cohe- apply to the strength design (load factor design) of drilled
sionless soil shall be the sum of the capacities of all the shafts. Article 4.6.5 covers the allowable stress design of
piles in the group. The efficiency factor, h, shall be 1.0 drilled shafts, and shall be replaced by the articles in this
where the pile cap is, or is not, in contact with the ground. section for load factor design of drilled shafts, unless oth-
The performance factor is the same as those for single pile erwise stated.
capacities as given in Table 4.10.6-2. The provisions of Article 4.13 shall apply to the design
of drilled shafts, but not drilled piles installed with con-
4.12.3.3.10c Pile Group in Strong Soil tinuous flight augers that are concreted as the auger is
Overlying a Weak or being extracted.
Compressible Soil
4.13.2 Notations
If a pile group is embedded in a strong soil deposit over-
lying a weaker deposit, consideration shall be given to the
a 5 parameter used for calculating Fr
potential for a punching failure of the pile tips into the
Ap 5 area of base of drilled shaft
weaker soil stratum. If the underlying soil stratum consists
As 5 surface area of a drilled pier
of a weaker compressible soil, consideration shall be given
Asoc 5 cross-sectional area of socket
to the potential for large settlements in that weaker layer.
Au 5 annular space between bell and shaft
b 5 perimeter used for calculating Fr
4.12.3.3.11 Dynamic/Seismic Design
CPT 5 cone penetration test
Refer to Division I-A of these Specifications and Lam d 5 dimensionless depth factor for estimating tip
and Martin (1986a, 1986b) for guidance regarding the de- capacity of drilled shafts in rock
D 5 diameter of drilled shaft Qult 5 total ultimate bearing capacity

Db 5 embedment of drilled shaft in layer that pro- R 5 characteristic length of soil-drilled shaft sys-
vides support tem in cohesive soils
Dp 5 diameter of base of a drilled shaft RQD 5 Rock Quality Designation
Ds 5 diameter of a drilled shaft socket in rock sd 5 spacing of discontinuities
Ec 5 Young’s modulus of concrete SPT 5 Standard Penetration Test
Ei 5 intact rock modulus Su 5 undrained shear strength
Ep 5 Young’s modulus of a drilled shaft td 5 width of discontinuities
Er 5 modulus of the in situ rock mass T 5 characteristic length of soil-drilled shaft sys-
Es 5 soil modulus tem in cohesionless soils
Fr 5 reduction factor for tip resistance of large z 5 depth below ground surface
diameter drilled shaft Z 5 total embedded length of drilled shaft
Hs 5 depth of embedment of drilled shaft socketed
Greek
into rock
a 5 adhesion factor applied to Su
Ip 5 moment of inertia of a drilled shaft
b 5 coefficient relating the vertical effective stress
Ir 5 influence coefficient (see Figure
and the unit skin friction of a drilled shaft
C4.13.3.3.4-1)
g9 5 effective unit weight of soil
Ip 5 influence coefficient for settlement of drilled
d 5 angle of shearing resistance between soil and
shafts socketed in rock
drilled shaft
k 5 factor that reduces the tip capacity for shafts
h 5 drilled shaft group efficiency factor
with a base diameter larger than 20 inches so
rbase 5 settlement of the base of the drilled shaft
as to limit the shaft settlement to 1 inch
re 5 elastic shortening of drilled shaft
K 5 coefficient of lateral earth pressure or load
rtol 5 tolerable settlement
transfer factor
s9v 5 vertical effective stress
Kb 5 dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient for
sv 5 total vertical stress
drilled shafts socketed in rock using pres-
SPi 5 working load at top of socket
suremeter results
f 5 performance factor
KE 5 modulus modification ratio
f9 or ff 5 angle of internal friction of soil
Ksp 5 dimensionless bearing capacity coefficient
fq 5 performance factor for the total ultimate bear-
(see Figure C4.13.3.3.4-4)
ing capacity of a drilled shaft
LL 5 liquid limit of soil
fqs 5 performance factor for the ultimate shaft ca-
N 5 uncorrected Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
pacity of a drilled shaft
blow count
fqp 5 performance factor for the ultimate tip capac-
Nc 5 bearing capacity factor
ity of a drilled shaft
Ncorr 5 corrected SPT-N value
Nu 5 uplift bearing capacity factor
p1 5 limit pressure determined from pressuremeter 4.13.3 Geotechnical Design
tests within 2D above and below base of shaft
Po 5 at rest horizontal stress measured at the base Drilled shafts shall be designed to have adequate bear-
of drilled shaft ing and structural capacities under tolerable settlements
PD 5 unfactored dead load and tolerable lateral movements.
PL 5 plastic limit of soil The supporting capacity of drilled shafts shall be esti-
qp 5 ultimate unit tip resistance mated by static analysis methods (analytical methods
qpr 5 reduced ultimate unit tip resistance of drilled based on soil-structure interaction). Capacity may be ver-
shafts ified with load test results.
qs 5 ultimate unit side resistance The method of construction may affect the drilled shaft
qs bell 5 unit uplift capacity of a belled drilled shaft capacity and shall be considered as part of the design
qu 5 uniaxial compressive strength of rock core process. Drilled shafts may be constructed using the dry,
qult 5 ultimate bearing capacity casing or wet method of construction, or a combination of
Qp 5 ultimate load carried by tip of drilled shaft methods. In every case, hole excavation, concrete place-
Qs 5 ultimate load carried by side of drilled shaft ment, and all other aspects shall be performed in con-
QSR 5 ultimate side resistance of drilled shafts sock- formance with the provisions of this specification and
eted in rock Division II.
4.13.3.1 Factors Affecting Axial Capacity 4.13.3.2.3a Settlement of Single Drilled Shafts
The settlement of single drilled shafts shall be esti-
See Article 4.6.5.2 for drilled shafts in soil and Arti-
mated considering short-term settlement, consolidation
cle 4.6.5.3.3 for drilled shafts in rock. The follow-
settlement (if constructed in cohesive soils), and axial
ing sub-articles shall supplement Articles 4.6.5.2 and
compression of the drilled shaft.
4.6.5.3.3.
4.13.3.2.3b Group Settlement
4.13.3.1.1 Downdrag Loads
The settlement of groups of drilled shafts shall be esti-
Downdrag loads shall be evaluated, where appropriate, mated using the same procedures as described for pile
as indicated in Article 4.12.3.1.3. groups, Article 4.12.3.2.3.
4.13.3.1.2 Uplift —Cohesive Soil, See Article 4.12.3.2.3a

—Cohesionless Soil, See Article 4.12.3.2.3b
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.1.4 shall apply as ap-
plicable. 4.13.3.2.4 Lateral Displacement
Shafts designed for and constructed in expansive soil
shall extend for a sufficient depth into moisture-stable The provisions of Article 4.12.3.2.4 shall apply as
soils to provide adequate anchorage to resist uplift. Suffi- applicable.
cient clearance shall be provided between the ground sur-
face and underside of caps or beams connecting shafts to 4.13.3.3 Resistance at Strength Limit States
preclude the application of uplift loads at the shaft/cap
connection due to swelling ground conditions. Uplift ca- The strength limit states that must be considered in-
pacity of straight-sided drilled shafts shall rely only on clude: (1) bearing capacity of drilled shafts, (2) uplift ca-
side resistance in conformance with Article 4.13.3.3.2 for pacity of drilled shafts, and (3) punching of drilled shafts
drilled shafts in cohesive soils, and Article 4.13.3.3.3 for bearing in strong soil into a weaker layer below.
drilled shafts in cohesionless soils. If the shaft has an en-
larged base, Qs shall be determined in conformance with 4.13.3.3.1 Axial Loading of Drilled Shafts
Article 4.13.3.3.6. The provisions of Article 4.12.3.3.1 shall apply as
applicable.
4.13.3.2 Movement Under Serviceability
Limit State 4.13.3.3.2 Analytic Estimates of Drilled Shaft
Capacity in Cohesive Soils
4.13.3.2.1 General Analytic (rational) methods may be used to estimate
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.2.1 shall apply as the ultimate bearing capacity of drilled shafts in cohesive
applicable. soils. The performance factors for side resistance and tip
In estimating settlements of drilled shafts in clay, only resistance for three analytic methods shall be as provided
unfactored permanent loads shall be considered. However in Table 4.10.6-3. If another analytic method is used, ap-
unfactored live loads must be added to the permanent plication of the performance factors in Table 4.10.6-3 may
loads when estimating settlement of shafts in granular not be appropriate.
soil.
4.13.3.3.3 Estimation of Drilled-Shaft Capacity in
Cohesionless Soils
The ultimate bearing capacity of drilled shafts in co-
The provisions of Article 4.12.3.2.2 shall apply as hesionless soils shall be estimated using applicable meth-
applicable. ods, and the factored capacity selected using judgment,
and any available experience with similar conditions.
4.13.3.2.3 Settlement
4.13.3.3.4 Axial Capacity in Rock
The settlement of a drilled shaft foundation involving
either single drilled shafts or groups of drilled shafts shall In determining the axial capacity of drilled shafts with
not exceed the tolerable settlement as selected according rock sockets, the side resistance from overlying soil de-
to Article 4.13.3.2.2 posits shall be ignored.
If the rock is degradable, consideration of special con- or structural failure of the drilled shaft. The design of lat-
struction procedures, larger socket dimensions, or re- erally loaded drilled shafts shall account for the effects of
duced socket capacities shall be considered. interaction between the shaft and ground, including the
The performance factors for drilled shafts socketed in number of piers in the group.
rock shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-3.
4.13.3.3.8 Group Capacity
4.13.3.3.5 Load Test
Possible reduction in capacity from group effects shall
Where necessary, a full scale load test or tests shall be
be considered.
conducted on a drilled shaft or shafts to confirm response
to load. Load tests shall be conducted using shafts con-
structed in a manner and of dimensions and materials 4.13.3.3.8a Cohesive Soil
identical to those planned for the production shafts. The provisions of Article 4.12.3.3.10a shall apply. The
Load tests shall be conducted following prescribed performance factor for the group capacity of an equivalent
written procedures which have been developed from ac- pier or block failure shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-
cepted standards and modified, as appropriate, for the 2 for both cases of the cap being in contact, and not in con-
conditions at the site. Standard pile load testing proce- tact with the ground. The performance factors for the
dures developed by ASTM as specified in Article group capacity calculated using the sum of the individual
4.12.3.3.5 may be modified for testing drilled shafts. drilled shaft capacities are the same as those for the single
The performance factor for axial compressive capac- drilled shaft capacities.
ity, axial uplift capacity, and lateral capacity obtained
from load tests shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-3.
4.13.3.3.8b Cohesionless Soil
4.13.3.3.6 Uplift Capacity Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesionless
soil shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts.
Uplift shall be considered when (i) upward loads act on
Regardless of cap contact with the ground, the individual
the drilled shafts and (ii) swelling or expansive soils act
capacity of each shaft shall be reduced by a factor h for
on the drilled shafts. Drilled shafts subjected to uplift
an isolated shaft, where h 5 0.67 for a center-to-center
forces shall be investigated, both for resistance to pullout
(CTC) spacing of three diameters and h 5 1.0 for a cen-
and for their structural strength.
ter-to-center spacing of eight diameters. For intermediate
4.13.3.3.6a Uplift Capacity of a Single spacings, the value of h may be determined by linear
Drilled Shaft interpolation.
See Article 4.13.3.3.3 for a discussion on the selection
The uplift capacity of a single straight-sided drilled of performance factors for drilled shaft capacities in co-
shaft shall be estimated in a manner similar to that for hesionless soils.
estimating the ultimate side resistance for drilled shafts
in compression (Articles 4.13.3.3.2, 4.13.3.3.3, and
4.13.3.3.4). 4.13.3.3.8c Group in Strong Soil Overlying
The uplift capacity of a belled shaft shall be estimated Weaker Compressible Soil
neglecting the side resistance above the bell, and assum- The provisions of Article 4.12.3.3.10c shall apply as
ing that the bell behaves as an anchor. applicable.
The performance factor for the uplift capacity of
drilled shafts shall be as provided in Table 4.10.6-3.
4.13.3.3.9 Dynamic/Seismic Design
4.13.3.3.6b Group Uplift Capacity
Refer to Division I-A for guidance regarding the design
See Article 4.12.3.3.7b. The performance factors for of drilled shafts subjected to dynamic and seismic loads.
uplift capacity of groups of drilled shafts shall be the same
as those for pile groups as given in Table 4.10.6-3.
4.13.4 Structural Design
4.13.3.3.7 Lateral Load
The structural design of drilled shafts shall be in
The design of laterally loaded drilled shafts is usually accordance with the provisions of Article 4.6.6,
governed by lateral movement criteria (Article 4.13.3.2) which was developed for allowable stress design proce-
dures. In order to use load factor design procedures for 4.13.4.1 Buckling of Drilled Shafts
the structural design of drilled shafts, the load factor
design procedures in Section 8 for reinforced concrete Stability of drilled shafts shall be considered when the
shall be used in place of the allowable stress design shafts extend through water or air for a portion of their
procedures. length.
Section 5
RETAINING WALLS
Part A
5.1 GENERAL cept they rely more on structural resistance through can-
tilevering action, with this cantilevering action providing
Retaining walls shall be designed to withstand lateral the means to mobilize dead weight for resistance. Non-
earth and water pressures, including any live and dead gravity cantilever walls rely strictly on the structural resis-
load surcharge, the self weight of the wall, temperature tance of the wall and the passive resistance of the soil/rock,
and shrinkage effects, and earthquake loads in accordance in which vertical wall elements are partially embedded in
with the general principles specified in this section. the soil/rock to provide fixity. Anchored walls derive their
Retaining walls shall be designed for a service life capacity through cantilevering action of the vertical wall
based on consideration of the potential long-term effects elements (similar to a non-gravity cantilever wall) and ten-
of material deterioration, seepage, stray currents and other sile capacity of anchors embedded in stable soil or rock
potentially deleterious environmental factors on each of below or behind potential soil/rock failure surfaces.
the material components comprising the wall. For most
applications, permanent retaining walls should be de- 5.2.1 Selection of Wall Type
signed for a minimum service life of 75 years. Retaining
walls for temporary applications are typically designed Selection of wall type is based on an assessment of
for a service life of 36 months or less. the magnitude and direction of loading, depth to suitable
A greater level of safety and/or longer service life (i.e., foundation support, potential for earthquake loading,
100 years) may be appropriate for walls which support presence of deleterious environmental factors, proximity
of physical constraints, wall site cross-sectional geometry,
bridge abutments, buildings, critical utilities, or other fa-
tolerable and differential settlement, facing appearance,
cilities for which the consequences of poor performance
and ease and cost of construction.
or failure would be severe.
The quality of in-service performance is an important
consideration in the design of permanent retaining walls. 5.2.1.1 Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity Walls
Permanent walls shall be designed to retain an aestheti-
Rigid gravity walls use the dead weight of the structure
cally pleasing appearance, and be essentially maintenance
itself and may be constructed of stone masonry, unrein-
free throughout their design service life.
forced concrete, or reinforced concrete. Semi-gravity can-
tilever, counterfort, and buttress walls are constructed of
5.2 WALL TYPE AND BEHAVIOR reinforced concrete. Rigid gravity and semi-gravity retain-
ing walls may be used for bridge substructures or grade
Retaining walls are generally classified as gravity, semi- separation. Rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls are gen-
gravity, non-gravity cantilever, and anchored. Examples erally used for permanent wall applications. These types of
of various types of walls are provided in Figures 5.2A, walls can be effective for both cut and fill wall applications
5.2B, and 5.2C. Gravity walls derive their capacity to re- due to their relatively narrow base widths which allows ex-
sist lateral loads through a combination of dead weight and cavation laterally to be kept to a minimum.
lateral resistance. Gravity walls can be further subdivided Gravity and semi-gravity walls may be used without
by type into rigid gravity walls, mechanically stabilized deep foundation support only where the bearing soil/rock
earth (MSE) walls, and prefabricated modular gravity is not prone to excessive or differential settlement. Due to
walls. Semi-gravity walls are similar to gravity walls, ex- their rigidity, excessive differential settlement can cause
111
FIGURE 5.2A Typical Mechanically Stabilized Earth Gravity Walls
cracking, excessive bending or shear stresses in the wall, Permanent nongravity cantilevered walls may be con-
or rotation of the overall wall structure. structed of reinforced concrete, timber, and/or metals.
Temporary nongravity cantilevered walls may be con-
5.2.1.2 Nongravity Cantilevered Walls structed of reinforced concrete, metal and/or timber. Suit-
able metals generally include steel for components such as
Nongravity cantilevered walls derive lateral resistance piles, brackets and plates, lagging and concrete reinforce-
through embedment of vertical wall elements and support ment. Nongravity cantilevered walls may be used for the
retained soil with facing elements. Vertical wall elements same applications as rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls,
may consist of discrete vertical elements (e.g., soldier or as well as temporary or permanent support of earth slopes,
sheet piles, caissons, or drilled shafts) spanned by a struc-
excavations, or unstable soil and rock masses. This type of
tural facing (e.g., wood or reinforced concrete lagging,
wall requires little excavation behind the wall and is most
precast or cast-in-place concrete panels, wire or fiber re-
inforced shotcrete, or metal elements such as sheet piles). effective in cut applications. They are also effective where
The discrete vertical elements typically extend deeper into deep foundation embedment is required for stability.
the ground than the facing to provide vertical and lateral Nongravity cantilevered walls are generally limited to
support. Alternately, the vertical wall elements and facing a maximum height of approximately 5 meters (15 feet),
are continuous and, therefore, also form the structural fac- unless they are provided with additional support by means
ing. Typical continuous vertical wall elements include of anchors. They generally cannot be used effectively
piles, precast or cast-in-place concrete diaphragm wall where deep soft soils are present, as these walls depend on
panels, tangent piles, and tangent caissons. the passive resistance of the soil in front of the wall.
FIGURE 5.2B Typical Prefabricated Modular Gravity Walls
5.2.1.3 Anchored Walls Anchors are usually required for support of both temporary
and permanent nongravity cantilevered walls higher than
Anchored walls are typically composed of the same el- about 5 meters (15 feet), depending on soil conditions.
ements as nongravity cantilevered walls (Article 5.2.1.2), Anchored walls are typically constructed in cut situa-
but derive additional lateral resistance from one or more tions, in which construction occurs from the top down to
tiers of anchors. Anchors may be prestressed or deadman the base of the wall. Anchored walls have been success-
type elements composed of strand tendons or bars (with fully used to support fills; however, certain difficulties
corrosion protection as necessary) extending from the arising in fill wall applications require special considera-
wall face to a ground zone or mechanical anchorage lo- tion during design and construction. In particular, there is
cated beyond the zone of soil applying load to the wall. a potential for anchor damage due to settlement of back-
Bearing elements on the vertical support elements or fac- fill and underlying soils or due to improperly controlled
ing of the wall transfer wall loads to the anchors. In some backfilling procedures. Also, there is a potential for unde-
cases, a spread footing is used at the base of the anchored sirable wall deflection if anchors are too highly stressed
wall facing in lieu of vertical element embedment to pro- when the backfill is only partially complete and provides
vide vertical support. Due to their flexibility and method limited passive resistance.
of support, the distribution of lateral pressure on anchored The base of the vertical wall elements should be lo-
walls is influenced by the method and sequence of wall cated below any soft soils which are prone to settlement,
construction and anchor prestressing. as settlement of the vertical wall elements can cause de-
Anchored walls are applicable for temporary and per- stressing of the anchors. Also, anchors should not be lo-
manent support of stable and unstable soil and rock masses. cated within soft clays and silts, as it is difficult to obtain
FIGURE 5.2C Typical Rigid Gravity, Semi-Gravity Cantilever, Nongravity Cantilever, and Anchored Walls
adequate long-term capacity in such materials due to inforced soil mass behind the facing. For relatively thick
creep. facings, such as segmental concrete block facings, the
dead weight of the facing may also provide a significant
5.2.1.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls contribution to the capacity of the wall system.
MSE walls are typically used where conventional
MSE systems, whose elements may be proprietary, gravity, cantilever, or counterforted concrete retaining
employ either metallic (strip or grid type) or geosynthetic walls are considered, and are particularly well suited
(geotextile, strip, or geogrid) tensile reinforcements in the where substantial total and differential settlements are an-
soil mass, and a facing element which is vertical or near ticipated. The allowable settlement of MSE walls is lim-
vertical. MSE walls behave as a gravity wall, deriving ited by the longitudinal deformability of the facing and the
their lateral resistance through the dead weight of the re- performance requirements of the structure. MSE walls
have been successfully used in both fill and cut wall ap- lutants, other environmental conditions which are defined
plications. However, they are most effective in fill wall as aggressive as described in Division II, Article 7.3.6.3,
applications. MSE walls shall not be used under the fol- or where deicing spray is anticipated.
lowing conditions.
5.2.2 Wall Capacity
• When utilities other than highway drainage must be
constructed within the reinforced zone if future Retaining walls shall be designed to provide adequate
access to the utilities would require that the rein- structural capacity with acceptable movements, adequate
forcement layers be cut, or if there is potential for foundation bearing capacity with acceptable settlements,
material which can cause degradation of the soil re- and acceptable overall stability of slopes adjacent to
inforcement to leak out of the utilities into the wall walls. The tolerable level of wall lateral and vertical de-
backfill. formations is controlled by the type and location of the
• With soil reinforcements exposed to surface or wall structure and surrounding facilities.
ground water contaminated by acid mine drainage,
other industrial pollutants, or other environmental 5.2.2.1 Bearing Capacity
conditions which are defined as aggressive as de-
scribed in Division II, Article 7.3.6.3, unless envi- The bearing capacity of wall foundation support sys-
ronment specific long-term corrosion or degradation tems shall be estimated using procedures described in Ar-
studies are conducted. ticles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6, or other generally accepted theories.
• When floodplain erosion may undermine the rein- Such theories are based on soil and rock parameters mea-
forced fill zone or facing column, or where the depth sured by in situ and/or laboratory tests.
of scour cannot be reliably determined.
5.2.2.2 Settlement
MSE walls may be considered for use under the fol-
lowing special conditions: The settlement of wall foundation support systems
shall be estimated using procedures described in Articles
• When two intersecting walls form an enclosed angle 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6, or other generally accepted methods. Such
of 70° or less, the affected portion of the wall is de- methods are based on soil and rock parameters measured
signed as an internally tied bin structure with at-rest directly or inferred from the results of in situ and/or labo-
earth pressure coefficients. ratory test.
• Where metallic reinforcements are used in areas
of anticipated stray currents within 60 meters (200 5.2.2.3 Overall Stability
feet) of the structure, a corrosion expert should eval-
uate the potential need for corrosion control require- The overall stability of slopes in the vicinity of walls
ments. shall be considered as part of the design of retaining walls.
The overall stability of the retaining wall, retained slope,
5.2.1.5 Prefabricated Modular Walls and foundation soil or rock shall be evaluated for all walls
using limiting equilibrium methods of analysis such as the
Prefabricated modular wall systems, whose elements Modified Bishop, simplified Janbu or Spencer methods of
may be proprietary, generally employ interlocking soil- analysis. A minimum factor of safety of 1.3 shall be used
filled reinforced concrete or steel modules or bins, rock for walls designed for static loads, except the factor of
filled gabion baskets, precast concrete units, or dry cast safety shall be 1.5 for walls that support abutments, build-
segmental masonry concrete units (without soil reinforce- ings, critical utilities, or for other installations with a low
ment) which resist earth pressures by acting as gravity re- tolerance for failure. A minimum factor of safety of 1.1
taining walls. Prefabricated modular walls may also use shall be used when designing walls for seismic loads. In
their structural elements to mobilize the dead weight of a all cases, the subsurface conditions and soil/rock proper-
portion of the wall backfill through soil arching to provide ties of the wall site shall be adequately characterized
resistance to lateral loads. Prefabricated modular systems through in-situ exploration and testing and/or laboratory
may be used where conventional gravity, cantilever or testing as described in Article 5.3.
counterfort concrete retaining walls are considered. Seismic forces applied to the mass of the slope shall be
Steel modular systems shall not be used where the steel based on a horizontal seismic coefficient kh equal to one-
will be exposed to surface or subsurface water which is half the ground acceleration coefficient A, with the verti-
contaminated by acid mine drainage, other industrial pol- cal seismic coefficient kv equal to zero.
It must be noted that, even if overall stability is satis- 4.4, 4.5, and 4.6. For gravity and semi-gravity walls, lat-
factory, special exploration, testing and analyses may be eral movement results from a combination of differential
required for bridge abutments or retaining walls con- vertical settlement between the heel and the toe of the wall
structed over soft subsoils where consolidation and/or lat- and the rotation necessary to develop active earth pressure
eral flow of the soft soil could result in unacceptable long- conditions (see Table 5.5.2A). If the wall is designed for
term settlements or horizontal movements. at-rest earth pressure conditions, the deflections in Table
Stability of temporary construction slopes needed to 5.5.2A do not need to be considered. For anchored walls,
construct the wall shall also be evaluated. deflections shall be estimated in accordance with Article
5.7.2. For MSE walls, deflections may be estimated in ac-
5.2.2.4 Tolerable Deformations cordance with Article 5.8.10.
Where a wall is used to support a structure, tolerable
Tolerable vertical and lateral deformation criteria for re- movement criteria shall be established in accordance with
taining walls shall be developed based on the function and Articles 4.4.7.2.5, 4.5 and 4.6. Where a wall supports soil
type of wall, unanticipated service life, and consequences of on which an adjacent structure is founded, the effects of
unacceptable movements (i.e., both structural and aesthetic). wall movements and associated backfill settlement on the
Allowable total and differential vertical deformations adjacent structure shall be evaluated.
for a particular retaining wall are dependent on the ability For seismic design, seismic loads may be reduced, as
of the wall to deflect without causing damage to the wall result of lateral wall movement due to sliding, for what is
elements or exhibiting unsightly deformations. The total calculated based on Division 1A using the Mononobe-
and differential vertical deformation of a retaining wall Okabe method if both of the following conditions are met:
should be small for rigid gravity and semi-gravity retain-
ing walls, and for soldier pile walls with a cast-in-place • the wall system and any structures supported by the
facing. For walls with anchors, any downward movement wall can tolerate lateral movement resulting from
can cause significant destressing of the anchors. sliding of the structure,
MSE walls can tolerate larger total and differential ver- • the wall base is unrestrained regarding its ability to
tical deflections than rigid walls. The amount of total and slide, other than soil friction along its base and min-
differential vertical deflection that can be tolerated de- imal soil passive resistance.
pends on the wall facing material, configuration, and tim-
ing of facing construction. A cast-in-place facing has the Procedures for accomplishing this reduction in seismic
same vertical deformation limitations as the more rigid re- load are provided in the 1996 Commentary, Division 1A,
taining wall systems. However, an MSE wall with a cast- Article 6, in particular Equation C6-10, of these specifica-
in-place facing can be specified with a waiting period be- tions. In general, this only applies to gravity and semi-
fore the cast-in-place facing is constructed so that vertical gravity walls. Though the specifications in Division 1A re-
(as well as horizontal) deformations have time to occur. garding this issue are directed at structural gravity and
An MSE wall with welded wire or geosynthetic facing can semi-gravity walls, these specifications may also be ap-
tolerate the most deformation. An MSE wall with multi- plicable to other types of gravity walls regarding this issue
ple precast concrete panels cannot tolerate as much verti- provided the two conditions listed above are met.
cal deformation as flexible welded wire or geosynthetic
facings because of potential damage to the precast panels 5.2.3 Soil, Rock, and Other Problem Conditions
and unsightly panel separation.
Horizontal movements resulting from outward rotation Geologic and environmental conditions can influence
of the wall or resulting from the development of internal the performance of retaining walls and their foundations,
equilibrium between the loads applied to the wall and the and may require special consideration during design. To
internal structure of the wall must be limited to prevent the extent possible, the presence and influence of such
overstress of the structural wall facing and to prevent the conditions shall be evaluated as part of the subsurface ex-
wall face batter from becoming negative. In general, if ploration program. A representative, but not exclusive,
vertical deformations are properly controlled, horizontal listing of problem conditions requiring special considera-
deformations will likely be within acceptable limits. For tion is presented in Table 4.2.3A for general guidance.
MSE walls with extensible reinforcements, reinforcement
serviceability criteria, the wall face batter, and the facing 5.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND
type selected (i.e., the flexibility of the facing) will influ- TESTING PROGRAMS
ence the horizontal deformation criteria required.
Vertical wall movements shall be estimated using con- The elements of the subsurface exploration and testing
ventional settlement computational methods (see Articles programs shall be the responsibility of the Designer, based
on the specific requirements of the project and his or her local conditions. Where the wall is supported on deep foun-
experience with local geological conditions. dations and for all non-gravity walls, the depth of the sub-
surface explorations shall extend a minimum of 6 meters
5.3.1 General Requirements (20 feet) below the anticipated pile, shaft, or slurry wall tip
elevation. For piles or shafts end bearing on rock. or shafts
As a minimum, the subsurface exploration and testing extending into rock, a minimum of 3 meters (10 feet) of
programs shall define the following, where applicable: rock core, or a length of rock core equal to at least three
times the shaft diameter, which ever is greater, shall be ob-
• Soil strata: tained to insure that the exploration has not been terminated
—Depth, thickness, and variability on a boulder and to determine the physical characteristics of
—Identification and classification the rock within the zone of foundation influence for design.
—Relevant engineering properties (i.e., natural
moisture content, Atterberg limits, shear strength, 5.3.3 Minimum Coverage
compressibility, stiffness, permeability, expan-
sion or collapse potential, and frost susceptibility) A minimum of one soil boring shall be made for each
—Relevant soil chemistry, including pH, resistivity, retaining wall. For retaining walls over 30 meters (100
and sulfide content feet) in length, the spacing between borings should be 30
• Rock strata: meters (100 feet). The number and spacing of the bore
—Depth to rock holes may be increased or decreased from 30 meters
—Identification and classification (100 feet), depending upon the anticipated geological con-
—Quality (i.e., soundness, hardness, jointing and ditions within the project area. In planning the exploration
presence of joint filling, resistance to weathering, program, consideration should be given to placing borings
if exposed, and solutioning) inboard and outboard of the wall line to define conditions
—Compressive strength (e.g., uniaxial compres- in the scour zone at the toe of the wall and in the zone be-
sion, point load index) hind the wall to estimate lateral loads and anchorage or re-
—Expansion potential inforcement capacities.
• Ground water elevation, including seasonal varia-
5.3.4 Laboratory Testing
tions, chemical composition, and pH (especially im-
portant for anchored, non-gravity cantilevered, mod-
Laboratory testing shall be performed as necessary to de-
ular, and MSE walls) where corrosion potential is an
termine engineering characteristics including unit weight,
important consideration
natural moisture content, Atterberg limits, gradation, shear
• Ground surface topography
strength, compressive strength and compressibility. In the
• Local conditions requiring special consideration
absence of laboratory testing, engineering characteristics
(e.g., presence of stray electrical currents). may be estimated based on field tests and/or published prop-
erty correlations. Local experience should be applied when
Exploration logs shall include soil and rock strata de- establishing project design values based on laboratory and
scriptions, penetration resistance for soils (e.g., SPT or field tests.
qc), and sample recovery and RQD for rock strata. The
drilling equipment and method, use of drilling mud, type 5.3.5 Scour
of SPT hammer (i.e., safety, donut, hydraulic) or cone
penetrometer (i.e., mechanical or electrical), and any un- The probable depth of scour shall be determined by
usual subsurface conditions such as artesian pressures, subsurface exploration and hydraulic studies. Refer to Ar-
boulders or other obstructions, or voids shall also be noted ticle 1.3.2 and FHWA (1991) for general guidance re-
on the exploration logs. garding hydraulic studies and design.
5.3.2 Minimum Depth 5.4 NOTATIONS
Regardless of the wall foundation type, borings shall ex- The following notations apply for design of retaining
tend into a bearing layer adequate to support the anticipated walls:
foundation loads, defined as dense or hard soils, or bedrock.
In general, for walls which do not utilize deep foundation A 5 Acceleration coefficient (dim); (See Article
support, subsurface explorations shall extend below the an- 5.8.9.1)
ticipated bearing level a minimum of twice the total wall Ac 5 Reinforcement area corrected for corrosion
height. Greater depths may be required where warranted by losses (mm2); (See Article 5.8.6)
Am 5 Maximum wall acceleration coefficient at the FH 5 Horizontal component of active lateral earth
centroid (dim); (See Article 5.8.9.1) pressure force (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2)
b 5 Width of discrete wall backfill element (m); (See FT 5 Resultant active lateral earth pressure force
Article 5.8.6) (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2)
bf 5 Width of vertical or horizontal concentrated dead FS 5 Factor of safety (dim); (See Article 5.5.5)
load (m); (See Article 5.8.12.1) FSOT 5 Factor of safety against overturning (dim); (See
B 5 Total base width of wall, including facing ele- Article 5.8.2)
ments (m); (See Article 5.5.5) FSPO 5 Safety factor against pullout (dim); (See Article
B9 5 Effective base width of retaining wall foundation 5.8.5.2)
(m); (See Article 5.8.3) FSSL 5 Factor of safety against sliding (dim); (See Arti-
C 5 Overall reinforcement surface area geometry fac- cle 5.8.2)
tor (dim); (See Article 5.8.5.2) FV 5 Vertical component of active lateral earth pres-
Cf 5 Distance from back of wall facing to front edge sure force (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2)
of footing or other concentrated surcharge load Gu 5 Distance to center of gravity of a modular block
(m); (See Article 5.8.12.1) facing unit, including aggregate fill, measured from
CRs 5 A reduction factor to account for reduced con- the front of the unit (m); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
nection strength resulting from pullout of the h 5 Equivalent height of soil representing surcharge
connection (dim); (See Article 5.8.7.2) pressure or effective total height of soil at back of
CRu 5 A reduction factor to account for reduced ulti- reinforced soil mass (m); (See Article 5.8.2)
mate strength resulting from rupture of the con- hp 5 Vertical distance Fp is located from bottom of
nection (dim); (See Article 5.8.7.2) wall (m); (See Article 5.8.12.1)
Cu 5 Soil coefficient of uniformity (dim); (See Article H 5 Design wall height (m); (See Article 5.8.1)
5.8.5.2) H1 5 Equivalent wall height (m); (See Article 5.8.5.1)
d 5 Distance from back of wall face to center of con- H2 5 Effective wall height (m); (See Article 5.8.9.1)
centrated dead load (m); (See Article 5.8.12.1); Hh 5 Hinge height for block facings (m); (See Article
also, the effective depth relative to stem of con- 5.8.7.2)
crete semi-gravity walls for locating critical sec- Hs 5 Surcharge height (m of soil); (See Article 5.5.2)
tion for shear (m); (See Article 5.5.6.1) Hu 5 Facing unit height (m); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
Di 5 Effective width of applied load at depth within or Hw 5 Height of water in backfill above base of wall (m)
behind wall due to surcharge (m); (See Article I 5 Average slope of broken back soil surcharge
5.8.12.1) above wall (deg); (See Article 5.8.2)
D* 5 Reinforcement bar diameter corrected for corro- ib 5 Inclination of wall base from horizontal (deg);
sion losses (mm); (See Article 5.8.6) (See Article 5.8.7.2)
e, e9 5 Eccentricity of forces contributing to bearing kh 5 Horizontal seismic coefficient (dim); (See Article
pressure (m); (See Articles 5.8.3 and 5.8.12.1) 5.8.9.1)
Ec 5 Thickness of metal reinforcement at end of ser- kv 5 Vertical seismic coefficient (dim); (See Article
vice life (mm); (See Article 5.8.6) 5.8.9.1)
En 5 Nominal thickness of steel reinforcement at con- K 5 Earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Article 5.5.2)
struction (mm); (See Article 5.8.6.1.1) Kae 5 Total Mononobe-Okabe seismic lateral earth
ER 5 Equivalent sacrificed thickness of metal expected pressure coefficient (dim); (See Article 5.8.9.1)
to be lost by uniform corrosion to produce ex- DKae 5 Dynamic increment of the Mononobe-Okabe
pected loss of tensile strength during service life seismic lateral earth pressure coefficient (dim);
of structure (mm); (See Article 5.8.6.1.1) (See Article 5.8.9.1)
f 5 Friction factor (dim); (See Article 5.5.2) Kaf 5 Active earth pressure coefficient for the soil be-
F* 5 Pullout resistance factor (dim); (See Article 5.8.5.2) hind the MSE wall reinforcements (dim); (See
Fp 5 Lateral force resulting from KafDsv (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2)
Article 5.8.12.1) Kr 5 Lateral earth pressure coefficient for the soil
Fy 5 Yield strength of the steel (kN/mm2); (See Article within the MSE wall reinforced soil zone (dim);
5.8.6.1.1) (See Article 5.8.4.1)
F1 5 Active lateral earth pressure force for level back- Ka 5 Active earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Ar-
fill conditions (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2) ticle 5.5.2)
F2 5 Lateral earth pressure force due to traffic or other Ko 5 At-rest earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Ar-
continuous surcharge (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2) ticle 5.5.2)
Kp 5 Passive earth pressure coefficient for curved fail- Pw 5 Force due to hydrostatic water pressure behind
ure surface (dim); (See Article 5.5.2) wall (kN/m); (See Article 5.5.3)
Kp9 5 Passive earth pressure coefficient for planar fail- q 5 Traffic live load pressure (kN/m2); (See Article
ure surface (dim); (See Article 5.5.2) 5.8.2)
l1, l2 5 Depth from concentrated horizontal dead load lo- qc 5 Cone end bearing resistance (kN/m2), (See Arti-
cation that force is distributed (m); (See Article cle 5.3.1)
5.8.12.1) QL 5 Line load force (kN/m); (See Article 5.5.2)
L 5 Length of soil reinforcing elements (m); (See Ar- QP 5 Point load force (kN); (See Article 5.5.2)
ticle 5.8.2); length of structural footings (m); (See R 5 Resultant of foundation bearing pressure (kN or
Article 5.8.12.1) kN/m); (See Article 5.8.3)
La 5 Length of reinforcement in the active zone (m); R9 5 Distance above wall base to resultant of lateral
(See Article 5.8.5.2) pressure due to surcharge (m); (See Article 5.5.2)
Le 5 Length of reinforcement in the resistant zone (m); Rc 5 Soil reinforcement coverage ratio (dim); (See Ar-
(See Article 5.8.5.2) ticle 5.8.6)
Lei 5 Effective reinforcement length for layer i (m); RF 5 Reduction factor applied to the ultimate tensile
(See Article 5.8.9.2) strength to account for short and long-term degra-
m 5 Relative horizontal distance of point load from dation factors such as installation damage, creep,
back of wall face (dim); (See Article 5.5.2) and chemical aging (dim); (See Article 5.8.6.1.2)
MA 5 The moment about point z at base of segmental RFc 5 Reduction factor applied to the ultimate tensile re-
concrete facing blocks due to force WA (m- inforcement-facing connection strength to account
kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2) for long-term degradation factors such as creep
MB 5 The moment about point z at base of segmental and chemical aging (dim); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
concrete facing blocks due to force WB (m- RFID 5 Reinforcement strength reduction factor to ac-
kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2) count for installation damage (dim); (See Article
n 5 Relative depth below top of wall when calculat- 5.8.6.1.2)
ing lateral pressure due to point load above wall RFCR 5 Reinforcement strength reduction factor to ac-
(dim); (See Article 5.5.2) count for creep rupture (dim); (See Article
N 5 Number of reinforcement layers vertically within 5.8.6.1.2)
MSE wall (dim); (See Article 5.8.9.2) RFD 5 Reinforcement strength reduction factor to ac-
Pa 5 Active earth pressure force (kN/m); (See Article count for rupture due to chemical/biological
5.5.2) degradation (dim); (See Article 5.8.6.1.2)
Pir 5 Inertial force caused by seismic acceleration of the S 5 Equivalent soil surcharge height above wall (m);
reinforced soil mass (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.9.1) (See Article 5.8.4.1)
Pis 5 Inertial force caused by seismic acceleration of Sh 5 Horizontal reinforcement spacing of discrete re-
the sloping soil surcharge above the reinforced inforcements (mm); (See Article 5.8.6)
soil mass (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.9.1) Srs 5 The reinforcement strength needed to resist the
Po 5 At-rest earth pressure force (kN/m); (See Article static component of load (kN/m); (See Article
5.5.2) 5.8.9.2)
Ps 5 Earth pressure force resulting from uniform sur- Srt 5 The reinforcement strength needed to resist the
charge behind wall (kN/m); (See Article 5.5.2) dynamic or transient component of load (kN/m);
PAE 5 Dynamic horizontal thrust due to seismic loading (See Article 5.8.9.2)
(kN/m); (See Article 5.8.9.1) St 5 Transverse grid element spacing (mm); (See Ar-
PH 5 Concentrated horizontal dead load force (kN/m); ticle 5.8.5.2)
(See Articles 5.5.2 and 5.8.12.1) Sv 5 Vertical spacing of soil reinforcement (mm); (See
PI 5 Inertial force of mass within active zone due to Article 5.8.4.1)
seismic loading (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.9.2) t 5 Transverse grid or bar mat element thickness
PIR 5 Reinforced wall mass inertial force due to seis- (mm); (See Article 5.8.5.2)
mic loading (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.9.1) T 5 Total load applied to structural frame around ob-
PN 5 Resultant horizontal load on wall due to point struction (kN); (See Article 5.8.12.4)
load (kN/m), (See Article 5.5.2) Ta 5 The allowable load which can be applied to each
PV 5 Concentrated vertical dead load force for strip soil reinforcement layer per unit width of rein-
load (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.12.1) forcement (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.6)
PV9 5 Concentrated vertical dead load force for isolated Tac 5 The allowable load which can be applied to each
footing or point load (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.12.1) soil reinforcement layer per unit width of rein-
forcement at the connection with the wall face Z2 5 Depth where effective surcharge width Di inter-
(kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2) sects back of wall face (m); (See Article 5.8.12.1)
Tmax 5 Maximum load applied to each soil reinforce- a 5 Scale effect correction factor (dim); (See Article
ment layer per unit width of wall (kN/m); (See 5.8.5.2)
Article 5.8.4.1) b 5 Inclination of ground slope behind wall measured
Tal 5 Allowable long-term reinforcement tension per counterclockwise from horizontal plane (deg);
unit reinforcement width for ultimate limit state (See Article 5.5.2)
(kN/m); (See Article 5.8.6.1.2) d 5 Friction angle between two dissimilar materials
Tlot = The ultimate wide width tensile strength for the (deg); (See Article 5.5.2)
reinforcement material lot used for connection dmax 5 Maximum lateral wall displacement occurring
strength testing (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2) during wall construction (mm); (See Article 5.8.10)
Tmd 5 Incremental dynamic inertia force at level i dR 5 Relative lateral wall displacement coefficient
(kN/m of structure); (See Article 5.8.9.2) (dim); (See Article 5.8.10)
T0 5 Applied reinforcement load per unit width of wall D 5 Lateral Rotation at top of wall (mm); (See Article
at the connection with the facing (kN/m); (See 5.5.2)
Article 5.8.4.2) Dsh 5 Horizontal stress at the soil reinforcement loca-
Tsc = The peak load per unit reinforcement width in the tion resulting from a concentrated horizontal load
connection test at a specified confining pressure (kN/m2); (See Article 5.8.12.1)
where reinforcement pullout is known to be the Dsv1 5 Vertical stress at the soil reinforcement location
mode of failure (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2) resulting from a concentrated vertical load (kN/m2);
Ttotal 5 The total static plus seismic load applied to each (See Article 5.8.12.1)
reinforcement layer per unit width of wall g 5 Soil unit weight (kN/m3)
(KN/m); (See Article 5.8.9.2) gf 5 Soil unit weight for random backfill behind and
Tult 5 Ultimate tensile strength of geosynthetic rein- above reinforced backfill (kN/m3); (See Article
forcement per unit reinforcement width (kN/m); 5.8.1)
(See Article 5.8.6.1.2.) gr 5 Soil unit weight for reinforced wall backfill
Tultc = The peak load per unit reinforcement width in the (kN/m3); (See Article 5.8.4.1)
g9 5 Effective unit weight of soil or rock (kN/m3)
connection test at a specified confining pressure
gw 5 Unit weight of water (kN/m3)
where reinforcement rupture is known to be the
f 5 Friction angle of the soil (deg); (See Article
mode of failure (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2)
5.5.2)
V1 5 Weight of reinforced soil mass (kN/m); (See Ar-
f9 5 Effective stress angle of internal friction (deg);
ticle 5.8.2)
(See Article 5.5.2)
V2 5 Weight of sloping soil surcharge on top of rein-
ff 5 Friction angle of the soil behind the MSE wall re-
forced soil mass (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.2) inforcements (deg); (See Article 5.8.1 or 5.8.4.1)
W 5 Weight of reinforced wall mass (kN/m); (See Ar- fr 5 Friction angle of the soil within the MSE wall re-
ticle 5.8.9.1) inforcement zone (deg); (See Article 5.8.1 or
WA 5 Weight of facing blocks outside the heel of the 5.8.4.1)
base unit (kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2) U 5 Inclination of back of wall measured clock-wise
WB 5 Weight of facing blocks inside the heel of the base from horizontal plane (deg); (See Article 5.5.2)
unit within hinge height (kN/m); (See Article r 5 Soil/reinforcement interface friction angle (deg);
5.8.7.2) (See Article 5.8.2)
WW 5 Weight of facing blocks over the base unit s2 5 Vertical stress due to equivalent horizontal soil
(kN/m); (See Article 5.8.7.2) surcharge above wall when sloping ground pre-
Wu 5 Width of wall facing or facing blocks (mm); (See sent (kN/m2); (See Article 5.8.4.1)
Article 5.8.7.2) sa 5 Active pressure on the back of a wall (kN/m2);
X1 5 Horizontal distance of concentrated dead load (See Article 5.5.2)
from Point 0 toe of wall (m); (See Article 5.8.12.1) sh 5 Horizontal soil stress at the soil reinforcement
Z 5 Depth below effective top of wall or to reinforce- (kN/m2); (See Article 5.8.4.1)
ment (m); (See Article 5.8.4.1 or 5.8.12.1) sv 5 Vertical stress on the soil reinforcement (kN/m2);
Zp 5 Depth to reinforcement at beginning of resistant (See Articles 5.8.4.1 and 5.8.5.2)
zone for pullout computations (m); (See Article sH 5 Horizontal stress due to point load above wall
5.8.4.1) (kN/m2); (See Article 5.5.2)
v 5 Wall face batter due to setback per course (deg); 5.5.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings
(See Article 5.8.5.1)
C 5 Inclination of internal failure surface from hori- Earth pressure loading on rigid gravity and semi-gravity
zontal (deg); (See Article 5.8.5.1) walls is a function of the type and condition of soil backfill,
the slope of the ground surface behind the wall, the friction
The notations for dimension units include the follow- between the wall and soil, and the ability of the wall to trans-
ing: deg 5 degree; dim 5 dimensionless; m 5 meter; late or rotate about their base. Restrained walls are fixed or
mm 5 millimeter; kN 5 kilonewton; and kg 5 kilo- partially restrained against translation and/or rotation.
gram. The dimensional units provided with each nota- For yielding walls, lateral earth pressures shall be com-
tion are presented for illustration only to demonstrate a puted assuming active stress conditions and wedge theory
dimensionally correct combination of units for the wall using a planar surface of sliding defined by Coulomb The-
design procedures presented herein. If other units are ory. Development of an active state of stress in the soil be-
used, the dimensional correctness of the equations hind a rigid wall requires an outward rotation of the wall
should be confirmed. about its toe. The magnitude of rotation required to develop
active pressure is a function of the soil type and conditions
Part B behind the wall, as defined in Table 5.5.2A. Refer to Figure
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD 5.5.2A for procedures to determine the magnitude and lo-
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN cation of the earth pressure resultant for gravity and semi-
gravity retaining walls subjected to active earth pressures.
5.5 RIGID GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY For restrained or yielding walls for which the tilting or
WALL DESIGN deflection required to develop active earth pressure is not
tolerable (i.e., yielding walls located adjacent to structures
5.5.1 Design Terminology sensitive to settlement), lateral earth pressures shall be com-
puted assuming at-rest conditions using the relationships
Refer to Figure 5.5.1A for terminology used in the de-
sign of rigid gravity and semi-gravity retaining walls. Po 5 (g9H2/2)(Ko) (5.5.2-1)
FIGURE 5.5.1A Terms Used in Design of Rigid Gravity and Semi-Gravity Retaining Walls
TABLE 5.5.2A Relationship Between Soil Backfill Type Ps 5 (Hs)g9KH (5.5.2-3)

and Wall Rotation to Mobilize Active and Passive Earth
Pressures Behind Rigid Retaining Walls acting at the mid-height of the wall where K is equal to Ka
or Ko depending on wall restraint. If the surcharge is
greater than that applied by 0.6 meters (2 feet) of soil, the
design earth pressures shall be increased by the actual
amount of the surcharge. Unless actual data regarding the
magnitude of the anticipated surcharge loads is available,
assume a minimum soil unit weight of 19.6 kN/m3 (0.125
kcf) in determining the surcharge load.
The effects of permanent point or line surcharge loads
Ko 5 1 2 sinf9 (5.5.2-2) (other than normal traffic live loads) on backslopes shall
also be considered in developing the design earth pres-
When traffic loads are applied within a horizontal dis- sures. See Figure 5.5.2B to estimate the effects of perma-
tance from the top of the wall equal to one-half the wall nent point and line surcharge loads.
height, the lateral earth pressure for design shall be in- The effect of compacting backfill in confined areas be-
creased by a minimum surcharge acting on the backslope hind retaining walls may result in development of earth
equivalent to that applied by 0.6 meters (2 feet) of soil as pressures greater than those represented by active or at-
described in Article 3.20.3. The surcharge will result in rest conditions. Where use of heavy static or vibratory
the application of an additional uniform pressure on the compaction equipment within a distance of about 0.5H
back of the wall having a resultant magnitude behind the wall is anticipated, the effects of backfill com-
FIGURE 5.5.2A Computational Procedures for Active Earth Pressures (Coulomb Analysis)
FIGURE 5.5.2B Procedure to Determine Lateral Pressure Due to Point and Line Loads, Modified after Terzaghi (1954)
paction shall be considered in estimating the lateral earth of disturbance (e.g., a utility trench excavation in front of
pressure distribution used for design. the wall). Where passive earth pressure in front of a wall
In addition to the earth, surcharge and water pressures, can be considered, refer to Figures 5.5.2C and 5.5.2D for
the backwalls of abutments shall be designed to resist loads procedures to determine the magnitude and location of
due to design live and impact loads. For design purposes, the passive earth pressure resultant for gravity and semi-
it shall be assumed that wheel loads are positioned to gen- gravity walls. Development of passive earth pressure in
erate the maximum tensile stresses at the back of the back- the soil in front of a rigid wall requires an outward rota-
wall when combined with stresses caused by the backfill. tion of the wall about its toe or other movement of the wall
The resistance due to passive earth pressure in front of into the soil. The magnitude of movement required to mo-
the wall shall be neglected unless the wall extends well bilize passive pressure is a function of the soil type and
below the depth of frost penetration, scour or other types condition in front of the wall as defined in Table 5.5.2A.
FIGURE 5.5.2C Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Sloping Wall
with Horizontal Backfill (Caquot and Kerisel Analysis), Modified After U.S. Department of Navy (1982)
FIGURE 5.5.2D Computational Procedures for Passive Earth Pressures for Vertical Wall
with Sloping Backfill (Caquot and Kerisel Analysis), Modified After U.S. Department of Navy (1982)
5.5.3 Water Pressure and Drainage Refer to Figure 5.5.5A for computational procedures to
determine the factors of safety for sliding and overturning
Walls shall be designed to resist the maximum antici- failure modes using the Coulomb analysis.
pated water pressure. For a horizontal, static ground water Unfactored dead and live loads shall be used to deter-
table, the total hydrostatic water pressure should be determine the FS against sliding and overturning. In determin-
mined using the following relationship: ing the FS, the effect of passive soil pressure resistance in
front of a wall shall only be considered when competent
Pw 5 gwHw2/2 (5.5.3-1) soil or rock exists which will not be removed or eroded
during the structure life. Table 5.5.2B may be used for gen-
If the ground water levels differ on opposite sides of a eral guidance in selecting coefficients of sliding friction
wall, the effects of seepage forces on wall stability or pip- between the wall base and foundation soil or rock.
ing potential shall be considered. Seepage forces may be For static loading, the location of the bearing pressure
determined by flow net procedures or various analytical resultant (R) on the base of the wall foundation shall be
methods. Hydrostatic pressures and seepage shall be con- within B/6 of the center of the foundation for foundations
trolled by providing free-draining granular backfill and a on soil and within B/4 of the center of the foundation for
positive drainage collection system. The positive drainage foundations on rock where B is the width of the wall base
system shall be located at the lowest elevation that will or footing.
permit gravity drainage. Portions of the walls below the For seismic loading, the location of R shall be within
level of the drainage system shall be designed for full hy- B/3 of the center of the foundation for foundations on soil
drostatic pressure unless a deeper drainage system is pro- and rock.
vided behind and at the base of the wall. See Article 4.4.5 for procedures to determine the re-
quired embedment depth of wall foundations; Articles
5.5.4 Seismic Pressure 4.4.7 and 4.4.8, respectively, for procedures to design
spread footings on soil and rock; and Articles 4.5 and 4.6,
Refer to Section 6 of Division I-A for guidance regard- respectively, for procedures to design pile and drilled
ing the lateral earth pressure on gravity and semi-gravity shaft foundations.
retaining walls subjected to seismic loading. In general,
the pseudo-static approach developed by Mononobe- 5.5.6 Structure Design
Okabe may be used to estimate equivalent static forces for
seismic loads. The estimation of seismic design forces Structural design of individual wall elements shall be
shall account for wall inertia forces in addition to the
by service load or load factor design methods in confor-
equivalent static forces. Where a wall supports a bridge
mance with Article 3.22.
structure, the seismic design forces shall also include
seismic forces transferred from the bridge through bear-
5.5.6.1 Base or Footing Slabs
ing supports which do not slide freely (e.g., elastomeric
bearings).
The rear projection or heel of base slabs shall be de-
signed to support the entire weight of the superimposed
5.5.5 Structure Dimensions and External Stability
materials, unless a more exact method is used. The base
slabs of cantilever walls shall be designed as cantilevers
Gravity and semi-gravity walls shall be dimensioned to
supported by the wall. The base slabs of counterforted and
ensure stability against possible failure modes by satisfy-
ing the following factor of safety (FS) criteria: buttressed walls shall be designed as fixed or continuous
beams of spans equal to the distance between counterforts
• Sliding - FS $ 1.5 or buttresses.
• Overturning - The critical sections for bending moments in footings
FS $ 2.0 for footings on soil shall be taken at the face and back of the stem. The criti-
FS $ 1.5 for footings on rock cal sections for shear in the footings shall be taken at a
• Bearing Capacity for Static Loading - distance d (d 5 effective depth) from the face of the stem
See Article 4.4.7 for footings on soil for the toe section and at the back of the stem for the heel
See Article 4.4.8 for footings on rock section.
• The factors of safety against sliding and overturning
failure under seismic loading may be reduced to 5.5.6.2 Wall Stems
75% of the factors of safety listed above.
• Bearing capacity for Seismic Loading - The upright stems of cantilever walls shall be designed
FS $ 1.5 for footings on soil and rock as cantilevers supported at the base. The upright stems or
FIGURE 5.5.5A Design Criteria for Rigid Retaining Walls, (Coulomb Analysis)
TABLE 5.5.2B Ultimate Friction Factors and Friction Angles for Dissimilar Materials,
After U.S. Department of the Navy (1982)
Friction Factor
f 5 tan Friction Angle,
Interface Materials d (dim) d (degrees)
Mass concrete or masonry on the following foundation materials:
—Clean sound rock 0.70 35
—Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, coarse sand 0.55 to 0.60 29 to 31
—Clean fine to medium sand, silty medium to coarse sand, silty or clayey gravel 0.45 to 0.55 24 to 29
—Clean fine sand, silty or clayey fine to medium sand 0.35 to 0.45 19 to 24
—Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt 0.30 to 0.35 17 to 19
—Very stiff and hard residual or preconsolidated clay 0.40 to 0.50 22 to 26
—Medium stiff and stiff clay and silty clay 0.30 to 0.35 17 to 19
Steel sheet piles against the following soils:
—Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, well-graded rock fill with spalls 0.40 22
—Clean sand, silty sand-gravel mixtures, single size hard rock fill 0.30 17
—Silty sand, gravel or sand mixed with silt or clay 0.25 14
—Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt 0.20 11
Formed concrete or concrete sheet piling against the following soils:
—Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, well-graded rock fill with spalls 0.40 to 0.50 22 to 26
—Clean sand, silty sand-gravel mixtures, single size hard rock fill 0.30 to 0.40 17 to 22
—Silty sand, gravel or sand mixed with silt or clay 0.30 17
—Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt 0.25 14
Various structural materials:
—Masonry on masonry, igneous, and metamorphic rocks
— • Dressed soft rock on dressed soft rock 0.70 35
— • Dressed hard rock on dressed soft rock 0.65 33
— • Dressed hard rock on dressed hard rock 0.55 29
—Masonry on wood (cross grain) 0.50 26
—Steel on steel at sheet pile interlocks 0.30 17
face walls of counterfort and buttress walls shall be de- foot) of height shall be provided near exposed surfaces not
signed as fixed or continuous beams. The face walls (or otherwise reinforced to resist the formation of tempera-
stems) shall be securely anchored to the supporting coun- ture and shrinkage cracks.
terforts or buttresses by means of adequate reinforcement. The reinforcement in each construction panel (i.e., be-
Wall stems shall be designed for combined axial load tween vertical construction joints) of wall with height
(including the weight of the stem and friction due to back- varying uniformly from one end to another, shall be de-
fill acting on the stem) and bending due to eccentric ver- signed for the loading condition acting at one-third of the
tical loads, surcharge loads and earth pressure. panel length from the high end of the panel. If practical,
the thickness of the footings shall be maintained constant
5.5.6.3 Counterforts and Buttresses in each panel or in each group of panels. The width of the
footings, however, may vary according to the height of the
Counterforts shall be designed as rectangular beams. wall as required by design.
In connection with the main tension reinforcement of Tension reinforcement at the bottom of the heel shall
counterforts, there should be a system of horizontal and be provided if required during the construction stage prior
vertical bars or stirrups to anchor the face walls and base to wall backfill. The adequacy of the reinforcement shall
slab to the counterfort. These stirrups should be anchored be checked due to the dead load of the stem and any other
as near to the outside faces of the face walls, and as near vertical loads applied to the stem prior to backfilling.
to the bottom of the base slab as practicable. Reinforcement in wall and abutment stems shall be ex-
tended a minimum distance equal to the effective depth of
5.5.6.4 Reinforcement the section or 15 bar diameters, whichever is greater, but
not less than 0.3 meter (1 foot) beyond the point at which
Except in gravity walls, not less than 81 mm2 (1 ⁄ 8 computations indicate reinforcement is no longer needed
square inch) of horizontal reinforcement per 0.3 meter (1 to resist stress.
FIGURE 5.6.2A Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Permanent Flexible Cantilevered Walls
With Discrete Vertical Wall Elements
5.5.6.5 Expansion and Contraction Joints 5.6 NONGRAVITY CANTILEVERED

WALL DESIGN
Contraction joints shall be provided at intervals
not exceeding 9 meters (30 feet) and expansion joints at 5.6.1 Design Terminology
intervals not exceeding 27 meters (90 feet) for gravity or
reinforced concrete walls. All joints shall be filled with A nongravity cantilevered wall includes an exposed
approved filling material to ensure the function of the design height (H) over which soil is retained by the verti-
joint. Joints in abutments shall be located approximately cal and facing elements, and a vertical element embed-
midway between the longitudinal members bearing on ment depth (D) which provides lateral support to the ver-
the abutments. tical wall elements.
5.5.7 Backfill 5.6.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings
The backfill material behind all retaining walls shall be Lateral earth pressures shall be estimated assuming
free draining, nonexpansive, noncorrosive material and wedge theory using a planar surface of sliding defined by
shall be drained by weep holes with french drains or other Coulomb theory.
positive drainage systems, placed at suitable intervals and For determining lateral earth pressures on permanent
elevations. In counterfort walls, there shall be at least one walls, effective stress methods of analysis and drained
drain for each pocket formed by the counterforts. Silts and shear strength parameters for soil shall be used.
clays shall not be used for backfill unless suitable design For permanent walls and for temporary walls in granu-
procedures are followed and construction control mea- lar soils, the simplified earth pressure distributions shown in
sures are incorporated in the construction documents to Figures 5.6.2A and 5.6.2B, or other suitable earth pressure
account for their presence. distributions, may be used. If walls will support or are sup-
ported by cohesive soils for temporary applications, walls
5.5.8 Overall Stability may be designed based on total stress methods of analysis
and undrained shear strength parameters. For this latter
Refer to Article 5.2.2.3. case, the simplified earth pressure distributions shown in
FIGURE 5.6.2B Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions and Design Procedures for Permanent Flexible
Cantilevered Walls with Continuous Vertical Wall Elements Modified after Teng (1962)
FIGURE 5.6.2C Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Flexible Cantilevered Walls
with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements
FIGURE 5.6.2D Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Temporary Flexible Cantilevered Walls
with Continuous Vertical Wall Elements
Modified after Teng (1962)
TABLE 5.6.2A General Notes and Legend Simplified Earth Pressure Distributions for Permanent and
Temporary Flexible Cantilevered Walls with Discrete Vertical Wall Elements
Figures 5.6.2C and 5.6.2D, or other suitable earth pressure freezing and expansion. In such cases, insulation shall be
distributions, may be used with the following restrictions: provided on the walls to prevent freezing of the soil, or
consideration should be given during wall design to
• The ratio of overburden pressure to undrained shear the pressures which may be exerted on the wall by
strength (i.e., stability number N 5 gH/c) must be frozen soil.
, 3.
• The active earth pressure shall not be less than 0.25 5.6.4 Seismic Pressure
times the effective overburden pressure at any depth.
Refer to Section 6 of Division I-A for guidance re-
Where discrete vertical wall elements are used for sup- garding the design of flexible cantilevered walls subjected
port, the width of each vertical element shall be assumed to dynamic and seismic loads. In general, the pseudo-
to equal the width of the flange or diameter of the element static approach developed by Mononobe-Okabe may be
for driven sections and the diameter of the concrete-filled used to estimate the equivalent static forces. Forces
hole for sections encased in concrete. resulting from wall inertia effects may be ignored in esti-
The magnitude and location of resultant loads and re- mating the seismic lateral earth pressure.
sisting forces for permanent walls with discrete vertical
elements embedded in soil and rock for lateral support 5.6.5 Structure Dimensions and External Stability
may be determined using the earth pressure distributions
presented in Figures 5.6.2A and 5.6.2C, or other earth Flexible cantilevered walls shall be dimensioned to en-
pressure distributions developed for use in the design of sure stability against passive failure of embedded vertical
such walls. The procedure for determining the resultant elements such that FS $ 1.5. Unfactored dead and live
passive resistance of a vertical element embedded in soil loads shall be used to evaluate the factor of safety against
assumes that net passive resistance is mobilized across passive failure of embedded vertical elements.
a maximum of three times the element width or dia-
Vertical elements shall be designed to support the full
meter (reduced, if necessary, to account for soft clay or
design earth, surcharge and water pressures between the
discontinuities in the embedded depth of soil or rock) and
elements. In determining the depth of embedment to mo-
that some portion of the embedded depth below finished
bilize passive resistance, consideration shall be given to
grade (usually 2 to 3 feet for an element in soil, and 1 foot
planes of weakness (e.g., slickensides, bedding planes,
for an element in rock) is ineffective in providing passive
and joint sets) that could reduce the strength of the soil or
lateral support.
rock determined by field or laboratory tests. Embedment
In developing the design lateral pressure, the lateral
pressure due to traffic, permanent point and line surcharge in intact rock, including massive to appreciably jointed
loads, backfill compaction, or other types of surcharge rock which should not fail through a joint surface, should
loads shall be added to the lateral earth pressure in accor- be based on an allowable shear strength of 0.10Co to
dance with Articles 3.20.3 and 5.5.2. 0.15Co of the intact rock.
5.6.3 Water Pressure and Drainage 5.6.6 Structure Design
Flexible cantilevered walls shall be designed to resist Structural design of individual wall elements may be
the maximum anticipated water pressure. For a horizontal performed by service load or load factor design methods
static ground water table, the total hydrostatic water pres- in conformance with Article 3.22.
sure shall be determined using Equation 5.5.3-1. For dif- The maximum spacing between vertical supporting el-
fering ground water levels on opposite sides of the wall, ements depends on the relative stiffness of the vertical el-
the water pressure and seepage forces shall be determined ements and facing, and the type and condition of soil to be
by flow net procedures or other appropriate methods of supported. Mmax in a 1-foot height of wall facing at any
analysis, where necessary. Seepage shall be controlled by level may be determined by the following, or other ac-
installation of a drainage medium (e.g., preformed ceptable design procedures:
drainage panels, sand or gravel drains or wick drains) be-
hind the facing with outlets at or near the base of the wall. • Simple span (no soil arching)
Drainage panels shall maintain their drainage characteris-
tics under the design earth pressures and surcharge load- Mmax 5 pa,2/8 (5.6.6-1)
ings, and shall extend from the base of the wall to a level
1 foot below the top of the wall. • Simple span (soil arching)
Where thin drainage panels are used behind walls, sat-
urated or moist soil behind the panels may be subject to Mmax 5 pa,2/12 (5.6.6-2)
• Continuous (no soil arching) sidered adequate with respect to the decay hazard and ex-
pected service life of the structure.
Mmax 5 pa,2/10 (5.6.6-3)
5.6.7 Overall Stability
• Continuous (soil arching)
Refer to Article 5.2.2.3.
Mmax 5 pa,2/12 (5.6.6-4)
5.6.8 Corrosion Protection
Equation 5.6.6-1 is applicable for simply supported fac-
ing behind which the soil will not arch between vertical Refer to Article 5.7.8.
supports (e.g., in soft cohesive soils or for rigid concrete
facing placed tightly against the in-place soil). Equation
5.6.6-2 is applicable for simply supported facing behind 5.7 ANCHORED WALL DESIGN
which the soil will arch between vertical supports (e.g., in
granular or stiff cohesive soils with flexible facing or rigid 5.7.1 Design Terminology
facing behind which there is sufficient space to permit the
in-place soil to arch). Equations 5.6.6-3 and 5.6.6-4 are ap- Refer to Figure 5.7.1A for terminology used for the de-
plicable for facing which is continuous over several verti- sign of anchored retaining walls.
cal supports (e.g., reinforced shotcrete or concrete).
Timber facings should be constructed of stress-grade 5.7.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loadings
lumber in conformance with Article 13.2.1. If timber is
used where conditions are favorable for the growth of The development of lateral earth pressures for design
decay-producing organisms, wood should be pressure shall consider the method and sequence of construction,
treated with a wood preservative unless the heartwood of the rigidity of the wall/anchor system, the physical char-
a naturally decay-resistant species is available and is con- acteristics and stability of the ground mass to be sup-
FIGURE 5.7.1A Typical Terms Used in Flexible Anchored Wall Design
FIGURE 5.7.2A Guidelines for Estimating Earth Pressure on Walls with Two or More Levels of Anchors
Constructed from the Top Down Modified after Terzaghi and Peck (1967)
ported, allowable wall deflections, the space between incorporate the effects of anchors or which consider in-
anchors, anchor prestress, and the potential for anchor terslice equilibrium and provide information on interslice
yield. forces. In developing the design earth pressure for a par-
For stable ground masses, the final distribution and ticular wall section, consideration shall be given to wall
magnitude of lateral earth pressure on a completed an- displacements that may affect adjacent structures or un-
chored wall with two or more levels of anchors con- derground utilities. Very approximate estimates of settle-
structed from the top down may be computed using the ments adjacent to braced or anchored flexible walls can be
apparent earth pressure distributions shown in Figure made using Figure 5.7.2B. If wall deflections estimated
5.7.2A or any other applicable earth pressure distribution using Figure 5.7.2B are excessive for a particular appli-
developed for this purpose. For unstable or marginally cation, a more detailed analysis using beam on elastic
stable ground masses, the design earth pressure may ex- foundation, finite element or other methods of analysis
ceed those shown in Figure 5.7.2A and loads should be es- which consider the soil-structure interaction effects of an-
timated using methods of slope stability analysis which chored walls may be warranted.
FIGURE 5.7.2B Settlement Profiles Behind Braced or Anchored Walls

Modified after Clough and O’Rourke (1990)
Anchored walls with one level of anchors may be de- For the conditions where there is no or one anchor
signed using a triangular earth pressure distribution in ac- level, the magnitude and distribution of lateral resisting
cordance with Article 5.6.2 or using another suitable earth forces for embedded vertical elements in soil or rock shall
pressure distribution consistent with the expected wall de- be determined following procedures described in Article
flection. For the case where excavation has advanced 5.6.2. When two or more levels of anchors have been in-
down to the first anchor level but the first row of anchors stalled, the magnitude of lateral resistance provided by
has not yet been installed, the wall shall be treated as a embedded vertical elements will depend on the element
nongravity cantilevered wall and the earth pressure distri- stiffness and deflection under load.
bution loading on the wall shall be assumed as triangular The earth pressures on anchored walls constructed in
in accordance with Article 5.6.2. Overstressing of the an- fill situations from the bottom up are affected by the
chors should be avoided as excessive anchor loads rela- method and sequence of construction. Therefore, the
tive to the capacity of the retained ground mass to support
method and sequence of construction must be considered
the anchor loads can result in undesirable deflections, or
when selecting appropriate lateral earth pressures for an-
passive failure of the wall into the retained soil.
chored walls in fill situations. As a general guide, the fol-
In developing the design lateral pressure for walls con-
structed from the top down, the lateral pressure due to lowing may be considered:
traffic or other surcharge loading, shall be added to the lat-
eral earth pressure in accordance with Articles 3.23.3 and • For walls with a single anchor level—A triangular
5.5.2, using an earth pressure coefficient consistent with distribution defined by Kag per unit length of wall
the estimated magnitude of wall deflection. height plus surcharge loads.
• For walls with multiple anchor levels—A rectangu- Refer to Article 5.7.2 for general guidance regarding
lar pressure distribution derived by increasing the wall deflections.
total force from the triangular pressure distribution
described above by one-third and applying the force 5.7.6 Structure Design
as a uniform pressure distribution.
Depending on the characteristics of the wall, the wall
5.7.3 Water Pressure and Drainage components shall be designed by service load or load fac-
tor methods in conformance with Article 3.22.
Refer to Article 5.6.3.
5.7.6.1 General
5.7.4 Seismic Pressure
The procedure for anchored wall design depends on
the number of anchor rows and the construction sequence.
Refer to Section 6 of Division I-A for guidance re- For a typical wall with two or more rows of anchors
garding the design of anchored retaining walls subjected constructed from the top down, the procedure requires
to dynamic and seismic loads. In general, the pseudo-sta- design for the final structure with multiple rows of an-
tic approach developed by Mononobe-Okabe may be used chors and checking the design for the various stages of
to estimate the equivalent static forces provided the max- wall construction.
imum lateral earth pressure be computed using a seismic The required horizontal component of each anchor
coefficient k h51.5A. Forces resulting from wall inertia force shall be computed using the apparent earth pressure
effects may be ignored in estimating the seismic lateral distributions in Figure 5.7.2A, or other applicable earth
earth pressure. pressure distributions, and any other horizontal water
pressure, surcharge or seismic forces acting on the wall.
5.7.5 Structure Dimensions and External Stability The total anchor force shall be determined based on the
anchor inclination. The horizontal anchor spacing and an-
The design of anchored walls includes determination chor capacity shall be selected to provide the required
of the following: total anchor force.
The vertical wall elements shall be designed to resist
• Size, spacing, and depth of embedment of vertical all horizontal earth pressure, surcharge, water pressure,
wall elements and facing; anchor and seismic loadings as well as the vertical com-
• Type, capacity, spacing, depth, inclination and cor- ponent of the anchor loads and any other vertical loads.
rosion protection of anchors; and Supports may be assumed at each anchor location and at
• Structural capacity and stability of the wall, wall the bottom of the wall if the vertical element is extended
foundation, and surrounding soil mass for all inter- below the bottom of the wall.
mediate and final stages of construction. The stresses in and the design of the wall facing shall
be computed in accordance with the requirements of Ar-
The bearing capacity and settlement of vertical wall el- ticle 5.6.6.
ements under the vertical component of the anchor forces All components of the anchored wall system shall be
and other vertical loads shall be determined in accordance checked for the various earth pressure distributions and
with Articles 4.4, 4.5, or 4.6. other loading conditions which will exist during the
For walls supported in or through soft clays with Su , course of construction.
0.3g9H, continuous vertical elements extending well
below the exposed base of the wall may be required to pre- 5.7.6.2 Anchor Design
vent heave in front of the wall. Otherwise, the vertical el-
ements are embedded several feet as required for stability Anchor design shall include an evaluation of the feasi-
or end bearing. (Where significant embedment of the wall bility of using anchors, selection of an anchor system, es-
is required to prevent bottom heave, the lowest section of timates of anchor capacity, determination of unbonded
wall below the lowest row of anchors must be designed to length, and determination of corrosion protection require-
resist the moment induced by the pressure acting between ments. In determining the feasibility of employing an-
the lowest row of anchors and the base of the exposed wall, chors at a particular location, consideration shall be given
and the force Pb 5 0.7(gHBe 2 1.4cH 2 pcBe) acting at to the availability or ability to obtain underground ease-
the midheight of the embedded depth of the wall.) ments, proximity of buried facilities to anchor locations,
The required embedment depth (D or Do) may be de- and the suitability of subsurface soil and rock conditions
termined in accordance with Article 5.6.2. within the anchor stressing zone.
TABLE 5.7.6.2A Presumptive Ultimate Values of Load Transfer for Preliminary Design of Anchors
in Soil Modified after Cheney (1982)
TABLE 5.7.6.2B Presumptive Ultimate Values of Load in soil and 3.0 for anchors in rock. Bearing elements for
Transfer for Preliminary Design of Anchors in Rock anchors shall be designed to maintain shear stresses in the
Modified after Cheney (1982) vertical wall elements and facing within allowable values.
The capacity of each anchor shall be verified as part of a
stressing and testing program. (See Division II.)
Determination of the unbonded anchor length shall con-
sider the location of the critical failure surface farthest from
the wall, the minimum length required to insure minimal
loss of anchor prestress due to long-term ground move-
ments, and the depth to adequate anchoring strata. As shown
in Figure 5.7.1A, the unbonded (or free) anchor length
should not be less than 15 feet and should extend beyond
the critical failure surface in the soil mass being retained by
the wall. For granular soils or drained cohesive soils, the
critical failure surface is typically assumed to be the active
The required anchor forces shall be determined in ac- failure wedge which is defined by a plane extending upward
cordance with Article 5.7.6.1. The ultimate anchor capac- from the base of the wall at an angle of 45 1 f9/2 from the
ity per unit length may be preliminarily estimated using horizontal. Longer free lengths may be required for anchors
the guidelines presented in Tables 5.7.6.2A and 5.7.6.2B in plastic soils or where critical failure surfaces are defined
for soil and rock, respectively. These guidelines are for by planes or discontinuities with other orientations.
preliminary design of straight shaft anchors installed in Selection of an anchor inclination shall consider the lo-
small diameter holes using a low grout pressure. Other an- cation of suitable soil or rock strata, the presence of buried
chor types and installation procedures could provide other utilities or other geometric constraints, and constructabil-
estimated ultimate anchor capacities. Final determination ity of the anchor drill holes. The component of vertical
of the anchor capacity and required bond length shall be load resulting from anchor inclination shall be included in
the responsibility of the anchored wall specialty contrac- evaluating the end bearing and settlement of vertical wall
tor. The allowable anchor capacity for small diameter an- elements.
chors may be estimated by multiplying the ultimate The minimum horizontal spacing of anchors should be
anchor capacity per unit length times the bonded (or either three times the diameter of the bonded zone or 4
stressing) length and dividing by a FS of 2.5 for anchors feet, whichever is larger. If smaller spacings are required,
consideration can be given to differing anchor inclinations (5.8.5.2) shall also be satisfied, as well as overall stability
between alternating anchors. requirements as provided in Article 5.2.2.3.
The soil reinforcement length shall be calculated based
5.7.7 Overall Stability on external and internal stability considerations in accor-
dance with Articles 5.2.2.3 and 5.5.5, and all relevant por-
Refer to Article 5.2.2.3. tions of Article 5.8. Soil reinforcement length shall be as a
minimum approximately 70% of the wall height (as mea-
5.7.8 Corrosion Protection sured from the leveling pad) and not less than 2.4 meters (8
feet). The wall height is defined as the difference in eleva-
Prestressed anchors and anchor heads shall be pro- tion between the top of the wall at the wall face (i.e., where
tected against corrosion consistent with the ground and the finished grade intersects the back of the wall face) and
ground water conditions at the site. The level and extent the top of the leveling pad. The reinforcement length shall
of corrosion protection shall be a function of the ground be uniform throughout the entire height of the wall, unless
environment and the potential consequences of an anchor substantiating evidence is presented to indicate that varia-
failure. Corrosion protection shall be applied in accor- tion in length is satisfactory. External loads such as sur-
dance with Section 6 of Division II—Ground Anchors. charges will increase the minimum reinforcement length.
Greater reinforcement lengths may also be required for very
5.7.9 Anchor Load Testing and Stressing soft soil sites and to satisfy global stability requirements.
The minimum embedment depth of the bottom of the
All anchors shall be tested in accordance with Section reinforced soil mass, which is the same as the top of the
6 of Division II—Ground Anchors, Article 6.5.5, Testing leveling pad, shall be based on bearing capacity, settle-
and Stressing. ment, and stability requirements determined in accordance
with Articles 5.2.2.1, 5.2.2.2 and 5.2.2.3, and pertinent
5.8 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED portions of Article 5.8, including the effects of frost heave,
EARTH (MSE) WALL DESIGN scour, proximity to slopes, erosion, and the potential fu-
ture excavation in front of the wall. The lowest backfill re-
MSE walls shall be designed for external stability of inforcement layer shall not be located above the long-term
the wall system as well as internal stability of the rein- ground surface in front of the wall. As an alternative to
forced soil mass behind the facing. Internal design of being below the depth of frost penetration, the soil below
MSE wall systems requires knowledge of short and long- the wall but above the depth of frost penetration can be
term properties of the materials used as soil reinforce- removed and replaced with nonfrost susceptible clean
ments as well as the soil mechanics which govern MSE granular soil. In addition to general bearing capacity, set-
wall behavior. Structural design of the wall facing may tlement, and stability considerations, the minimum em-
also be required. bedment required shall consider the potential for local
The specifications provided herein for MSE walls do bearing capacity failure under the leveling pad or footing
not apply to geometrically complex MSE wall systems due to higher vertical stresses transmitted by the facing.
such as tiered walls (walls stacked on top of one another), A minimum horizontal bench 1.2 meters (4 feet) wide
back-to-back walls, or walls which have trapezoidal sec- shall be provided in front of walls founded on slopes.
tions. Design guidelines for these cases are provided in For walls constructed along rivers and streams, embed-
FHWA publication No. FHWA SA-96-071 “Mechanically ment depths shall be established at a minimum of 0.6 me-
Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design ters (2 feet) below potential scour depth as determined in
and Construction Guidelines.” Compound stability should accordance with Article 5.3.5.
also be evaluated for these complex MSE wall systems
(see Article 5.8.2). 5.8.2 External Stability
5.8.1 Structure Dimensions Stability computations shall be made by assuming the

reinforced soil mass and facing to be a rigid body. The co-
An illustration of the MSE wall element dimensions efficient of active earth pressure, Kaf used to compute the
needed for design is provided in Figure 5.8.1A. horizontal force resulting from the retained backfill be-
MSE walls shall be dimensioned to ensure that the hind the reinforced zone and other loads shall be com-
minimum factors of safety required by Article 5.5.5 for puted on the basis of the friction angle of the retained
sliding and overturning stability are satisfied. In addition, backfill. In the absence of specific data, a maximum fric-
the minimum factors of safety provided in Article 5.8 for tion angle of 30° should be used. The limitation also ap-
foundation bearing capacity (5.8.3) and pullout resistance plies when determining the coefficient of sliding friction
FIGURE 5.8.1A MSE Wall Element Dimensions Needed for Design
at the wall base. Passive pressures shall be neglected in used, as illustrated in Figure 5.8.2.C. Alternatively, a bro-
stability computations. ken back slope design can be performed for the actual
The active earth pressure coefficients for retained slope geometry by using a graphical Coulomb procedure
backfill (i.e., fill behind the reinforced soil mass) for ex- such as the Culmann method.
ternal stability calculations only is computed as shown in For sliding stability, the coefficient of sliding used to
Figure 5.5.2A, with d 5 b. calculate frictional resistance at the base of the wall shall
Figures 5.8.2A, 5.8.2B, and 5.8.2C illustrate external be the minimum of the following determinations:
stability equations for MSE walls with horizontal back-
slope, inclined backslope, and a broken backslope, re- • Tan f at the base of the wall, where f is the friction
spectively. Dead load surcharges, if present, shall be angle of the backfill or the foundation soil, which-
taken into account in accordance with Figures 5.8.12.1A, ever is lowest.
5.8.12.1.B, and 5.8.12.1C. • Tan r if continuous or near continuous reinforcement
If a break in the slope behind the wall facing is located layers are used, where r is the soil/reinforcement
horizontally within two times the height of the wall (2H), interface angle for the bottom of the lowest rein-
a broken backslope design (A.R.E.A. method) shall be forcement layer.
FIGURE 5.8.2A External Stability for Wall with Horizontal Backslope and Traffic Surcharge
FIGURE 5.8.2B External Stability for Wall with Sloping Backslope
FIGURE 5.8.2C External Stability for Wall with Broken Backslope
See Appendix A of FHWA Publication No. FHWA SA- compound failure surfaces which pass through a portion of
96-071 “Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Rein- the reinforced soil mass as illustrated in Figure 5.8.2D shall
forced Soil Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines” be analyzed, especially where the wall is located on slop-
for how to determine Tan r from pullout or direct shear ing or soft ground where overall stability is marginal. Fac-
tests. If site specific data for tan r is not available, use tors of safety and methods of analysis provided in Article
0.67Tan f for the coefficient of sliding for continuous or 5.2.2.3 are still applicable. The long-term strength of each
near continuous reinforcement layers. backfill surface should be considered as restoring forces in
For calculations of external stability, the continuous the limit equilibrium slope stability analysis.
traffic surcharge loads shall be considered to act beyond the
end of the reinforced zone as shown in Figure 5.8.2.A. 5.8.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability
Overall stability analyses shall be performed in accordance
with Article 5.2.2.3. Additionally for MSE walls with com- Allowable bearing capacities for MSE walls shall be
plex geometrics, or where walls support steep, infinite, computed using a minimum factor of safety of 2.5 for
sloping surcharges (i.e., a slope greater than 2H in length as Group 1 loading applied to the calculated ultimate bear-
shown in Figure 5.8.2C and a slope of 2H;1V or steeper), ing capacity. A lesser FS, of 2.0, could be used if justified
FIGURE 5.8.2D Overall and Compound Stability of Complex MSE Wall Systems
by a geotechnical analysis. The width of the footing for ul- crete wall facings are used due to their weight. Further-
timate bearing capacity calculations shall be considered to more, differential settlements between the facing ele-
be the length of the reinforcement calculated at the foun- ments and the reinforced soil zone of the wall due to con-
dation level. The location of the resultant center of pres- centrated bearing stresses from the facing weight on soft
sure shall be as stated in Article 5.5.5. Provided the resul- soil could create concentrated stresses at the connection
tant location meets this criteria, an overturning stability between the facing elements and the wall backfill rein-
analysis is not necessary. Bearing pressures shall be com- forcement. In both cases, the leveling pad shall be em-
puted using the Meyerhof distribution, which considers a bedded adequately to meet bearing capacity and settle-
uniform base pressure distribution over an effective base ment requirements or dimensioned and designed to keep
width of B9 5 L 2 2e, as shown in Figures 5.8.3A and bearing stresses beneath the leveling pad and the remain-
5.8.3B. It is acceptable to use “B” in lieu of “L,” espe- der of the wall as uniform as possible.
cially for walls with relatively thick facing units.
Where soft soils are present or if on sloping ground, the 5.8.4 Calculation of Loads for Internal Stability
difference in bearing stress calculated for the wall rein- Design
forced soil zone relative to the local bearing stress beneath
the facing elements shall be considered when evaluating Reinforcement loads calculated for internal stability
bearing capacity. This is especially important where con- design are dependent on the soil reinforcement extensi-
FIGURE 5.8.3A Calculation of Vertical Stress for Bearing Capacity Calculations (for Horizontal Backslope Condition)
FIGURE 5.8.3B Calculation of Vertical Stress for Bearing Capacity Calculations (for Sloping Backslope Condition)
bility and material type. In general, inextensible rein- account through an equivalent uniform surcharge and as-
forcements consist of metallic strips, bar mats, or welded suming a level backslope condition. For these calculations,
wire mats, whereas extensible reinforcements consist of the depth “Z” is referenced from the top of the wall at the
geotextiles or geogrids. Inextensible reinforcements reach wall face, excluding any copings and appurtenances.
their peak strength at strains lower than the strain required The lateral earth pressure coefficient “Kr” is determined
for the soil to reach its peak strength. Extensible rein- by applying a multiplier to the active earth pressure coef-
forcements reach their peak strength at strains greater than ficient. The active earth pressure coefficient shall be deter-
the strain required for soil to reach its peak strength. In- mined using the Coulomb method as shown in Figure
ternal stability failure modes include soil reinforcement 5.5.2A, but assuming no wall friction (i.e., set d 5 b). Note
rupture (ultimate limit state), soil reinforcement pullout that since it is assumed that d 5 b, and b is assumed to al-
(ultimate limit state), and excessive reinforcement elon- ways be zero for internal stability, for a vertical wall, the
gation under the design load (serviceability limit state). Coulomb equation simplifies mathematically to the sim-
The serviceability limit state is not evaluated in current plest form of the Rankine equation:
practice for internal stability design. Internal stability is
determined by equating the tensile load applied to the re- Ka 5 Tan2 (45 2 f9/2) (5.8.4.1-1)
inforcement to the allowable tension for the reinforce-
If the wall face is battered, the following simplified
ment, the allowable tension being governed by reinforce-
form of the Coulomb equation can be used:
ment rupture and pullout.
The load in the reinforcement is determined at two crit- Sin 2 (θ + φ ′)
ical locations, i.e., at the zone of maximum stress and at Ka = (5.8.4.1-2)
Sin φ ′ 
the connection with the wall face, to assess the internal Sin 3θ 1 +
 Sin θ 
stability of the wall system. Potential for reinforcement
rupture and pullout are evaluated at the zone of maximum
with variables as defined in Figure 5.5.2A.
stress. The zone of maximum stress is assumed to be lo-
The multiplier to Ka shall be determined as shown in
cated at the boundary between the active zone and the
Figure 5.8.4.1C. Based on this figure, the multiplier to Ka is
resistant zone. Potential for reinforcement rupture and a function of the reinforcement type and the depth of the re-
pullout are also evaluated at the connection of the rein- inforcement below the wall top. These multipliers are suffi-
forcement to the wall facing. ciently accurate for the reinforcement types covered in Fig-
The maximum friction angle used for the computation ure 5.8.4.1C. Multipliers for other reinforcement types can
of horizontal force within the reinforced soil mass shall be be developed as needed through analysis of measurements
assumed to be 34°, unless the specific project select back- of reinforcement load and strain in full scale structures.
fill is tested for frictional strength by triaxial or direct The applied load to the reinforcements, Tmax, shall be
shear testing methods, AASHTO T 234 and T 236, calculated on a load per unit of wall width basis. There-
respectively. fore, the reinforcement load, accounting for the tributary
area of the lateral stress, is determined as follows:
5.8.4.1 Calculation of Maximum Reinforcement
Loads sh 5 sv Kr 1 Dsh (5.8.4.1-3)
Maximum reinforcement loads shall be calculated Tmax 5 shSv (5.8.4.1-4)

using a Simplified Coherent Gravity approach. For this ap-
proach, the load in the reinforcements is obtained by mul- where, sh is the horizontal soil stress at the reinforcement,
tiplying a lateral earth pressure coefficient by the vertical Sv is the vertical spacing of the reinforcement, Kr is the lat-
pressure at the reinforcement, and applying the resulting eral earth pressure coefficient for a given reinforcement
lateral pressure to the tributary area for the reinforcement. type and location, sv is the vertical earth pressure at the
Other widely accepted and published design methods for reinforcement, and Dsh is the horizontal stress at the rein-
calculation of reinforcement loads may be used at the dis- forcement location resulting from a concentrated hori-
cretion of the wall owner or the approving agency. zontal surcharge load. (See Article 5.8.12.1.)
The vertical stress, sv, is the result of gravity forces The design specifications provided herein assume that
from soil self weight within and immediately above the re- the wall facing combined with the reinforced backfill acts
inforced wall backfill, and any surcharge loads present. as a coherent unit to form a gravity retaining structure.
Vertical stress for maximum reinforcement load calcula- The effect of relatively large vertical spacing of rein-
tions shall be determined as shown in Figures 5.8.4.1A and forcement on this assumption is not well known, and a
5.8.4.1B. Note that sloping soil surcharges are taken into vertical spacing greater than 0.8 meters (31 inches) shall
FIGURE 5.8.4.1A Calculation of Vertical Stress for Horizontal Backslope Condition, Including Live Load and Dead Load
Surcharges for Internal Stability Design
not be used without full scale wall data (e.g., reinforce- 5.8.5 Determination of Reinforcement Length
ment loads and strains, and overall deflections) which Required for Internal Stability
supports the acceptability of larger vertical spacings.
These MSE wall specifications also assume that inex- 5.8.5.1 Location of Zone of Maximum Stress
tensible reinforcements are not mixed with extensible
reinforcements within the same wall. MSE walls which The location of the zone of maximum stress for inex-
contain a mixture of inextensible and extensible rein- tensible and extensible wall systems, which forms the
forcements are not recommended. boundary between the active and resistant zones, is de-
termined as shown in Figure 5.8.5.1A. For all wall sys-
5.8.4.2 Determination of Reinforcement Tensile tems, the zone of maximum stress shall be assumed
Load at the Connection to the Wall Face to begin at the back of the facing elements at the toe of
the wall.
The tensile load applied to the soil reinforcement con- For extensible wall systems with a face batter of
nection at the wall face, T0, shall be equal to Tmax for all less than 10° from the vertical, the zone of maximum
wall systems regardless of facing and reinforcement type. stress should be determined using the Rankine method.
FIGURE 5.8.4.1B Calculation of Vertical Stress for Sloping Backslope Condition for Internal Stability Design
Since the Rankine method cannot account for wall face 5.8.5.2 Soil Reinforcement Pullout Design
batter or the effect of concentrated surcharge loads
above the reinforced backfill zone, the Coulomb The reinforcement pullout resistance shall be checked
method shall be used for walls with extensible rein- at each level against pullout failure for internal stability.
forcement in cases of significant batter (defined as 10° Only the effective pullout length which extends beyond the
from vertical or more) and concentrated surcharge loads theoretical failure surfaces shall be used in this computa-
to determine the location of the zone of maximum tion. Note that traffic loads are neglected in pullout calcu-
stress. lations (see Figure 5.8.4.1.A).
FIGURE 5.8.4.1C Variation of the Coefficient of Lateral Stress Ratio Kr /Ka with Depth in a Mechanically
Stabilized Earth Wall
The effective pullout length required shall be deter- forced Soil Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines.”
mined using the following equation: For standard backfill materials (see Article 7.3.6.3 in Divi-
sion II), with the exception of uniform sands (i.e., coefficient
FSPO Tmax of uniformity Cu , 4), it is acceptable to use conservative
Le ≥ (5.8.5.2-1)
F ∗ ασ v CR c default values for F* and a as shown in Figure 5.8.5.2A and
Table 5.8.5.2A. For ribbed steel strips, if the specific Cu for
where Le is the length of reinforcement in the resisting the wall backfill is unknown at the time of design, a Cu of
zone, FSPO is the safety factor against pullout (minimum 4.0 should be assumed for design to determine F*.
of 1.5), F* is the pullout resistance factor, a is a scale ef- A minimum length, Le, in the resistant zone of 0.9 me-
fect correction factor, sv is the vertical stress at the rein- ters (3 feet) shall be used. The total length of reinforce-
forcement in the resistant zone, C is an overall reinforcement required for pullout is equal to La 1 Le as shown in
ment surface area geometry factor based on the gross Figure 5.8.5.1A.
perimeter of the reinforcement and is equal to 2 for strip, For grids, the spacing between transverse grid ele-
grid, and sheet type reinforcements (i.e., two sides), Rc is ments, St shall be uniform throughout the length of the re-
the reinforcement coverage ratio (see Article 5.8.6), and inforcement rather than having transverse grid members
other variables are as defined previously. F*asvCLe is the concentrated only in the resistant zone.
pullout resistance Pr per unit of reinforcement width. These pullout calculations assume that the long-term
F* and a shall be determined from product specific pull- strength of the reinforcement (see Article 5.8.6.1) in the
out tests in the project backfill material or equivalent soil, or resistant zone is greater than Tmax.
they can be estimated empirically/theoretically. Pullout test-
ing and interpretation procedures (and direct shear testing 5.8.6 Reinforcement Strength Design
for some parameters), as well as typical empirical data, are
provided in Appendix A of FHWA Publication No. FHWA The strength of the reinforcement needed, for internal
SA-96-071 “Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Rein- stability, to resist the load applied throughout the design
FIGURE 5.8.5.1A Location of Potential Failure Surface for Internal Stability Design of MSE Walls
FIGURE 5.8.5.2A Default Values for the Pullout Friction Factor, F*
TABLE 5.8.5.2A Default Values for the Scale Effect Correction Factor, ~.
Reinforcement Type Default Value for ~
All Steel Reinforcements 1.0

Geogrids 0.8
Geotextiles 0.6
life of the wall shall be determined where the reinforcement maintaining allowable material stresses to the end of the
load is maximum (i.e., at the boundary between the active 75 or 100 year service life.
and resistant zones) and at the connection of the reinforce- Temporary MSE walls are typically designed for a ser-
ment to the wall face. The reinforcement strength required vice life of 36 months or less.
shall be checked at every level within the wall for ultimate
limit state. The serviceability limit state is not specifically 5.8.6.1.1 Steel Reinforcement
evaluated in current practice to design backfill reinforce-
For steel reinforcements, the required sacrificial thick-
ment for internal stability. A first order estimate of lateral
ness shall be provided in addition to the required struc-
deformation of the entire wall structure, however, can be
tural reinforcement thickness to compensate for the ef-
accomplished as shown in Article 5.8.10. fects of corrosion.
Therefore, where the load is maximum, The structural design of galvanized steel soil rein-
forcements and connections shall be made on the basis of
Tmax # TaRc (5.8.6-1) Fy, the yield strength of the steel, and the cross-sectional
area of the steel determined using the steel thickness after
Ta shall be determined in accordance with Article corrosion losses, Ec, defined as follows:
5.8.6.2.1 for steel reinforcement and Article 5.8.6.2.2 for
geosynthetic reinforcement. Ec 5 En 2 ER (5.8.6.1.1-1)
At the connection with the wall face,
where ER is the total loss in thickness due to corrosion to
T0 # TacRc (5.8.6-2) produce the expected loss in tensile strength during the re-
quired design life. See Figure 5.8.6A for an illustration of
Tac shall be determined at the wall face connection in how to calculate the long-term strength of the reinforce-
accordance with Article 5.8.7.1 for steel reinforcement ment based on these parameters. The sacrificial thickness
and Article 5.8.7.2 for geosynthetic reinforcement. Fur- (i.e., corrosion loss) is computed for each exposed surface
thermore, the difference in the environment occurring im- as follows, assuming that the soil backfill used is non-
mediately behind the wall face relative to the environment aggressive:
within the reinforced backfill zone and its effect on the
long-term durability of the reinforcement/connection shall Galvanization loss 15 µm/year (0.60 mils/year) for
be considered when determining Tac. first 2 years
Ta shall be determined on a long-term strength per unit 4 µm/year (0.16 mils/year) for
of reinforcement width basis and multiplied by the rein- subsequent years
forcement coverage ratio Rc so that it can be directly com- Carbon steel loss 12 µm/year (0.47 mils/year)
pared to Tmax which is determined on a load per unit of after zinc depletion
wall width basis (this also applies to Tac and T0). For dis-
crete (i.e., not continuous) reinforcements, such as steel These sacrificial thicknesses account for potential pitting
strips or bar mats, the strength of the reinforcement is con- mechanisms and much of the uncertainty due to data scat-
verted to a strength per unit of wall width basis by taking ter, and are considered to be maximum anticipated losses for
the long-term strength per reinforcement, dividing it by soils which are defined as nonaggressive. Soils shall be con-
the discrete reinforcement width, b, and multiplying it by sidered nonaggressive if they meet the following criteria:
the reinforcement coverage ratio, Rc, as shown in Figures
5.8.6A and 5.8.6B. For continuous reinforcement layers, pH of 5 to 10
b 5 1 and Rc 5 1. Resistivity of not less than 3,000 ohm-cm
Chlorides not greater than 100 ppm
Sulfates not greater than 200 ppm
5.8.6.1 Design Life Requirements
If the resistivity is greater than or equal to 5,000 ohm-
Reinforcement elements in MSE walls shall be de- cm, the chlorides and sulfates requirements may be
signed to have a corrosion resistance/durability to ensure waived. Recommended test methods for soil chemical
a minimum design life of 75 years for permanent struc- property determination include AASHTO T 289 for pH,
tures. For retaining structure applications designated as AASHTO T 288 for resistivity, AASHTO T 291 for chlo-
having severe consequences should poor performance or rides, and AASHTO T 290 for sulfates.
failure occur, a 100-year service life shall be considered. These sacrificial thickness requirements are not applic-
The allowable reinforcement tension shall be based on able for soils which do not meet one or more of the nonag-
FIGURE 5.8.6A Parameters for Metal Reinforcement Strength Calculations
FIGURE 5.8.6B Parameters for Geosynthetic Reinforcement Strength Calculations
gressive soil criteria. Additionally, these sacrificial thick- mal. Even with product specific test results, RFID and RFD
ness requirements are not applicable in applications where: shall be no less than 1.1 each.
For conditions which are outside these defined limits
• the MSE wall will be exposed to a marine or other (i.e., applications in which the consequences of poor per-
chloride rich environment; formance or failure are severe, aggressive soil conditions,
• the MSE wall will be exposed to stray currents such or polymers which are beyond the specific limits set), or
as from nearby underground power lines or adjacent if it is desired to use an overall reduction factor which is
electric railways; less than the default reduction factor recommended
• the backfill material is aggressive; or herein, then product specific durability studies shall be
• the galvanizing thickness is less than specified in carried out prior to use. These product specific studies
these guidelines. shall be used to estimate the short-term and long-term ef-
fects of these environmental factors on the strength and
Each of these situations creates a special set of condi- deformational characteristics of the geosynthetic rein-
tions which should be specifically analyzed by a corrosion forcement throughout the reinforcement design life.
specialist. Alternatively, noncorrosive reinforcing ele- Wall application limits, soil aggressiveness, polymer
ments can be considered. Furthermore, these corrosion requirements, and the calculation of long-term reinforce-
rates do not apply to other metals. The use of alloys such ment strength are specifically described as follows:
as aluminum and stainless steel is not recommended.
Corrosion-resistant coatings should consist of galva- 1) Structure Application Issues: Identification of ap-
nization. Galvanized coatings shall be a minimum of 0.61 plications for which the consequences of poor perfor-
kg/m2 (2 oz/ft2), or 86 mm in thickness, applied in conformance or failure are severe shall be as described in Arti-
mance to AASHTO M 111 (ASTM A 123) for strip type cle 5.1. In such applications, a single default reduction
reinforcements or ASTM A 641 for bar mat or grid type factor shall not be used for final design.
steel reinforcement. 2) Determination of Soil Aggressiveness: Soil ag-
There is insufficient evidence at this time regarding the gressiveness for geosynthetics is assessed based on the
long-term performance of epoxy coatings for these coat- soil pH, gradation, plasticity, organic content, and in-
ings to be considered equivalent to galvanizing. If epoxy ground temperature. Soil shall be defined as nonaggres-
type coatings are used, they should meet the requirements sive if the following criteria are met:
of ASTM A 884 for bar mat and grid reinforcements, or
AASHTO M 284 (ASTM D 3963) for strip reinforcements, • The pH, as determined by AASHTO T 289, is 4.5 to
and have a minimum thickness of 0.41 mm (16 mils). 9 for permanent applications and 3 to 10 for tempo-
rary applications,
5.8.6.1.2 Geosynthetic Reinforcement • The maximum soil particle size is less than 20 mm
The durability of geosynthetic reinforcements is influ- (0.75 inches), unless full scale installation damage
enced by environmental factors such as time, temperature, tests are conducted in accordance with ASTM D
mechanical damage, stress levels, and chemical exposure 5818,
(e.g., oxygen, water, and pH, which are the most common • The soil organic content, as determined by
chemical factors). Microbiological attack may also affect AASHTO T 267 for material finer than the 2 mm
certain polymers, though in general most of polymers used (No. 10) sieve, is 1% or less, and
for carrying load in soil reinforcement applications are not • the design temperature at the wall site, as defined
affected by this. The effects of these factors on product dura- below, is less than 30° C (85° F) for permanent appli-
bility are dependent on the polymer type used (i.e., resin cations and 35° C (95° F) for temporary applications.
type, grade, additives, and manufacturing process) and the
macrostructure of the reinforcement. Not all of these factors The effective design temperature is defined as the tem-
will have a significant effect on all geosynthetic products. perature which is halfway between the average yearly air
Therefore, the response of geosynthetic reinforcements to temperature and the normal daily air temperature for the
these long-term environmental factors is product specific. highest month at the wall site. Note that for walls which
However, within specific limits of wall application, face the sun, it is possible that the temperature immedi-
soil conditions, and polymer type, strength degradation ately behind the facing could be higher than the air tem-
due to these factors can be anticipated to be minimal and perature. This shall be considered when assessing the de-
relatively consistent from product to product, and the im- sign temperature, especially for wall sites located in
pact of any degradation which does occur will be mini- warm, sunny climates.
Soil backfill not meeting the particle size, electro- tion of Soil Reinforcements for Mechanically Stabilized
chemical, and in-ground temperature requirements pro- Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes” is not obtained. Of
vided herein shall be considered to be aggressive. course, polymer materials not meeting the requirements in
A single default reduction factor shall not be used in Table 5.8.6.1.2A could be used if this detailed product spe-
aggressive soil conditions. The environment at the face, in cific data extrapolated to the design life intended for the
addition to within the wall backfill, shall be evaluated, es- structure is obtained.
pecially if the stability of the facing is dependent on the
4) Calculation of Long-Term Reinforcement
strength of the geosynthetic at the face, i.e., the geosyn-
Strength: For ultimate limit state conditions,
thetic reinforcement forms the primary connection be-
tween the body of the wall and the facing. Tult
The chemical properties of the native soil surrounding Tal = (5.8.6.1.2-1)
RF
the mechanically stabilized soil backfill shall also be con-
sidered if there is potential for seepage of ground water where,
from the native surrounding soils to the mechanically sta-
RF 5 RFID 3 RFCR 3 RFD (5.8.6.1.2-2)
bilized backfill. If this is the case, the surrounding soils
shall also meet the chemical criteria required for the back-
Tal is the long-term tensile strength required to prevent
fill material if the environment is to be considered non-
rupture calculated on a load per unit of reinforcement
aggressive, or adequate long-term drainage around the
width basis, Tult is the ultimate tensile strength of the re-
geosynthetic reinforced mass shall be provided to ensure
inforcement determined from wide width tensile tests
that chemically aggressive liquid does not enter into the
(ASTM D 4595) for geotextiles and geogrids, or rib ten-
reinforced backfill.
sile test for geogrids (GRI:GG1, but at a strain rate of
3) Polymer Requirements: Polymers which are likely 10%/minute), RF is a combined reduction factor to ac-
to have good resistance to long-term chemical degrada- count for potential long-term degradation due to installa-
tion shall be used if a single default reduction factor is to tion damage, creep, and chemical aging, RFID is a strength
be used, to minimize the risk of the occurrence of signifi- reduction factor to account for installation damage to the
cant long-term degradation. The polymer material re- reinforcement, RFCR is a strength reduction factor to pre-
quirements provided in Table 5.8.6.1.2A shall therefore be vent long-term creep rupture of the reinforcement, and
met if detailed product specific data as described in FHWA RFD is a strength reduction factor to prevent rupture of the
Publication No. FHWA SA-96-071 “Mechanically Stabi- reinforcement due to chemical and biological degrada-
lized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and tion. The value selected for Tult shall be the minimum av-
Construction Guidelines”—Appendix B, and in FHWA erage roll value (MARV) for the product to account for
Publication No. FHWA SA-96-072 “Corrosion/Degrada- statistical variance in the material strength.
TABLE 5.8.6.1.2A Minimum Requirements for Geosynthetic Products to Allow Use of Default Reduction Factor
for Long-Term Degradation
Polymer Type Property Test Method Criteria to Allow Use of Default RF*
Polypropylene UV Oxidation Resistance ASTM D 4355 Min. 70% strength retained after 500 hrs in
weatherometer
Polyethylene UV Oxidation Resistance ASTM D 4355 Min. 70% strength retained after 500 hrs in
weatherometer
Polyester Hydrolysis Resistance Inherent Viscosity Method Min. Number Average Molecular Weight
(ASTM D 4603 and GRI Test Method of 25,000
GG8**) or Determine Directly Using
Gel Permeation Chromatography
Polyester Hydrolysis Resistance GRI Test Method GG7 Max. of Carboxyl End Group Content of 30
All Polymers Survivability Weight per Unit Area (ASTM D 5261) Min. 270 g/m2
All Polymers % Post-Consumer Recycled Certification of Materials Used Maximum of 0%
Material by Weight
*Polymers not meeting these requirements may be used if product specific test results obtained and analyzed in accordance with FHWA Publication No.
FHWA SA-96-071 “Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines”—Appendix B, and in FHWA
Publication No. FHWA SA-96-072 “Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes”
are provided.
**These test procedures are in draft form. Contact the Geosynthetic Research Institute, Drexel University in Philadelphia, PA.
TABLE 5.8.6.1.2B Default and Minimum Values for the Total Geosynthetic Ultimate Limit State
Strength Reduction Factor, RF
Application Total Reduction Factor, RF
All applications, but with product specific data obtained and analyzed in All reduction factors shall be based on product
accordance with FHWA Publication No. FHWA SA-96-071 specific data. RFID and RFD shall not be less
“Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design than 1.1.
and Construction Guidelines”—Appendix B, and FHWA Publication No.
FHWA SA-96-072 “Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes”
Permanent applications not having severe consequences should poor 7.0
performance or failure occur, nonaggressive soils, and polymers meeting
the requirements listed in Table 5.8.6.1.2A, provided product specific data
is not available
Temporary applications not having severe consequences should poor 3.5
is not available
Values for RFID, RFCR, and RFD shall be determined sile stress may be increased by 40 %. The global safety fac-
from product specific test results. Even with product spe- tor of 0.55 applied to Fy for permanent structures accounts
cific test results, RFID and RFD shall be no less than 1.1 for uncertainties in structure geometry, fill properties, ex-
each. Guidelines for how to determine RFID, RFCR, and ternally applied loads, the potential for local overstress due
RFD from product specific data are provided in FHWA to load nonuniformities, and uncertainties in long-term re-
Publication No. FHWA SA-96-071 “Mechanically Stabi- inforcement strength. Safety factors less than 0.55, such as
lized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and the 0.48 factor applied to grid members, account for the
Construction Guidelines”—Appendix B, and in FHWA greater potential for local overstress due to load nonuni-
Publication No. FHWA SA-96-072 “Corrosion/Degrada- formities for steel grids than for steel strips or bars.
tion of Soil Reinforcements for Mechanically Stabilized The allowable reinforcement tension is determined by
Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes.” For wall appli- multiplying the allowable stress by the cross-sectional
cations which are defined as not having severe conse- area of the steel reinforcement after corrosion losses. (See
quences should poor performance or failure occur, having Figure 5.8.6A.) The loss in steel cross-sectional area due
nonaggressive soil conditions, and if the geosynthetic to corrosion shall be determined in accordance with Arti-
product meets the minimum requirements listed in Table cle 5.8.6.1.1. Therefore,
5.8.6.1.2A, the long-term tensile strength of the rein-
forcement may be determined using a default reduction A c Fy
factor for RF as provided in Table 5.8.6.1.2B in lieu of Ta = FS (5.8.6.2.1-1)
b
product specific test results.
where, all variables are as defined in Figure 5.8.6A.
5.8.6.2 Allowable Stresses
5.8.6.2.2 Geosynthetic Reinforcements
5.8.6.2.1 Steel Reinforcements
The allowable tensile load per unit of reinforcement
The allowable tensile stress for steel reinforcements and width for geosynthetic reinforcements for permanent
connections for permanent structures (i.e., design lives of structures (i.e., design lives of 75 to 100 years) is deter-
75 to 100 years) shall be in accordance with Article 10.32, mined as follows: (See Figure 5.8.6B.)
in particular Table 10.32.1A. These requirements result in
an allowable tensile stress for steel strip reinforcement, in Tult
the wall backfill away from the wall face connections, of Ta = (5.8.6.2.2-1)
FS × RF
0.55Fy. For grid reinforcing members connected to a rigid
facing element (e.g., a concrete panel or block), the allow- where, FS is a global safety factor which accounts for un-
able tensile stress shall be reduced to 0.48Fy. Transverse certainties in structure geometry, fill properties, externally
and longitudinal grid members shall be sized in accordance applied loads, the potential for local overstress due to load
with AASHTO M 55 (ASTM A 185). For temporary struc- nonuniformities, and uncertainties in long-term reinforce-
tures (i.e., design lives of 3 years or less), the allowable ten- ment strength. For ultimate limit state conditions for per-
manent walls, a FS of 1.5 shall be used. Note that the un- forced soil mass shall be considered when assessing po-
certainty of determining long-term reinforcement strength tential corrosion losses.
is taken into account through an additional factor of safety,
which is typically about 1.2, depending on the amount of 5.8.7.2 Connection Strength for Geosynthetic
creep data available, through the creep extrapolation pro- Reinforcements
tocol provided in Appendix B of the FHWA-SA-96-071,
“Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil To evaluate the long-term geosynthetic strength at the
Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines.” connection with the wall facing, reduce Tult using the
connection/seam strength determined in accordance with
5.8.7 Soil Reinforcement/Facing Connection ASTM D 4884 for structural (i.e., not partial or full fric-
Strength Design tion) connections. ASTM D 4884 will produce a short-
term connection strength equal to Tult 3 CRu. (See Equa-
5.8.7.1 Connection Strength for Steel Soil tion 5.8.7.2-1.) Note that ASTM D 4884 will need to be
Reinforcements modified to accommodate geogrid joints such as a Bodkin
joint. The portion of the connection embedded in the con-
Connections shall be designed to resist stresses result- crete facing shall be designed in accordance with Article
ing from active forces (T0, as described in Article 8.5.4.2) 8.31.
as well as from differential movements between the rein- For reinforcements connected to the facing through
forced backfill and the wall facing elements. embedment between facing elements using a partial or
Elements of the connection which are embedded in the full friction connection (e.g., segmental concrete block
facing element shall be designed with adequate bond faced walls), the capacity of the connection shall be re-
length and bearing area in the concrete to resist the con- duced from Tult for the backfill reinforcement using the
nection forces. The capacity of the embedded connector connection strength determined from laboratory tests.
shall be checked by tests as required in Article 8.31. Con- (See Equation 5.8.7.2-1.) This connection strength is
nections between steel reinforcement and the wall facing based on the lessor of the pullout capacity of the connec-
units (e.g., welds, bolts, pins, etc.) shall be designed in action, the long-term rupture strength of the connection and
cordance with Article 10.32. Tal as determined in Article 5.8.6.1.2. An appropriate lab-
Connection materials shall be designed to accommo- oratory testing and interpretation procedure, which is a
date losses due to corrosion in accordance with Article modification of NCMA Test Method SRWU-1 (Simac, et.
5.8.6.1.1. Potential differences between the environment al., 1993), is discussed in Appendix A of FHWA Publica-
at the face relative to the environment within the rein- tion No. FHWA SA-96-071 “Mechanically Stabilized
TABLE 5.8.7.2A Default and Minimum Values for the Total Geosynthetic Ultimate Limit State
Strength Reduction Factor at the Facing Connection, RFc
Application Total Reduction Factor, RFc

All applications, but with product specific data obtained and analyzed in All reduction factors shall be based on product
accordance with FHWA Publication No. FHWA SA-96-071 specific data. RFID and RFD shall not be less
“Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design than 1.1.
and Construction Guidelines”—Appendix B, and FHWA Publication No.
FHWA SA-96-072 “Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for
Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes.”
Permanent applications not having severe consequences should poor 4.0
is not available. If using polyester reinforcement, the pH regime at the
connection must be investigated and determined to be within the pH
requirements for a nonaggressive environment. (See Division II, Article
7.3.6.3.)
Temporary applications not having severe consequences should poor 2.5
is not available.
FIGURE 5.8.7.2A Determination of Hinge Height for Segmental Concrete Block Faced MSE Walls
Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and Con- mode of failure, Tsc is the peak load per unit of reinforce-
struction Guidelines.” ment width in the connection test at a specified confining
From this test, a peak connection strength load as a func- pressure where pullout is known to be the mode of failure,
tion of vertical confining stress, Tultc or Tsc, are obtained, Tlot is the ultimate wide width tensile strength (ASTM
which can be used to determine CRu and CRs as follows: D 4595) for the reinforcement material lot used for the
connection strength testing, CRu is a reduction factor to
Tultc
CR u = (5.8.7.2-1) account for reduced ultimate strength resulting from the
Tlot connection where rupture is the mode of failure, and CRs
Tsc is a reduction factor to account for reduced strength due
CR s = (5.8.7.2-2) to connection pullout.
Tlot
Therefore, determine the long-term geosynthetic con-
where, Tultc is the peak load per unit reinforcement width nection strength Tac on a load per unit reinforcement width
in the connection test at a specified confining pressure basis as follows:
where rupture of the reinforcement is known to be the If the failure mode for the connection is rupture,
Tult × CR u mine the minimum overlap length required, but in no case

Tac = (5.8.7.2-3) shall the overlap length be less than 1.0 meter (3.3 feet). If
FS × RFc
Tan r is determined experimentally based on soil to rein-
and, forcement contact, Tan r shall be reduced by 30 % where
reinforcement to reinforcement contact is anticipated.
RFc 5 RFCR 3 RFD (5.8.7.2-4)
5.8.8 Design of Facing Elements
If the failure mode for the connection is pullout,
Facing elements shall be designed to resist the hori-
T × CR s zontal forces calculated according to Articles 5.8.4.2 and
Tac = ult (5.8.7.2-5)
FS 5.8.9.3. In addition to these horizontal forces, the facing
elements shall also be designed to resist potential com-
where, FS is as defined previously and is equal to 1.5 for paction stresses occurring near the wall face during erec-
permanent structures, RFc is a reduction factor to account tion of the wall. The facing elements shall be stabilized
for potential long-term degradation of the reinforcement such that they do not deflect laterally or bulge beyond the
at the wall face connection due to the environmental fac- established tolerances.
tors mentioned previously, and other variables are as de-
fined previously. Note that the environment at the wall 5.8.8.1 Design of Stiff or Rigid Concrete, Steel,
face connection may be different than the environment and Timber Facings
away from the wall face in the wall backfill. This shall be
considered when determining RFCR and RFD. Facing elements shall be structurally designed in ac-
Values for RFCR and RFD shall in general be determined cordance with Sections 8, 10, and 13 for concrete, steel,
from product specific test results. Guidelines for how to de- and timber facings, respectively.
termine RFCR and RFD from product specific data are pro- Reinforcement for concrete panels shall be provided to
vided in FHWA Publication No. FHWA SA-96-071 “Me- resist the average loading conditions for each panel. As a
chanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil minimum, temperature and shrinkage steel shall be pro-
Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines”—Appendix vided. Epoxy coating for corrosion protection of panel re-
B, and in FHWA Publication No. FHWA SA-96-072 inforcement where salt spray is anticipated is recom-
“Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for Me- mended.
chanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil
Slopes.” For wall applications which are defined as not hav- 5.8.8.2 Design of Flexible Wall Facings
ing severe consequences should poor performance or fail-
ure occur, having nonaggressive soil conditions, and if the If welded wire, expanded metal, or similar facing pan-
geosynthetic product meets the minimum requirements els are used, they shall be designed in a manner which pre-
listed in Table 5.8.6.1.2A, the long-term connection vents the occurrence of excessive bulging as backfill be-
strength may be determined using a default reduction factor hind the facing elements compresses due to compaction
for RFc as provided in Table 5.8.7.2A for the ultimate limit stresses or self weight of the backfill. This may be ac-
state in lieu of product specific test results. Note that it is complished by limiting the size of individual panels ver-
possible use of default reduction factors may be acceptable tically and the vertical spacing of the soil reinforcement
where the reinforcement load is maximum (i.e., in the mid- layers, and by requiring the facing panels to have an ade-
dle of the wall backfill) and still not be acceptable at the fac- quate amount of vertical slip between adjacent panels.
ing connection if the facing environment is defined as ag- Furthermore, the top of the flexible facing panel at the top
gressive. of the wall shall be attached to a soil reinforcement layer
CRu and CRs shall be determined at the anticipated ver- to provide stability to the top facing panel.
tical confining pressure at the wall face between the fac- For segmental concrete facing blocks, facing stability
ing blocks. The vertical confining pressure shall be calcu- calculations shall include an evaluation of the maximum
lated using the Hinge Height Method as shown in Figure vertical spacing between reinforcement layers, the maxi-
5.8.7.2A. Note that Tac should not be greater than Ta. mum allowable facing height above the uppermost rein-
Geosynthetic walls are sometimes designed using a forcement layer, inter-unit shear capacity, and resistance
flexible reinforcement sheet as the facing using only an of the facing to bulging. The maximum vertical spacing
overlap with the main backfill reinforcement. The overlaps between reinforcement layers shall be limited to twice the
shall be designed using a pullout methodology. Equation width, Wu (see Figure 5.8.7.2A), of the proposed seg-
5.8.5.2-1, but replacing Tmax with T0, can be used to deter- mental concrete facing unit or 0.8 meter (31 inches),
whichever is less, and the maximum facing height above 5.8.9.1A. Values of PAE and PIR for structures with hori-
the uppermost reinforcement layer and the maximum zontal backfill shall be determined using the following
depth of facing below the bottom reinforcement layer equations:
should be limited to the width, Wu (see Figure 5.8.7.2A),
of the proposed segmental concrete facing unit. Am 5 (1.45 2 A)A (5.8.9.1-1)
Geosynthetic facing elements shall not, in general, be
left exposed to sunlight (specifically ultraviolet radia- PAE 5 0.375AmgfH2 (5.8.9.1-2)
tion) for permanent walls. If geosynthetic facing ele-
ments must be left exposed permanently to sunlight, the PIR 5 0.5AmgfH2 (5.8.9.1-3)
geosynthetic shall be stabilized to be resistant to ultravi-
olet radiation. Furthermore, product specific test data “A” is defined as the ground acceleration coefficient
shall be provided which can be extrapolated to the in- as determined in Division I-A, Article 3.2, in particular
tended design life and which proves that the product will Figure 3. Am is defined as the maximum wall accelera-
be capable of performing as intended in an exposed tion coefficient at the centroid of the wall mass. For
environment. ground accelerations greater than 0.45 g, Am would be
calculated to be less than A. Therefore, if A > 0.45 g, set
5.8.8.3 Corrosion Issues for MSE Facing Design Am 5 A. The equation for PAE was developed assuming
a friction angle of 30°. PAE may be adjusted for other soil
Steel to steel contact between the soil reinforcement friction angles using the Mononobe-Okabe method, with
connections and the concrete facing steel reinforcement the horizontal acceleration kh equal to Am and kv equal
shall be prevented so that contact between dissimilar met- to zero.
als (e.g., bare facing reinforcement steel and galvanized For structures with sloping backfills, the inertial force
soil reinforcement steel) does not occur. Steel to steel con- (PIR) and the dynamic horizontal thrust (PAE) are based
tact in this case can be prevented through the placement of on a height H2 near the back of the wall determined as
a nonconductive material between the soil reinforcement follows:
face connection and the facing concrete reinforcing steel.
Tanβ × 0.5H
5.8.9 Seismic Design H2 = H + (5.8.9.1-4)
(1 − 0.5Tanβ)
The seismic design procedures provided herein do not
directly account for the lateral deformation which may PAE shall be adjusted for sloping backfills using the
occur during large earthquake seismic loading. It is there- Mononobe-Okabe method, with the horizontal accelera-
fore recommended that if the anticipated ground acceler- tion kh equal to Am and kv equal to zero. A height of H2
ation is greater than 0.29 g, a detailed lateral deformation shall be used to calculate PAE in this case. PIR for sloping
analysis of the structure during seismic loading should be backfills shall be calculated as follows:
performed.
PIR 5 Pir 1 Pis (5.8.9.1-5)
5.8.9.1 External Stability
Pir 5 0.5AmgfH2H (5.8.9.1-6)
Stability computations (i.e., sliding, overturning, and
bearing capacity) shall be made by including, in addition Pis 5 0.125Amgf(H2)2Tan b (5.8.9.1-7)
to static forces, the horizontal inertial force (PIR) acting si-
multaneously with 50% of the dynamic horizontal thrust where, Pir is the inertial force caused by acceleration of the
(PAE) to determine the total force applied to the wall. The reinforced backfill and Pis is the inertial force caused by
dynamic horizontal thrust PAE is evaluated using the acceleration of the sloping soil surcharge above the rein-
pseudo-static Mononobe-Okabe method and is applied to forced backfill, with the width of mass contributing to PIR
the back surface of the reinforced fill at a height of 0.6H equal to 0.5H2. PIR acts at the combined centroid of Pir and
from the base for level backfill conditions. The horizontal Pis. This is illustrated in Figure 5.8.9.1A.
inertial force PIR is determined by multiplying the weight Factors of safety against sliding, overturning, and bear-
of the reinforced wall mass, with dimensions of H (wall ing capacity failure under seismic loading may be reduced
height) and 0.5H, assuming horizontal backfill conditions, to 75% of the factors of safety defined in Articles 5.8.2
by the acceleration Am. PIR is located at the centroid of the and 5.8.3. The factor of safety for overall stability may be
structure mass. These forces are illustrated in Figure reduced to 1.1. (See Article 5.2.2.3.)
FIGURE 5.8.9.1A Seismic External Stability of a MSE Wall
5.8.9.2 Internal Stability L ei

Tmd = Pi N (5.8.9.2-1)
Reinforcements shall be designed to withstand hori-
zontal forces generated by the internal inertial force (P1)
∑
i =1
( L ei )
in addition to the static forces. The total inertial force P1

per unit width of structure shall be considered equal to As shown in Figure 5.8.9.2A, the total load applied to
the weight of the active zone times the maximum wall the reinforcement on a load per unit of wall width basis is
acceleration coefficient Am. This inertial force is distrib- as follows:
uted to the reinforcements proportionally to their resis-
Ttotal 5 Tmax 1 Tmd (5.8.9.2-2)
tant areas on a load per unit of wall width basis as
follows: where, Tmax is determined using Equation 5.8.4.1-3.
FIGURE 5.8.9.2A Seismic Internal Stability of a MSE Wall
For seismic loading conditions, the value of F*, the If the seismic performance category is “C” or higher
pullout resistance factor, shall be reduced to 80% of the (see Section 3, Division I-A), facing connections in seg-
values used for static design. Factors of safety under com- mental block faced walls shall not be fully dependent on
bined static and seismic loads for pullout and breakage of frictional resistance between the backfill reinforcement
reinforcement may be reduced to 75% of the factors of and facing blocks. Shear resisting devices between the
safety used for static loading. facing blocks and backfill reinforcement such as shear
For geosynthetic reinforcement rupture, the reinforce- keys, pins, etc. shall be used.
ment must be designed to resist the static and dynamic For steel reinforcement connections, safety factors for
components of the load as follows: combined static and seismic loads may be reduced to 75%
For the static component, of the safety factors used for static loading. Based on these
safety factors, the available connection strength must be
S rs × R c greater than Ttotal.
Tmax ≤ (5.8.9.2-3)
FS × RF For the static component,
For the dynamic component, S rs × CR u S × CR1 

Tmax ≤ ≤ 0.8 rs (5.8.9.3-1)
FS × RFc  FS 
S rt × R c
Tmd ≤ (5.8.9.2-4) For the dynamic component,
FS × RFID × RFD
Therefore, the ultimate strength of the geosynthetic re- S rt × CR u S × CR1 
Tmd ≤ ≤ 0.8 rt (5.8.9.3-2)
inforcement required is, FS × RFD  FS 
Tult 5 Srs 1 Srt (5.8.9.2-5) The reinforcement strength required for the static com-
ponent, Srs, must be added to the reinforcement strength
For reinforcement pullout, required for the dynamic component, Srt, to determine the
total ultimate strength required for the reinforcement, Tult.
FSPO × Ttotal
Le ≥ (5.8.9.2-6) 5.8.10 Determination of Lateral Wall
0.8F * × α × σ v × C × R c
Displacements
where, all variables are as defined in Article 5.8.5.2.
Lateral wall displacements are a function of overall
5.8.9.3 Facing/Soil Reinforcement Connection structure stiffness, compaction intensity, soil type, rein-
Design for Seismic Loads forcement length, slack in reinforcement-to-facing con-
nections, and deformability of the facing system. A first
Facing elements shall be designed to resist the seismic order estimate of lateral wall displacements occurring
loads determined in accordance with Article 5.8.9.2 (i.e., during wall construction for simple MSE walls on firm
Ttotal). foundations can be determined from Figure 5.8.10A. If
Allowable stresses used for the design of the wall fac- significant vertical settlement is anticipated or heavy sur-
ing are permitted to increase by 50% for steel, 33% for charges are present, lateral displacements could be con-
concrete, and 50% for timber components of the facing. siderably greater. Appropriate uses of this figure are as a
Facing elements shall be designed in accordance with Di- guide to establish an appropriate wall face batter to obtain
vision I-A. a near vertical wall or to determine minimum clearances
For segmental concrete block facing walls, the blocks between the wall face and adjacent objects or structures.
located above the uppermost backfill reinforcement layer
shall be designed to resist toppling failure during seismic 5.8.11 Drainage
loading.
For geosynthetic connections, the long-term connection MSE walls in cut areas and side-hill fills with estab-
strength must be greater than Tmax 1 Tmd. Where the long- lished ground water levels should be constructed with
term connection strength is partially or fully dependent on drainage blankets in back of and beneath the reinforced
friction between the facing blocks and the reinforcement, zone. Internal drainage measures should be considered for
and connection pullout is the controlling failure mode, the all structures to prevent saturation of the reinforced back-
long-term connection strength to resist seismic loads shall fill or to intercept any surface flows containing aggressive
be reduced to 80% of its static value. elements such as deicing chemicals.
FIGURE 5.8.10A Empirical Curve for Estimating Anticipated Lateral Displacement During Construction for MSE Walls
For MSE walls utilizing metallic backfill reinforce- 5.8.12 Special Loading Conditions
ments supporting roadways which are chemically deiced
in the winter, an impervious membrane should be placed 5.8.12.1 Concentrated Dead Loads
below the pavement and just above the first row of rein-
forcements to intercept any flows containing deicing Concentrated dead loads shall be incorporated into
chemicals. The membrane should be sloped to drain away the internal and external stability design by using a sim-
from the facing to an intercepting longitudinal drain out- plified uniform vertical distribution of 2 vertical to 1
letted beyond the reinforced zone. Typically, a minimum horizontal to determine the vertical component of stress
membrane thickness of 0.8 mm (30 mils) should be used. with depth within the reinforced soil mass as shown in
All seams in the membrane shall be welded to prevent Figure 5.8.12.1A. Figure 5.8.12.1B shows how concen-
leakage. trated horizontal dead loads are distributed within and
FIGURE 5.8.12.1A Distribution of Stress from Concentrated Vertical Load Pv for Internal
and External Stability Calculations
FIGURE 5.8.12.1B Distribution of Stress from Concentrated Horizontal Loads
behind the reinforced soil mass. Concentrated horizon- above or within the reinforced soil zone are present, the
tal loads at the top of the wall shall also be distributed reinforcement connections to the wall face shall be de-
within the reinforced soil mass as shown in this figure. signed for 100% of Tmax (or Ttotal for seismic loads)
Figure 5.8.12.1C shows how these loads can be com- throughout the height of the wall.
bined using superposition principles to evaluate external If concentrated dead loads are located behind the rein-
and internal wall stability. Depending on the size and lo- forced soil mass, they shall be distributed in the same way
cation of the concentrated dead load, the location of the as would be done within the reinforced soil mass. The ver-
boundary between the active and resistant zones may tical stress distributed behind the reinforced zone in this
need to be adjusted. Figure 5.8.12.1D illustrates how this way shall be multiplied by Kaf to determine the effect this
adjustment should be made. When dead load surcharges surcharge load has on external stability. The concentrated
FIGURE 5.8.12.1C Superposition of Concentrated Dead Loads for External Stability Evaluation
FIGURE 5.8.12.1D Location of Maximum Tensile Force Line in Case of Large Surcharge Slabs
(Inextensible Reinforcements)
horizontal stress distributed behind the wall can be taken barrier and slab to resist the impact load in sliding and over-
into account directly. turning without directly transmitting load to the top facing
units.
5.8.12.2 Traffic Loads and Barriers For checking pullout safety of the reinforcements, the
lateral traffic impact load shall be distributed to the upper
Traffic loads shall be treated as uniform surcharge loads soil reinforcement and facing units using Figure
in accordance with the criteria outlined in Article 3.20.3. 5.8.12.1B, assuming bf equal to the width of the base
The live load surcharge pressure shall be equal to not less slab. The full length of reinforcements shall be consid-
than 0.6 meter (2 feet) of earth. Parapets and traffic barri- ered effective in resisting pullout due to impact load. The
ers, constructed over or in line with the front face of the wall upper row(s) of soil reinforcement shall have sufficient
shall be designed to resist overturning moments by their pullout capacity to resist a horizontal load of 45 kN (10
own mass. Base slabs shall not have any transverse joints kips) distributed over the full 6 meters (20 feet) base slab
except construction joints, and adjacent slabs shall be length. The force distribution for pullout computations is
joined by shear dowels. The upper row(s) of soil reinforce- different than what is used for tensile capacity computa-
ment shall have sufficient tensile capacity to resist a con- tions because the entire base slab must move laterally to
centrated horizontal load of 45 kN (10 kips) distributed initiate a pullout failure due to the relatively large defor-
over a barrier length of 1.5 meters (5 feet). This force dis- mation required, This distributed force would be equal to
tribution accommodates the local peaking of force in the PH1 in Figure 5.8.12.1B.
soil reinforcements in the vicinity of the concentrated load. Due to the transient nature of traffic barrier impact
This distributed force would be equal to PH1 in Figure loads, when designing for reinforcement rupture, the
5.8.12.1B, and would be distributed to the reinforcements geosynthetic reinforcement must be designed to resist the
assuming bf equal to the width of the base slab. Adequate static and transient (impact) components of the load as
room shall be provided laterally between the back of the follows:
facing panels and the traffic barrier/slab to allow the traffic For the static component, see equation 5.8.9.2-3.
For the transient component, described in Article 5.8.12.4. The upper two rows of rein-
forcement shall be designed for an additional horizontal
S rt × R c load of 4,400 N per linear meter of wall (300 pounds per
∆σ h Sv ≤ (5.8.12.2-1) linear foot of wall).
FS × RFID × RFD
where Dσ h is the traffic barrier impact stress applied
over the reinforcement tributary area as determined in 5.8.12.3 Hydrostatic Pressures
Article 5.8.12.1.
The reinforcement strength required for the static For structures along rivers and canals, a minimum dif-
component, Srs, must be added to the reinforcement ferential hydrostatic pressure equal to 1.0 meter (3.3 feet)
strength required for the transient component, Srt, to de- of water shall be considered for design. This load shall be
termine the total ultimate strength required for the reapplied at the high-water level. Effective unit weights
inforcement, Tult. shall be used in the calculations for internal and external
Parapet reinforcement shall be in accordance with Ar- stability beginning at levels just below the equivalent sur-
ticle 2.7. The anchoring slab shall be strong enough to re- face of the pressure head line.
sist the ultimate strength of the standard parapet. Situations where the wall is influenced by tide or river
Flexible post and beam barriers, when used, shall be fluctuations may require that the wall be designed for
placed at a minimum distance of 1.0 meter (3.3 feet) from rapid drawdown conditions, which could result in differ-
the wall face, driven 1.5 meters (5 feet) below grade, and ential hydrostatic pressure considerably greater than 1.0
spaced to miss the reinforcements where possible. If the meter (3.3 feet), or alternatively rapidly draining backfill
reinforcements cannot be missed, the wall shall be de- material such as shot rock or open graded coarse gravel be
signed accounting for the presence of an obstruction as used as backfill. Backfill material meeting the gradation
FIGURE 5.8.12.4A Structural Connection of Soil Reinforcement Around Backfill Obstructions
requirements in Article 7.3.6.3 of Division II is not con- face where it joins the obstruction. To this end, a collar
sidered to be rapid draining. next to the wall face around the obstruction may be
needed.
5.8.12.4 Design for Presence of Obstructions in If driven piles must be placed through the reinforced
the Reinforced Soil Zone zone, the recommendations provided in Section 7 of
Division I shall be followed.
If the placement of an obstruction in the wall soil rein-
forcement zone such as a catch basin, grate inlet, signal or
sign foundation, guardrail post, or culvert cannot be 5.9 PREFABRICATED MODULAR
avoided, the design of the wall near the obstruction shall WALL DESIGN
be modified using one of the following alternatives:
5.9.1 Structure Dimensions
(1) Assuming reinforcement layers must be partially
or fully severed in the location of the obstruction, de- Prefabricated modular walls shall be dimensioned
sign the surrounding reinforcement layers to carry the to ensure that the applicable factors of safety outlined in
additional load which would have been carried by the Article 5.5.5 are satisfied.
severed reinforcements. Minimum embedment and scour protection shall sat-
(2) Place a structural frame around the obstruction isfy the requirements of Article 5.8.1.
which is capable of carrying the load from the rein-
forcements in front of the obstruction to reinforce-
ments connected to the structural frame behind the ob- 5.9.2 External Stability
struction. This is conceptually illustrated in Figure
5.8.12.4A. Stability computations shall be made by assuming that
(3) If the soil reinforcements consist of discrete strips the system acts as a rigid body.
or bar mats rather than continuous sheets, depending on Lateral pressures shall be computed by wedge theory
the size and location of the obstruction, it may be pos- using a plane surface of sliding (Coulomb theory). Where
sible to splay the reinforcements around the obstruction. the rear of the prefabricated modular systems forms an ir-
regular surface (stepped modules), pressures shall be
For the first alternative, the portion of the wall facing computed on an average plane surface drawn from the
in front of the obstruction shall be made stable against a
lower back heel of the lowest module to the upper rear
toppling (overturning) or sliding failure. If this cannot be
heel of the top module, as shown in Figures 5.9.2A and
accomplished, the soil reinforcements between the ob-
5.9.2B.
struction and the wall face can be structurally connected
The following wall friction angles, d, shall be used un-
to the obstruction such that the wall face does not topple,
less more exact coefficients are demonstrated:
or the facing elements can be structurally connected to ad-
jacent facing elements to prevent this type of failure.
For the second alternative, the frame and connections
shall be designed in accordance with Article 10.32 for steel
frames. Note that it may be feasible to connect the soil re-
inforcement directly to the obstruction depending on the
reinforcement type and the nature of the obstruction.
For the third alternative, the splay angle, measured
from a line perpendicular to the wall face, shall be small
enough that the splaying does not generate moment in the
reinforcement or the connection of the reinforcement to
the wall face. The tensile capacity of the splayed re-
inforcement shall be reduced by the cosine of the splay
angle.
If the obstruction must penetrate through the face of Computations for stability shall be made at every mod-
the wall, the wall facing elements shall be designed to ule level. At each level, the required factors of safety with
fit around the obstruction such that the facing elements respect to overturning shall be provided. The value of
are stable (i.e., point loads should be avoided) and such Ka used to compute the lateral thrust resulting from the
that wall backfill soil cannot spill through the wall random backfill and other loads shall be computed on
FIGURE 5.9.2A Lateral Earth Pressures for Prefabricated Modular Walls

Case I—Continuous Pressure Surfaces
the basis of the friction angle of the backfill behind the ules is effective in resisting overturning moments. In the
modules. absence of specific data, a total unit weight of 110 pounds
If sufficient amounts of structural backfill are used be- per cubic foot shall be assumed.
hind the prefabricated modules, a value of 34° may be Computations for sliding stability may consider that
used for f. In the absence of specific data, a maximum 100% of the soil-fill weight inside the modules is
friction angle of 30° shall be used. The coefficient of slid- effective in resisting sliding motion. The value of f
ing friction at the wall base shall be the lesser of the coef- of the foundation soils shall be used in these computa-
ficients of the backfill or the foundation soil. Passive pres- tions.
sures shall be neglected in stability computations. For structures loaded with sloping surcharges, refer to
Computations for overturning stability shall consider Article 5.2.2.3 regarding overall stability analysis of
that only 80% of the soil-fill unit weight inside the mod- slopes.
FIGURE 5.9.2B Lateral Earth Pressures for Prefabricated Modular Walls

Case II—Irregular Pressure Surfaces
5.9.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability ports per unit length, at the rear and front of the modules
or at the location of the bottom legs.
Allowable bearing capacities for concrete modular For modules supported on integrally cast legs, the re-
systems shall be computed using a minimum factor of actions shall be similarly calculated.
safety of 3 for Group I loading applied to the ultimate For this computation, a minimum of 80% of the soil
bearing capacity or to a bearing capacity obtained in ac- weight inside the modules shall be considered effective. If
cordance with Articles 4.4.7 and 4.4.8. foundation conditions require a footing under the total
Footing loads shall be computed by assuming that dead area of the module, 100% of the soil weight inside the
loads and earth pressure loads are resisted by point sup- modules shall be considered.
The overall slope stability condition, of which the re- factor, and statistical reliability shall be considered when
taining wall may only be part, shall be evaluated in ac- selecting procedures for calculating resistance. The pro-
cordance with Article 5.2.2.3. cedures used in developing values of performance factors
contained in this Part are summarized in Appendix A of
5.9.4 Allowable Stresses the Final Report for NCHRP Project 24-4 (Barker, et al.,
1991). Other methods may be used if the statistical nature
Prefabricated modular units shall be designed for de- of the factors given above are considered, and are ap-
veloped earth pressures behind the wall and from pres- proved by the owner.
sures developed inside the modules. Rear face surfaces
shall be designed for the difference of these pressures. Al- 5.11 DEFINITIONS
lowable stresses and reinforcement requirements for con-
crete modules shall be in accordance with Section 8. Only terms relating to retaining walls are provided in
Inside pressures (bin) shall be the same for each mod- this Section. Definitions for terms relating to foundation
ule and shall not be less than as follows: types and LFD design are given in Article 4.8.
Cantilever Walls—Walls that resist the forces exerted
Pi 5 gb (5.9.4-1) on them by flexural strength. These walls consist of a con-
crete wall stem, a concrete slab, and possibly a shear key.
Concrete modules shall be designed for bending in Gravity Walls—Massive stone or concrete masonry
both vertical and horizontal directions between their sup- walls which depend primarily on their weights to maintain
ports. Steel reinforcing shall be symmetrical on both faces stability. Only a nominal amount of steel is placed near the
unless positive identification of each face can be ensured exposed faces of these walls to prevent surface cracking
to preclude reversal of units. Corners shall be adequately due to temperature changes.
reinforced. Retaining Walls—Structures that provide lateral sup-
Allowable stresses for steel module members shall port for a mass of soil and that owe their stability primar-
be in accordance with Article 10.32. The net section used ily to their own weights and to the weights of any soils lo-
for design shall be reduced in accordance with Article cated directly above their base.
5.8.6.1. Semi-gravity Walls—These walls are somewhat more
slender than gravity walls and require reinforcement con-
5.9.5 Drainage sisting of vertical bars along the inner face and dowels
continuing into the footing.
Prefabricated modular units in cut and side-hill fill
areas shall be designed with a continuous subsurface drain 5.12 NOTATIONS
placed at, or near, the footing grade and out-letted as re-
quired. In cut and side-hill fill areas with established or Fr 5 sliding resistance
potential ground water levels above the footing grade, a H 5 height of retaining wall
continuous drainage blanket shall be provided and con- Hf 5 factored horizontal load
nected to the longitudinal drain system. K 5 coefficient of earth pressure
For systems with open front faces, a surface drainage Ko 5 coefficient of earth pressure at rest
system shall be provided as needed above the top of the N 5 factored bearing pressure resultant
wall to collect and divert surface runoff and prevent ero- P 5 lateral earth pressure
sion of the front face. Pa 5 active earth load
Ph 5 lateral earth load
Part C Pv 5 vertical earth load
STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD qf 5 factored bearing capacity
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN qmax 5 maximum bearing pressure calculated using fac-
tored loads
5.10 SCOPE qs 5 surcharge loading
qult 5 ultimate bearing capacity
The provisions of this Part shall apply for the design of RI 5 reduction factor due to load inclination effect
rigid gravity and semi-rigid gravity walls, and nongravity Rn 5 nominal resistance
cantilevered walls. Vf 5 factored vertical load
The probabilistic LFD basis of these specifications y 5 distance to the point of action for lateral earth
which produces an inter-related combination of load, load pressure
Greek —ground deformability,

b 5 load factor coefficient (see Article 5.13.4) —groundwater, and
bE 5 load factor coefficient for earth pressure —swelling pressure in clay backfills.
g 5 load factor (See Article 5.13.4)
geq 5 equivalent fluid pressure 5.13.3 Strength Requirement
d 5 angle of shearing resistance between wall and soil
D 5 wall displacement Retaining walls and their foundations shall be propor-
f 5 performance factor tioned by the methods specified in Article 5.14 so that
their design strength exceeds the required strength.
5.13 LIMIT STATES, LOAD FACTORS AND The required strength is the combined effect of fac-
RESISTANCE FACTORS tored loads for each applicable load combination stipu-
lated in Article 3.22. The design strength is calculated for
All relevant limit states shall be considered in the design each applicable limit state as the nominal resistance, Rn,
to ensure an adequate degree of safety and serviceability. multiplied by an appropriate performance (or resistance)
factor, f. Procedures for calculating nominal resistance
5.13.1 Serviceability Limit States are provided in Article 5.1, and values of performance fac-
tors are given in Article 5.13.5.
Design of rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls, and
nongravity cantilever walls shall consider the following 5.13.4 Load Combinations and Load Factors
serviceability limit states:
Retaining structures and their foundations shall be pro-
—excessive movements of retaining walls and their portioned to withstand safely all load combinations stipu-
foundations, lated in Article 3.22 which are applicable to the particular
—excessive vibrations caused by dynamic loadings, and site or wall/foundation type. Impact forces shall not be in-
—deterioration of element(s) of retaining structures. cluded in retaining wall design. (Refer to Article 3.8.)
Values of g and b coefficients for load factor design, as
The limit state for settlement shall be based upon ride- given in Table 3.22.1A, shall apply to strength limit state
ability and economy. The cost of limiting foundation considerations; while those for service load design (also
movements shall be compared to the cost of designing the given in Table 3.22.1A) shall apply to serviceability con-
superstructure so that it can tolerate larger movements, or siderations.
of correcting the consequences of movements through
maintenance, to determine minimum lifetime cost. More 5.13.5 Performance Factors
stringent criteria may be established by the owner.
Values of performance factors for geotechnical design
5.13.2 Strength Limit States of foundations are given in Tables 4.10.6-1 through
4.10.6-3, while those for structural design are provided in
Design of rigid gravity and semi-gravity walls, and Article 8.16.1.2.2.
nongravity cantilever walls shall be checked against the If methods other than those given in Tables 4.10.6-1
strength limit states of: through 4.10.6-3 are used to estimate the soil capacity, the
performance factors chosen shall provide the same relia-
—bearing capacity failure, bility as those given in Tables 4.10.6-1 through 4.10.6-3.
—lateral sliding,
—excessive loss of base contact, 5.14 GRAVITY AND SEMI-GRAVITY WALL
—overall instability, and DESIGN, AND CANTILEVER
—structural failure. WALL DESIGN
The limit state which governs the design depends on: 5.14.1 Earth Pressure Due to Backfill
—type and function of retaining structure, The provisions of Articles 5.5.2 and 5.6.2 shall also
—earth pressures exerted on the wall by the retained apply to the load factor design of rigid gravity and semi-
backfill, gravity walls, and nongravity cantilevered walls respec-
—geometry of the ground and the structure, tively; with the exception that the loads shall be factored
—strength of the ground, according to the bottom half of Table 3.22.1A when
checking wall stability against bearing capacity, sliding and no significant pore pressures act in the backfill. If a
and overturning. Vertical earth pressure due to the dead thorough drainage system is not provided to dewater the
load of the backfill shall have an overall load factor, gbE, failure wedge, or if its adequate performance cannot be
of 1.0g. guaranteed, walls shall be designed to resist the maximum
Lateral earth pressures on walls backfilled with cohe- anticipated water pressure. For walls backfilled with co-
sionless soils shall be designed using effective stresses. hesionless soils, the lateral earth pressure shall be calcu-
Walls backfilled with cohesive soils shall be designed lated using buoyant unit weights below the groundwater
using equivalent fluid pressures. The backfill, whether co- level and multiplied by the load factor for lateral earth
hesionless or cohesive, shall be well drained, so that no pressure. The wall shall be designed for these factored lat-
water pressures act on the wall, and no significant pore eral earth pressures (gbE) plus factored hydrostatic water
pressures act in the backfill. The load factor for lateral pressure (1.0g).
earth pressures calculated using equivalent fluid pressures In the case of an undrained analysis of cohesive back-
shall be the same as those calculated using effective fills, the lateral earth pressure shall be calculated using
stresses (gbE 5 1.3g). equivalent fluid pressure, which inherently includes water
The g and bE coefficients specified for earth pressure pressure effects. The calculated lateral earth pressure shall
in Table 3.22.1A are applicable directly to active or at rest then be multiplied by 1.3g.
earth pressures. The resistance due to passive earth pres- If the groundwater levels differ on opposite sides of the
sure in front of the wall shall be neglected unless the wall wall, the effects of seepage on wall stability and the po-
extends well below the depth of frost penetration, scour or tential for piping shall be considered. Pore pressures be-
other types of disturbance. Where passive pressure is as- hind the wall can be determined by flow net procedures or
sumed to provide resistance, the performance factor (f) various analytical methods, and shall be added to the ef-
shall be taken as 0.6. fective horizontal stresses when calculating total lateral
earth pressures on the wall. The effective lateral earth
5.14.2 Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge pressure shall be multiplied by gbE (obtained from Table
3.22.1A) and the hydrostatic pressure shall be factored by
In the design of retaining walls and abutments where 1.0g, when designing the wall.
traffic can come within a horizontal distance from the top
of the wall equal to one-half the wall height, the lateral 5.14.4 Seismic Pressure
earth pressure shall be increased by a live load surcharge
pressure equal to not less than 2 feet of earth (Article The provisions of Article 5.6.4 shall apply to the load
3.20.3). Impact loads shall not be included in the design factor design of walls when considering earthquakes
of abutments (Article 3.8.1). Vertical earth pressure in- loads.
duced by live load surcharge and dead load surcharge
shall have overall load factors of 1.67g and 1.3g, respec- 5.14.5 Movement Under Serviceability Limit States
tively. Lateral earth pressure induced by live load
and dead load surcharge shall have an overall load factor The movement of wall foundation support systems
of 1.3g. shall be estimated using procedures described in Article
Where heavy static and dynamic compaction equip- 4.11.3, 4.12.3.2.2, or 4.13.3.2.2, for walls supported on
ment is used within a distance of one-half the wall height spread footings, driven piles, or drilled shafts, respec-
behind the wall, the effect of additional earth pressure that tively. Such methods are based on soil and rock parame-
may be induced by compaction shall be taken into ac- ters measured directly or inferred from the results of in
count. The load factor for compaction-induced earth pres- situ and/or laboratory tests.
sures shall be the same as for lateral earth pressures Tolerable movement criteria for retaining walls shall
(gbE51.3g). be developed based on the function and type of wall, an-
ticipated service life, and consequence of unacceptable
5.14.3 Water Pressure and Drainage movements. Tolerable movement criteria shall be estab-
lished in accordance with Articles 4.11.3.5, 4.12.3.2.3,
The provisions of Articles 5.5.3 and 5.6.3 shall and 4.13.3.2.3.
also apply to the load factor design of rigid gravity and
semi-gravity walls, and nongravity cantilevered walls, 5.14.6 Safety Against Soil Failure
respectively.
The backfill, whether cohesive or cohesionless, shall Gravity and semi-gravity walls, and cantilever walls
be well drained so that no water pressures act on the wall shall be dimensioned to ensure stability against bearing ca-
pacity failure, overturning, and sliding. Where a wall is 5.14.6.2 Sliding

supported by clayey foundation, safety against deep-seated
foundation failure shall also be investigated. Stability cri- Where the retaining wall is founded on a spread foot-
teria for walls with respect to various modes of failure shall ing, safety against sliding shall be investigated using the
be as shown in Figures 5.14.6-1 through 5.14.6-3. procedures specified in Article 4.11.4.3.
5.14.6.1 Bearing Capacity Failure 5.14.6.3 Overturning
The safety against bearing capacity failure shall be The safety against overturning shall be ensured by lim-
investigated: (1) by using factored soil pressures which iting the location of the factored bearing pressure resultant
are uniformly distributed over the effective base area, if (N) on the wall base. For walls supported by soil founda-
the wall is supported by a soil foundation (see Figures tions, location of the factored bearing pressure resultant
5.14.6-1 and 5.14.6-2); or (2) by using factored soil on the base of the wall foundation shall be within the mid-
pressures which vary linearly over the effective base area, dle half of the base. For walls supported by rock founda-
if the wall is supported by a rock foundation (see Figure tions, location of the factored bearing pressure resultant
5.14.6-3). on the base of the wall foundation shall be within the mid-
Retaining walls and their foundations are considered to dle three-quarters of the base.
be adequate against bearing capacity failure if the factored
bearing capacity (taking into consideration the effect of 5.14.6.4 Overall Stability (Revised Article
load inclination) exceeds the maximum soil pressure 5.2.2.3)
(qmax) determined using factored loads. Methods for
calculating factored bearing capacity are provided in Ar- The overall stability of slopes in the vicinity of walls
ticle 4.11.4 for walls founded on spread footings, and in shall be considered.
Articles 4.12.3.3 and 4.13.3.3 for walls supported on dri- The overall stability of the retaining wall, retained
ven piles or drilled shafts, respectively. slope, and foundation soil or rock shall be evaluated for
FIGURE 5.14.6-1 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Clayey Soils
in the Backfill or Foundation (After Duncan et al., 1990)
FIGURE 5.14.6-2 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Granular Backfills
and Foundations on Sand or Gravel (After Duncan et al., 1990)
FIGURE 5.14.6-3 Earth Loads and Stability Criteria for Walls with Granular Backfills
and Foundations on Rock (After Duncan et al., 1990)
5.14.7 Safety Against Structural Failure
The structural design of individual wall elements and

wall foundations shall comply to the requirements given
in Section 8.
In the structural design of a footing on soil and rock at
ultimate limit states, a linear contact pressure distribution
determined using factored loads, as shown in Figure
5.14.7-1, shall be considered. The maximum pressure for
structural design may be greater than the factored bearing
capacity.
5.14.7.1 Base of Footing Slabs
See Article 5.5.6.1.
5.14.7.2 Wall Stems
5.14.7.3 Counterforts and Buttresses
5.14.7.4 Reinforcement
5.14.7.5 Expansion and Contraction Joints
FIGURE 5.14.7-1 Contact Pressure Distribution See Article 5.5.6.5.

for Structural Design of Footings on Soil and Rock
at Strength Limit States
5.14.8 Backfill
all walls using limiting equilibrium methods of analysis. Where possible, the backfill material behind all
The Modified Bishop, simplified Janbu or Spence meth- retaining walls shall be free draining, nonexpansive,
ods of analysis may be used. Special exploration, testing noncorrosive and shall be drained by weep-holes and
and analyses may be required for bridge abutments or re- french drains placed at suitable intervals and eleva-
taining walls constructed over soft deposits where con- tions. In counterfort walls, there shall be at least one
solidation and/or lateral flow of the soft soil could result drain for each pocket formed by the counterforts.
in unacceptable long-term settlements or horizontal Silts and clays shall, if possible, be avoided for use as
movements. backfill.
Section 6
CULVERTS
6.1 CULVERT LOCATION, LENGTH, AND forced floor shall be used to distribute the pressure over
WATERWAY OPENINGS the entire horizontal area of the structure. In any location
subject to erosion, aprons or cutoff walls shall be used at
Recommendations on culvert location, length, and
both ends of the culvert and, where necessary, the entire
waterway openings are given in the AASHTO Guide on
floor area between the wing walls shall be paved. Baffle
Hydraulic Design of Culverts.
walls or struts across the unpaved bottom of a culvert bar-
rel shall not be used where the stream bed is subject to ero-
6.2 DEAD LOADS
sion. When conditions require, culvert footings shall be
Vertical and horizontal earth pressures on culverts may reinforced longitudinally.
be computed by recognized or appropriately documented
analytical techniques based on the principles of soil me- 6.4 DISTRIBUTION OF WHEEL LOADS
chanics and soil structure interaction, or design pressures THROUGH EARTH FILLS
shall be calculated as being the result of an equivalent
fluid weight as follows. 6.4.1 When the depth of fill is 2 feet or more, concen-
trated loads shall be considered as uniformly distributed
6.2.1 Culvert in trench, or culvert untrenched on over a square with sides equal to 13⁄4 times the depth of
yielding foundation fill.
A. Rigid culverts except reinforced concrete boxes:
(1) For vertical earth pressure—120 pcf 6.4.2 When such areas from several concentrations over-
For lateral earth pressure— 30 pcf lap, the total load shall be uniformly distributed over the
(2) For vertical earth pressure—120 pcf area defined by the outside limits of the individual areas,
For lateral earth pressure— 120 pcf but the total width of distribution shall not exceed the total
B. Reinforced concrete boxes: width of the supporting slab. For single spans, the effect of
(1) For vertical earth pressure—120 pcf live load may be neglected when the depth of fill is more
For lateral earth pressure— 30 pcf than 8 feet and exceeds the span length; for multiple spans
(2) For vertical earth pressure—120 pcf it may be neglected when the depth of fill exceeds the dis-
For lateral earth pressure— 60 pcf tance between faces of end supports or abutments. When
C. Flexible Culverts: the depth of fill is less than 2 feet the wheel load shall be
For vertical earth pressure—120 pcf distributed as in slabs with concentrated loads. When the
For lateral earth pressure— 120 pcf calculated live load and impact moment in concrete slabs,
When concrete pipe culverts are designed by the Indirect based on the distribution of the wheel load through earth
Design Method of Article 16.4.5, the design lateral earth fills, exceeds the live load and impact moment calculated
pressure shall be determined using the procedures given according to Article 3.24, the latter moment shall be used.
in Article 16.4.5.2.1 for embankment installations and in
Article 16.4.5.2.2 for trench installations. 6.5 DISTRIBUTION REINFORCEMENT
6.2.2 Culvert untrenched on unyielding foundation Where the depth of fill exceeds 2 feet, reinforcement to
provide for the lateral distribution of concentrated loads is
A special analysis is required.
not required.
6.3 FOOTINGS
6.6 DESIGN
Footings for culverts shall be carried to an elevation
sufficient to secure a firm foundation, or a heavy rein- For culvert design guidelines, see Section 17.
181
Section 7
SUBSTRUCTURES
Part A
7.1 GENERAL Ka 5 Active earth pressure coefficient (dim); (See Arti-

cle 7.7.4.)
7.1.1 Definition V1 5 Vertical soil stress (ksf); (See Article 7.5.4.)
V2 5 Vertical stress due to footing load (ksf); (See Arti-
A substructure is any structural, load-supporting com- cle 7.5.4.)
ponent generally referred to by the terms abutment, pier, sH 5 Supplementary earth pressure (ksf); (See Article
retaining wall, foundation or other similar terminology. 7.5.4.)
7.1.2 Loads The notations for dimension units include the follow-
ing: dim5dimensionless; ft 5 foot; and ksf 5 kip/ft2. The
Where appropriate, piers and abutments shall be de- dimensional units provided with each notation are pre-
signed to withstand dead load, erection loads, live loads sented for illustration only to demonstrate a dimensionally
on the roadway, wind loads on the superstructure, forces
correct combination of units for the design procedures
due to stream currents, floating ice and drift, temperature
presented herein. If other units are used, the dimensional
and shrinkage effects, lateral earth and water pressures,
correctness of the equations should be confirmed.
scour and collision and earthquake loadings.
7.1.3 Settlement
Part B
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD
The anticipated settlement of piers and abutments
should be estimated by appropriate analysis, and the ef- ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
fects of differential settlement shall be accounted for in
the design of the superstructure. 7.3 PIERS
7.1.4 Foundation and Retaining Wall Design 7.3.1 Pier Types
Refer to Section 4 for the design of spread footing, 7.3.1.1 Solid Wall Piers
driven pile and drilled shaft foundations and Section 5 for
the design of retaining walls. Solid wall piers are designed as columns for forces and
moments acting about the weak axis and as piers for those
7.2 NOTATIONS acting about the strong axis. They may be pinned, fixed or
free at the top, and are conventionally fixed at the base.
The following notations shall apply for the design of Short, stubby types are often pinned at the base to elimi-
pier and abutment substructure units: nate the high moments which would develop due to fixity.
Earlier, more massive designs, were considered gravity
B 5 Width of foundation (ft) types.
e 5 Eccentricity of load from foundation centroid in
the indicated direction (ft) 7.3.1.2 Double Wall Piers
H 5 Height of abutment (ft)
K 5 Coefficient of earth pressure (dim); (See Article More recent designs consist of double walls, spaced in
7.5.4.) the direction of traffic, to provide support at the continu-
183
ous soffit of concrete box superstructure sections. These 7.3.2.4 Facing

walls are integral with the superstructure and must also be
designed for the superstructure moments which develop Where appropriate, the pier nose should be designed
from live loads and erection conditions. to effectively break up or deflect floating ice or drift. In
these situations, pier life can be extended by facing the
nosing with steel plates or angles, and by facing the pier
7.3.1.3 Bent Piers
with granite.
Bent type piers consist of two or more transversely
spaced columns of various solid cross sections, and these 7.4 TUBULAR PIERS
types are designed for frame action relative to forces act-
ing about the strong axis of the pier. They are usually fixed 7.4.1 Materials
at the base of the pier and are either integral with the su-
perstructure or with a pier cap at the top. The columns Tubular piers of hollow core section may be of steel,
may be supported on a spread- or pile-supported footing, reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete, of such cross
or a solid wall shaft, or they may be extensions of the piles section to support the forces and moments acting on the
or shaft above the ground line. elements.
7.4.2 Configuration
7.3.1.4 Single-Column Piers
Single-column piers, often referred to as “T” or “Ham- The configuration can be as described in Article 7.3.1
merhead” piers, are usually supported at the base by a and, because of their vulnerability to lateral loadings,
spread- or pile-supported footing, and may be either inte- shall be of sufficient wall thickness to sustain the forces
gral with, or provide independent support for, the super- and moments for all loading situations as are appropriate.
structure. Their cross section can be of various shapes and Prismatic configurations may be sectionally precast or
the column can be prismatic or flared to form the pier cap prestressed as erected.
or to blend with the sectional configuration of the super-
structure cross section. This type pier can avoid the com- 7.5 ABUTMENTS
plexities of skewed supports if integrally framed into the
superstructure and their appearance reduces the massive- 7.5.1 Abutment Types
ness often associated with superstructures.
7.5.1.1 Stub Abutment
7.3.2 Pier Protection
Stub abutments are located at or near the top of ap-
7.3.2.1 Collision proach fills, with a backwall depth sufficient to accom-
modate the structure depth and bearings which sit on the
Where the possibility of collision exists from highway bearing seat.
or river traffic, an appropriate risk analysis should be
made to determine the degree of impact resistance to be 7.5.1.2 Partial-Depth Abutment
provided and/or the appropriate protection system.
Partial-depth abutments are located approximately at
7.3.2.2 Collision Walls mid-depth of the front slope of the approach embankment.
The higher backwall and wingwalls may retain fill mate-
Collision walls extending 6 feet above top of rail are rial, or the embankment slope may continue behind the
required between columns for railroad overpasses, and backwall. In the latter case, a structural approach slab or
similar walls extending 2.35 feet above ground should be end span design must bridge the space over the fill slope,
considered for grade separation structures unless other and curtain walls are provided to close off the open area.
protection is provided. Inspection access should be provided for this situation.
7.3.2.3 Scour 7.5.1.3 Full-Depth Abutment
The scour potential must be determined and the de- Full-depth abutments are located at the approximate
sign must be developed to minimize failure from this front toe of the approach embankment, restricting the
condition. opening under the structure.
7.5.1.4 Integral Abutment holes with french drains placed at suitable intervals and
elevations. Silts and clays shall not be used for backfill.
Integral abutments are rigidly attached to the super-
structure and are supported on a spread or deep foundations
capable of permitting necessary horizontal movements. 7.5.3 Integral Abutments
7.5.2 Loading Integral abutments shall be designed to resist the forces

generated by thermal movements of the superstructure
Abutments shall be designed to withstand earth pres- against the pressure of the fill behind the abutment. Integral
sure as specified in Articles 5.5 and 5.6, the weight of the abutments should not be constructed on spread footings
abutment and bridge superstructure, live load on the su- founded or keyed into rock. Movement calculations shall
perstructure or approach fill, wind forces and longitudinal consider temperature, creep, and long-term prestress short-
forces when the bearings are fixed, and longitudinal forces ening in determining potential movements of abutments.
due to friction or shear resistance of bearings. The design Maximum span lengths, design considerations, details
shall be investigated for any combination of these forces should comply with recommendations outlined in FHWA
which may produce the most severe condition of loading. Technical Advisory T 5140.13 (1980) except where sub-
Integral abutments must be designed for forces generated stantial local experience indicates otherwise.
by thermal movements of the superstructure. To avoid water intrusion behind the abutment, the ap-
proach slab should be connected directly to the abutment
7.5.2.1 Stability
(not to wingwalls), and appropriate provisions should be
made to provide for drainage of any entrapped water.
Abutments shall be designed for the loading combina-
tion specified in Article 3.22.
7.5.4 Abutments on Mechanically Stabilized
• Abutments on spread footings shall be designed to Earth Walls
resist overturning (FS $ 2.0) and sliding (FS $ 1.5).
Dead and live loads are assumed uniformly distrib- Design of bridge abutment footings and connecting
uted over the length of the abutment between ex- back wall, shall be based on bridge loading developed by
pansion joints. service load methods and earth pressures on the back wall.
• Allowable foundation pressures and pile capacities Abutment footings shall be proportioned to meet the over-
shall be determined in accordance with Articles 4.4 turning and sliding criteria specified in Article 5.5.5 and
and 4.3. for maximum uniform bearing pressures using an effec-
• The earth pressures exerted by fill in front of the tive width of foundations (B 2 2e). The maximum allow-
abutment shall be neglected. able bearing pressure shall be 4.0 ksf.
• Earthquake loads shall be considered in accordance The mechanically stabilized earth wall below the abut-
with Article 3.21. ment footing shall be designed for the additional loads im-
• The earth pressures exerted by the fill material shall posed by the footing pressure and supplemental earth pres-
be calculated in accordance with Articles 5.5.2 and sures resulting from horizontal loads applied at the bridge
5.6.2.
seat and from the back wall. The footing load is assumed to
• The cross section of stone masonry or plain concrete
be uniformly distributed over the effective width of foun-
abutments shall be proportioned to avoid the intro-
dation (B 2 2e) at the base of the footing and is dispersed
duction of tensile stress in the material.
with depth, using a slope of 2 vertical to 1 horizontal. The
7.5.2.2 Reinforcement for Temperature supplemental loads are applied as horizontal shears along
the bottom of the footing, uniformly diminishing in magni-
Except in gravity abutments, not less than 1⁄8 square inch tude with depth to a point on the face of the wall equal to
of horizontal reinforcement per foot of height shall be pro- a distance of (B 2 2e) multiplied by Tan (45 1 f/2) as
vided near exposed surfaces not otherwise reinforced to re- described in Article 5.8.12.1.
sist the formation of temperature and shrinkage cracks. Horizontal and vertical stresses in abutment reinforced
zones are calculated by superposition as shown in Articles
7.5.2.3 Drainage and Backfilling 5.8.4.1 and 5.8.12.1.
The filling material behind abutments shall be free The effective length used for calculations of internal sta-
draining, nonexpansive soil, and shall be drained by weep bility under the abutment footing shall always be the length
beyond the end of the footing or beyond a distance of zontal distance equal to 50% of the height of the abutment
0.3(H1 ) from the facing, whichever is less, where H1 is the wall.
height of wall plus surcharge. The horizontal forces transmitted to the piles shall be
The minimum distance from the center line of the resisted by the lateral capacity of the pile itself, or the soil
bearing on the abutment to the outer edge of the facing reinforcements in the upper part of the wall designed to
shall be 3.5 feet. The minimum distance between carry the additional loads transmitted from the piles to the
the back face of the panel and the footing shall be 6 reinforced soil backfill. Where interference between the
inches. piles and the soil reinforcement occurs, the reinforce-
The abutment footing should be placed on a bed of comments must be designed around the piles, and the piles
pacted coarse aggregate 3 feet thick when significant frost treated as backfill obstructions (see Article 5.8.12.4). A
penetration is anticipated. clear distance of no less than 0.5 meters (1.5 feet) from the
Abutments shall not be constructed on mechanically back of the wall facing to the edge of the nearest pile or
stabilized embankments if anticipated differential settle- pile casing shall be provided. Piles should be driven prior
ments between abutments or between piers and abutments to wall construction and cased through fill if necessary.
are greater than one-half the limiting differential settle- Lateral loads transmitted from the piles to the rein-
ments as shown in Figure 7.5.4A. This figure should be forced backfill may be determined using a P-Y lateral load
used for general guidance only. Detailed analyses will still analysis technique.
be required to address differential settlement problems.
For structures supporting bridge abutments, the maxi- 7.5.5 Abutments on Modular Systems
mum horizontal force shall be used for connection design Abutments seats constructed on modular units shall be
throughout the height of the structure. designed by considering, in addition to earth pressures, the
The density, length, and cross section of the soil rein- supplemental horizontal pressures from the abutment seat
forcements designed for support of the abutment wall beam and earth pressures on the back wall. The top module
shall be carried on the wing walls for a minimum hori- shall be proportioned to be stable, with the required factor
FIGURE 7.5.4A Limiting Values of Differential Settlement Based on Field Surveys of Simple
and Continuous Span Structures of Various Span Lengths, Moulton, et al. (1985)
of safety, under the combined actions of normal and sup- ments to tie them together. Such bars shall extend into the
plementary earth pressures. Minimum top module width masonry on each side of the joint far enough to develop
shall be 6 feet. The center line of bearing shall be located a the strength of the bar as specified for bar reinforcement,
minimum of 2 feet from the outside face of the top precast and shall vary in length so as to avoid planes of weakness
module. The abutment beam seat shall be supported and in the concrete at their ends. If bars are not used, an ex-
cast integrally to the top module. The front face thickness pansion joint shall be provided and the wingwall shall be
of the top module shall be designed for bending forces de- keyed into the body of the abutment.
veloped by supplemental earth pressures. Abutment beam-
seat loadings shall be carried to foundation level and shall
be considered in the design of footings. Differential settle-
ment restrictions in Article 7.5.4. shall apply. Part C
STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD
7.5.6 Wingwalls LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
7.5.6.1 Length 7.6 GENERAL
Wingwalls shall be of sufficient length to retain the The provisions of Articles 7.1 through 7.5 shall apply
roadway embankment to the required extent and to fur- to the load factor design of abutments with the exception
nish protection against erosion. The wingwall lengths that: (1) Article 7.5.2 on loading shall be replaced by the
shall be computed using the required roadway slopes. articles for loads, earth pressures and water pressures in
Articles 5.13 and 5.14 for retaining walls, and (2) Article
7.5.6.2 Reinforcement 7.5.2.1 shall be replaced by the articles for stability in Ar-
ticles 5.13 and 5.14. Abutments shall be designed to with-
Reinforcing bars or suitable rolled sections shall be stand earth pressures, water pressures and other loads sim-
spaced across the junction between wingwalls and abut- ilar to the design of retaining walls.
Section 8
REINFORCED CONCRETE*
Part A
8.1 APPLICATION Af 5 area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel re-

sisting moment, sq. in. (Articles 8.15.5.8 and
8.1.1 General 8.16.6.8)
Ag 5 gross area of section, sq. in.
The specifications of this section are intended for de- Ah 5 area of shear reinforcement parallel to flex-
sign of reinforced (nonprestressed) concrete bridge mem- ural tension reinforcement, sq. in. (Articles
bers and structures. Bridge members designed as pre- 8.15.5.8 and 8.16.6.8)
stressed concrete shall conform to Section 9. An 5 area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel re-
sisting tensile force Nc (Nuc), sq. in. (Articles
8.1.2 Notations 8.15.5.8 and 8.16.6.8)
As 5 area of tension reinforcement, sq. in.
a 5 depth of equivalent rectangular stress block A9s 5 area of compression reinforcement, sq. in.
(Article 8.16.2.7) Asf 5 area of reinforcement to develop compres-
ab 5 depth of equivalent rectangular stress block sive strength of overhanging flanges of I- and
for balanced strain conditions, in. (Article T-sections (Article 8.16.3.3.2)
8.16.4.2.3) Ask 5 area of skin reinforcement per unit height
av 5 shear span, distance between concentrated in one side face, sq. in. per ft. (Article
load and face of support (Articles 8.15.5.8 8.17.2.1.3).
and 8.16.6.8) Ast 5 total area of longitudinal reinforcement
A 5 effective tension area, in square inches, of (Articles 8.16.4.1.2 and 8.16.4.2.1)
concrete surrounding the flexural tension re- Av 5 area of shear reinforcement within a dis-
inforcement and having the same centroid as tance s
that reinforcement, divided by the number of Avf 5 area of shear-friction reinforcement, sq. in.
bars or wires. When the flexural reinforce- (Article 8.15.5.4.3)
ment consists of several bar or wire sizes, the Aw 5 area of an individual wire to be developed or
number of bars or wires shall be computed as spliced, sq. in. (Articles 8.30.1.2 and
the total area of reinforcement divided by the 8.30.2)
area of the largest bar or wire used. For cal- A1 5 loaded area (Articles 8.15.2.1.3 and 8.16.7.2)
culation purposes, the thickness of clear con- A2 5 maximum area of the portion of the support-
crete cover used to compute A shall not be ing surface that is geometrically similar to
taken greater than 2 inches. and concentric with the loaded area (Articles
Ab 5 area of an individual bar, sq. in. (Article 8.15.2.1.3 and 8.16.7.2)
8.25.1) b 5 width of compression face of member
Ac 5 area of core of spirally reinforced compres- bo 5 perimeter of critical section for slabs and
sion member measured to the outside diame- footings (Articles 8.15.5.6.2 and 8.16.6.6.2)
ter of the spiral, sq. in. (Article 8.18.2.2.2) bv 5 width of cross section at contact surface
Acv 5 area of concrete section resisting shear trans- being investigated for horizontal shear (Arti-
fer, sq. in. (Article 8.16.6.4.5) cle 8.15.5.5.3)
*The specifications of Section 8 are patterned after and are in general conformity with the provisions of ACI Standard 318 for reinforced concrete de-
sign and its commentary, ACI 318 R, published by the American Concrete Institute.
189
bw 5 web width, or diameter of circular section fs 5 tensile stress in reinforcement at service

(Article 8.15.5.1.1) loads, psi (Article 8.15.2.2)
c 5 distance from extreme compression fiber to fs9 5 stress in compression reinforcement at bal-
neutral axis (Article 8.16.2.7) anced conditions (Articles 8.16.3.4.3 and
Cm 5 factor relating the actual moment diagram 8.16.4.2.3)
to an equivalent uniform moment diagram ft 5 extreme fiber tensile stress in concrete at ser-
(Article 8.16.5.2.7) vice loads (Article 8.15.2.1.1)
d 5 distance from extreme compression fiber to fy 5 specified yield strength of reinforcement, psi
centroid of tension reinforcement, in. For h 5 overall thickness of member, in.
computing shear strength of circular sections, hf 5 compression flange thickness of I- and T-
d need not be less than the distance from ex- sections
treme compression fiber to centroid of ten- Icr 5 moment of inertia of cracked section trans-
sion reinforcement in opposite half of mem- formed to concrete (Article 8.13.3)
ber. For computing horizontal shear strength Ie 5 effective moment of inertia for computation
of composite members, d shall be the dis- of deflection (Article 8.13.3)
tance from extreme compression fiber to cen- Ig 5 moment of inertia of gross concrete section
troid of tension reinforcement for entire com- about centroidal axis, neglecting reinforce-
posite section. ment
d9 5 distance from extreme compression fiber to Is 5 moment of inertia of reinforcement about
centroid of compression reinforcement, in. centroidal axis of member cross section
d99 5 distance from centroid of gross section, ne- k 5 effective length factor for compression mem-
bers (Article 8.16.5.2.3)
glecting the reinforcement, to centroid of ten-
,a 5 additional embedment length at support or at
sion reinforcement, in.
point of inflection, in. (Article 8.24.2.3)
db 5 nominal diameter of bar or wire, in.
,d 5 development length, in. (Articles 8.24
dc 5 distance measured from extreme tension
through 8.32)
fiber to center of the closest bar or wire in
,dh 5 development length of standard hook in ten-
inches. For calculation purposes, the thick-
sion, measured from critical section to out-
ness of clear concrete cover used to compute
side end of hook (straight embedment length
dc shall not be taken greater than 2 inches. between critical section and start of hook
Ec 5 modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (Article (point of tangency) plus radius of bend and
8.7.1) one bar diameter), in. (Article 8.29)
EI 5 flexural stiffness of compression member ,dh 5 ,hb 3 applicable modification factor
(Article 8.16.5.2.7) ,hb 5 basic development length of standard hook in
Es 5 modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, psi tension, in.
(Article 8.7.2) ,u 5 unsupported length of compression member
fb 5 average bearing stress in concrete on loaded (Article 8.16.5.2.1)
area (Articles 8.15.2.1.3 and 8.16.7.1) M 5 computed moment capacity (Article 8.24.2.3)
fc 5 extreme fiber compressive stress in concrete Ma 5 maximum moment in member at stage for
at service loads (Article 8.15.2.1.1) which deflection is being computed (Article
fc9 5 specified compressive strength of concrete, 8.13.3)
psi Mb 5 nominal moment strength of a section at bal-
Ïfwc9 5 square root of specified compressive strength anced strain conditions (Article 8.16.4.2.3)
of concrete, psi Mc 5 moment to be used for design of compression
fct 5 average splitting tensile strength of light- member (Article 8.16.5.2.7)
weight aggregate concrete, psi Mcr 5 cracking moment (Article 8.13.3)
ff 5 fatigue stress range in reinforcement, ksi (Ar- Mn 5 nominal moment strength of a section
ticle 8.16.8.3) Mnx 5 nominal moment strength of a section in the
fmin 5 algebraic minimum stress level in reinforce- direction of the x axis (Article 8.16.4.3)
ment (Article 8.16.8.3) Mny 5 nominal moment strength of a section in the
fr 5 modulus of rupture of concrete, psi (Article direction of the y axis (Article 8.16.4.3)
8.15.2.1.1) Mu 5 factored moment at section
Mux 5 factored moment component in the direction Pny 5 nominal axial load strength corresponding to
of the x axis (Article 8.16.4.3) Mny, with bending considered in the direction
Muy 5 factored moment component in the direction of the y axis only (Article 8.16.4.3)
of the y axis (Article 8.16.4.3) Pnxy 5 nominal axial load strength with biaxial load-
M1b 5 value of smaller end moment on compression ing (Article 8.16.4.3)
member due to gravity loads that result in no Pu 5 factored axial load at given eccentricity
appreciable sidesway calculated by conven- r 5 radius of gyration of cross section of a com-
tional elastic frame analysis, positive if mem- pression member (Article 8.16.5.2.2)
ber is bent in single curvature, negative if s 5 spacing of shear reinforcement in direction
bent in double curvature (Article 8.16.5.2.4) parallel to the longitudinal reinforcement, in.
M2b 5 value of larger end moment on compression sw 5 spacing of wires to be developed or spliced,
member due to gravity loads that result in no
in.
appreciable sidesway calculated by conven-
S 5 span length, ft
tional elastic frame analysis, always positive
V 5 design shear force at section (Article
(Article 8.16.5.2.4)
8.15.5.1.1)
M2s 5 value of larger end moment on compression
member due to lateral loads or gravity loads v 5 design shear stress at section (Article
that result in appreciable sidesway, defined 8.15.5.1.1)
by a deflection D, greater than ,u/1500, cal- Vc 5 nominal shear strength provided by concrete
culated by conventional elastic frame analy- (Article 8.16.6.1)
sis, always positive. (Article 8.16.5.2) vc 5 permissible shear stress carried by concrete
n 5 modular ratio of elasticity 5 Es/Ec (Article (Article 8.15.5.2)
8.15.3.4) vdh 5 design horizontal shear stress at any cross
N 5 design axial load normal to cross section oc- section (Article 8.15.5.5.3)
curring simultaneously with V to be taken as vh 5 permissible horizontal shear stress (Article
positive for compression, negative for ten- 8.15.5.5.3)
sion and to include the effects of tension due Vn 5 nominal shear strength (Article 8.16.6.1)
to shrinkage and creep (Articles 8.15.5.2.2 Vnh 5 nominal horizontal shear strength (Article
and 8.15.5.2.3) 8.16.6.5.3)
Nc 5 design tensile force applied at top of bracket Vs 5 nominal shear strength provided by shear re-
of corbel acting simultaneously with V, to be inforcement (Article 8.16.6.1)
taken as positive for tension (Article 8.15.5.8) Vu 5 factored shear force at section (Article
Nu 5 factored axial load normal to the cross sec- 8.16.6.1)
tion occurring simultaneously with Vu to be wc 5 weight of concrete, lb per cu ft
taken as positive for compression, negative yt 5 distance from centroidal axis of gross sec-
for tension, and to include the effects of ten- tion, neglecting reinforcement, to extreme
sion due to shrinkage and creep (Article fiber in tension (Article 8.13.3)
8.16.6.2.2)
z 5 quantity limiting distribution of flexural rein-
Nuc 5 factored tensile force applied at top of
forcement (Article 8.16.8.4)
bracket or corbel acting simultaneously with
a (alpha) 5 angle between inclined shear reinforcement
Vu, to be taken as positive for tension (Arti-
and longitudinal axis of member
cle 8.16.6.8)
Pb 5 nominal axial load strength of a section at bal- af 5 angle between shear-friction reinforcement
anced strain conditions (Article 8.16.4.2.3) and shear plane (Articles 8.15.5.4 and
Pc 5 critical load (Article 8.16.5.2.7) 8.16.6.4)
Po 5 nominal axial load strength of a section at bb (beta) 5 ratio of area of reinforcement cut off to total
zero eccentricity (Article 8.16.4.2.1) area of reinforcement at the section (Article
Pn 5 nominal axial load strength at given eccen- 8.24.1.4.2)
tricity bc 5 ratio of long side to short side of concentrated
Pnx 5 nominal axial load strength corresponding to load or reaction area; for a circular concen-
Mnx, with bending considered in the direction trated load or reaction area, bc 5 1.0 (Articles
of the x axis only (Article 8.16.4.3) 8.15.5.6.3 and 8.16.6.6.2)
bd 5 absolute value of ratio of maximum dead Design load—All applicable loads and forces or their
load moment to maximum total load mo- related internal moments and forces used to proportion
ment, always positive members. For design by SERVICE LOAD DESIGN, de-
b1 5 ratio of depth of equivalent compression sign load refers to loads without load factors. For design
zone to depth from fiber of maximum com- by STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD, design load refers
pressive strain to the neutral axis (Article to loads multiplied by appropriate load factors.
8.16.2.7) Design strength—Nominal strength multiplied by a
l 5 correction factor related to unit weight for strength reduction factor, f.
concrete (Articles 8.15.5.4 and 8.16.6.4) Development length—Length of embedded reinforce-
µ (mu) 5 coefficient of friction (Article 8.15.5.4.3) ment required to develop the design strength of the rein-
r (rho) 5 tension reinforcement ratio 5 As /bwd, As/bd forcement at a critical section.
r9 5 compression reinforcement ratio 5 A9/bd s Embedment length—Length of embedded reinforce-
rb 5 reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain ment provided beyond a critical section.
conditions (Article 8.16.3.1.1) Factored load—Load, multiplied by appropriate load
rs 5 ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to factors, used to proportion members by the STRENGTH
total volume of core (out-to-out of spirals) of DESIGN METHOD.
a spirally reinforced compression member Nominal strength—Strength of a member or cross sec-
(Article 8.18.2.2.2) tion calculated in accordance with provisions and as-
rw 5 reinforcement ratio used in Equation (8-4) sumptions of the STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD be-
and Equation (8-48) fore application of any strength reduction factors.
db 5 moment magnification factor for members Plain reinforcement—Reinforcement that does not
braced against sidesway to reflect effects of conform to the definition of deformed reinforcement.
member curvature between ends of compres- Required strength—Strength of a member or cross sec-
sion member
tion required to resist factored loads or related internal
ds 5 moment magnification factor for members
moments and forces in such combinations as are stipu-
not braced against sidesway to reflect lateral
lated in Article 3.22.
drift resulting from lateral and gravity loads
Service load—Loads without load factors.
f (phi) 5 strength reduction factor (Article 8.16.1.2)
Spiral reinforcement—Continuously wound reinforce-
8.1.3 Definitions ment in the form of a cylindrical helix.
Splitting tensile strength (fct)—Tensile strength of con-
The following terms are defined for general use in crete determined in accordance with “Specifications for
Section 8. Specialized definitions appear in individual Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete,”
Articles. AASHTO M 195 (ASTM C 330).
Stirrups or ties—Lateral reinforcement formed of in-
Bracket or corbel—Short (haunched) cantilever that dividual units, open or closed, or of continuously wound
projects from the face of a column or wall to support a reinforcement. The term “stirrups” is usually applied to
concentrated load or beam reaction. See Articles 8.15.5.8 lateral reinforcement in horizontal members and the term
and 8.16.6.8. “ties” to those in vertical members.
Compressive strength of concrete (fc9)—Specified Tension tie member—Member having an axial tensile
compressive strength of concrete in pounds per square force sufficient to create tension over the entire cross sec-
inch (psi). tion and having limited concrete cover on all sides. Ex-
Concrete, structural lightweight—A concrete contain- amples include: arch ties, hangers carrying load to an
ing lightweight aggregate having an air-dry unit weight as overhead supporting structure, and main tension elements
determined by “Method of Test for Unit Weight of Struc- in a truss.
tural Lightweight Concrete” (ASTM C 567), not exceed- Yield strength or yield point (fy)—Specified minimum
ing 115 pcf. In this specification, a lightweight concrete yield strength or yield point of reinforcement in pounds
without natural sand is termed “all-lightweight concrete” per square inch.
and one in which all fine aggregate consists of normal
weight sand is termed “sand-lightweight concrete.” 8.2 CONCRETE
Deformed reinforcement—Deformed reinforcing bars,
deformed wire, welded smooth wire fabric, and welded The specified compressive strength, fc9, of the con-
deformed wire fabric. crete for each part of the structure shall be shown on
the plans. The requirements for f c9 shall be based on tests of 8.3.3 Designs shall not use a yield strength, fy, in excess
cylinders made and tested in accordance with Section 4— of 60,000 psi.
Division II.
8.3.4 Deformed reinforcement shall be used except that
plain bars or smooth wire may be used for spirals and
8.3 REINFORCEMENT ties.
8.3.1 The yield strength or grade of reinforcement shall
be shown on the plans. 8.3.5 Reinforcement shall conform to the specifica-
tions listed in Division II, Section 5, except that, for
8.3.2 Reinforcement to be welded shall be indicated on reinforcing bars, the yield strength and tensile strength
the plans and the welding procedure to be used shall be shall correspond to that determined by tests on full-sized
specified. bars.
Part B
ANALYSIS
8.4 GENERAL 8.6 STIFFNESS
All members of continuous and rigid frame structures 8.6.1 Any reasonable assumptions may be adopted for
shall be designed for the maximum effects of the loads computing the relative flexural and torsional stiffnesses of
specified in Articles 3.2 through 3.22 as determined by the continuous and rigid frame members. The assumptions
theory of elastic analysis. made shall be consistent throughout the analysis.
8.6.2 The effect of haunches shall be considered both in

determining moments and in design of members.
8.5 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
8.5.1 In general, provisions for temperature changes 8.7 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND
shall be made in simple spans when the span length ex- POISSON’S RATIO
ceeds 40 feet.
8.7.1 The modulus of elasticity, Ec, for concrete may be
8.5.2 In continuous bridges, the design shall provide for c 33 Ïf
taken as w1.5 wc9 in psi for values of wc between 90
thermal stresses or for the accommodation of thermal and 155 pounds per cubic foot. For normal weight con-
movement with rockers, sliding plates, elastomeric pads, crete (wc 5 145 pcf), Ec may be considered as 57,000Ïfw.c9
or other means.
8.7.2 The modulus of elasticity, Es, for nonprestressed
8.5.3 The coefficient of thermal expansion and contrac- steel reinforcement may be taken as 29,000,000 psi.
tion for normal weight concrete may be taken as 0.000006
per deg F. 8.7.3 Poisson’s ratio may be assumed as 0.2.
8.5.4 The coefficient of shrinkage for normal weight 8.8 SPAN LENGTH
concrete may be taken as 0.0002.
8.8.1 The span length of members that are not built in-
8.5.5 Thermal and shrinkage coefficients for light- tegrally with their supports shall be considered the clear
weight concrete shall be determined for the type of light- span plus the depth of the member but need not exceed the
weight aggregate used. distance between centers of supports.
8.8.2 In analysis of continuous and rigid frame mem- TABLE 8.9.2 Recommended Minimum Depths for
bers, distances to the geometric centers of members shall Constant Depth Members
be used in the determination of moments. Moments at
faces of support may be used for member design. When
fillets making an angle of 45° or more with the axis of a
continuous or restrained member are built monolithic with
the member and support, the face of support shall be con-
sidered at a section where the combined depth of the
member and fillet is at least one and one-half times the
thickness of the member. No portion of a fillet shall be
considered as adding to the effective depth.
8.8.3 The effective span length of slabs shall be as spec-

ified in Article 3.24.1.
8.9 CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS

thickness of the slab or one-half the clear distance to the
8.9.1 General next web.
Flexural members of bridge structures shall be de- 8.10.1.2 For girders having a slab on one side only, the
signed to have adequate stiffness to limit deflections or effective overhanging flange width shall not exceed 1⁄ 12 of
any deformations that may adversely affect the strength or the span length of the girder, six times the thickness of the
serviceability of the structure at service load plus impact. slab, or one-half the clear distance to the next web.
8.9.2 Superstructure Depth Limitations 8.10.1.3 Isolated T-girders in which the T-shape is
used to provide a flange for additional compression area
The minimum depths stipulated in Table 8.9.2 are rec- shall have a flange thickness not less than one-half the
ommended unless computation of deflection indicates that width of the girder web and an effective flange width not
lesser depths may be used without adverse effects. more than four times the width of the girder web.
8.9.3 Superstructure Deflection Limitations 8.10.1.4 For integral bent caps, the effective flange
width overhanging each side of the bent cap web shall not
When making deflection computations, the following exceed six times the least slab thickness, or 1⁄ 10 the span
criteria are recommended. length of the bent cap. For cantilevered bent caps, the span
length shall be taken as two times the length of the
8.9.3.1 Members having simple or continuous spans cantilever span.
preferably should be designed so that the deflection due to
service live load plus impact shall not exceed 1⁄800 of the span,
except on bridges in urban areas used in part by pedestrians 8.10.2 Box Girders
whereon the ratio preferably shall not exceed 1⁄1000.
8.10.2.1 The entire slab width shall be assumed
8.9.3.2 The deflection of cantilever arms due to ser- effective for compression.
vice live load plus impact preferably should be limited to
1
⁄300 of the cantilever arm except for the case including 8.10.2.2 For integral bent caps, see Article 8.10.1.4.
pedestrian use, where the ratio preferably should be 1⁄375.
8.10 COMPRESSION FLANGE WIDTH 8.11 SLAB AND WEB THICKNESS
8.10.1 T-Girder 8.11.1 The thickness of deck slabs shall be designed in

accordance with Article 3.24.3 but shall not be less than
8.10.1.1 The total width of slab effective as a T- specified in Article 8.9.
girder flange shall not exceed one-fourth of the span
length of the girder. The effective flange width overhang- 8.11.2 The thickness of the bottom slab of a box girder
ing on each side of the web shall not exceed six times the shall be not less than 1⁄ 16 of the clear span between girder
webs or 5 1⁄ 2 inches, except that the thickness need not be live loading shall be considered uniformly distributed to
greater than the top slab unless required by design. all longitudinal flexural members.
8.11.3 When required by design, changes in girder web 8.13.3 Deflections that occur immediately on applica-
thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12 tion of load shall be computed by the usual methods or
times the difference in web thickness. formulas for elastic deflections. Unless stiffness values
are obtained by a more comprehensive analysis, immedi-
ate deflections shall be computed taking the modulus of
8.12 DIAPHRAGMS elasticity for concrete as specified in Article 8.7 for nor-
mal weight or lightweight concrete and taking the mo-
8.12.1 Diaphragms shall be used at the ends of T-girder ment of inertia as either the gross moment of inertia, Ig, or
and box girder spans unless other means are provided the effective moment of inertia, Ie as follows:
to resist lateral forces and to maintain section geometry.
Diaphragms may be omitted where tests or structural 3 3
M  M 
analysis show adequate strength. I e =  cr  I g +  1 −  cr   I cr ≤ I g (8 -1)
 Ma  
  M a  
8.12.2 In T-girder construction, one intermediate di-
aphragm is recommended at the point of maximum posi- where:
tive moment for spans in excess of 40 feet. Mcr = frIg/yt (8-2)
8.12.3 Straight box girder bridges and curved box girder and fr 5 modulus of rupture of concrete specified in Arti-
bridges with an inside radius of 800 feet or greater do not cle 8.15.2.1.1.
require intermediate diaphragms. For curved box girder For continuous members, effective moment of inertia
bridges having an inside radius less than 800 feet, inter- may be taken as the average of the values obtained from
mediate diaphragms are required unless shown otherwise Equation (8-1) for the critical positive and negative mo-
by tests or structural analysis. For such curved box gird- ment sections. For prismatic members, effective moment
ers, a maximum diaphragm spacing of 40 feet is recom- of inertia may be taken as the value obtained from Equa-
mended to assist in resisting torsion. tion (8-1) at midspan for simple or continuous spans, and
as the value at the support for cantilevers.
8.13 COMPUTATION OF DEFLECTIONS
8.13.4 Unless values are obtained by a more compre-
8.13.1 Computed deflections shall be based on the hensive analysis, the long-time deflection for both normal
cross-sectional properties of the entire superstructure sec- weight and lightweight concrete flexural members shall
tion excluding railings, curbs, sidewalks, or any element be the immediate deflection caused by the sustained load
not placed monolithically with the superstructure section considered, computed in accordance with Article 8.13.3,
before falsework removal. multiplied by one of the following factors:
(a) Where the immediate deflection has been based on

8.13.2 Live load deflection may be based on the as- Ig, the multiplication factor for the long-time deflection
sumption that the superstructure flexural members act to- shall be taken as 4.
gether and have equal deflection. The live loading shall (b) Where the immediate deflection has been based on
consist of all traffic lanes fully loaded, with reduction in Ie, the multiplication factor for the long-time deflection
load intensity allowed as specified in Article 3.12. The shall be taken as 3 2 1.2(A9/A s s) $ 1.6.
Part C
DESIGN
8.14 GENERAL allowable stresses as provided in SERVICE LOAD DE-

SIGN or, alternatively, with reference to load factors and
8.14.1 Design Methods strengths as provided in STRENGTH DESIGN.
8.14.1.1 The design of reinforced concrete members 8.14.1.2 All applicable provisions of this specifica-
shall be made either with reference to service loads and tion shall apply to both methods of design, except Articles
3.5 and 3.17 shall not apply for design by STRENGTH nected elements. Design for horizontal shear shall be in
DESIGN. accordance with the requirements of Article 8.15.5.5 or
Article 8.16.6.5.
8.14.1.3 The strength and serviceability require-
ments of STRENGTH DESIGN may be assumed to be 8.14.3 Concrete Arches
satisfied for design by SERVICE LOAD DESIGN if the
service load stresses are limited to the values given in 8.14.3.1 The combined flexure and axial load
Article 8.15.2. strength of an arch ring shall be in accordance with the
provisions of Articles 8.16.4 and 8.16.5. Slenderness ef-
8.14.2 Composite Flexural Members fects in the vertical plane of an arch ring, other than tied
arches with suspended roadway, may be evaluated by the
8.14.2.1 Composite flexural members consist of pre- approximate procedure of Article 8.16.5.2 with the un-
cast and/or cast-in-place concrete elements constructed in supported length, ,u, taken as one-half the length of the
separate placements but so interconnected that all ele- arch ring, and the radius of gyration, r, taken about an axis
ments respond to superimposed loads as a unit. When con- perpendicular to the plane of the arch at the quarter point
sidered in design, shoring shall not be removed until the of the arch span. Values of the effective length factor, k,
supported elements have developed the design properties given in Table 8.14.3 may be used. In Equation (8-41), Cm
required to support all loads and limit deflections and shall be taken as 1.0 and f shall be taken as 0.85.
cracking.
8.14.3.2 Slenderness effects between points of lateral
8.14.2.2 The entire composite member or portions support and between suspenders in the vertical plane of a
thereof may be used in resisting the shear and moment. tied arch with suspended roadway, shall be evaluated by a
The individual elements shall be investigated for all criti- rational analysis taking into account the requirements of
cal stages of loading and shall be designed to support all Article 8.16.5.1.1.
loads introduced prior to the full development of the de-
sign strength of the composite member. Reinforcement 8.14.3.3 The shape of arch rings shall conform, as
shall be provided as necessary to prevent separation of the nearly as is practicable, to the equilibrium polygon for full
individual elements. dead load.
8.14.2.3 If the specified strength, unit weight, or 8.14.3.4 In arch ribs and barrels, the longitudinal re-
other properties of the various elements are different, the inforcement shall provide a ratio of reinforcement area to
properties of the individual elements, or the most critical gross concrete area at least equal to 0.01, divided equally
values, shall be used in design. between the intrados and the extrados. The longitudinal
reinforcement shall be enclosed by lateral ties in accor-
dance with Article 8.18.2. In arch barrels, upper and lower
8.14.2.4 In calculating the flexural strength of a com-
levels of transverse reinforcement shall be provided that
posite member by strength design, no distinction shall be
are designed for transverse bending due to loads from
made between shored and unshored members.
columns and spandrel walls and for shrinkage and tem-
perature stresses.
8.14.2.5 When an entire member is assumed to resist
the vertical shear, the design shall be in accordance with
8.14.3.5 If transverse expansion joints are not pro-
the requirements of Article 8.15.5 or Article 8.16.6 as for
vided in the deck slab, the effects of the combined action
a monolithically cast member of the same cross-sectional
of the arch rib, columns and deck slab shall be considered.
shape.
Expansion joints shall be provided in spandrel walls.
8.14.2.6 Shear reinforcement shall be fully anchored

into the interconnected elements in accordance with Arti- TABLE 8.14.3 Effective Length Factors, k
cle 8.27. Extended and anchored shear reinforcement may
be included as ties for horizontal shear.
8.14.2.7 The design shall provide for full transfer of

horizontal shear forces at contact surfaces of intercon-
8.14.3.6 Walls exceeding 8 feet in height on filled within the support and having for its upper base the loaded
spandrel arches shall be laterally supported by transverse area, and having side slopes of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal.
diaphragms or counterforts with a slope greater than 45 When the loaded area is subjected to high-edge stresses
degrees with the vertical to reduce transverse stresses in due to deflection or eccentric loading, the allowable bear-
the arch barrel. The top of the arch barrel and interior ing stress on the loaded area, including any increase due
faces of the spandrel walls shall be waterproofed and a to the supporting surface being larger than the loaded area,
drainage system provided for the fill. shall be multiplied by a factor of 0.75.
8.15 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD
(ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN) The tensile stress in the reinforcement, fs, shall not ex-
ceed the following:
8.15.1 General Requirements
Grade 40 reinforcement ...............................20,000 psi
8.15.1.1 Service load stresses shall not exceed the Grade 60 reinforcement ...............................24,000 psi
values given in Article 8.15.2.
In straight reinforcement, the range between the max-
8.15.1.2 Development and splices of reinforcement imum tensile stress and the minimum stress caused by live
shall be as required in Articles 8.24 through 8.32. load plus impact shall not exceed the value given in Arti-
cle 8.16.8.3. Bends in primary reinforcement shall be
8.15.2 Allowable Stresses avoided in regions of high-stress range.
8.15.2.1 Concrete 8.15.3 Flexure
Stresses in concrete shall not exceed the following: 8.15.3.1 For the investigation of stresses at service
loads, the straight-line theory of stress and strain in flex-
8.15.2.1.1 Flexure ure shall be used with the following assumptions.
Extreme fiber stress in compression, fc . . . . . . .0.40f9c 8.15.3.2 The strain in reinforcement and concrete is
Extreme fiber stress in tension for plain directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis,
concrete, ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.21fr except that for deep flexural members with overall depth
to span ratios greater than 2⁄ 5 for continuous spans and 4⁄ 5
Modulus of rupture, fr, from tests, or, if data are not for simple spans, a nonlinear distribution of strain shall be
available: considered.
Normal weight concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5 Ïfwc9 8.15.3.3 In reinforced concrete members, concrete
“Sand-lightweight” concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . .6.3 Ïfwc9 resists no tension.
“All-lightweight” concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5.5 Ïfwc9
8.15.3.4 The modular ratio, n 5 Es/Ec, may be taken
8.15.2.1.2 Shear as the nearest whole number (but not less than 6). Except
For detailed summary of allowable shear stress, vc, see in calculations for deflections, the value of n for light-
Article 8.15.5.2. weight concrete shall be assumed to be the same as for
normal weight concrete of the same strength.
8.15.2.1.3 Bearing Stress
8.15.3.5 In doubly reinforced flexural members, an
The bearing stress, fb, on loaded area shall not exceed effective modular ratio of 2Es/Ec shall be used to trans-
0.30 fc9. form the compression reinforcement for stress computa-
When the supporting surface is wider on all sides tions. The compressive stress in such reinforcement shall
than the loaded area, the allowable bearing stress on the not be greater than the allowable tensile stress.
loaded area may be multiplied by ÏA w2wA
/w1w, but not by
more than 2. 8.15.4 Compression Members
When the supporting surface is sloped or stepped, A2
may be taken as the area of the lower base of the largest The combined flexural and axial load capacity of com-
frustrum of the right pyramid or cone contained wholly pression members shall be taken as 35% of that computed
in accordance with the provisions of Article 8.16.4. Slen- taken as 0.95 Ïfw.
c9 A more detailed calculation of the al-
derness effects shall be included according to the require- lowable shear stress can be made using:
ments of Article 8.16.5. The term Pu in Equation (8-41)
shall be replaced by 2.5 times the design axial load. In Vd 
v c = 0.9 fc′ + 1, 100 ρw  ≤ 1.6 fc′ (8 - 4)
using the provisions of Articles 8.16.4 and 8.16.5, f shall  M
be taken as 1.0.
Note:
8.15.5 Shear
(a) M is the design moment occurring simultaneously
8.15.5.1 Shear Stress with V at the section being considered.
(b) The quantity Vd/M shall not be taken greater than
8.15.5.1.1 Design shear stress, v, shall be computed 1.0.
by:
8.15.5.2.2 Shear in Compression Members
V
v= (8 - 3) For members subject to axial compression, the allow-
bwd
able shear stress carried by the concrete, vc, may be taken
as 0.95 Ïfw.c9 A more detailed calculation can be made
where V is design shear force at section considered, bw is using:

the width of web, and d is the distance from the extreme
 N
compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal ten- v c = 0.91 + 0.0006  fc′ (8 - 5)
sion reinforcement. Whenever applicable, effects of tor-  A g
sion* shall be included.
The quantity N/Ag shall be expressed in pounds per square
8.15.5.1.2 For a circular section, bw shall be the di- inch.
ameter and d need not be less than the distance from the
extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitu- 8.15.5.2.3 Shear in Tension Members
dinal reinforcement in the opposite half of the member.
For members subject to axial tension, shear reinforce-
8.15.5.1.3 For tapered webs, bw shall be the average ment shall be designed to carry total shear, unless a more
width or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is detailed calculation is made using
smaller.
 N
v c = 0.91 + 0.004 fc′ (8 - 6)
8.15.5.1.4 When the reaction, in the direction of the  A g 
applied shear, introduces compression into the end re-
gions of a member, sections located less than a distance d Note:
from the face of support may be designed for the same
shear, V, as that computed at a distance d. An exception (a) N is negative for tension.
occurs when major concentrated loads are imposed be- (b) The quantity N/Ag shall be expressed in pounds
tween that point and the face of support. In that case sec- per square inch.
tions closer than d to the support shall be designed for V
at distance d plus the major concentrated loads.
8.15.5.2.4 Shear in Lightweight Concrete
8.15.5.2 Shear Stress Carried by Concrete The provisions for shear stress, vc, carried by the con-
crete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight
8.15.5.2.1 Shear in Beams and One-Way Slabs and aggregate concretes are used, one of the following modi-
Footings fications shall apply:
For members subject to shear and flexure only, the al-
lowable shear stress carried by the concrete, vc, may be (a) When fct is specified, the shear stress, vc, shall be
modified by substituting fct/6.7 for Ïfw, c9 but the value
of fct/6.7 used shall not exceed Ïfw. 9c
*The design criteria for combined torsion and shear given in “Building Code Re-
quirements for Reinforced Concrete”—American Concrete Institute 318 Bulletin (b) When fct is not specified, the shear stress, vc, shall be
may be used. multiplied by 0.75 for “all-lightweight” concrete, and
0.85 for “sand-lightweight” concrete. Linear interpola- 8.15.5.3.9 The value of (v 2 vc) shall not exceed
tion may be used when partial sand replacement is used. 4 Ïfw.
c9
8.15.5.3 Shear Stress Carried by Shear 8.15.5.3.10 When flexural reinforcement located
Reinforcement within the width of a member used to compute the shear
strength is terminated in a tension zone, shear reinforce-
ment shall be provided in accordance with Article 8.24.1.4.
8.15.5.3.1 Where design shear stress v exceeds shear
stress carried by concrete, vc, shear reinforcement shall 8.15.5.4 Shear Friction
be provided in accordance with this article. Shear rein-
forcement shall also conform to the general requirements 8.15.5.4.1 Provisions for shear-friction are to be ap-
of Article 8.19. plied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer
across a given plane, such as: an existing or potential
crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an in-
8.15.5.3.2 When shear reinforcement perpendicular
terface between two concretes cast at different times.
to the axis of the member is used:
8.15.5.4.2 A crack shall be assumed to occur along
( v − v c )b w s
Av = (8 - 7) the shear plane considered. Required area of shear-fric-
fs tion reinforcement Avf across the shear plane may be de-
signed using either Article 8.15.5.4.3 or any other shear
8.15.5.3.3 When inclined stirrups are used: transfer design method that results in prediction of
strength in substantial agreement with results of com-
( v − v c )b w s prehensive tests. Provisions of Articles 8.15.5.4.4
Av = (8 - 8)
fs (sin α + cos α ) through 8.15.5.4.8 shall apply for all calculations of
shear transfer strength.
8.15.5.3.4 When shear reinforcement consists of a
single bar or a single group of parallel bars all bent up at 8.15.5.4.3 Shear-friction Design Method
the same distance from the support:
(a) When shear-friction reinforcement is perpendicu-
lar to the shear plane, area of shear-friction reinforce-
( v − v c )b w d
Av = (8 - 9) ment Avf shall be computed by:
fs sin α
V
where (v2vc) shall not exceed 1.5 Ïfw.
c9 A vf = (8 -10)
fsm
8.15.5.3.5 When shear reinforcement consists of a
where µ is the coefficient of friction in accordance with
series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent- Article 8.15.5.4.3(c).
up bars at different distances from the support, the re- (b) When shear-friction reinforcement is inclined to
quired area shall be computed by Equation (8-8). the shear plane such that the shear force produces ten-
sion in shear-friction reinforcement, the area of shear-
8.15.5.3.6 Only the center three-fourths of the in- friction reinforcement Avf shall be computed by:
clined portion of any longitudinal bent bar shall be con-
sidered effective for shear reinforcement. V
A vf = (8 -11)
fs (m sin α f + cos α f )
8.15.5.3.7 Where more than one type of shear rein-
forcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the where af is the angle between the shear-friction rein-
member, the required area shall be computed as the sum forcement and the shear plane.
of the values computed for the various types separately. In (c) Coefficient of friction µ in Equations (8-10) and
such computations, vc shall be included only once. (8-11) shall be:
concrete placed monolithically . . . . . . . . . . . .1.4l
8.15.5.3.8 When (v 2 vc) exceeds 2 Ïfwc9 the maxi- concrete placed against hardened concrete with
mum spacings given in Article 8.19 shall be reduced by surface intentionally roughened as specified in
one-half. Article 8.15.5.4.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.0l
concrete placed against hardened concrete not V

intentionally roughened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.6l v dh = (8 -11A)
b vd
concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by
headed studs or by reinforcing bars (see Article where V is the design shear force at the section considered
8.15.5.4.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.7l and d is for the entire composite section. Horizontal shear
where l 5 1.0 for normal weight concrete; 0.85 for vdh shall not exceed permissible horizontal shear vh in ac-
“sand-lightweight” concrete; and 0.75 for “all light- cordance with the following:
weight” concrete. Linear interpolation may be applied
when partial sand replacement is used. (a) When the contact surface is clean, free of laitance,
and intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not
8.15.5.4.4 Shear stress v shall not exceed 0.09fc9 nor exceed 36 psi.
360 psi. (b) When minimum ties are provided in accordance
with Article 8.15.5.5.5, and the contact surface is clean
8.15.5.4.5 Net tension across the shear plane shall be and free of laitance, but not intentionally roughened,
resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net com- shear stress vh shall not exceed 36 psi.
pression across the shear plane may be taken as additive (c) When minimum ties are provided in accordance
to the force in the shear-friction reinforcement Avffs, when with Article 8.15.5.5.5, and the contact surface is clean,
calculating required Avf. free of laitance, and intentionally roughened to a full
magnitude of approximately 1⁄ 4 inch, shear stress vh
8.15.5.4.6 Shear-friction reinforcement shall be ap- shall not exceed 160 psi.
propriately placed along the shear plane and shall be an- (d) For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the
chored to develop the specified yield strength on both contact surface in excess of the minimum required
sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices. by Article 8.15.5.5.5, permissible vh may be increased
by 72fy/40,000 psi.
8.15.5.4.7 For the purpose of Article 8.15.5.4, when 8.15.5.5.4 Horizontal shear may be investigated by
concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete, computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the
the interface for shear transfer shall be clean and free of span, the actual change in compressive or tensile force to
laitance. If µ is assumed equal to 1.0l, the interface shall be transferred, and provisions made to transfer that force
be roughened to a full amplitude of approximately 1⁄ 4 inch. as horizontal shear between interconnected elements.
Horizontal shear shall not exceed the permissible hori-
8.15.5.4.8 When shear is transferred between steel zontal shear stress vh in accordance with Article
beams or girders and concrete using headed studs or 8.15.5.5.3.
welded reinforcing bars, steel shall be clean and free of
paint. 8.15.5.5.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear
(a) When required, a minimum area of tie reinforce-
8.15.5.5 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite ment shall be provided between interconnected ele-
Concrete Flexural Members ments. Tie area shall not be less than 50bvs/fy, and tie
spacing s shall not exceed four times the least web
8.15.5.5.1 In a composite member, full transfer of width of support element, nor 24 inch.
horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces (b) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars
of interconnected elements. or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded
wire fabric (smooth or deformed). All ties shall be ad-
8.15.5.5.2 Design of cross sections subject to hori- equately anchored into interconnected elements by
zontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of embedment or hooks.
Articles 8.15.5.5.3 or 8.15.5.5.4 or any other shear
transfer design method that results in prediction of 8.15.5.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and
strength in substantial agreement with results of compre- Footings
hensive tests.
8.15.5.6.1 Shear capacity of slabs and footings in the
8.15.5.5.3 Design horizontal shear stress vdh at any vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be gov-
cross section may be computed by: erned by the more severe of two conditions:
(a) Beam action for the slab or footing, with a critical Vd 

section extending in a plane across the entire width and v c = fc′ + 2, 200ρ (8 -14)
 M
located at a distance d from the face of the concentrated
load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or but vc shall not exceed 1.8 Ïfw.c9 For single cell box culverts
footing shall be designed in accordance with Articles only, vc for slabs monolithic with walls need not be taken
8.15.5.1 through 8.15.5.3, except at footings supported less than 1.4Ïfw, c9 and vc for slabs simply supported need
on piles, the shear on the critical section shall be de- not be taken less than 1.2Ïfw.c9 The quantity Vd/M shall not
termined in accordance with Article 4.4.11.3. be taken greater than 1.0 where M is the moment occurring
(b) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a crit- simultaneously with V at the section considered. For slabs
ical section perpendicular to the plane of the member of box culverts under less than 2 feet of fill, applicable pro-
and located so that its perimeter bo is a minimum, but visions of Articles 3.24 and 6.4 should be used.
not closer than d/2 to the perimeter of the concentrated
load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or 8.15.5.8 Special Provisions for Brackets and
footing shall be designed in accordance with Articles Corbels*
8.15.5.6.2 and 8.15.5.6.3.
8.15.5.8.1 Provisions of Article 8.15.5.8 shall apply
8.15.5.6.2 Design shear stress, v, shall be computed by: to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio
av/d not greater than unity, and subject to a horizontal ten-
V
v= (8 -12) sile force Nc not larger than V. Distance d shall be mea-
bod sured at the face of support.
where V and bo shall be taken at the critical section de- 8.15.5.8.2 Depth at outside edge of bearing area shall
fined in Article 8.15.5.6.1(b). not be less than 0.5d.
8.15.5.6.3 Design shear stress, v, shall not exceed vc 8.15.5.8.3 The section at the face of support shall be
given by Equation (8-13) unless shear reinforcement is designed to resist simultaneously a shear V, a moment
provided in accordance with Article 8.15.5.6.4. [Vav 1 Nc (h 2 d)], and a horizontal tensile force Nc. Dis-
tance h shall be measured at the face of support.
 2
v c =  0.8 +  fc′ ≤ 1.8 fc′ (8 -13)
 βc  (a) Design of shear-friction reinforcement, Avf, to re-
sist shear, V, shall be in accordance with Article
bc is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated 8.15.5.4. For normal weight concrete, shear stress v
load or reaction area. shall not exceed 0.09fc9 nor 360 psi. For “all light-
weight” or “sand-lightweight” concrete, shear stress v
8.15.5.6.4 Shear reinforcement consisting of bars or shall not exceed (0.0920.03av/d)fc9 nor (3602126av/d)
wires may be used in slabs and footings in accordance psi.
with the following provisions: (b) Reinforcement Af to resist moment [Vav 1 Nc(h 2
d)] shall be computed in accordance with Articles
(a) Shear stresses computed by Equation (8-12) shall 8.15.2 and 8.15.3.
be investigated at the critical section defined in Article (c) Reinforcement An to resist tensile force Nc shall be
8.15.5.6.1(b) and at successive sections more distant computed by An 5 Nc/fs. Tensile force Nc shall not be
from the support. taken less than 0.2V unless special provisions are made
(b) Shear stress vc at any section shall not exceed 0.9 to avoid tensile forces.
Ïfwc9 and v shall not exceed 3Ïfw. (d) Area of primary tension reinforcement, As, shall be
c9
(c) Where v exceeds 0.9 Ïfw, made equal to the greater of (Af1An), or (2Avf/31An).
c9 shear reinforcement
shall be provided in accordance with Article 8.15.5.3.
8.15.5.8.4 Closed stirrups or ties parallel to As, with
a total area Ah not less than 0.5(As2An), shall be uni-
8.15.5.7 Special Provisions for Slabs of Box
Culverts
*These provisions do not apply to beam ledges. The PCA publication,
For slabs of box culverts under 2 feet or more fill, shear “Notes on ACI 318–83,” contains an example design of beam ledges—
stress vc may be computed by: Part 16, example 16-3.
formly distributed within two-thirds of the effective depth the structure in the combinations stipulated in Article
adjacent to As. 3.22. All sections of structures and structural members
shall have design strengths at least equal to the required
8.15.5.8.5 Ratio r 5 As/bd shall not be taken less strength.
than 0.04(fc9/fy).
8.16.1.2 Design Strength
8.15.5.8.6 At the front face of a bracket or corbel,
primary tension reinforcement, As, shall be anchored by
8.16.1.2.1 The design strength provided by a mem-
one of the following:
ber or cross section in terms of load, moment, shear, or
stress shall be the nominal strength calculated in accor-
(a) a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least
dance with the requirements and assumptions of the
equal size; weld to be designed to develop specified
strength-design method, multiplied by a strength-reduc-
yield strength fy of As bars;
tion factor f.*
(b) bending primary tension bars As back to form a
horizontal loop; or
8.16.1.2.2 The strength-reduction factors, f, shall be
(c) some other means of positive anchorage.
as follows:
8.15.5.8.7 Bearing area of load on a bracket or cor-
(a) Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f 5 0.90
bel shall not project beyond the straight portion of primary
(b) Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f 5 0.85
tension bars As, nor project beyond the interior face of a
(c) Axial compression with—
transverse anchor bar (if one is provided).
Spirals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f 5 0.75
Ties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f 5 0.70
(d) Bearing on concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f 5 0.70
The value of f may be increased linearly from the

value for compression members to the value for flexure as
the design axial load strength, fPn, decreases from 0.10fc9
Ag or fPb, whichever is smaller, to zero.
8.16.1.2.3 The development and splice lengths of re-

inforcement specified in Articles 8.24 through 8.32 do not
require a strength-reduction factor.
8.16.2 Design Assumptions
8.16.2.1 The strength design of members for flexure

and axial loads shall be based on the assumptions given in
this article, and on the satisfaction of the applicable con-
ditions of equilibrium of internal stresses and compatibil-
FIGURE 8.15.5.8 ity of strains.
8.16.2.2 The strain in reinforcement and concrete is

8.16 STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
(LOAD FACTOR DESIGN)
8.16.2.3 The maximum usable strain at the extreme
8.16.1 Strength Requirements concrete compression fiber is equal to 0.003.
8.16.1.1 Required Strength

*The coefficient f provides for the possibility that small adverse vari-
ations in material strengths, workmanship, and dimensions, while indi-
The required strength of a section is the strength nec- vidually within acceptable tolerances and limits of good practice, may
essary to resist the factored loads and forces applied to combine to result in understrength.
8.16.2.4 The stress in reinforcement below its speci-   ρfy  

φM n = φ A s fy d 1 − 0.6  (8 -15)
fc′  
fied yield strength, fy, shall be Es times the steel strain. For
 
strains greater than that corresponding to fy, the stress in
a
the reinforcement shall be considered independent of = φ  A s fy  d −   (8 -16)
strain and equal to fy.   2  
8.16.2.5 The tensile strength of the concrete is ne-

where,
glected in flexural calculations.
A s fy
8.16.2.6 The concrete compressive stress/strain dis- a= (8 -17)
0.85 fc′b
tribution may be assumed to be a rectangle, trapezoid,
parabola, or any other shape that results in prediction of 8.16.3.2.2 The balanced reinforcement ratio, rb, is
strength in substantial agreement with the results of com- given by:
prehensive tests.
0.85 β1fc′  87, 000 
8.16.2.7 A compressive stress/strain distribution, ρb =  87, 000 + f  (8-18)
fy  y
which assumes a concrete stress of 0.85 f9c uniformly dis-
tributed over an equivalent compression zone bounded by
the edges of the cross section and a line parallel to the neu- 8.16.3.3 Flanged Sections with Tension
tral axis at a distance a 5 b1c from the fiber of maximum Reinforcement Only
compressive strain, may be considered to satisfy the re-
quirements of Article 8.16.2.6. The distance c from the 8.16.3.3.1 When the compression flange thickness is
fiber of maximum strain to the neutral axis shall be mea- equal to or greater than the depth of the equivalent rec-
sured in a direction perpendicular to that axis. The factor tangular stress block, a, the design moment strength, fMn,
b1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete strengths, fc9, up to may be computed by Equations (8-15) and (8-16).
and including 4,000 psi. For strengths above 4,000 psi, b1
shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.05 for each 8.16.3.3.2 When the compression flange thickness is
1,000 psi of strength in excess of 4,000 psi but b1 shall not less than a, the design moment strength may be computed
be taken less than 0.65. by:
8.16.3 Flexure fMn 5 f[(As2Asf)fy(d2a/2)

1 Asffy (d20.5hf)] (8-19)
8.16.3.1 Maximum Reinforcement of Flexural
Members where,
8.16.3.1.1 The ratio of reinforcement r provided 0.85fc′ ( b − b w )h f

A sf = (8 - 20)
shall not exceed 0.75 of the ratio rb that would produce fy
balanced strain conditions for the section. The portion of
rb balanced by compression reinforcement need not be re- ( A s − A sf )fy
duced by the 0.75 factor. a= (8 - 21)
0.85fc′b w
8.16.3.1.2 Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross

section when the tension reinforcement reaches the strain 8.16.3.3.3 The balanced reinforcement ratio, rb, is
corresponding to its specified yield strength, fy, just as the given by:
concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate
b  0.85β1fc′   87, 000  
strain of 0.003. ρ b =  w      + ρf  (8 - 22)
 b   fy   87, 000 + fy 
 
8.16.3.2 Rectangular Sections with Tension
Reinforcement Only where,
8.16.3.2.1 The design moment strength, fMn, may A sf

ρf = (8 - 23)
be computed by: bwd
8.16.3.3.4 For T-girder and box-girder construction, stress and strain compatibility using assumptions given in
the width of the compression face, b, shall be equal to the Article 8.16.2. The requirements of Article 8.16.3.1 shall
effective slab width as defined in Article 8.10. also be satisfied.
8.16.3.4 Rectangular Sections with Compression 8.16.4 Compression Members

Reinforcement
8.16.4.1 General Requirements
8.16.3.4.1 The design moment strength, fMn, may
be computed as follows: 8.16.4.1.1 The design of members subject to axial
load or to combined flexure and axial load shall be based
If  A s − A s′  ≥ 0.85β  fc′d ′   87, 000  on stress and strain compatibility using the assumptions
 bd  1  
 fy d   87, 000 − fy  given in Article 8.16.2. Slenderness effects shall be in-
(8 - 24) cluded according to the requirements of Article 8.16.5.
then,
8.16.4.1.2 Members subject to compressive axial
load combined with bending shall be designed for the
fMn 5 f[(As 2 A9)f
s y(d 2 a/2) 1 A9f
s y (d 2 d9)]
maximum moment that can accompany the axial load.
(8-25)
The factored axial load, Pu, at a given eccentricity shall
where, not exceed the design axial load strength fPn(max) where:
( A s − A s′ )fy (a) For members with spiral reinforcement conform-

a= (8 - 26) ing to Article 8.18.2.2
0.85 fc′b
Pn(max) 5 0.85[0.85 fc9 (Ag2Ast)1fyAst] (8-29)
8.16.3.4.2 When the value of (As 2 A9)/bd s is less f 5 0.75
than the value required by Equation (8-24), so that the (b) For members with tie reinforcement conforming to
stress in the compression reinforcement is less than the Article 8.18.2.3
yield strength, fy, or when effects of compression rein-
forcement is less than the yield strength, fy, or when ef- Pn(max) 5 0.80[0.85 fc9 (Ag2Ast)1fyAst] (8-30)
fects of compression reinforcement are neglected, the de- f 5 0.70
sign moment strength may be computed by the equations
in Article 8.16.3.2. Alternatively, a general analysis may The maximum factored moment, Mu, shall be magnified
be made based on stress and strain compatibility using the for slenderness effects in accordance with Article 8.16.5.
assumptions given in Article 8.16.2.
8.16.4.2 Compression Member Strengths
8.16.3.4.3 The balanced reinforcement ratio rb for
rectangular sections with compression reinforcement is The following provisions may be used as a guide to de-
given by: fine the range of the load-moment interaction relationship
for members subjected to combined flexure and axial
 0.85β1fc′  87, 000    fs′ 
ρb =     + ρ′   (8 - 27) load.
 fy  87, 000 + fy    fy 
8.16.4.2.1 Pure Compression
where,
The design axial load strength at zero eccentricity, fPo,
 d ′  87, 000 + fy   may be computed by:
fs′ = 87, 000 1 −     ≤ fy (8 - 28)
  d   87, 000  
fPo 5 f[0.85fc9 (Ag 2 Ast) 1 Astfy] (8-31)
8.16.3.5 Other Cross Sections For design, pure compressive strength is a hypothetical
condition since Article 8.16.4.1.2 limits the axial load
For other cross sections the design moment strength, strength of compression members to 85 and 80% of the
fMn, shall be computed by a general analysis based on axial load at zero eccentricity.
8.16.4.2.2 Pure Flexure when the factored axial load,

The assumptions given in Article 8.16.2 or the applic-
Pu $ 0.1 fc9 Ag (8-37)
able equations for flexure given in Article 8.16.3 may be
used to compute the design moment strength, fMn, in
or,
pure flexure.
M ux M uy
8.16.4.2.3 Balanced Strain Conditions + ≤1 (8 - 38)
φM nx φM ny
Balanced strain conditions for a cross section are de-
fined in Article 8.16.3.1.2. For a rectangular section with when the factored axial load,
reinforcement in one face, or located in two faces at ap-
proximately the same distance from the axis of bending, Pu , 0.1 fc9 Ag (8-39)
the balanced load strength, fPb, and balanced moment
strength, fMb, may be computed by: 8.16.4.4 Hollow Rectangular Compression
Members
fPb 5 f[0.85fc9 bab 1 A9f
s 9
s 2 Asfy] (8-32)
8.16.4.4.1 The wall slenderness ratio of a hollow
and, rectangular cross section, Xu/t, is defined in Figure
8.16.4.4.1. Wall slenderness ratios greater than 35.0 are
fMb 5 f[0.85fc9bab(d 2 d99 2 ab/2) not permitted, unless specific analytical and experimental
1 A9f
s 9(d
s 2 d9 2 d99) 1 Asfyd99] evidence is provided justifying such values.
(8-33)
8.16.4.4.2 The equivalent rectangular stress block
where, method shall not be employed in the design of hollow rec-
tangular compression members with a wall slenderness
 87, 000  ratio of 15 or greater.
ab =   β1d (8 - 34)
 87, 000 + fy 
8.16.4.4.3 If the wall slenderness ratio is less than 15,
and, then the maximum usable strain at the extreme concrete
compression fiber is equal to 0.003. If the wall slenderness
 d ′  87, 000 + fy  
fs′ = 87, 000 1 −   
ratio is 15 or greater, then the maximum usable strain at
 ≤ fy (8 - 35)
  d   87, 000   the extreme concrete compression fiber is equal to the
computed local buckling strain of the widest flange of the
cross section, or 0.003, whichever is less.
8.16.4.2.4 Combined Flexure and Axial Load
The strength of a cross section is controlled by tension 8.16.4.4.4 The local buckling strain of the widest
when the nominal axial load strength, Pn, is less than the flange of the cross section may be computed assuming
balanced load strength, Pb, and is controlled by compres- simply supported boundary conditions on all four edges
sion when Pn is greater than Pb. of the flange. Nonlinear material behavior shall be con-
The nominal values of axial load strength, Pn, and mo- sidered by incorporating the tangent material moduli of
ment strength, Mn, must be multiplied by the strength re- the concrete and reinforcing steel in computations of the
duction factor, f, for axial compression as given in Arti- local buckling strain.
cle 8.16.1.2.
8.16.4.4.5 In lieu of the provisions of Articles
8.16.4.3 Biaxial Loading 8.16.4.4.2, 8.16.4.4.3 and 8.16.4.4.4, the following ap-
proximate method may be used to account for the strength
In lieu of a general section analysis based on stress and reduction due to wall slenderness. The maximum usable
strain compatibility, the design strength of noncircular strain at the extreme concrete compression fiber shall be
members subjected to biaxial bending may be computed taken as 0.003 for all wall slenderness ratios up to and in-
by the following approximate expressions: cluding 35.0. A strength reduction factor fw shall be ap-
plied in addition to the usual strength reduction factor, f,
in Article 8.16.1.2. The strength reduction factor fw shall
1 1 1 1
= + − (8 - 36) be taken as 1.0 for all wall slenderness ratios up to and
Pnxy Pnx Pny Po including 15.0. For wall slenderness ratios greater than
FIGURE 8.16.4.4.1 Definition of Wall Slenderness Ratio
15.0 and less than or equal to 25.0, the strength reduction support for the compression member. Where haunches are
factor fw shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.025 present, the unsupported length shall be measured to the
for every unit increase in the wall slenderness ratio above lower extremity of the haunch in the plane considered.
15.0. For wall slenderness ratios greater than 25.0 and less
than or equal to 35.0, the strength reduction factor fw shall 8.16.5.2.2 The radius of gyration, r, may be assumed
be taken as 0.75. equal to 0.30 times the overall dimension in the direction
in which stability is being considered for rectangular com-
8.16.4.4.6 Discontinuous, non-post-tensioned rein- pression members, and 0.25 times the diameter for circu-
forcement in segmentally constructed hollow rectangular lar compression members. For other shapes, r may be
compression members shall be neglected in computations computed for the gross concrete section.
of member strength.
8.16.5.2.3 For compression members braced against
8.16.5 Slenderness Effects in Compression sidesway, the effective length factor, k, shall be taken as 1.0,
Members unless an analysis shows that a lower value may be used. For
compression members not braced against sidesway, k shall
8.16.5.1 General Requirements be determined with due consideration of cracking and rein-
forcement on relative stiffness and shall be greater than 1.0.
8.16.5.1.1 The design of compression members shall
be based on forces and moments determined from an 8.16.5.2.4 For compression members braced against
analysis of the structure. Such an analysis shall include sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be neglected
the influence of axial loads and variable moment of iner- when k,u/r is less than 342(12M1b/M2b).
tia on member stiffness and fixed-end moments, the effect
of deflections on the moments and forces, and the effect 8.16.5.2.5 For compression members not braced
of the duration of the loads. against sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be ne-
glected when k,u/r is less than 22.
8.16.5.1.2 In lieu of the procedure described in Arti-
cle 8.16.5.1.1, slenderness effects of compression mem- 8.16.5.2.6 For all compression members where k,u/r
bers may be evaluated in accordance with the approxi- is greater than 100, an analysis as defined in Article
mate procedure in Article 8.16.5.2. 8.16.5.1 shall be made.
8.16.5.2 Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness 8.16.5.2.7 Compression members shall be designed

Effects using the factored axial load Pu, derived from a conven-
tional elastic analysis and a magnified factored moment,
8.16.5.2.1 The unsupported length, ,u, of a compres- Mc, defined by
sion member shall be the clear distance between slabs,
girders, or other members capable of providing lateral Mc 5 dbM2b 1 dsM2s (8-40)
where (a) When the computed end eccentricities are less than
(0.6 1 0.03h) inches, the computed end moments may
Cm be used to evaluate M1b/M2b in Equation (8-45).
δb = ≥ 1.0 (8 - 41) (b) If computations show that there is essentially no
P
1− u moment at either end of the member, the ratio M1b/M2b
φPc
shall be equal to one.
1
δs = ≥ 1.0 (8 - 41A)
∑ Pu 8.16.5.2.9 In structures that are not braced against
1−
φ ∑ Pc sidesway, the flexural members framing into the com-
pression member shall be designed for the total magnified
and end moments of the compression member at the joint.
8.16.5.2.10 When compression members are subject

π 2 EI
Pc = (8 - 42) to bending about both principal axes, the moment about
( kl u ) 2 each axis shall be magnified by d, computed from the cor-
responding conditions of restraint about that axis.
For members braced against sidesway, ds shall be taken as
1.0. For members not braced against sidesway, db shall be 8.16.5.2.11 When a group of compression members
evaluated as for a braced member and ds for an unbraced on one level comprise a bent, or when they are connected
member. integrally to the same superstructure, and collectively re-
In lieu of a more precise calculation, EI may be taken sist the sidesway of the structure, the value of ds shall be
either as computed for the member group with SPu and SPc equal
to the summations for all columns in the group.
EcIg
+ EsIs 8.16.6 Shear
EI = 5 (8 - 43)
1 + βd 8.16.6.1 Shear Strength
or conservatively as 8.16.6.1.1 Design of cross sections subject to shear

shall be based on
EcIg
Vu # fVn (8-46)
EI = 2.5 (8 - 44)
1 + βd where Vu is the factored shear force at the section consid-
ered and Vn is the nominal shear strength computed by,
where bd is the ratio of maximum dead load moment to
maximum total load moment and is always positive. For Vn 5 Vc 1 Vs (8-47)
members braced against sidesway and without transverse
loads between supports, Cm may be taken as where Vc is the nominal shear strength provided by the
concrete in accordance with Article 8.16.6.2, and Vs is the
Cm 5 0.6 1 0.4 (M1b/M2b) (8-45) nominal shear strength provided by the shear reinforce-
ment in accordance with Article 8.16.6.3. Whenever ap-
plicable, effects of torsion* shall be included.
but not less than 0.4.
For all other cases, Cm shall be taken as 1.0.
8.16.6.1.2 When the reaction, in the direction of ap-
plied shear, introduces compression into the end regions
8.16.5.2.8 If computations show that there is no mo- of a member, sections located less than a distance d from
ment at either end of a compression member braced or un- the face of support may be designed for the same shear,
braced against sidesway or that computed end eccentrici- Vu, as that computed at a distance d. An exception occurs
ties are less than (0.6 1 0.03h) inches, M2b and M2s in when major concentrated loads are imposed between that
Equation (8-40) shall be based on a minimum eccentric- point and the face of support. In that case, sections closer
ity of (0.6 1 0.03h) inches about each principal axis sep-
arately. The ratio M1b/M2b in Equation (8-45) shall be de- *The design criteria for combined torsion and shear given in “Build-
termined by either of the following: ing Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete” ACI 318 may be used.
than d to the support shall be designed for V at a distance

 Nu 
d plus the major concentrated loads. v c = 21 + fc′ ( b w d ) (8 - 52)
 500 A g 
8.16.6.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete
Note:
8.16.6.2.1 Shear in Beams and One-Way Slabs and (a) Nu is negative for tension.
Footings (b) The quantity Nu/Ag shall be expressed in pounds
per square inch.
For members subject to shear and flexure only, Vc shall
be computed by,
8.16.6.2.4 Shear in Lightweight Concrete
 V d The provisions for shear stress, vc, carried by the con-
Vc = 1.9 fc′ + 2, 500 ρw u  b w d (8 - 48)
 Mu  crete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight
aggregate concretes are used, one of the following modi-
or, fications shall apply:
Vc 5 2 Ïfwb
c9 wd (8-49) (a) When fct is specified, the shear strength, Vc, shall
be modified by substituting fct/6.7 for Ïfw, c9 but the
where bw is the width of web and d is the distance from the value of fct/6.7 used shall not exceed Ïfw.c9
extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitu- (b) When fct is not specified, Vc shall be multiplied by
dinal tension reinforcement. Whenever applicable, effects 0.75 for “all lightweight” concrete, and 0.85 for “sand-
of torsion shall be included. For a circular section, bw shall lightweight” concrete. Linear interpolation may be
be the diameter and d need not be less than the distance used when partial sand replacement is used.
from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the
longitudinal reinforcement in the opposite half of the 8.16.6.3 Shear Strength Provided by Shear
member. For tapered webs, bw shall be the average width Reinforcement
or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is smaller.
8.16.6.3.1 Where factored shear force Vu exceeds
Note: shear strength fVc, shear reinforcement shall be provided
(a) Vc shall not exceed 3.5 Ïfwc9 bwd when using more to satisfy Equations (8-46) and (8-47), but not less than
detailed calculations. that required by Article 8.19. Shear strength Vs shall be
(b) The quantity Vud/Mu shall not be greater than 1.0 computed in accordance with Articles 8.16.6.3.2 through
where Mu is the factored moment occurring simultane- 8.16.6.3.10.
ously with Vu at the section being considered.
8.16.6.3.2 When shear reinforcement perpendicular
8.16.6.2.2 Shear in Compression Members
to the axis of the member is used:
For members subject to axial compression, Vc may be
computed by: A v fy d
Vs = (8 − 53)
 Nu  s
Vc = 21 +  fc′ ( b w d ) (8 - 50)
 2, 000 A g 
where Av is the area of shear reinforcement within a
or, distance s.
Vc 5 2 Ïfwb
c9 wd (8-51) 8.16.6.3.3 When inclined stirrups are used:
Note: A v fy (sin α + cos α )d

The quantity Nu/Ag shall be expressed in pounds per Vs = (8 - 54)
s
square inch.
8.16.6.3.4 When a single bar or a single group of par-
8.16.6.2.3 Shear in Tension Members
allel bars all bent up at the same distance from the support
For members subject to axial tension, shear reinforce- is used:
ment shall be designed to carry total shear, unless a more
detailed calculation is made using: Vs 5 Avfy sin a # 3 Ïfwb
c9 wd (8-55)
8.16.6.3.5 When shear reinforcement consists of a Vn 5 Avffyµ (8-56)

series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-
up bars at different distances from the support, shear where µ is the coefficient of friction in accordance with
strength Vs shall be computed by Equation (8-54). Article (c).
(b) When the shear-friction reinforcement is inclined
8.16.6.3.6 Only the center three-fourths of the in- to the shear plane, such that the shear force produces
clined portion of any longitudinal bent bar shall be con- tension in shear-friction reinforcement, shear strength
sidered effective for shear reinforcement. Vn shall be computed by:
8.16.6.3.7 Where more than one type of shear rein- Vn 5 Avffy (µ sin af 1 cos af) (8-56A)
forcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the
member, shear strength Vs shall be computed as the sum where af is the angle between the shear-friction rein-
of the Vs values computed for the various types. forcement and the shear plane.
(c) Coefficient of friction µ in Equations (8-56) and
8.16.6.3.8 When shear strength Vs exceeds 4 Ïfwc9 (8-56A) shall be:
bwd, spacing of shear reinforcement shall not exceed one-
half the maximum spacing given in Article 8.19.3. Concrete placed monolithically . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.4l
Concrete placed against hardened concrete with
8.16.6.3.9 Shear strength Vs shall not be taken surface intentionally roughened as specified in Ar-
greater than 8 Ïfwc9 bwd. ticle 8.16.6.4.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.0l
Concrete placed against hardened concrete not in-
8.16.6.3.10 When flexural reinforcement, located tentionally roughened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.6l
within the width of a member used to compute the shear Concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by
strength, is terminated in a tension zone, shear reinforce- headed studs or by reinforcing bars (see Article
ment shall be provided in accordance with Article 8.24.1.4. 8.16.6.4.9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.7l
8.16.6.4 Shear Friction where l 5 1.0 for normal weight concrete; 0.85 for
“sand lightweight” concrete; and 0.75 for “all light-
8.16.6.4.1 Provisions for shear-friction are to be ap- weight” concrete. Linear interpolation may be applied
plied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer when partial sand replacement is used.
across a given plane, such as: an existing or potential
crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an in-
8.16.6.4.5 Shear strength Vn shall not be taken
terface between two concretes cast at different times.
greater than 0.2fc9 Acv nor 800 Acv in pounds, where Acv is
8.16.6.4.2 Design of cross sections subject to shear the area of the concrete section resisting shear transfer.
transfer as described in Article 8.16.6.4.1 shall be based
on Equation (8-46), where shear strength Vn is calculated 8.16.6.4.6 Net tension across the shear plane shall be
in accordance with provisions of Article 8.16.6.4.3 or resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net com-
8.16.6.4.4. pression across the shear plane may be taken as additive
to the force in the shear-friction reinforcement, Avffy,
8.16.6.4.3 A crack shall be assumed to occur along when calculating required Avf.
the shear plane considered. Required area of shear-friction
reinforcement Avf across the shear plane may be designed 8.16.6.4.7 Shear-friction reinforcement shall be ap-
using either Article 8.16.6.4.4 or any other shear transfer propriately placed along the shear plane and shall be an-
design methods that result in prediction of strength in sub- chored to develop the specified yield strength on both
stantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests. sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.
Provisions of Articles 8.16.6.4.5 through 8.16.6.4.9 shall
apply for all calculations of shear transfer strength. 8.16.6.4.8 For the purpose of Article 8.16.6.4, when
concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete,
8.16.6.4.4 Shear-Friction Design Method the interface for shear transfer shall be clean and free
(a) When the shear-friction reinforcement is perpen- of laitance. If µ is assumed equal to 1.0l, the interface
dicular to the shear plane, shear strength, Vn, shall be shall be roughened to a full amplitude of approximately
1
computed by: ⁄4 inch.
8.16.6.4.9 When shear is transferred between as- tal shear strength fVnh in accordance with Article
rolled steel and concrete using headed studs or welded re- 8.16.6.5.3, except that the length of the segment consid-
inforcing bars, steel shall be clean and free of paint. ered shall be substituted for d.
8.16.6.5 Horizontal Shear Strength for

8.16.6.5.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear
Composite Concrete Flexural Members
8.16.6.5.1 In a composite member, full transfer of ment shall be provided between interconnected ele-
horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces ments. Tie area shall not be less than 50bvs/fy, and tie
of interconnected elements. spacing, s, shall not exceed four times the least web
width of the support element, nor 24 inches.
8.16.6.5.2 Design of cross sections subject to hori- (b) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars
zontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded
Article 8.16.6.5.3 or 8.16.6.5.4, or any other shear trans- wire fabric. All ties shall be adequately anchored into
fer design method that results in prediction of strength interconnected elements by embedment or hooks.
in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive
tests.
8.16.6.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and
Footings
8.16.6.5.3 Design of cross sections subject to hori-
zontal shear may be based on: 8.16.6.6.1 Shear strength of slabs and footings in the
vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be gov-
Vu # fVnh (8-57)
erned by the more severe of two conditions:
where Vu is the factored shear force at the section consid-
ered, Vnh is the nominal horizontal shear strength in ac- (a) Beam action for the slab or footing, with a critical
cordance with the following, and where d is for the entire section extending in a plane across the entire width and
composite section. located at a distance d from the face of the concentrated
load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or
(a) When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and footing shall be designed in accordance with Articles
intentionally roughened, shear strength Vnh shall not be 8.16.6.1 through 8.16.6.3 except at footings supported
taken greater than 80bvd, in pounds. on piles, the shear on the critical section shall be de-
(b) When minimum ties are provided in accordance termined in accordance with Article 4.4.11.3.
with Article 8.16.6.5.5, and contact surface is clean and (b) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a
free of laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear critical section perpendicular to the plane of the mem-
strength Vnh shall not be taken greater than 80 bvd, in ber and located so that its perimeter bo is a minimum,
pounds. but need not approach closer than d/2 to the perimeter
(c) When minimum ties are provided in accordance of the concentrated load or reaction area. For this con-
with Article 8.16.6.5.5, and contract surface is clean, dition, the slab or footing shall be designed in accor-
free of laitance, and intentionally roughened to a full dance with Articles 8.16.6.6.2 and 8.16.6.6.3.
amplitude of approximately 1⁄ 4 inch, shear strength Vnh
shall not be taken greater than 350bvd, in pounds. 8.16.6.6.2 Design of slab or footing for two-way
(d) For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the action shall be based on Equation (8-46), where shear
contact surface in excess of the minimum required by strength Vn shall not be taken greater than shear strength
Article 8.16.6.5.5, shear strength Vnh may be increased Vc given by Equation (8-58), unless shear reinforcement
by (160fy/40,000)bvd, in pounds. is provided in accordance with Article 8.16.6.6.3.
8.16.6.5.4 Horizontal shear may be investigated by  4

Vc =  2 +  fc′ b o d ≤ 4 fc′ b o d (8 - 58)
computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the  βc 
span, the change in compressive or tensile force to be
transferred, and provisions made to transfer that force as bc is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated
horizontal shear between interconnected elements. The load or reaction area, and bo is the perimeter of the criti-
factored horizontal shear force shall not exceed horizon- cal section defined in Article 8.16.6.6.1(b).
8.16.6.6.3 Shear reinforcement consisting of bars or 8.16.6.8.2 Depth at the outside edge of bearing area
wires may be used in slabs and footings in accordance shall not be less than 0.5d.
with the following provisions:
8.16.6.8.3 The section at the face of the support shall
(a) Shear strength Vn shall be computed by Equation be designed to resist simultaneously a shear Vu, a moment
(8-47), where shear strength Vc shall be in accordance (Vuav 1 Nuc (h 2 d)), and a horizontal tensile force Nuc.
with paragraph (d) and shear strength Vs shall be in ac- Distance h shall be measured at the face of support.
cordance with paragraph (e).
(b) Shear strength shall be investigated at the critical (a) In all design calculations in accordance with Arti-
section defined in Article 8.16.6.6.1(b), and at succes- cle 8.16.6.8, the strength reduction factor f shall be
sive sections more distant from the support. taken equal to 0.85.
(c) Shear strength Vn shall not be taken greater than 6 (b) Design of shear-friction reinforcement Avf to resist
Ïfwbc9 od, where bo is the perimeter of the critical section shear Vu shall be in accordance with Article 8.16.6.4.
defined in paragraph (b). For normal weight concrete, shear strength Vn shall not
(d) Shear strength Vc at any section shall not be taken be taken greater than 0.2fc9bwd nor 800bwd in pounds.
greater than 2 Ïfwbc9 od, where bo is the perimeter of the For “all lightweight” or “sand-lightweight” concrete,
critical section defined in paragraph (b). shear strength Vn shall not be taken greater than (0.2 2
(e) Where the factored shear force Vu exceeds the shear 0.07av/d)fc9bwd nor (800 2 280av/d)bwd in pounds.
strength fVc as given in paragraph (d), the required area (c) Reinforcement Af to resist moment (Vuav 1
Av and shear strength Vs of shear reinforcement shall be Nuc (h 2 d)) shall be computed in accordance with Ar-
calculated in accordance with Article 8.16.6.3. ticles 8.16.2 and 8.16.3.
(d) Reinforcement An to resist tensile force Nuc shall
8.16.6.7 Special Provisions for Slabs of Box be determined from Nuc # fAnfy. Tensile force Nuc
Culverts shall not be taken less than 0.2Vu unless special provi-
sions are made to avoid tensile forces. Tensile force Nuc
8.16.6.7.1 For slabs of box culverts under 2 feet or shall be regarded as a live load even when tension re-
more fill, shear strength Vc may be computed by: sults from creep, shrinkage, or temperature change.
(e) Area of primary tension reinforcement As shall be
 V d made equal to the greater of (Af 1 An) or:
Vc =  2.14 fc′ + 4, 600 ρ u  bd (8 - 59)
 Mu 
2 A vf
+ An .
but Vc shall not exceed 4 Ïfwc9 bd. For single cell box cul- 3
verts only, Vc for slabs monolithic with walls need not be
taken less than 3 Ïfwc9 bd, and Vc for slabs simply sup-
ported need not be taken less than 2.5 Ïfwc9 bd. The quan-
tity Vud/Mu shall not be taken greater than 1.0 where Mu
is the factored moment occurring simultaneously with Vu
at the section considered. For slabs of box culverts under
less than 2 feet of fill, applicable provisions of Articles
3.24 and 6.4 should be used.
8.16.6.8 Special Provisions for Brackets and

Corbels*
8.16.6.8.1 Provisions of Article 8.16.6.8 shall apply

to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio
av/d not greater than unity, and subject to a horizontal ten-
sile force Nuc not larger than Vu. Distance d shall be mea-
sured at the face of support.
*These provisions do not apply to beam ledges. The PCA publication,

“Notes on ACI 318-83” contains an example design of beam ledges—
Part 16, example 16-3. FIGURE 8.16.6.8
8.16.6.8.4 Closed stirrups or ties parallel to As, with at service load shall be limited to satisfy the requirements
a total area Ah not less than 0.5(As 2 An), shall be uni- for fatigue in Article 8.16.8.3, and for distribution of rein-
formly distributed within two-thirds of the effective depth forcement in Article 8.16.8.4. The requirements for con-
adjacent to As. trol of deflections in Article 8.9 shall also be satisfied.
8.16.6.8.5 Ratio r 5 As/bd shall not be less than 8.16.8.2 Service Load Stresses
0.04(fc9/fy).
For investigation of stresses at service loads to satisfy
8.16.6.8.6 At front face of bracket or corbel, primary the requirements of Articles 8.16.8.3 and 8.16.8.4, the
tension reinforcement As shall be anchored by one of the straight-line theory of stress and strain in flexure shall be
following: used and the assumptions given in Article 8.15.3 shall
apply.
(a) a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least
equal size; weld to be designed to develop specified 8.16.8.3 Fatigue Stress Limits
yield strength fy of As bars,
(b) bending primary tension bars As back to form a The range between a maximum tensile stress and min-
horizontal loop, or imum stress in straight reinforcement caused by live load
(c) some other means of positive anchorage. plus impact at service load shall not exceed:
8.16.6.8.7 Bearing area of load on bracket or corbel ff 5 21 2 0.33fmin 1 8(r/h) (8-60)

shall not project beyond straight portion of primary ten-
sion bars As, nor project beyond interior face of transverse where:
anchor bar (if one is provided).
ff 5 stress range in kips per square inch;
8.16.7 Bearing Strength fmin 5 algebraic minimum stress level, tension positive,
compression negative in kips per square inch;
8.16.7.1 The bearing stress, fb, on concrete shall not
exceed 0.85f fc9 except as provided in Articles 8.16.7.2, r/h 5 ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on trans-
8.16.7.3, and 8.16.7.4. verse deformations; when the actual value is not
known, use 0.3.
8.16.7.2 When the supporting surface is wider on all Bends in primary reinforcement shall be avoided in re-
sides than the loaded area, the allowable bearing stress on gions of high stress range.
the loaded area may be multiplied by ÏA wwA
2/w1
w, but not by Fatigue stress limits need not be considered for con-
more than 2. crete deck slabs with primary reinforcement perpendicu-
lar to traffic and designed in accordance with the approx-
8.16.7.3 When the supporting surface is sloped or imate methods given under Article 3.24.3, Case A.
stepped, A2 may be taken as the area of the lower base of Fatigue stress limits for welded splices and mechani-
the largest frustum of a right pyramid or cone contained cal connections that are subjected to repetitive loads shall
wholly within the support and having for its upper base conform with the requirements of Article 8.32.2.5.
the loaded area, and having side slopes of 1 vertical to 2
horizontal. 8.16.8.4 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement
8.16.7.4 When the loaded area is subjected to To control flexural cracking of the concrete, tension rein-
high edge stresses due to deflection or eccentric loading, forcement shall be well distributed within maximum flexural
the allowable bearing stress on the loaded area, including zones. When the design yield strength, fy, for tension rein-
any increase due to the supporting surface being larger forcement exceeds 40,000 psi, the bar sizes and spacing at
than the loaded area, shall be multiplied by a factor maximum positive and negative moment sections shall be
of 0.75. chosen so that the calculated stress in the reinforcement at
service load fs, in ksi does not exceed the value computed by:
8.16.8 Serviceability Requirements
z
fs = ≤ 0.6 fy (8 - 61)
8.16.8.1 Application (d c A )1 / 3
For flexural members designed with reference to load

factors and strengths by Strength Design Method, stresses where:
A 5 effective tension area, in square inches, of con- calculation purposes, the thickness of clear con-
crete surrounding the flexural tension reinforce- crete cover used to compute dc shall not be taken
ment and having the same centroid as that re- greater than 2 inches.
inforcement, divided by the number of bars or
wires. When the flexural reinforcement con- The quantity z in Equation (8-61) shall not exceed
sists of several bar or wire sizes, the number 170 kips per inch for members in moderate exposure
of bars or wires shall be computed as the total conditions and 130 kips per inch for members in severe
area of reinforcement divided by the area of the exposure conditions. Where members are exposed
largest bar or wire used. For calculation pur- to very aggressive exposure or corrosive environments,
poses, the thickness of clear concrete cover such as deicer chemicals, protection should be provided
used to compute A shall not be taken greater by increasing the denseness or imperviousness to
than 2 in. water or furnishing other protection such as a waterproof-
dc 5 distance measured from extreme tension fiber to ing protecting system, in addition to satisfying Equa-
center of the closest bar or wire in inches. For tion (8-61).
Part D
REINFORCEMENT
8.17 REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL not less than 0.4% of the excess slab area shall be pro-
MEMBERS vided in the excess portions of the slab.
8.17.1 Minimum Reinforcement 8.17.2.1.2 For integral bent caps of T-girder and box-
girder construction, tension reinforcement shall be placed
8.17.1.1 At any section of a flexural member where within a width not to exceed the web width plus an over-
tension reinforcement is required by analysis, the rein- hanging slab width on each side of the bent cap web equal
forcement provided shall be adequate to develop a mo- to one-fourth the average spacing of the intersecting
ment at least 1.2 times the cracking moment calculated on girder webs or a width as defined in Article 8.10.1.4 for
the basis of the modulus of rupture for normal weight con- integral bent caps, whichever is smaller.
crete specified in Article 8.15.2.1.1.
8.17.2.1.3 If the depth of the side face of a member
fMn $ 1.2 Mcr (8-62) exceeds 3 feet, longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be
uniformly distributed along both side faces of the member
8.17.1.2 The requirements of Article 8.17.1.1 may be for a distance d/2 nearest the flexural tension reinforce-
waived if the area of reinforcement provided at a section ment. The area of skin reinforcement Ask per foot of height
is at least one-third greater than that required by analysis on each side face shall be $ 0.012 (d 2 30). The maxi-
based on the loading combinations specified in Article 3.22.
mum spacing of skin reinforcement shall not exceed the
8.17.2 Distribution of Reinforcement lesser of d/6 and 12 inches. Such reinforcement may be
included in strength computations if a strain compatibil-
8.17.2.1 Flexural Tension Reinforcement in ity analysis is made to determine stresses in the individual
Zones of Maximum Tension bars or wires. The total area of longitudinal skin rein-
forcement in both faces need not exceed one-half of the
8.17.2.1.1 Where flanges of T-girders and box-gird- required flexural tensile reinforcement.
ers are in tension, tension reinforcement shall be distrib-
uted over an effective tension flange width equal to one- 8.17.2.2 Transverse Deck Slab Reinforcement in
tenth the girder span length or a width as defined in Article T-Girders and Box Girders
8.10.1, whichever is smaller. If the actual slab width, cen-
ter-to-center of girder webs, exceeds the effective tension At least one-third of the bottom layer of the transverse
flange width, and for excess portions of the deck slab reinforcement in the deck slab shall extend to the exterior
overhang, additional longitudinal reinforcement with area face of the outside girder web in each group and be an-
chored by a standard 90° hook. If the slab extends beyond designed and detailed to provide adequate strength and
the last girder web, such reinforcement shall extend into ductility to resist expected seismic movements.
the slab overhang and shall have an anchorage beyond the
exterior face of the girder web not less than that provided 8.17.4 Reinforcement for Hollow Rectangular
by a standard hook. Compression Members
8.17.2.3 Bottom Slab Reinforcement for Box 8.17.4.1 The area of longitudinal reinforcement in
Girders the cross section shall not be less than 0.01 times the gross
area of concrete in the cross section.
8.17.2.3.1 Minimum distributed reinforcement of
0.4% of the flange area shall be placed in the bottom slab 8.17.4.2 Two layers of reinforcement shall be pro-
parallel to the girder span. A single layer of reinforcement vided in each wall of the cross section, one layer near each
may be provided. The spacing of such reinforcement shall face of the wall. The areas of reinforcement in the two lay-
ers shall be approximately equal.
not exceed 18 inches.
8.17.4.3 The center-to-center lateral spacing of lon-
8.17.2.3.2 Minimum distributed reinforcement of
gitudinal reinforcing bars shall be no greater than 1.5
0.5% of the cross-sectional area of the slab, based on the
times the wall thickness, or 18 inches, whichever is less.
least slab thickness, shall be placed in the bottom slab trans-
verse to the girder span. Such reinforcement shall be dis- 8.17.4.4 The center-to-center longitudinal spacing of
tributed over both surfaces with a maximum spacing of 18 lateral reinforcing bars shall be no greater than 1.25 times
inches. All transverse reinforcement in the bottom slab shall the wall thickness, or 12 inches, whichever is less.
extend to the exterior face of the outside girder web in each
group and be anchored by a standard 90° hook. 8.17.4.5 Cross ties shall be provided between lay-
ers of reinforcement in each wall. The cross ties shall in-
8.17.3 Lateral Reinforcement of Flexural Members clude a standard 135° hook at one end, and a standard
90° hook at the other end. Cross ties shall be located at
8.17.3.1 Compression reinforcement used to in- bar grid intersections, and the hooks of all ties shall en-
crease the strength of flexural members shall be enclosed close both lateral and longitudinal bars at the intersec-
by ties or stirrups which shall be at least No. 3 in size for tions. Each longitudinal reinforcing bar and each lateral
longitudinal bars that are No. 10 or smaller, and at least reinforcing bar shall be enclosed by the hook of a cross
No. 4 in size for No. 11, No. 14, No. 18, and bundled lon- tie at a spacing not to exceed 24 inches.
gitudinal bars. Welded wire fabric of equivalent area may
be used instead of bars. The spacing of ties shall not ex- 8.17.4.6 For segmentally constructed members, ad-
ceed 16 longitudinal bar diameters. Such stirrups or ties ditional cross ties shall be provided along the top and
bottom edges of each segment. The cross ties shall be
shall be provided throughout the distance where the com-
placed so as to link the ends of each pair of internal and
pression reinforcement is required. This paragraph does
external longitudinal reinforcing bars in the walls of the
not apply to reinforcement located in a compression zone
cross section.
which has not been considered as compression reinforce-
ment in the design of the member. 8.17.4.7 Lateral reinforcing bars may be joined at the
corners of the cross section by overlapping 90° bends.
8.17.3.2 Torsion reinforcement, where required, shall Straight lap splices of lateral reinforcing bars are not per-
consist of closed stirrups, closed ties, or spirals, combined mitted unless the overlapping bars are enclosed over the
with longitudinal bars. See Article 8.15.5.1.1 or 8.16.6.1.1. length of the splice by the hooks of at least four cross ties
located at intersections of the lateral bars and longitudinal
8.17.3.3 Closed stirrups or ties may be formed in one bars.
piece by overlapping the standard end hooks of ties or stir-
rups around a longitudinal bar, or may be formed in one or 8.17.4.8 When details permit, the longitudinal rein-
two pieces by splicing with Class C splices (lap of 1.7 ,d). forcing bars in the corners of the cross section shall be en-
closed by closed hoops. If closed hoops cannot be pro-
8.17.3.4 In seismic areas, where an earthquake that vided, then pairs of “U” shaped bars with legs at least
could cause major damage to construction has a high twice as long as the wall thickness, and orientated 90° to
probability of occurrence, lateral reinforcement shall be one another, may be substituted.
8.17.4.9 Post-tensioning ducts located in the cor- where fy is the specified yield strength of spiral reinforce-
ners of the cross section shall be anchored into the ment but not more than 60,000 psi.
corner regions with closed hoops, or by stirrups having
a 90° bend at each end which encloses at least one lon- 8.18.2.2.3 The clear spacing between spirals shall
gitudinal bar near the outer face of the cross section. not exceed 3 inches or be less than 1 inch or 11⁄ 3 times the
maximum size of coarse aggregate used.
8.18 REINFORCEMENT OF COMPRESSION
8.18.2.2.4 Anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall
MEMBERS
be provided by 11⁄ 2 extra turns of spiral bar or wire at each
end of a spiral unit.
8.18.1 Maximum and Minimum Longitudinal
Reinforcement 8.18.2.2.5 Spirals shall extend from top of footing or
other support to the level of the lowest horizontal rein-
8.18.1.1 The area of longitudinal reinforcement for forcement in members supported above.
compression members shall not exceed 0.08 times the
gross area, Ag, of the section. 8.18.2.2.6 Splices in spiral reinforcement shall be lap
splices of 48 bar or wire diameters but not less than 12
8.18.1.2 The minimum area of longitudinal rein- inches, or shall be welded.
forcement shall not be less than 0.01 times the gross area,
Ag, of the section. When the cross section is larger than 8.18.2.2.7 Spirals shall be of such size and so as-
that required by consideration of loading, a reduced ef- sembled to permit handling and placing without distortion
fective area may be used. The reduced effective area shall from designed dimensions.
not be less than that which would require 1% of
longitudinal reinforcement to carry the loading. The min- 8.18.2.2.8 Spirals shall be held firmly in place by at-
imum number of longitudinal reinforcing bars shall be six tachment to the longitudinal reinforcement and true to line
for bars in a circular arrangement and four for bars in a by vertical spacers.
rectangular arrangement. The minimum size of bars shall
be No. 5. 8.18.2.3 Ties
8.18.2 Lateral Reinforcement Tie reinforcement for compression members shall con-
form to the following:
8.18.2.1 General
8.18.2.3.1 All bars shall be enclosed by lateral ties
In a compression member that has a larger cross sec- which shall be at least No. 3 in size for longitudinal bars
tion than that required by conditions of loading, the lateral that are No. 10 or smaller, and at least No. 4 in size for No.
reinforcement requirements may be waived where struc- 11, No. 14, No. 18, and bundled longitudinal bars. De-
tural analysis or tests show adequate strength and feasi- formed wire or welded wire fabric of equivalent area may
bility of construction. be used instead of bars.
8.18.2.2 Spirals 8.18.2.3.2 The spacing of ties shall not exceed the
least dimension of the compression member or 12 inches.
Spiral reinforcement for compression members shall When two or more bars larger than No. 10 are bundled to-
conform to the following: gether, tie spacing shall be one-half that specified above.
8.18.2.2.1 Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced con- 8.18.2.3.3 Ties shall be located not more than half a
tinuous bar or wire, with a minimum diameter of 3⁄ 8 inch. tie spacing from the face of a footing or from the nearest
longitudinal reinforcement of a cross-framing member.
8.18.2.2.2 The ratio of spiral reinforcement to total
volume of core, rs, shall not be less than the value given 8.18.2.3.4 No longitudinal bar shall be more than 2
by: feet, measured along the tie, from a restrained bar on ei-
ther side. A restrained bar is one which has lateral support
 Ag  f′ provided by the corner of a tie having an included angle
ρs = 0.45  − 1 c (8 - 63)
 Ac  fy of not more than 135°. Where longitudinal bars are lo-
cated around the perimeter of a circle, a complete circular (d) Combinations of stirrups and bent longitudinal re-
tie may be used. inforcement.
(e) Spirals.
8.18.2.4 Seismic Requirements
8.19.2.2 Shear reinforcement shall be developed at
In seismic areas, where an earthquake which could both ends in accordance with the requirements of Article
cause major damage to construction has a high probabil- 8.27.
ity of occurrence, lateral reinforcement for column piers
shall be designed and detailed to provide adequate 8.19.3 Spacing of Shear Reinforcement
strength and ductility to resist expected seismic move-
ments. Spacing of shear reinforcement placed perpendicular
to the axis of the member shall not exceed d/2 or 24
8.19 LIMITS FOR SHEAR REINFORCEMENT inches. Inclined stirrups and bent longitudinal reinforce-
ment shall be so spaced that every 45° line extending to-
8.19.1 Minimum Shear Reinforcement ward the reaction from the mid-depth of the member, d/2,
to the longitudinal tension reinforcement shall be crossed
8.19.1.1 A minimum area of shear reinforcement by at least one line of shear reinforcement.
shall be provided in all flexural members, except slabs and
footings, where
8.20 SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE
(a) For design by Strength Design, factored shear REINFORCEMENT
force Vu exceeds one-half the shear strength provided
by concrete fVc. 8.20.1 Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature
stresses shall be provided near exposed surfaces of walls
(b) For design by Service Load Design, design shear and slabs not otherwise reinforced. The total area of rein-
stress v exceeds one-half the permissible shear stress forcement provided shall be at least 1⁄ 8 square inch per foot
carried by concrete vc. in each direction.
8.19.1.2 Where shear reinforcement is required by 8.20.2 The spacing of shrinkage and temperature rein-
Article 8.19.1.1, or by analysis, the area provided shall not forcement shall not exceed three times the wall or slab
be less than: thickness, or 18 inches.
50 b ws
Av = (8 - 64) 8.21 SPACING LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT
fy
where bw and s are in inches. 8.21.1 For cast-in-place concrete the clear distance be-
tween parallel bars in a layer shall not be less than 1.5 bar
8.19.1.3 Minimum shear reinforcement require- diameters, 1.5 times the maximum size of the coarse ag-
ments may be waived if it is shown by test that the re- gregate, or 11⁄ 2 inches.
quired ultimate flexural and shear capacity can be devel-
oped when shear reinforcement is omitted. 8.21.2 For precast concrete (manufactured under plant
control conditions) the clear distance between parallel
8.19.2 Types of Shear Reinforcement bars in a layer shall be not less than 1 bar diameter, 11⁄ 3
times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, or 1
8.19.2.1 Shear reinforcement may consist of: inch.
(a) Stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the member or 8.21.3 Where positive or negative reinforcement is
making an angle of 45° or more with the longitudinal placed in two or more layers, bars in the upper layers shall
tension reinforcement. be placed directly above those in the bottom layer with the
(b) Welded wire fabric with wires located perpendic- clear distance between layers not less than 1 inch.
ular to the axis of the member.
(c) Longitudinal reinforcement with a bent portion 8.21.4 The clear distance limitation between bars shall
making an angle of 30° or more with the longitudinal also apply to the clear distance between a contact lap
tension reinforcement. splice and adjacent splices or bars.
8.21.5 Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in con- TABLE 8.23.2.1 Minimum Diameters of Bend
tact to act as a unit shall be limited to 4 in any one bundle.
Bars larger than No. 11 shall be limited to two in any one
bundle in beams. Bundled bars shall be located within stir-
rups or ties. Individual bars in a bundle cut off within the
span of a member shall terminate at points at least 40-bar
diameters apart. Where spacing limitations are based on bar
diameter, a unit of bundled bars shall be treated as a single concrete or other means. Other means of positive corro-
bar of a diameter derived from the equivalent total area. sion protection may consist of, but not be limited to,
epoxy-coated bars, special concrete overlays, and imper-
8.21.6 In walls and slabs the primary flexural reinforce- vious membranes; or a combination of these means.*
ment shall be spaced not farther apart than 1.5 times the
wall or slab thickness, or 18 inches. 8.22.4 Exposed reinforcement, inserts, and plates in-
tended for bonding with future extensions shall be pro-
8.22 PROTECTION AGAINST CORROSION tected from corrosion.
8.22.1 The following minimum concrete cover shall be 8.23 HOOKS AND BENDS
provided for reinforcement:
8.23.1 Standard Hooks
Minimum
Cover The term “standard hook” as used herein shall mean
(inches) one of the following:
Concrete cast against and permanently
exposed to earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 (1) 180° bend plus 4db extension, but not less than 21⁄ 2
Concrete exposed to earth or weather: inches at free end of bar.
Primary reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 (2) 90° bend plus 12db extension at free end of bar.
Stirrups, ties, and spirals . . . . . . . . . . . 11⁄ 2 (3) For stirrup and tie hooks:
Concrete deck slabs in mild climates: (a) No. 5 bar and smaller, 90° bend plus 6db exten-
Top reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 sion at free end of bar, or
Bottom reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 (b) No. 6, No. 7, and No. 8 bar, 90° bend plus 12db
Concrete deck slabs which have no positive extension at free end of bar, or
corrosion protection and are frequently (c) No. 8 bar and smaller, 135° bend plus 6db ex-
exposed to deicing salts: tension at free end of bar.
Top reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21⁄ 2
Bottom reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8.23.2 Minimum Bend Diameters
Concrete not exposed to weather or in
contact with ground: 8.23.2.1 Diameter of bend measured on the inside of
Primary reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11⁄ 2 the bar, other than for stirrups and ties, shall not be less
Stirrups, ties, and spirals . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 than the values given in Table 8.23.2.1.
Concrete piles cast against and/or
8.23.2.2 The inside diameter of bend for stirrups and
permanently exposed to earth . . . . . . . . 2
ties shall not be less than 4 bar diameters for sizes No. 5
8.22.2 For bundled bars, the minimum concrete cover and smaller. For bars larger than size No. 5 diameter of
shall be equal to the equivalent diameter of the bundle, but bend shall be in accordance with Table 8.23.2.1.
need not be greater than 2 inches, except for concrete cast
8.23.2.3 The inside diameter of bend in smooth or de-
against and permanently exposed to earth in which case
formed welded wire fabric for stirrups and ties shall not be
the minimum cover shall be 3 inches.
less than 4-wire diameters for deformed wire larger than D6
8.22.3 In corrosive or marine environments or other se- and 2-wire diameters for all other wires. Bends with inside
vere exposure conditions, the amount of concrete protec-
*For additional information on corrosion protection methods, refer to
tion shall be suitably increased, by increasing the dense- National Cooperative Highway Research Report 297, “Evaluation of
ness and imperviousness to water of the protecting Bridge Deck Protective Strategies.”
diameters of less than 8-wire diameters shall not be less 8.24.1.4.3 For No. 11 bars and smaller, the continu-
than 4-wire diameters from the nearest welded intersection. ing bars provide double the area required for flexure at the
cutoff point and the shear does not exceed three-fourths
8.24 DEVELOPMENT OF FLEXURAL that permitted.
REINFORCEMENT
8.24.1.5 Adequate end anchorage shall be provided
8.24.1 General for tension reinforcement in flexural members where re-
inforcement stress is not directly proportional to moment,
8.24.1.1 The calculated tension or compression in such as: sloped, stepped, or tapered footings; brackets;
the reinforcement at each section shall be developed on deep flexural members; or members in which the tension
each side of that section by embedment length, hook or reinforcement is not parallel to the compression face.
mechanical device, or a combination thereof. Hooks may
be used in developing bars in tension only. 8.24.2 Positive Moment Reinforcement
8.24.1.2 Critical sections for development of rein- 8.24.2.1 At least one-third the positive moment rein-
forcement in flexural members are at points of maximum forcement in simple members and one-fourth the positive
stress and at points within the span where adjacent rein- moment reinforcement in continuous members shall ex-
forcement terminates or is bent. The provisions of Article tend along the same face of the member into the support.
8.24.2.3 must also be satisfied. In beams, such reinforcement shall extend into the support
at least 6 inches.
8.24.1.2.1 Reinforcement shall extend beyond the
point at which it is no longer required to resist flexure for 8.24.2.2 When a flexural member is part of the lateral
a distance equal to the effective depth of the member, 15 load resisting system, the positive moment reinforcement
bar diameters, or 1⁄ 20 of the clear span, whichever is required to be extended into the support by Article
greater, except at supports of simple spans and at the free 8.24.2.1 shall be anchored to develop the specified yield
ends of cantilevers. strength, fy, in tension at the face of the support.
8.24.1.2.2 Continuing reinforcement shall have an 8.24.2.3 At simple supports and at points of inflec-
embedment length not less than the development length ,d tion, positive moment tension reinforcement shall be lim-
beyond the point where bent or terminated tension rein- ited to a diameter such that ,d computed for fy by Article
forcement is no longer required to resist flexure. 8.25 satisfies Equation (8-65); except Equation (8-65)
need not be satisfied for reinforcement terminating beyond
8.24.1.3 Tension reinforcement may be developed center line of simple supports by a standard hook, or a me-
by bending across the web in which it lies or by making it chanical anchorage at least equivalent to a standard hook.
continuous with the reinforcement on the opposite face of
the member. M
ld ≤ + la (8 - 65)
V
8.24.1.4 Flexural reinforcement within the portion of
the member used to calculate the shear strength shall not where M is the computed moment capacity assuming all
be terminated in a tension zone unless one of the follow- positive moment tension reinforcement at the section to
ing conditions is satisfied: be fully stressed. V is the maximum shear force at the
section. ,a at a support shall be the embedment length be-
8.24.1.4.1 The shear at the cutoff point does not ex- yond the center of the support. At a point of inflection, ,a
ceed two-thirds of that permitted, including the shear shall be limited to the effective depth of the member or
strength of shear reinforcement provided. 12 db, whichever is greater. The value M/V in the devel-
opment length limitation may be increased by 30% when
8.24.1.4.2 Stirrup area in excess of that required for the ends of the reinforcement are confined by a compres-
shear is provided along each terminated bar over a dis- sive reaction.
tance from the termination point equal to three-fourths the
effective depth of the member. The excess stirrup area, Av, 8.24.3 Negative Moment Reinforcement
shall not be less than 60 bws/fy. Spacing, s, shall not
exceed d/(8 bb) where bb is the ratio of the area of rein- 8.24.3.1 Negative moment reinforcement in a con-
forcement cut off to the total area of tension reinforcement tinuous, restrained, or cantilever member, or in any mem-
at the section. ber of a rigid frame, shall be anchored in or through the
supporting member by embedment length, hooks, or me- “all lightweight” concrete . . . . . . . .1.33
chanical anchorage. “sand lightweight” concrete . . . . . .1.18
Linear interpolation may be
8.24.3.2 Negative moment reinforcement shall have applied when partial sand
an embedment length into the span as required by Article replacement is used.
8.24.1.
8.25.2.3 Bars coated with epoxy with
8.24.3.3 At least one-third of the total tension rein-
cover less than 3db or clear
forcement provided for negative moment at the support
spacing between bars
shall have an embedment length beyond the point of in-
less than 6db . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.5
flection not less than the effective depth of the member, 12-
bar diameters or 1⁄ 16 of the clear span, whichever is greater. All other cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.15
The product obtained when combining
the factor for top reinforcement
8.25 DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS with the applicable factor for
AND DEFORMED WIRE IN TENSION epoxy coated reinforcement need
not be taken greater than 1.7
The development length, ,d, in inches shall be com-
puted as the product of the basic development length de-
8.25.3 The basic development length, modified by the
fined in Article 8.25.1 and the applicable modification fac-
appropriate factors of Article 8.25.2, may be multiplied by
tor or factors defined in Article 8.25.2 and 8.25.3, but ,d
the following factors when:
shall be not less than that specified in Article 8.25.4.
8.25.1 The basic development length shall be: 8.25.3.1 Reinforcement being developed in the
length under consideration is spaced later-
0.04 A b fy
No. 11 bars and smaller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ally at least 6 inches on center with at least
fc′ 3 inches clear cover measured in the direc-
tion of the spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.8
but not less than . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.0004dbfy
0.085fy 8.25.3.2 Anchorage or development for reinforce-

No. 14 bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ment strength is not specifically required or
fc′ reinforcement in flexural members is in ex-
0.11fy cess of that required by analysis
No. 18 bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
fc′
(As required)/(As provided)
0.03d b fy
deformed wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
fc′ 8.25.3.3 Reinforcement is enclosed within a spiral of
not less than 1⁄4 inch in diameter and not
8.25.2 The basic development length shall be multiplied more than 4 inch pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.75
by the following applicable factor or factors:
8.25.4 The development length, ,d, shall not be less than
8.25.2.1 Top reinforcement so placed 12 inches except in the computation of lap splices by
that more than 12 inches of Article 8.32.3 and development of shear reinforcement by
concrete is cast below the Article 8.27.
reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.4
8.25.2.2 Lightweight aggregate 8.26 DEVELOPMENT OF DEFORMED BARS IN

concrete when fct is COMPRESSION
specified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 fc′
fct The development length, ,d, in inches, for deformed
but not less than 1.0 bars in compression shall be computed as the product of
When fct is not specified the basic development length of Article 8.26.1 and ap-
plicable modification factors of 8.26.2, but ,d shall not be 8.27.2.4.1 Two longitudinal wires at 2-inch spacing
less than 8 inches. along the member at the top of the U.
8.26.1 The basic development length shall be . . . . . . . 8.27.2.4.2 One longitudinal wire located not more
0.02dbfy/Ïfwc9 than d/4 from the compression face and a second wire
but not less than . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..0.0003dbfy closer to the compression face and spaced at least 2 inches
from the first wire. The second wire may be located on the
8.26.2 The basic development length may be multiplied stirrup leg beyond a bend or on a bend with an inside di-
by applicable factors when: ameter of bend of not less than 8-wire diameters.
8.26.2.1 Anchorage or development for reinforce-
8.27.2.5 For each end of a single-leg stirrup of
ment strength is not specifically required, or
welded smooth or welded deformed wire fabric, there
reinforcement is in excess of that required
by analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(As required)/ shall be two longitudinal wires at a minimum spacing of
(As provided) 2 inches and with the inner wire at least the greater of d/4
or 2 inches from mid-depth of member d/2. Outer longi-
8.26.2.2 Reinforcement is enclosed in a spiral of not tudinal wire at the tension face shall not be farther from
less than 1⁄4 inch in diameter and not more the face than the portion of primary flexural reinforcement
than 4-inch pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.75 closest to the face.
8.27 DEVELOPMENT OF SHEAR 8.27.3 Pairs of U-stirrups or ties so placed as to form a

REINFORCEMENT closed unit shall be considered properly spliced when the
laps are 1.7 ,d.
8.27.1 Shear reinforcement shall extend at least to the
centroid of the tension reinforcement, and shall be carried 8.27.4 Between the anchored ends, each bend in the
as close to the compression and tension surfaces of the continuous portion of a single U- or multiple U-stirrup
member as cover requirements and the proximity of other shall enclose a longitudinal bar.
reinforcement permit. Shear reinforcement shall be an-
chored at both ends for its design yield strength. For com- 8.27.5 Longitudinal bars bent to act as shear reinforce-
posite flexural members, all beam shear reinforcement ment, if extended into a region of tension, shall be con-
shall be extended into the deck slab or otherwise shall be
tinuous with the longitudinal reinforcement and, if ex-
adequately anchored to assure full beam design shear
tended into a region of compression, shall be anchored
capacity.
beyond the mid-depth, d/2, as specified for development
length in Article 8.25 for that part of the stress in the re-
8.27.2 The ends of single leg, single U, or multiple U-
stirrups shall be anchored by one of the following means: inforcement required to satisfy Equation (8-8) or Equa-
tion (8-54).
8.27.2.1 A standard hook plus an embedment of the
stirrup leg length of at least 0.5 ,d between the mid-depth 8.28 DEVELOPMENT OF BUNDLED BARS
of the member d/2 and the point of tangency of the hook.
The development length of individual bars within a
8.27.2.2 An embedment length of ,d above or below bundle, in tension or compression, shall be that for the in-
the mid-depth of the member on the compression side but dividual bar, increased by 20% for a three-bar bundle, and
not less than 24-bar or wire diameters or, for deformed 33% for a four-bar bundle.
bars or deformed wire, 12 inches.
8.29 DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD HOOKS
8.27.2.3 Bending around the longitudinal reinforce- IN TENSION
ment through at least 180°. Hooking or bending stirrups
around the longitudinal reinforcement shall be considered 8.29.1 Development length ,dh in inches, for deformed
effective anchorage only when the stirrups make an angle bars in tension terminating in a standard hook (Article
of at least 45° with the longitudinal reinforcement. 8.23.1) shall be computed as the product of the basic de-
velopment length ,hb of Article 8.29.2 and the applicable
8.27.2.4 For each leg of welded smooth wire fabric modification factor or factors of Article 8.29.3, but ,dh
forming single U-stirrups, either: shall not be less than 8db or 6 inches, whichever is greater.
FIGURE 8.29.4 Hooked-Bar Tie Requirements
8.29.3.6 Epoxy-coated reinforcement hooked bars

with epoxy coating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.2
8.29.4 For bars being developed by a standard hook at

discontinuous ends of members with both side cover and
top (or bottom) cover over hook less than 21⁄ 2 inches,
FIGURE 8.29.1 Hooked-Bar Details for Development of hooked bar shall be enclosed within ties or stirrups spaced
Standard Hooks along the full development length ,dh, not greater than 3db,
where db is the diameter of the hooked bar. For this case,
8.29.2 Basic development length ,hb for a hooked
the factor of Article 8.29.3.3 shall not apply.
bar with fy equal to 60,000 psi shall be
.......................................................1,200 db/Ïfwc9
8.29.5 Hooks shall not be considered effective in devel-
8.29.3 Basic development length ,hb shall be multiplied oping bars in compression.
by applicable modification factor or factors for:
8.30 DEVELOPMENT OF WELDED WIRE
8.29.3.1 Bar yield strength: FABRIC IN TENSION
Bars with fy other than 60,000 psi
......................................................fy/60,000 8.30.1 Deformed Wire Fabric
8.29.3.2 Concrete cover: 8.30.1.1 The development length, ,d, in inches of
For No. 11 bar and smaller, side cover (nor- welded deformed wire fabric measured from the point of
mal to plane of hook) not less than 21⁄ 2 inches,
critical section to the end of wire shall be computed as the
and for 90° hook, cover on bar extension be-
product of the basic development length of Article
yond hook not less than 2 inches . . . . . . .0.7
8.30.1.2 or 8.30.1.3 and the applicable modification fac-
8.29.3.3 Ties or stirrups: tor or factors of Articles 8.25.2 and 8.25.3 but ,d shall not
For No. 11 bar and smaller, hook enclosed be less than 8 inches except in computation of lap splices
vertically or horizontally within ties or stir- by Article 8.32.5 and development of shear reinforcement
rup-ties spaced along the full development by Article 8.27.
length ,dh not greater than 3db, where db is
diameter of hooked bar . . . . . . . . . . . . ..0.8 8.30.1.2 The basic development length of welded de-
formed wire fabric, with at least one cross wire within the
8.29.3.4 Excess reinforcement: development length not less than 2 inches from the point
Where anchorage or development for fy is of critical section, shall be:
not specifically required, reinforcement in
excess of that required by analysis . . . .(As 0.03db (fy220,000)/Ïfw*
c9 (8-66)
required)/(As provided)
8.29.3.5 Lightweight aggregate concrete . . . . . .1.3 *The 20,000 has units of psi.
but not less than, a bundle. The length of lap, as prescribed in Article 8.32.3
or 8.32.4 shall be increased 20% for a three-bar bundle
A w fy and 33% for a four-bar bundle. Individual bar splices
0.20 ⋅ (8 - 67)
sw fc′ within the bundle shall not overlap.
8.30.1.3 The basic development length of welded 8.32.1.3 Bars spliced by noncontact lap splices in
deformed wire fabric, with no cross wires within the de- flexural members shall not be spaced transversely farther
velopment length, shall be determined as for deformed apart than one-fifth the required length of lap or 6 inches.
wire in accordance with Article 8.25.
8.32.1.4 The length, ,d, shall be the development
8.30.2 Smooth Wire Fabric length for the specified yield strength, fy, as given in Arti-
cle 8.25.
The yield strength of welded smooth wire fabric shall
be considered developed by embedment of two cross 8.32.2 Welded Splices and Mechanical Connections
wires with the closer cross wire not less than 2 inches
from the point of critical section. However, development 8.32.2.1 Welded splices or other mechanical connec-
length ,d measured from the point of critical section to tions may be used. Except as provided herein, all welding
outermost cross wire shall not be less than: shall conform to the latest edition of the American Weld-
ing Society publication, “Structural Welding Code Rein-
A w fy forcing Steel.”
0.27 ⋅ (8 - 68)
sw fc′
8.32.2.2 A full welded splice shall develop in tension
modified by (As required)/(As provided) for reinforcement at least 125% of the specified yield strength of the bar.
in excess of that required by analysis and by factor of Ar-
ticle 8.25.2 for lightweight aggregate concrete, but ,d shall 8.32.2.3 A full-mechanical connection shall develop
not be less than 6 inches except in computation of lap in tension or compression, as required, at least 125% of
splices by Article 8.32.6. the specified yield strength of the bar.
8.31 MECHANICAL ANCHORAGE 8.32.2.4 Welded splices and mechanical connections

not meeting requirements of Articles 8.32.2.2 and 8.32.2.3
8.31.1 Any mechanical device shown by tests to be ca- may be used in accordance with Article 8.32.3.4.
pable of developing the strength of reinforcement without
damage to concrete may be used as anchorage. 8.32.2.5 For welded or mechanical connections that
are subject to repetitive loads, the range of stress, ff, between
8.31.2 Development of reinforcement may consist of a a maximum tensile stress and a minimum stress in a rein-
combination of mechanical anchorage plus additional em- forcing bar caused by live load plus impact at service load
bedment length of reinforcement between point of maxi- shall not exceed:
mum bar stress and the mechanical anchorage.
ff
8.32 SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT for greater than
Type of Splice 1,000,000 cycles
Splices of reinforcement shall be made only as shown Grout-filled sleeve, with or without epoxy
on the design drawings or as specified, or as authorized by coated bar: 18 ksi
the Engineer.
Cold-swaged coupling sleeves without
threaded ends, and with or without
8.32.1 Lap Splices
epoxy-coated bar;
Integrally-forged coupler with upset NC
8.32.1.1 Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger
threads;
than No. 11, except as provided in Articles 8.32.4.1 and
Steel sleeve with a wedge;
4.4.11.4.1.
One-piece taper-threaded coupler; and
Single V-groove direct butt weld: 12 ksi
8.32.1.2 Lap splices of bundled bars shall be based
All other types of splices: 4 ksi
on the lap splice length required for individual bars within
except that, for total cycles of loading, Ncyc, less than 1 8.32.3.5 Splices in tension tie members shall be made
million cycles, ff may be increased by the quantity 24 with a full-welded splice or a full-mechanical connection in
(6 2 logNcyc) in ksi to a total not greater than the value of accordance with Article 8.32.2.2 or 8.32.2.3. Splices in ad-
ff given by Equation (8-60) in Article 8.16.8.3. Higher val- jacent bars shall be staggered at least 30 inches.
ues of ff, up to the value given by Equation (8-60), may be
used if justified by fatigue test data on splices that are the 8.32.4 Splices of Bars in Compression
same as those which will be placed in service.
8.32.4.1 Lap Splices in Compression
8.32.3 Splices of Deformed Bars and Deformed
Wire in Tension The minimum length of lap for compression lap splices
shall be 0.0005fydb in inches, but not less than 12 inches.
8.32.3.1 The minimum length of lap for tension lap When the specified concrete strength, fc9, is less than
splices shall be as required for Class A, B, or C splice, but 3,000 psi, the length of lap shall be increased by one-third.
not less than 12 inches. When bars of different size are lap spliced in compres-
sion, splice length shall be the larger of: development
Class A splice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.0 ,d length of the larger bar, or splice length of smaller bar. Bar
Class B splice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.3 ,d sizes No. 14 and No. 18 may be lap spliced to No. 11 and
Class C splice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.7 ,d smaller bars.
In compression members where ties along the splice
8.32.3.2 Lap splices of deformed bars and deformed have an effective area not less than 0.0015hs, the
wire in tension shall conform to Table 8.32.3.2. lap splice length may be multiplied by 0.83, but the lap
length shall not be less than 12 inches. The effective area
of the ties shall be the area of the legs perpendicular to
8.32.3.3 Welded splices or mechanical connections
dimension h.
used where the area of reinforcement provided is less than
In compression members when spirals are used for lat-
twice that required by analysis shall meet the require-
eral restraint along the splice, the lap splice length may be
ments of Article 8.32.2.2 or 8.32.2.3.
multiplied by 0.75, but the lap length shall not be less than
12 inches.
8.32.3.4 Welded splices or mechanical connections
used where the area of reinforcement provided is at least
8.32.4.2 End-Bearing Splices
twice that required by analysis shall meet the following:
In bars required for compression only, the compressive
8.32.3.4.1 Splices shall be staggered at least 24
stress may be transmitted by bearing of square cut ends
inches and in such manner as to develop at every section
held in concentric contact by a suitable device. Bar ends
at least twice the calculated tensile force at that section but
shall terminate in flat surfaces within 11⁄ 2° of a right angle
not less than 20,000 psi for the total area of reinforcement
to the axis of the bars and shall be fitted within 3° of full
provided.
bearing after assembly. End-bearing splices shall be used
only in members containing closed ties, closed stirrups, or
8.32.3.4.2 In computing tensile force developed at
spirals.
each section, spliced reinforcement may be rated at the
specified splice strength. Unspliced reinforcement shall
8.32.4.3 Welded Splices or Mechanical
be rated at that fraction of fy defined by the ratio of the
Connections
shorter actual development length to ,d required to de-
velop the specified yield strength fy.
Welded splices or mechanical connections used in
compression shall meet the requirements of Article
TABLE 8.32.3.2 Tension Lap Splices 8.32.2.2 or 8.32.2.3.
8.32.5 Splices of Welded Deformed Wire Fabric in

Tension
8.32.5.1 The minimum length of lap for lap splices

of welded deformed wire fabric measured between the
ends of each fabric sheet shall not be less than 1.7 ,d or
8 inches, and the overlap measured between the outermost
cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than 8.32.6.1 When the area of reinforcement provided is
2 inches. less than twice that required by analysis at the splice lo-
cation, the length of overlap measured between the outer-
8.32.5.2 Lap splices of welded deformed wire fabric, most cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than
with no cross wires within the lap splice length, shall be one spacing of cross wires plus 2 inches or less than 1.5
determined as for deformed wire in accordance with Arti- ,d, or 6 inches.
cle 8.32.3.1.
8.32.6.2 When the area of reinforcement provided is
8.32.6 Splices of Welded Smooth Wire Fabric in at least twice that required by analysis at the splice loca-
Tension tion, the length of overlap measured between the outer-
most cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than
The minimum length of lap for lap splices of welded 1.5 ,d or 2 inches.
smooth wire fabric shall be in accordance with the fol-
lowing:
Section 9
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Part A
9.1 APPLICATION d 5 distance from extreme compressive fiber to

centroid of the prestressing force, or to cen-
9.1.1 General troid of negative moment reinforcing for pre-
cast girder bridges made continuous
The specifications of this section are intended for de- dt 5 distance from the extreme compressive fiber
sign of prestressed concrete bridge members. Members to the centroid of the non-prestressed tension
designed as reinforced concrete, except for a percentage reinforcement (Articles 9.7 and 9.17-9.19)
of tensile steel stressed to improve service behavior, shall ES 5 loss of prestress due to elastic shortening (Ar-
conform to the applicable specifications of Section 8. ticle 9.16)
Exceptionally long span or unusual structures require e 5 base of Naperian logarithms (Article 9.16)
detailed consideration of effects which under this Section fcds 5 average concrete compressive stress at the c.g.
may have been assigned arbitrary values. of the prestressing steel under full dead load
(Article 9.16)
9.1.2 Notations fcir 5 average concrete stress at the c.g. of the pre-
stressing steel at time of release (Article 9.16)
As 5 area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement fc9 5 compressive strength of concrete at 28 days
(Articles 9.7 and 9.19) fci9 5 compressive strength of concrete at time of
As9 5 area of compression reinforcement (Article initial prestress (Article 9.15)
9.19) fct 5 average splitting tensile strength of light-
A*s 5 area of prestressing steel (Article 9.17) weight aggregate concrete, psi
Asf 5 steel area required to develop the compressive fd 5 stress due to unfactored dead load, at extreme
strength of the overhanging portions of the fiber of section where tensile stress is caused
flange (Article 9.17) by externally applied loads (Article 9.20)
Asr 5 steel area required to develop the compressive fpc 5 compressive stress in concrete (after al-
strength of the web of a flanged section (Arti- lowance for all prestress losses) at centroid of
cles 9.17-9.19) cross section resisting externally applied
Av 5 area of web reinforcement (Article 9.20) loads or at junction of web and flange when
b 5 width of flange of flanged member or width of the centroid lies within the flange (In a com-
rectangular member posite member, fpc is resultant compressive
bv 5 width of cross section at the contact surface stress at centroid of composite section, or at
being investigated for horizontal shear (Arti- junction of web and flange when the centroid
cle 9.20). lies within the flange, due to both prestress
b9 5 width of a web of a flanged member and moments resisted by precast member act-
CRc 5 loss of prestress due to creep of concrete (Ar- ing alone.)(Article 9.20)
ticle 9.16) fpe 5 compressive stress in concrete due to effective
CRs 5 loss of prestress due to relaxation of pre- prestress forces only (after allowance for all
stressing steel (Article 9.16) prestress losses) at extreme fiber of section
D 5 nominal diameter of prestressing steel (Arti- where tensile stress is caused by externally
cles 9.17 and 9.27) applied loads (Article 9.20)
225
fps 5 guaranteed ultimate tensile strength of the SH 5 loss of prestress due to concrete shrinkage
prestressing steel, A*f s 9
s (Article 9.16)
fr 5 the modulus of rupture of concrete, as defined s 5 longitudinal spacing of the web reinforcement
in Article 9.15.2.3 (Article 9.18) (Article 9.20)
Dfs 5 total prestress loss, excluding friction (Article Sb 5 noncomposite section modulus for the ex-
9.16) treme fiber of section where the tensile stress
fse 5 effective steel prestress after losses is caused by externally applied loads (Article
f*su 5 average stress in prestressing steel at ultimate 9.18)
load Sc 5 composite section modulus for the extreme
f9s 5 ultimate stress of prestressing steel (Articles fiber of section where the tensile stress is
9.15 and 9.17) caused by externally applied loads (Article
fsy 5 yield stress of non-prestressed conventional 9.18)
reinforcement in tension (Articles 9.19 and t 5 average thickness of the flange of a flanged
9.20) member (Articles 9.17 and 9.18)
f9y 5 yield stress of non-prestressed conven- To 5 steel stress at jacking end (Article 9.16)
tional reinforcement in compression (Article Tx 5 steel stress at any point x (Article 9.16)
9.19) v 5 permissible horizontal shear stress (Article
f*y 5 yield stress of prestressing steel (Article 9.15) 9.20)
5 0.90 f 9s for low-relaxation wire or strand Vc 5 nominal shear strength provided by concrete
5 0.85 f 9s for stress-relieved wire or strand (Article 9.20)
5 0.85 f 9s for Type I (smooth) high-strength bar Vci 5 nominal shear strength provided by concrete
5 0.80 f 9s for Type II (deformed) high-strength when diagonal cracking results from com-
bar bined shear and moment (Article 9.20)
h 5 overall depth of member (Article 9.20) Vcw 5 nominal shear strength provided by concrete
I 5 moment of inertia about the centroid of the when diagonal cracking results from exces-
cross section (Article 9.20) sive principal tensile stress in web (Article
K 5 friction wobble coefficient per foot of pre- 9.20)
stressing steel (Article 9.16) Vd 5 shear force at section due to unfactored dead
L 5 length of prestressing steel element from jack load (Article 9.20)
end to point x (Article 9.16) Vi 5 factored shear force at section due to exter-
Mcr 5 moment causing flexural cracking at sec- nally applied loads occurring simultaneously
tion due to externally applied loads (Article with Mmax (Article 9.20)
9.20) Vnh 5 nominal horizontal shear strength (Article
M*cr 5 cracking moment (Article 9.18) 9.20)
Md/c 5 composite dead load moment at the section Vp 5 vertical component of effective prestress force
(Commentary to Article 9.18) at section (Article 9.20)
Md/nc 5 noncomposite dead load moment at the sec- Vs 5 nominal shear strength provided by shear re-
tion (Article 9.18) inforcement (Article 9.20)
Mmax 5 maximum factored moment at section due to Vu 5 factored shear force at section (Article 9.20)
externally applied loads (Article 9.20) Yt 5 distance from centroidal axis of gross section,
Mn 5 nominal moment strength of a section neglecting reinforcement, to extreme fiber in
Mu 5 factored moment at section % fMn (Articles tension (Article 9.20)
9.17 and 9.18) µ 5 friction curvature coefficient (Article 9.16)
p 5 As/bdt ratio of non-prestressed tension rein- a 5 total angular change of prestressing steel pro-
forcement (Articles 9.7 and 9.17-9.19) file in radians from jacking end to point x (Ar-
p* 5 A*s /bd, ratio of prestressing steel (Articles ticle 9.16)
9.17 and 9.19) b1 5 factor for concrete strength, as defined in Ar-
p9 5 A9/bd,
s ratio of compression reinforcement ticle 8.16.2.7 (Articles 9.17, 9.18 and 9.19)
(Article 9.19) g* 5 factor for type of prestressing steel (Article
Pu 5 factored tendon force 9.17)
Q 5 statical moment of cross-sectional area, above 5 0.28 for low-relaxation steel
or below the level being investigated for shear, 5 0.40 for stress-relieved steel
about the centroid (Article 9.20) 5 0.55 for bars
9.1.3 Definitions Elastic Shortening of Concrete—Shortening of

member caused by application of forces induced by pre-
The following terms are defined for general stressing.
use. Specialized definitions appear in individual articles. End Anchorage—Length of reinforcement, or me-
chanical anchor, or hook, or combination thereof, beyond
Anchorage Device—The hardware assembly used for point of zero stress in reinforcement.
transferring a post-tensioning force from the tendon End Block—Enlarged end section of member designed
wires, strands or bars to the concrete. to reduce anchorage stresses.
Anchorage Seating—Deformation of anchorage Friction (post-tensioning)—Surface resistance be-
or seating of tendons in anchorage device when pre- tween tendon and duct in contact during stressing.
stressing force is transferred from jack to anchorage General Zone—Region within which the concentrated
device. prestressing force spreads out to a more linear stress dis-
Anchorage Spacing—Center-to-center spacing of an- tribution over the cross section of the member (Saint
chorage devices. Venant Region) (Article 9.21.2.1)
Anchorage Zone—The portion of the structure in Grout Opening or Vent—Inlet, outlet, vent, or drain in
which the concentrated prestressing force is transferred post-tensioning duct for grout, water, or air
from the anchorage device into the concrete (Local Zone), Intermediate Anchorage—Anchorage not located at
and then distributed more widely into the structure (Gen- the end surface of a member or segment; usually in the
eral Zone) (Article 9.21.1). form of embedded anchors, blisters, ribs, or recess
Basic Anchorage Device—Anchorage device pockets
meeting the restricted bearing stress and minimum plate Jacking Force—Temporary force exerted by device
stiffness requirements of Articles 9.21.7.2.2 through that introduces tension into prestressing tendons.
9.21.7.2.4; no acceptance test is required for Basic Local Zone—The volume of concrete surrounding and
Anchorage Devices. immediately ahead of the anchorage device, subjected to
Bonded Tendon—Prestressing tendon that is bonded to high local bearing stresses (Article 9.21.2.2)
concrete either directly or through grouting. Loss of Prestress—Reduction in prestressing force
Coating—Material used to protect prestressing ten- resulting from combined effects of strains in concrete
dons against corrosion, to reduce friction between tendon and steel, including effects of elastic shortening, creep
and duct, or to debond prestressing tendons. and shrinkage of concrete, relaxation of steel stress, and
Couplers (Couplings)—Means by which prestressing for post-tensioned members, friction and anchorage
force is transmitted from one partial-length prestressing seating.
tendon to another. Post-Tensioning—Method of prestressing in which
Creep of Concrete—Time-dependent deformation of tendons are tensioned after concrete has hardened.
concrete under sustained load. Precompressed Zone—Portion of flexural member
Curvature Friction—Friction resulting from bends cross section compressed by prestressing force.
or curves in the specified prestressing tendon profile. Prestressed Concrete—Reinforced concrete in
Debonding (blanketing)—Wrapping, sheathing, or which internal stresses have been introduced to reduce
coating prestressing strand to prevent bond between potential tensile stresses in concrete resulting from
strand and surrounding concrete. loads.
Diaphragm—Transverse stiffener in girders to main- Pretensioning—Method of prestressing in which ten-
tain section geometry. dons are tensioned before concrete is placed.
Duct—Hole or void formed in prestressed member to Relaxation of Tendon Stress—Time-dependent reduc-
accommodate tendon for post-tensioning. tion of stress in prestressing tendon at constant strain.
Edge Distance—Distance from the center of the Shear Lag—Nonuniform distribution of bending stress
anchorage device to the edge of the concrete over the cross section.
member. Shrinkage of Concrete—Time-dependent deformation
Effective Prestress—Stress remaining in concrete due of concrete caused by drying and chemical changes (hy-
to prestressing after all calculated losses have been de- dration process).
ducted, excluding effects of superimposed loads and Special Anchorage Device—Anchorage device
weight of member; stress remaining in prestressing ten- whose adequacy must be proven experimentally in the
dons after all losses have occurred excluding effects of standardized acceptance tests of Division II, Article
dead load and superimposed load. 10.3.2.3.
Tendon—Wire, strand, or bar, or bundle of such ele- 9.3 REINFORCEMENT

ments, used to impart prestress to concrete.
Transfer—Act of transferring stress in prestressing 9.3.1 Prestressing Steel
tendons from jacks or pretensioning bed to concrete
member. Wire, strands, or bars shall conform to one of the fol-
Transfer Length—Length over which prestressing lowing specifications.
force is transferred to concrete by bond in pretensioned
members. “Uncoated Stress-Relieved Wire for Prestressed Con-
Wobble Friction—Friction caused by unintended devi- crete,” AASHTO M 204.
ation of prestressing sheath or duct from its specified pro- “Uncoated Seven-Wire Stress-Relieved Strand for Pre-
file or alignment. stressed Concrete,” AASHTO M 203.
Wrapping or Sheathing—Enclosure around a pre- “Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar for Prestressing
stressing tendon to avoid temporary or permanent Concrete,” ASTM A 722.
bond between prestressing tendon and surrounding
concrete. Wire, strands, and bars not specifically listed in AASHTO
M 204, AASHTO M 203, or ASTM A 722 may be used
9.2 CONCRETE provided they conform to the minimum requirements of
these specifications.
The specified compressive strength, f9, c of the concrete
for each part of the structure shall be shown on the plans. 9.3.2 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement
The requirements for f9c shall be based on tests of cylin-
ders made and tested in accordance with Division II, Sec- Non-prestressed reinforcement shall conform to the re-
tion 8, “Concrete Structures.” quirements in Article 8.3.
Part B
ANALYSIS
9.4 GENERAL 9.6 SPAN LENGTH
Members shall be proportioned for adequate strength The effective span lengths of simply supported beams
using these specifications as minimum guidelines. Con- shall not exceed the clear span plus the depth of the beam.
tinuous beams and other statically indeterminate struc- The span length of continuous or restrained floor slabs and
tures shall be designed for adequate strength and satisfac- beams shall be the clear distance between faces of sup-
tory behavior. Behavior shall be determined by elastic port. Where fillets making an angle of 45° or more with
analysis, taking into account the reactions, moments, the axis of a continuous or restrained slab are built mono-
shear, and axial forces produced by prestressing, the ef- lithic with the slab and support, the span shall be mea-
fects of temperature, creep, shrinkage, axial deformation, sured from the section where the combined depth of the
restraint of attached structural elements, and foundation slab and the fillet is at least one and one-half times the
settlement. thickness of the slab. Maximum negative moments are to
be considered as existing at the ends of the span, as above
defined. No portion of the fillet shall be considered as
adding to the effective depth.
9.5 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
9.5.1 In all bridges, provisions shall be made in the 9.7 FRAMES AND CONTINUOUS
design to resist thermal stresses induced, or means shall CONSTRUCTION
be provided for movement caused by temperature
changes. 9.7.1 Cast-in-Place Post-Tensioned Bridges
9.5.2 Movements not otherwise provided for, including The effect of secondary moments due to prestressing
shortening during stressing, shall be provided for by shall be included in stress calculations at working load. In
means of hinged columns, rockers, sliding plates, elas- calculating ultimate strength moment and shear require-
tomeric pads, or other devices. ments, the secondary moments or shears induced by pre-
stressing (with a load factor of 1.0) shall be added alge- segment weights and erection loads shall be accommo-
braically to the moments and shears due to factored or ul- dated in pier design or with auxiliary struts. Erection
timate dead and live loads. equipment which can eliminate these unbalanced mo-
ments may be used.
9.7.2 Bridges Composed of Simple-Span Precast
Prestressed Girders Made Continuous 9.7.3.2 Flexure
9.7.2.1 General
The transverse design of segmental box girders for
When structural continuity is assumed in calculating flexure shall consider the segments as rigid box frames.
live loads plus impact and composite dead load moments, Top slabs shall be analyzed as variable depth sections con-
the effects of creep and shrinkage shall be considered in sidering the fillets between top slab and webs. Wheel
the design of bridges incorporating simple span precast, loads shall be positioned to provide maximum moments,
prestressed girders and deck slabs continuous over two or and elastic analysis shall be used to determine the effec-
more spans. tive longitudinal distribution of wheel loads for each load
location. (See Article 3.11.) Transverse prestressing of top
9.7.2.2 Positive Moment Connection at Piers slabs is generally recommended.
9.7.2.2.1 Provision shall be made in the design for 9.7.3.3 Torsion

the positive moments that may develop in the negative
moment region due to the combined effects of creep and In the design of the cross section, consideration shall
shrinkage in the girders and deck slab, and due to the ef- be given to the increase in web shear resulting from ec-
fects of live load plus impact in remote spans. Shrinkage centric loading or geometry of structure.
and elastic shortening of the pier shall be considered when
significant.
9.8 EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH
9.7.2.2.2 Non-prestressed positive moment con-
nection reinforcement at piers may be designed at a work- 9.8.1 T-Beams
ing stress of 0.6 times the yield strength but not to exceed
36 ksi.
9.8.1.1 For composite prestressed construction
9.7.2.3 Negative Moments where slabs or flanges are assumed to act integrally with
the beam, the effective flange width shall conform to the
9.7.2.3.1 Negative moment reinforcement shall be provisions for T-girder flanges in Article 8.10.1.
proportioned by strength design with load factors in ac-
cordance with Article 9.14. 9.8.1.2 For monolithic prestressed construction, with
normal slab span and girder spacing, the effective flange
9.7.2.3.2 The ultimate negative resisting moment width shall be the distance center-to-center of beams. For
shall be calculated using the compressive strength of the very short spans, or where girder spacing is excessive, an-
girder concrete regardless of the strength of the diaphragm alytical investigations shall be made to determine the an-
concrete. ticipated width of flange acting with the beam.
9.7.3 Segmental Box Girders 9.8.1.3 For monolithic prestressed design of isolated
9.7.3.1 General beams, the flange width shall not exceed 15 times the web
width and shall be adequate for all design loads.
9.7.3.1.1 Elastic analysis and beam theory may be
used in the design of segmental box girder structures. 9.8.2 Box Girders
9.7.3.1.2 In the analysis of precast segmental box 9.8.2.1 For cast-in-place box girders with normal
girder bridges, no tension shall be permitted across any slab span and girder spacing, where the slabs are consid-
joint between segments during any stage of erection or ered an integral part of the girder, the entire slab width
service loading. shall be assumed to be effective in compression.
9.7.3.1.3 In addition to the usual substructure design 9.8.2.2 For box girders of unusual proportions, in-
considerations, unbalanced cantilever moments due to cluding segmental box girders, methods of analysis which
consider shear lag shall be used to determine stresses in 9.10 DIAPHRAGMS

the cross section due to longitudinal bending.
9.10.1 General
9.8.2.3 Adequate fillets shall be provided at the in-
tersections of all surfaces within the cell of a box girder, Diaphragms shall be provided in accordance with Ar-
except at the junction of web and bottom flange where ticles 9.10.2 and 9.10.3 except that diaphragms may be
none are required. omitted where tests or structural analysis show adequate
strength.
9.8.3 Precast/Prestressed Concrete Beams with
Wide Top Flanges 9.10.2 T-Beams
9.8.3.1 For composite prestressed concrete where Diaphragms or other means shall be used at span ends
slabs or flanges are assumed to act integrally with the pre- to strengthen the free edge of the slab and to transmit lat-
cast beam, the effective web width of the precast beam eral forces to the substructure. Intermediate diaphragms
shall be the lesser of (1) six times the maximum thickness shall be placed between the beams at the points of maxi-
of the flange (excluding fillets) on either side of the web mum moment for spans over 40 feet.
plus the web and fillets, and (2) the total width of the top
flange. 9.10.3 Box Girders
9.8.3.2 The effective flange width of the com- 9.10.3.1 For spread box beams, diaphragms shall
posite section shall be the lesser of (1) one-fourth of be placed within the box and between boxes at span ends
the span length of the girder, (2) six (6) times the and at the points of maximum moment for spans over
thickness of the slab on each side of the effective web 80 feet.
width as determined by Article 9.8.3.1 plus the effec-
tive web width, and (3) one-half the clear distance on 9.10.3.2 For precast box multi-beam bridges, di-
each side of the effective web width plus the effective web aphragms are required only if necessary for slab-end
width. support or to contain or resist transverse tension ties.
9.10.3.3 For cast-in-place box girders, diaphragms or

9.9 FLANGE AND WEB THICKNESS—BOX
other means shall be used at span ends to resist lateral
GIRDERS
forces and maintain section geometry. Intermediate di-
aphragms are not required for bridges with inside radius
9.9.1 Top Flange
of curvature of 800 feet or greater.
The minimum top flange thickness shall be 1⁄ 30th of the
9.10.3.4 For segmental box girders, diaphragms shall
clear distance between fillets or webs but not less than 6
be placed within the box at span ends. Intermediate di-
inches, except the minimum thickness may be reduced for
aphragms are not required for bridges with inside radius
factory produced precast, pretensioned elements to
of curvature of 800 feet or greater.
51⁄ 2 inches.
9.10.3.5 For all types of prestressed boxes in bridges
9.9.2 Bottom Flange with inside radius of curvature less than 800 feet, inter-
mediate diaphragms may be required and the spacing and
The minimum bottom flange thickness shall be 1⁄ 30th of strength of diaphragms shall be given special considera-
the clear distance between fillets or webs but not less than tion in the design of the structure.
51⁄ 2 inches, except the minimum thickness may be reduced
for factory produced precast, pretensioned elements to
5 inches. 9.11 DEFLECTIONS
9.9.3 Web 9.11.1 General
Changes in girder stem thickness shall be tapered for Deflection calculations shall consider dead load, live
a minimum distance of 12 times the difference in web load, prestressing, erection loads, concrete creep and
thickness. shrinkage, and steel relaxation.
9.11.2 Segmental Box Girders 9.12 DECK PANELS
Deflections shall be calculated prior to casting of seg- 9.12.1 General

ments and they shall be based on the anticipated casting
and erection schedules. Calculated deflections shall be 9.12.1.1 Precast prestressed deck panels used as per-
used as a guide against which actual deflection measure- manent forms spanning between stringers may be de-
ments are checked. signed compositely with the cast-in-place portion of the
slabs to support additional dead loads and live loads.
9.11.3 Superstructure Deflection Limitations
9.12.1.2 The panels shall be analyzed assuming they
When making deflection computations, the following support their self-weight, any construction loads, and the
criteria are recommended. weight of the cast-in-place concrete, and shall be analyzed
assuming they act compositely with the cast-in-place con-
9.11.3.1 Members having simple or continuous crete to support moments due to additional dead loads and
spans preferably should be designed so that the deflection live loads.
due to service live load plus impact shall not exceed 1⁄ 800
of the span, except on bridges in urban areas used in part 9.12.2 Bending Moment
by pedestrians whereon the ratio preferably shall not
exceed 1⁄ 1000. 9.12.2.1 Live load moments shall be computed in ac-
cordance with Article 3.24.3.
9.11.3.2 The deflection of cantilever arms due to ser-
vice live load plus impact preferably should be limited to 9.12.2.2 In calculating stresses in the deck panel due
1
⁄300 of the cantilever arm except for the case including to negative moment near the stringer, no compression due
pedestrian use, where the ratio preferably should be 1⁄ 375. to prestressing shall be assumed to exist.
Part C
DESIGN
9.13 GENERAL 9.13.2.2 Before cracking, stress is linearly propor-

tional to strain.
9.13.1 Design Theory and General Considerations
9.13.2.3 After cracking, tension in the concrete is ne-
9.13.1.1 Members shall meet the strength require- glected.
ments specified herein.
9.13.1.2 Design shall be based on strength (Load 9.13.3 Composite Flexural Members
Factor Design) and on behavior at service conditions (Al-
lowable Stress Design) at all load stages that may be crit- Composite flexural members consisting of precast
ical during the life of the structure from the time pre- and/or cast-in-place concrete elements constructed in sep-
stressing is first applied. arate placements but so interconnected that all elements
respond to superimposed loads as a unit shall conform to
9.13.1.3 Stress concentrations due to the prestressing the provisions of Articles 8.14.2.1 through 8.14.2.4,
shall be considered in the design. 8.14.2.6, and the following.
9.13.1.4 The effects of temperature and shrinkage

9.13.3.1 Where an entire member is assumed to re-
shall be considered.
sist the vertical shear, the design shall be in accordance
9.13.2 Basic Assumptions with the requirements of Articles 9.20.1 through 9.20.3.
The following assumptions are made for design pur- 9.13.3.2 The design shall provide for full transfer
poses for monolithic members. of horizontal shear forces at contact surfaces of inter-
connected elements. Design for horizontal shear shall
9.13.2.1 Strains vary linearly over the depth of the be in accordance with the requirements of Article
member throughout the entire load range. 9.20.4.
9.13.3.3 In structures with a cast-in-place slab on At the end of the seating loss zone . . . . . . 0.83 f*y
precast beams, the differential shrinkage tends to cause Tensioning to 0.90 f*y for short periods of
tensile stresses in the slab and in the bottom of the beams. time prior to seating may be permitted to
Because the tensile shrinkage develops over an extended offset seating and friction losses provided
time period, the effect on the beams is reduced by creep. the stress at the anchorage does not exceed
Differential shrinkage may influence the cracking load the above value.
and the beam deflection profile. When these factors are Stress at service load† after losses . . . . . . . . . 0.80 f*y
particularly significant, the effect of differential shrinkage
should be added to the effect of loads.
9.15.2 Concrete
9.14 LOAD FACTORS 9.15.2.1 Temporary Stresses Before Losses Due

to Creep and Shrinkage
The computed strength capacity shall not be less than
the largest value from load factor design in Article 3.22. Compression:
For the design of post-tensioned anchorage zones a load Pretensioned members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.60 f9ci
factor of 1.2 shall be applied to the maximum tendon jack- Post-tensioned members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.55 f9ci
ing force. Tension:
The following strength capacity reduction factors shall Precompressed tensile zone . . . . . . .No temporary
be used: allowable stresses are specified. See Article
9.15.2.2 for allowable stresses after losses.
For factory produced precast prestressed concrete Other Areas
members f 5 1.0 In tension areas with
For post-tensioned cast-in-place concrete members f no bonded reinforcement . . . . . . . 200 psi or 3Ïf9 wciw
5 0.95 Where the calculated tensile stress exceeds
For shear f 5 0.90
this value, bonded reinforcement shall be
For anchorage zones f 5 0.85 for normal weight con-
provided to resist the total tension force in
crete and f 5 0.70 for lightweight concrete.
the concrete computed on the assumption
of an uncracked section. The maximum
9.15 ALLOWABLE STRESSES wcwi
tensile stress shall not exceed . . . . . . . . . 7.5Ïf9
The design of precast prestressed members ordinarily 9.15.2.2 Stress at Service Load After Losses
shall be based on fc9 5 5,000 psi. An increase to 6,000 psi Have Occurred
is permissible where, in the Engineer’s judgment,
it is reasonable to expect that this strength will be ob- Compression:
tained consistently. Still higher concrete strengths may be (a) The compressive stresses under all load combina-
considered on an individual area basis. In such cases, tions, except as stated in (b) and (c), shall not exceed
the Engineer shall satisfy himself completely that the 0.60fc9.
controls over materials and fabrication procedures will (b) The compressive stresses due to effective prestress
provide the required strengths. The provisions of this plus permanent (dead) loads shall not exceed 0.40fc9.
Section are equally applicable to prestressed concrete (c) The compressive stress due to live loads plus one-
structures and components designed with lower concrete half of the sum of compressive stresses due to prestress
strengths. and permanent (dead) loads shall not exceed 0.40f9. c
Tension in the precompressed tensile zone:
9.15.1 Prestressing Steel (a) For members with bonded reinforce-
wwc
ment* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6Ïf9
Pretensioned members: For severe corrosive exposure conditions,
Stress immediately prior to transfer—
such as coastal areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Ïf9 wwc
Low-relaxation strands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75 f9s
Stress-relieved strands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.70 f9s
Post-tensioned members:
*Includes bonded prestressed strands.
Stress immediately after seating— †Service load consists of all loads contained in Article 3.2 but does not
At anchorage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.70 f9s include overload provisions.
(b) For members without bonded reinforce- tions. Rigid ducts shall have sufficient strength to main-
ment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0 tain their correct alignment without visible wobble during
Tension in other areas is limited by allowable temporary placement of concrete. Rigid ducts may be fabricated with
stresses specified in Article 9.15.2.1. either welded or interlocked seams. Galvanizing of the
welded seam will not be required.
9.15.2.3 Cracking Stress*
9.16.2 Prestress Losses
Modulus of rupture from tests or if not available.
wwc
For normal weight concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7.5Ïf9 9.16.2.1 General
wwc
For sand-lightweight concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . .6.3Ïf9
wwc
For all other lightweight concrete . . . . . . . . . .5.5Ïf9 Loss of prestress due to all causes, excluding friction,
may be determined by the following method.** The
9.15.2.4 Anchorage Bearing Stress
method is based on normal weight concrete and one of the
Post-tensioned anchorage at service load . . .3,000 psi following types of prestressing steel: 250 or 270 ksi,
(but not to exceed 0.9 fci9) seven-wire, stress-relieved or low-relaxation strand; 240
ksi stress-relieved wires; or 145 to 160 ksi smooth or de-
9.16 LOSS OF PRESTRESS formed bars. Refer to documented tests for data regarding
the properties and the effects of lightweight aggregate
9.16.1 Friction Losses concrete on prestress losses.
Friction losses in post-tensioned steel shall be based on TOTAL LOSS

experimentally determined wobble and curvature coeffi-
cients, and shall be verified during stressing operations. Dfs 5 SH 1 ES 1 CRc 1 CRs (9-3)
The values of coefficients assumed for design, and the ac-
ceptable ranges of jacking forces and steel elongations
where:
shall be shown on the plans. These friction losses shall be
calculated as follows: Dfs 5 total loss excluding friction in pounds per
square inch;
To 5 Txe(KL 1 µa) (9-1)
SH 5 loss due to concrete shrinkage in pounds per
square inch;
When (KL 1 µa) is not greater than 0.3, the following
equation may be used: ES 5 loss due to elastic shortening in pounds per
square inch;
To 5 Tx (1 1 KL 1 µa) (9-2)
CRc 5 loss due to creep of concrete in pounds per
The following values for K and µ may be used when square inch;
experimental data for the materials used are not available: CRs 5 loss due to relaxation of prestressing steel in
pounds per square inch.
Type of Steel Type of Duct K/ft m
9.16.2.1.1 Shrinkage
Wire or strand Rigid and semi-rigid
a
galvanized metal 0.0002 0.15–0.25 Pretensioned Members:
sheathing
Polyethylene 0.0002 0.23
Rigid steel pipe 0.0002 0.25b SH 5 17,000 2 150 RH (9-4)
High Strength
bars Galvanized metal sheathing 0.0002 0.15
Post-tensioned Members:
a
A friction coefficient of 0.25 is appropriate for 12 strand tendons. A
lower coefficient may be used for larger tendon and duct sizes.
bLubrication will probably be required.
SH 5 0.80 (17,000 2 150 RH) (9-5)
**Should more exact prestress losses be desired, data representing the

Friction losses occur prior to anchoring but should be materials to be used, the methods of curing, the ambient service condi-
estimated for design and checked during stressing operation and any pertinent structural details should be determined for use in
accordance with a method of calculating prestress losses that is sup-
ported by appropriate research data. See also FHWA Report FHWA/RD
*Refer to Article 9.18. 85/045, Criteria for Designing Lightweight Concrete Bridges.
where RH 5 mean annual ambient relative humidity in 9.16.2.1.3 Creep of Concrete

percent. (See Figure 9.16.2.1.1.) Pretensioned and post-tensioned members
9.16.2.1.2 Elastic Shortening

CR c = 12 fcir − 7 fcds (9 - 9)
Pretensioned Members
where
Es fcds 5 concrete stress at the center of gravity of the

ES = fcir (9 - 6) prestressing steel due to all dead loads except
E ci
the dead load present at the time the pre-
stressing force is applied.
Post-tensioned Members*
9.16.2.1.4 Relaxation of Prestressing Steel**
Es Pretensioned Members
ES = 0.5 fcir (9 - 7)
E ci
250 to 270 ksi Strand
where CRs 5 20,000 2 0.4 ES 2 0.2 (SH 1 CRc)
for stress relieved strand (9-10)
Es 5 modulus of elasticity of prestressing steel
strand, which can be assumed to be 28 3 106
CRs 5 5,000 2 0.10 ES 2 0.05 (SH 1 CRc)
psi;
for low relaxation strand (9-10A)
Eci 5 modulus of elasticity of concrete in psi at
transfer of stress, which can be calculated
Post-tensioned Members
from:
250 to 270 ksi Strand
E ci = 33w 3 / 2 fci′ (9 - 8) CRs 5 20,000 2 0.3 FR 2 0.4 ES 2 0.2 (SH 1 CRc)
for stress relieved strand (9-11)
in which w is the concrete unit weight in
pounds per cubic foot and fci9 is in pounds per CRs 5 5,000 2 0.07 FR 2 0.1 ES 2 0.05 (SH 1 CRc)
square inch; for low relaxation strand (9-11A)
fcir 5 concrete stress at the center of gravity of the
prestressing steel due to prestressing force and 240 ksi Wire
dead load of beam immediately after transfer; CRs 5 18,000 2 0.3 FR 2 0.4 ES 2 0.2 (SH 1 CRc)
fcir shall be computed at the section or sections (9-12)
of maximum moment. (At this stage, the ini-
tial stress in the tendon has been reduced by 145- to 160-ksi Bars
elastic shortening of the concrete and tendon CRs 5 3,000
relaxation during placing and curing the con-
where
crete for pretensioned members, or by elastic
shortening of the concrete and tendon friction FR 5 friction loss stress reduction in psi below
for post-tensioned members. The reductions the level of 0.70 f9s at the point under
to initial tendon stress due to these factors can consideration, computed according to
be estimated, or the reduced tendon stress can Article 9.16.1,
be taken as 0.63 f9s for stress relieved strand or ES, SH, 5 appropriate values as determined for
0.69 f9s for low relaxation strand in typical pre- and CRc either pretensioned or post-tensioned
tensioned members.) members.
**The relaxation losses are based on an initial stress equal to the stress
*Certain tensioning procedures may alter the elastic shortening losses. at anchorages allowed by Article 9.15.1.
9.16.2.1.4
DIVISION I—DESIGN
FIGURE 9.16.2.1.1 Mean Annual Relative Humidity

235
9.16.2.2 Estimated Losses satisfy Equation (9-24), the design flexural strength shall
be assumed as:
In lieu of the preceding method, the following
estimates of total losses may be used for prestressed  *   p* f * d pfsy  
φM n = φ A *s fsu d 1 − 0.6  su + t 
members or structures of usual design. These loss values    fc′ d fc′  
are based on use of normal weight concrete, normal   d p* fsu* pfsy   
prestress levels, and average exposure conditions. For + A s fsy d t 1 − 0.6  +  
  d t fc′ fc′   
exceptionally long spans, or for unusual designs, the
method in Article 9.16.2.1 or a more exact method shall (9 - 13a )
be used.
9.17.3 Flanged Sections
TABLE 9.16.2.2 Estimate of Prestress Losses
For sections having prestressing steel only, in which
the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block,
defined as (Asrf*su)/(0.85f9b9)
c is greater than the
compression flange thickness “t,” and which satisfy
Equation (9-21), the design flexural strength shall be as-
sumed as:
   A f*  

* d 1 − 0.6  sr su  
φM n = φ A sr fsu
   b ′dfc′  

9.17 FLEXURAL STRENGTH


9.17.1 General + 0.85 fc′ ( b − b ′)( t )(d − 0.5t ) (9 - 14)


Prestressed concrete members may be assumed to act
as uncracked members subjected to combined axial and For sections with non-prestressed tension reinforce-
bending stresses within specified service loads. In calcu- ment included, in which the depth of the equivalent rec-
lations of section properties, the transformed area of tangular stress block, defined as (Asrf*su)/(0.85 f9b9)
c is
bonded reinforcement may be included in pretensioned greater than the compression flange thickness “t,” and
members and in post-tensioned members after grouting; which satisfy Equation (9-25), the design flexural strength
prior to bonding of tendons, areas of the open ducts shall shall be assumed as:
be deducted.
   A f*  

9.17.2 Rectangular Sections * d 1 − 0.6  sr su   + A s fsy (d t − d )
φM n = φ A sr fsu
   b ′dfc′  

For rectangular or flanged sections having prestressing
steel only, which the depth of the equivalent rectangular 

stress block, defined as (A*s f*su)/(0.85 fc9b), is not greater + 0.85 fc′ ( b − b ′)( t )(d − 0.5t ) (9 - 14a )
than the compression flange thickness “t”, and which sat- 

isfy Equation (9-20), the design flexural strength shall be
assumed as: where:
  * 
p * fsu Asr 5 A*s 2 Asf in Equation (9-14); (9-15)
φM n = φ A*s fsu
* d 1 − 0.6  (9 -13)
  fc′   Asr 5 A*s 1 (Asfsy/f*su) 2 Asf,
in Equation (9-14a) (9-15a)
For rectangular or flanged sections with non-
Asf 5 0.85 fc9 (b 2 b9)t/f*su; (9-16)
prestressed tension reinforcement included, in which
the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block, Asf 5 the steel area required to develop the ultimate
defined as (A*s f*su 1 Asfsy)/(0.85 fc9b), is not greater compressive strength of the overhanging por-
than the compression flange thickness “t,” and which tions of the flange.
9.17.4 Steel Stress 9.18 DUCTILITY LIMITS
9.17.4.1 Unless the value of f*su can be more accu- 9.18.1 Maximum Prestressing Steel
rately known from detailed analysis, the following values
may be used: Prestressed concrete members shall be designed so that
the steel is yielding as ultimate capacity is approached. In
Bonded Members . . . general, the reinforcement index shall be such that
with prestressing only (as defined);
(p*f*su )/f c9 for rectangular sections (9-20)
[ ]
* = fs′ 1 − ( γ * / β1 )( p * fs′ / fc′ )
fsu (9 -17)
and
with non-prestressed tension reinforcement included;
Asrf*su/(b9dfc9) for flanged sections (9-21)
 γ *  p * fs′ d t  pfsy   
* = fs′ 1 −
fsu  +    (9 -17a)
 β1  fc′ d  fc′    does not exceed 0.36b1. (See Article 9.19 for rein-
forcement indices of sections with non-prestressed
reinforcement.).
Unbonded members . . . f*su 5 fse 1 900((d 2 yu)/le) (9-18) For members with reinforcement indices greater than
0.36b1, the design flexural strength shall be assumed not
but shall not exceed f*y. greater than:
Where For rectangular sections

yu 5 distance from extreme compression fiber to
the neutral axis assuming the tendon pre- fMn 5 f [(0.36 b1 2 0.08 b21) fc9bd2] (9-22)
stressing steel has yielded.
le 5 li/(1 1 0.5N5); effective tendon length. For flanged sections
li 5 tendon length between anchorages (inch).
Ns 5 number of support hinges crossed by the ten- fMn 5 f[(0.36b1 2 0.08 b21) fc9b9d2 1
don between anchorages or discretely bonded 0.85 fc9 (b 2 b9) t (d 2 0.5t)] (9-23)
points.
provided that 9.18.2 Minimum Steel
(1) The stress-strain properties of the prestressing 9.18.2.1 The total amount of prestressed and non-
steel approximate those specified in Division II, Arti- prestressed reinforcement shall be adequate to develop an
cle 10.3.1.1. ultimate moment at the critical section at least 1.2 times
(2) The effective prestress after losses is not less than the cracking moment M*cr
0.5 f9.
s
fMn $ 1.2 M*cr

9.17.4.2 At ultimate load, the stress in the pre-
stressing steel of precast deck panels shall be limited to where
lx 2
*=
fsu + fse (9 -19) M*cr 5 Sc (fr 1 fpe) 2 Md/nc (Sc/Sb 2 1)
D 3
Appropriate values for Md/nc and Sb shall be used for any
but shall not be greater than f*su as given by the equations intermediate composite sections. Where beams are de-
in Article 9.17.4.1. In the above equation: signed to be noncomposite, substitute Sb for Sc in the
D 5 nominal diameter of strand in inches; above equation for the calculation of M*.
cr
fse 5 effective stress in prestressing strand after losses
in kips per square inch; 9.18.2.2 The requirements of Article 9.18.2.1 may be
,x 5 distance from end of prestressing strand to center waived if the area of prestressed and non-prestressed re-
of panel in inches. inforcement provided at a section is at least one-third
greater than that required by analysis based on the load- wire fabric with wires located perpendicular to the axis
ing combinations specified in Article 3.22. of the member. Web reinforcement shall extend to a
distance d from the extreme compression fiber and shall
9.18.2.3 The requirements of Article 9.18.2.1 may be be carried as close to the compression and tension sur-
waived if the area of prestressed and non-prestressed re- faces of the member as cover requirements and the
inforcement provided at a section is at least one-third proximity of other reinforcement permit. Web rein-
greater than that required by analysis based on the load- forcement shall be anchored at both ends for its design
ing combinations specified in Article 3.22. yield strength in accordance with the provisions of
Article 8.27.
9.18.2.4 The minimum amount of non-prestressed
longitudinal reinforcement provided in the cast-in-place 9.20.1.3 Members subject to shear shall be designed
portion of slabs utilizing precast prestressed deck panels so that
shall be 0.25 square inch per foot of slab width.
Vu # f (Vc 1 Vs) (9-26)
9.19 NON-PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT where Vu is the factored shear force at the section consid-
ered, Vc is the nominal shear strength provided by con-
Non-prestressed reinforcement may be considered as crete and Vs is the nominal shear strength provided by web
contributing to the tensile strength of the beam at ultimate reinforcement.
strength in an amount equal to its area times its yield
point, provided that 9.20.1.4 When the reaction to the applied loads in-
troduces compression into the end regions of the member,
For rectangular sections sections located at a distance less than h/2 from the face
of the support may be designed for the same shear Vu as
 pfsy  d t  p * fsu
*   p ′fy′ 
  + −  ≤ 0.36β1 (9 - 24) that computed at a distance h/2.
 fc′  d  fc′   fc′ 
9.20.1.5 Reinforced keys shall be provided in the
For flanged sections webs of precast segmental box girders to transfer erection
shear. Possible reverse shearing stresses in the shear keys
(Asfsy)/(b9dfc9) 1 (Asr f*su)/(b9dfc9) shall be investigated, particularly in segments near a pier.
2 (A9f 9)/(b9dfc9) # 0.36b1 (9-25) At time of erection, the shear stress carried by the shear
s y
key shall not exceed 2 Ïf9 wcw.i
Design flexural strength shall be calculated based on
9.20.2 Shear-Strength Provided by Concrete
Equation (9-13a) or Equation (9-14a) if these values are
met, and on Equation (9-22) or Equation (9-23) if these
9.20.2.1 The shear strength provided by concrete, Vc,
values are exceeded.
shall be taken as the lesser of the values Vci or Vcw.
9.20 SHEAR* 9.20.2.2 The shear strength, Vci, shall be computed

by
9.20.1 General Vi M cr
Vci = 0.6 fc′ b ′d + Vd + (9 - 27)
9.20.1.1 Prestressed concrete flexural members, ex- M max
cept solid slabs and footings, shall be reinforced for shear
and diagonal tension stresses. Voided slabs shall be inves- but need not be less than 1.7 Ïf9wwc b9 d and d need not be
tigated for shear, but shear reinforcement may be omitted taken less than 0.8h.
if the factored shear force, Vu, is less than half the shear The moment causing flexural cracking at the section
strength provided by the concrete f Vc. due to externally applied loads, Mcr, shall be computed by:
9.20.1.2 Web reinforcement shall consist of stirrups

I
perpendicular to the axis of the member or welded M cr = (6 fc′ + fpe − fd ) (9 - 28)
Yt
*The method for design of web reinforcement presented in the 1979

Interim AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges is an The maximum factored moment and factored shear at
acceptable alternate. the section due to externally applied loads, Mmax and Vi,
shall be computed from the load combination causing 9.20.3.3 The minimum area of web reinforcement
maximum moment at the section. shall be
50 b ′s
9.20.2.3 The shear strength, Vcw, shall be computed Av = (9 - 31)
fsy
by
VCW = (3.5 fc′ + 0.3 fpc ) b ′d + Vp (9 - 29) where b9 and s are in inches and fsy is in psi.
9.20.3.4 The design yield strength of web reinforce-

but d need not be taken less than 0.8h.
ment, fsy, shall not exceed 60,000 psi.
9.20.2.4 For a pretensioned member in which
9.20.4 Horizontal Shear Design—Composite
the section at a distance h/2 from the face of support
Flexural Members
is closer to the end of the member than the transfer length
of the prestressing tendons, the reduced prestress shall
9.20.4.1 In a composite member, full transfer of hor-
be considered when computing Vcw. The prestress
izontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of
force may be assumed to vary linearly from zero at the
interconnected elements.
end of the tendon to a maximum at a distance from
the end of the tendon equal to the transfer length, as- 9.20.4.2 Design of cross sections subject to horizon-
sumed to be 50 diameters for strand and 100 diameters tal shear may be in accordance with provisions of Article
for single wire. 9.20.4.3 or 9.20.4.4, or any other shear transfer design
method that results in prediction of strength in substantial
9.20.2.5 The provisions for computing the shear agreement with results of comprehensive tests.
strength provided by concrete, Vci and Vcw, apply to nor-
mal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate con- 9.20.4.3 Design of cross sections subject to horizon-
cretes are used (see definition, concrete, structural light- tal shear may be based on:
weight, Article 8.1.3), one of the following modifications
shall apply: Vu # fVnh (9-31a)
(a) When fct is specified, the shear strength, Vci and where Vu is factored shear force at section considered, Vnh
Vcw, shall be modified by substituting fct/6.7 for Ïf9 wci, is nominal horizontal shear strength in accordance with
but the value of fct/6.7 used shall not exceed Ïf9 ww.
c the following, and where d is for the entire composite sec-
(b) When fct is not specified, Vci and Vcw shall be mod- tion.
ified by multiplying each term containing Ïf9 wwc by 0.75
for “all lightweight” concrete, and 0.85 for “sand-light- (a) When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and
weight” concrete. Linear interpolation may be used intentionally roughened, shear strength Vnh shall not be
when partial sand replacement is used. taken greater than 80bvd, in pounds.
(b) When minimum ties are provided in accordance
9.20.3 Shear Strength Provided by Web with Article 9.20.4.5, and contact surface is clean and
Reinforcement free of laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear
strength Vnh shall not be taken greater than 80bvd, in
9.20.3.1 The shear strength provided by web rein- pounds.
forcement shall be taken as: (c) When minimum ties are provided in accordance
with Article 9.20.4.5, and contact surface is clean, free
A v fsy d of laitance, and intentionally roughened to a full am-
Vs = (9 - 30)
s plitude of approximately 1⁄ 4 inch, shear strength Vnh
shall not be taken greater than 350bvd, in pounds.
where Av is the area of web reinforcement within a dis- (d) For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the
tance s. Vs shall not be taken greater than 8 Ïf9
wc b9 d and contact surface in excess of the minimum required by
d need not be taken less than 0.8h. Article 9.20.4.5, shear strength Vnh may be increased
by (160fy/40,000)bvd, in pounds.
9.20.3.2 The spacing of web reinforcing shall not ex-
ceed 0.75h or 24 inches. When Vs exceeds 4 f9c b9 d, this 9.20.4.4 Horizontal shear may be investigated by
maximum spacing shall be reduced by one-half. computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the
span, the change in compressive or tensile force to be 9.21.2 General Zone and Local Zone
transferred, and provisions made to transfer that force as
horizontal shear between interconnected elements. The 9.21.2.1 General Zone
factored horizontal shear force shall not exceed horizon-
tal shear strength fVnh in accordance with Article 9.21.2.1.1 The geometric extent of the general zone
9.20.4.3, except that length of segment considered shall be is identical to that of the overall anchorage zone as defined
substituted for d. in Article 9.21.1 and includes the local zone.
9.20.4.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear 9.21.2.1.2 Design of general zones shall meet the re-
quirements of Articles 9.14 and 9.21.3.
ment shall be provided between interconnected ele- 9.21.2.2 Local Zone
ments. Tie area shall not be less than 50 bvs/fy, and tie
spacing “s” shall not exceed four times the least web 9.21.2.2.1 The local zone is defined as the rectangu-
width of support element, nor 24 inches. lar prism (or equivalent rectangular prism for circular or
(b) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars oval anchorages) of concrete surrounding and immedi-
or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded ately ahead of the anchorage device and any integral con-
wire fabric. All ties shall be adequately anchored into fining reinforcement. The dimensions of the local zone are
interconnected elements by embedment or hooks. defined in Article 9.21.7.
9.21 POST-TENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES 9.21.2.2.2 Design of local zones shall meet the re-
quirements of Articles 9.14 and 9.21.7 or shall be based
9.21.1 Geometry of the Anchorage Zone on the results of experimental tests required in Article
9.21.7.3 and described in Article 10.3.2.3 of Division II.
9.21.1.1 The anchorage zone is geometrically de- Anchorage devices based on the acceptance test of Divi-
fined as the volume of concrete through which the con- sion II, Article 10.3.2.3, are referred to as special anchor-
centrated prestressing force at the anchorage device age devices.
spreads transversely to a linear stress distribution across
the entire cross section. 9.21.2.3 Responsibilities
9.21.1.2 For anchorage zones at the end of a member 9.21.2.3.1 The engineer of record is responsible for
or segment, the transverse dimensions may be taken as the the overall design and approval of working drawings for
depth and width of the section. The longitudinal extent of the general zone, including the specific location of the ten-
the anchorage zone in the direction of the tendon (ahead dons and anchorage devices, general zone reinforcement,
of the anchorage) shall be taken as not less than the larger and the specific stressing sequence. The engineer of
transverse dimension but not more than 11⁄ 2 times that record is also responsible for the design of local zones
dimension. based on Article 9.21.7.2 and for the approval of special
anchorage devices used under the provisions of Article
9.21.1.3 For intermediate anchorages in addition to
9.21.7.3. All working drawings for the local zone must be
the length of Article 9.21.1.2 the anchorage zone shall be
approved by the engineer of record.
considered to also extend in the opposite direction for a
distance not less than the larger transverse dimension.
9.21.2.3.2 Anchorage device suppliers are responsi-
9.21.1.4 For multiple slab anchorages, both width ble for furnishing anchorage devices which satisfy the an-
and length of the anchorage zone shall be taken as equal chor efficiency requirements of Division II, Article 10.3.2.
to the center-to-center spacing between stressed tendons, In addition, if special anchorage devices are used, the an-
but not more than the length of the slab in the direction of chorage device supplier is responsible for furnishing an-
the tendon axis. The thickness of the anchorage zone shall chorage devices that satisfy the acceptance test require-
be taken equal to the thickness of the slab. ments of Article 9.21.7.3 and of Division II, Article
10.3.2.3. This acceptance test and the anchor efficiency
9.21.1.5 For design purposes, the anchorage zone test shall be conducted by an independent testing agency
shall be considered as comprised of two regions; the gen- acceptable to the engineer of record. The anchorage de-
eral zone as defined in Article 9.21.2.1 and the local zone vice supplier shall provide records of the acceptance test
as defined in Article 9.21.2.2. in conformance with Division II, Article 10.3.2.3.12 to the
engineer of record and to the constructor and shall spec- methods identical with the curing of the member, is at
ify auxiliary and confining reinforcement, minimum edge least 4,000 psi.
distance, minimum anchor spacing, and minimum
concrete strength at time of stressing required for proper 9.21.3.3 Use of Special Anchorage Devices
performance of the local zone.
Whenever special anchorage devices which do not
9.21.2.3.3 The responsibilities of the constructor are meet the requirements of Article 9.21.7.2 are to be used,
specified in Division II, Article 10.4. reinforcement similar in configuration and at least equiv-
alent in volumetric ratio to the supplementary skin rein-
9.21.3 Design of the General Zone forcement permitted under the provisions of Division II,
Article 10.3.2.3.4 shall be furnished in the corresponding
9.21.3.1 Design Methods regions of the anchorage zone.
The following methods may be used for the design of 9.21.3.4 General Design Principles and Detailing
general zones: Requirements
(1) Equilibrium based plasticity models (strut-and-tie Good detailing and quality workmanship are essential
models) (see Article 9.21.4) for the satisfactory performance of anchorage zones.
(2) Elastic stress analysis (finite element analysis or Sizes and details for anchorage zones should respect the
equivalent) (see Article 9.21.5) need for tolerances on the bending, fabrication and place-
(3) Approximate methods for determining the com- ment of reinforcement, the size of aggregate and the need
pression and tension forces, where applicable. (See for placement and sound consolidation of the concrete.
Article 9.21.6.)
9.21.3.4.1 Compressive stresses in the concrete
Regardless of the design method used, all designs shall ahead of basic anchorage devices shall meet the require-
conform to the requirements of Article 9.21.3.4. ments of Article 9.21.7.2.
The effects of stressing sequence and three-dimen-
sional effects shall be considered in the design. When 9.21.3.4.2 Compressive stresses in the concrete
these three dimensional effects appear significant, they ahead of special anchorage devices shall be checked at a
may be analyzed using three-dimensional analysis proce- distance measured from the concrete-bearing surface
dures or may be approximated by considering two or more equal to the smaller of:
planes. However, in these approximations the interaction
of the planes’ models must be considered, and the model (1) The depth to the end of the local confinement re-
loadings and results must be consistent. inforcement.
(2) The smaller lateral dimension of the anchorage de-
9.21.3.2 Nominal Material Strengths vice.
9.21.3.2.1 The nominal tensile strength of bonded re- These compressive stresses may be determined according
inforcement is limited to fsy for non-prestressed reinforce- to the strut-and-tie model procedures of Article 9.21.4,
ment and to fy for prestressed reinforcement. The nominal from an elastic stress analysis according to Article
tensile strength of unbonded prestressed reinforcement is 9.21.5.2, or by the approximate method outlined in Arti-
limited to fse 1 15,000 psi. cle 9.21.6.2. These compressive stresses shall not exceed
0.7 fci9.
9.21.3.2.2 The effective nominal compressive
strength of the concrete of the general zone, exclusive of 9.21.3.4.3 Compressive stresses shall also be
confined concrete, is limited to 0.7 fc9. The tensile strength checked where geometry or loading discontinuities within
of the concrete shall be neglected. or ahead of the anchorage zone may cause stress concen-
trations.
9.21.3.2.3 The compressive strength of concrete at
transfer of prestressing shall be specified on the construc- 9.21.3.4.4 The bursting force is the tensile force in
tion drawings. If not otherwise specified, stress shall not the anchorage zone acting ahead of the anchorage device
be transferred to concrete until the compressive strength and transverse to the tendon axis. The magnitude of the
of the concrete as indicated by test cylinders, cured by bursting force, Tburst, and its corresponding distance from
the loaded surface, dburst, can be determined using the stressed or prestressed reinforcement located close to the
strut-and-tie model procedures of Article 9.21.4, from an longitudinal and transverse edge of the concrete. Arrange-
elastic stress analysis according to Article 9.21.5.3, or by ment and anchorage of the edge tension reinforcement
the approximate method outlined in Article 9.21.6.3. shall satisfy the following:
Three-dimensional effects shall be considered for the de-
termination of the bursting reinforcement requirements. (1) Minimum spalling reinforcement satisfying Arti-
cle 9.21.3.4.8 shall extend over the full width of the
9.21.3.4.5 Resistance to bursting forces, fAsfsy member.
and/or fA*f s y*, shall be provided by non-prestressed or (2) Spalling reinforcement between multiple anchor-
prestressed reinforcement, in the form of spirals, closed age devices shall effectively tie these anchorage de-
hoops, or well-anchored transverse ties. This reinforce- vices together.
ment is to be proportioned to resist the total factored burst- (3) Longitudinal edge tension reinforcement and
ing force. Arrangement and anchorage of bursting rein- spalling reinforcement for eccentric anchorage devices
forcement shall satisfy the following: shall be continuous. The reinforcement shall extend
along the tension face over the full length of the an-
(1) Bursting reinforcement shall extend over the full chorage zone and shall extend along the loaded face
width of the member and must be anchored as close to from the longitudinal edge to the other side of the ec-
the outer faces of the member as cover permits. centric anchorage device or group of anchorage devices.
(2) Bursting reinforcement shall be distributed ahead
of the loaded surface along both sides of the tendon 9.21.3.5 Intermediate Anchorages
throughout a distance of 2.5 dburst for the plane consid-
ered, but not to exceed 1.5 times the corresponding lat- 9.21.3.5.1 Intermediate anchorages shall not be used
eral dimension of the section. The centroid of the burst- in regions where significant tension is generated behind
ing reinforcement shall coincide with the distance dburst the anchor from other loads. Whenever practical, blisters
used for the design. shall be located in the corner between flange and webs, or
(3) Spacing of bursting reinforcement shall exceed shall be extended over the full flange width or web height
neither 24-bar diameters nor 12 inches. to form a continuous rib. If isolated blisters must be used
on a flange or web, local shear, bending and direct force
9.21.3.4.6 Edge tension forces are tensile forces effects shall be considered in the design.
in the anchorage zone acting parallel and close to
the transverse edge and longitudinal edges of the mem-
9.21.3.5.2 Bonded reinforcement shall be provided
ber. The transverse edge is the surface loaded by the
to tie back at least 25% of the intermediate anchorage un-
anchors. The tensile force along the transverse edge is
factored stressing force into the concrete section behind
referred to as spalling force. The tensile force along the
the anchor. Stresses in this bonded reinforcement are lim-
longitudinal edge is referred to as longitudinal edge
ited to a maximum of 0.6fsy or 36 ksi. The amount of
tension force.
tie back reinforcement may be reduced using Equation
9.21.3.4.7 Spalling forces are induced in con- (9-32), if permanent compressive stresses are generated
centrically loaded anchorage zones, eccentrically loaded behind the anchor from other loads.
anchorage zones, and anchorage zones for multiple
anchors. Longitudinal edge tension forces are induced Tia 5 0.25Ps 2 fcb Acb (9-32)
when the resultant of the anchorage forces considered
causes eccentric loading of the anchorage zone. The where, Tia 5 the tie back tension force at the interme-
edge tension forces can be determined from an diate anchorage;
elastic stress analysis, strut-and-tie models, or in Ps 5 the maximum unfactored anchorage
accordance with the approximate methods of Article stressing force;
9.21.6.4. fcb 5 the compressive stress in the region be-
hind the anchor;
9.21.3.4.8 In no case shall the spalling force be Acb 5 the area of the continuing cross section
taken as less than 2% of the total factored tendon force. within the extensions of the sides of the
anchor plate or blister. The area of the
9.21.3.4.9 Resistance to edge tension forces, fAsfsy blister or rib shall not be taken as part of
and/or fA*fs *,
y shall be provided in the form of non-pre- the cross section.
9.21.3.5.3 Tie back reinforcement satisfying Article 9.21.3.7.2 Reinforcement shall be provided for the
9.21.3.5.2 shall be placed no further than one plate width bursting force in the direction of the thickness of the slab
from the tendon axis. It shall be fully anchored so that the and normal to the tendon axis in accordance with Articles
yield strength can be developed at a distance of one plate 9.21.3.4.4 and 9.21.3.4.5. This reinforcement shall be an-
width or half the length of the blister or rib ahead of the chored close to the faces of the slab with standard hooks
anchor as well as at the same distance behind the anchor. bent around horizontal bars, or equivalent. Minimum re-
The centroid of this reinforcement shall coincide with the inforcement is two #3 bars per anchor located at a distance
tendon axis, where possible. For blisters and ribs, the re- equal to one-half the slab thickness ahead of the anchor.
inforcement shall be placed in the continuing section near
that face of the flange or web from which the blister or rib 9.21.3.7.3 Reinforcement in the plane of the slab and
is projecting. normal to the tendon axis shall be provided to resist edge
tension forces, T1, between anchorages (Equation (9-33))
9.21.3.5.4 Reinforcement shall be provided through- and bursting forces, T2, ahead of the anchorages (Equation
out blisters or ribs are required for shear friction, corbel ac- (9-34)). Edge tension reinforcement shall be placed im-
tion, bursting forces, and deviation forces due to tendon mediately ahead of the anchors and shall effectively tie
curvature. This reinforcement shall be in the form of ties adjacent anchors together. Bursting reinforcement shall be
or U-stirrups which encase the anchorage and tie it effec- distributed over the length of the anchorage zones. (See
tively into the adjacent web and flange. This reinforcement Article 9.21.1.4.)
shall extend as far as possible into the flange or web and
be developed by standard hooks bent around transverse a
bars or equivalent. Spacing shall not exceed the smallest of T1 = 0.10 Pu 1 −  (9 - 33)
 s
blister or rib height at anchor, blister width, or 6 inches.
a
9.21.3.5.5 Reinforcement shall be provided to resist T2 = 0.20 Pu 1 −  (9 - 34)
 s
local bending in blisters and ribs due to eccentricity of the
tendon force and to resist lateral bending in ribs due to
tendon deviation forces. where T1 5 the edge tension force;
T2 5 the bursting force;
9.21.3.5.6 Reinforcement required by Articles Pu 5 the factored tendon load on an individual
9.21.3.4.4 through 9.21.3.4.9 shall be provided to resist anchor;
tensile forces due to transfer of the anchorage force from a 5 the anchor plate width;
the blister or rib into the overall structure. s 5 the anchorage spacing.
9.21.3.6 Diaphragms 9.21.3.7.4 For slab anchors with an edge distance

of less than two plate widths or one slab thickness,
9.21.3.6.1 For tendons anchored in diaphragms, con- the edge tension reinforcement shall be proportioned to
crete compressive stresses shall be limited within the di- resist 25% of the factored tendon load. This reinforcement
aphragm in accordance with Articles 9.21.3.4.1 through shall preferably be in the form of hairpins and shall be dis-
9.21.3.4.3. Compressive stresses shall also be checked at
tributed within one plate width ahead of the anchor. The
the transition from the diaphragm to webs and flanges of
legs of the hairpin bars shall extend from the edge of the
the member.
slab past the adjacent anchor but not less than a distance
equal to five plate widths plus development length.
9.21.3.6.2 Reinforcement shall be provided to ensure
full transfer of diaphragm anchor loads into the flanges
and webs of the girder. The more general methods of Ar- 9.21.4 Application of Strut-and-Tie Models to the
ticle 9.21.4 or 9.21.5 shall be used to determine this rein- Design of Anchorage Zones
forcement. Reinforcement shall also be provided to tie
back deviation forces due to tendon curvature. 9.21.4.1 General
9.21.3.7 Multiple Slab Anchorages 9.21.4.1.1 The flow of forces in the anchorage zone
may be approximated by a series of straight compression
9.21.3.7.1 Minimum reinforcement meeting the re- members (struts) and straight-tension members (ties) that
quirements of Articles 9.21.3.7.2 through 9.21.3.7.4 shall are connected at discrete points (nodes). Compression
be provided unless a more detailed analysis is made. forces are carried by concrete compression struts and ten-
sion forces are carried by non-prestressed or prestressed 9.21.4.4 Ties

reinforcement.
9.21.4.4.1 Tension forces in the strut-and-tie model
9.21.4.1.2 The selected strut-and-tie model shall fol- shall be assumed to be carried completely by non-pre-
low a load path from the anchorages to the end of the an- stressed or prestressed reinforcement. Tensile strength of
the concrete shall be neglected.
chorage zone. Other forces acting on the anchorage zone,
such as reaction forces, tendon deviation forces, and ap-
9.21.4.4.2 Tension ties shall be properly detailed and
plied loads, shall be considered in the selection of the
shall extend beyond the nodes to develop the full tension
strut-and-tie model. The forces at the end of the anchor- tie force at the node. The reinforcement layout must
age zone can be obtained from an axial-flexural beam closely follow the directions of the ties in the strut-and-tie
analysis. model.
9.21.4.2 Nodes 9.21.5 Elastic Stress Analysis
Local zones which meet the provisions of Article 9.21.5.1 Analyses based on assumed elastic material
9.21.7 or Division II, Article 10.3.2.3 are considered as properties, equilibrium, and compatibility of strains are
properly detailed, adequate nodes. The other nodes in the acceptable for analysis and design of anchorage zones.
anchorage zone are adequate if the effective concrete
stresses in the struts meet the requirements of Article 9.21.5.2 If the compressive stresses in the concrete
9.21.4.3 and the tension ties are properly detailed to de- ahead of the anchorage device are determined from a lin-
velop the full-yield strength of the reinforcement. ear-elastic stress analysis, local stress maxima may be av-
eraged over an area equal to the bearing area of the an-
9.21.4.3 Struts chorage device.
9.21.4.3.1 The effective concrete compressive 9.21.5.3 Location and magnitude of the bursting
strength for the general zone shall usually be limited to force may be obtained by integration of the corresponding
0.7f fci9. In areas where the concrete may be extensively tensile bursting stresses along the tendon path.
cracked at ultimate due to other load effects, or if large
plastic rotations are required, the effective compressive 9.21.6 Approximate Methods
strength shall be limited to 0.6f f9ci.
9.21.6.1 Limitations
9.21.4.3.2 In anchorage zones the critical section for
compression struts is ordinarily located at the interface In the absence of a more accurate analysis, concrete
with the local zone node. If special anchorage devices are compressive stresses ahead of the anchorage device, loca-
used, the critical section of the strut can be taken as that tion and magnitude of the bursting force, and edge tension
section whose extension intersects the axis of the tendon forces may be estimated by Equations (9-35) through
at a depth equal to the smaller of the depth of the local (9-38), provided that:
confinement reinforcement or the lateral dimension of the (1) The member has a rectangular cross section and its
anchorage device. longitudinal extent is at least equal to the largest trans-
verse dimension of the cross section.
9.21.4.3.3 For thin members with a ratio of member (2) The member has no discontinuities within or ahead
thickness to anchorage width of no more than three, the of the anchorage zone.
dimension of the strut in the direction of the thickness of (3) The minimum edge distance of the anchorage in
the member can be approximated by assuming that the the main plane of the member is at least 11⁄ 2 times the
thickness of the compression strut varies linearly from the corresponding lateral dimension, a, of the anchorage
transverse lateral dimension of the anchor at the surface device.
of the concrete to the total thickness of the section at a (4) Only one anchorage device or one group of closely
depth equal to the thickness of the section. spaced anchorage devices is located in the anchorage
zone. Anchorage devices can be treated as closely
9.21.4.3.4 The compression stresses can be assumed spaced if their center-to-center spacing does not exceed
as acting parallel to the axis of the strut and as uniformly 11⁄ 2 times the width of the anchorage devices in the
distributed over its cross section. direction considered.
(5) The angle of inclination of the tendon with respect If a group of anchorages is closely spaced in two direc-
to the center line of the member is not larger than 20° tions, the product of the correction factors, k, for each di-
if the anchor force points toward the centroid of the rection is used in Equation (9-36).
section and for concentric anchors, and is not larger
than 5° if the anchor force points away from the cen- 9.21.6.2.3 Effective bearing area, Ab, in Equation
troid of the section. (9-35) shall be taken as the larger of the anchor bearing
plate area, Aplate, or the bearing area of the confined
concrete in the local zone, Aconf, with the following limi-
9.21.6.2 Compressive Stresses tations:
(1) If Aplate controls, Aplate shall not be taken larger than
9.21.6.2.1 No additional check of concrete compres- 4/p Aconf.
sive stresses is necessary for basic anchorage devices sat- (2) If Aconf controls, the maximum dimension of Aconf
isfying Article 9.21.7.2. shall not be more than twice the maximum dimension
of Aplate or three times the minimum dimension of Aplate.
9.21.6.2.2 The concrete compressive stresses ahead If any of these limits is violated the effective-bearing
of special anchorage devices at the interface between local area, Ab, shall be based on Aplate.
zone and general zone shall be approximated by Equa- (3) Deductions shall be made for the area of the duct
tions (9-35) and (9-36). in the determination of Ab.
0.6 Pu 1 9.21.6.3 Bursting Forces

fca = κ (9 - 35)
Ab  1 1
1 + lc  −  Values for the magnitude of the bursting force, Tburst,
 b eff t 
and for its distance from the loaded surface, dburst, shall be
estimated by Equations (9-37) and (9-38), respectively. In
 s  n the application of Equations (9-37) and (9-38) the speci-
κ = 1 + 2 −  0.3 +  for s < 2a eff (9 - 36)
 a eff   15 fied stressing sequence shall be considered if more than
one tendon is present.
k51 for s $ 2a eff a
Tburst = 0.25ΣPu 1 −  + 0.5Pu sin α (9 - 37)
 h
where:
dburst 5 0.5(h 2 2e) 1 5e sina (9-38)
fca 5 the concrete compressive stress ahead of the an-
chorage device; where, SPu 5 the sum of the total factored tendon
k 5 a correction factor for closely spaced anchor- loads for the stressing arrangement
ages; considered;
Ab 5 an effective bearing area as defined in Article a 5 the lateral dimension of the anchorage
9.21.6.2.3; device or group of devices in the direc-
aeff 5the lateral dimension of the effective bearing tion considered;
area measured parallel to the larger dimension of e 5 the eccentricity (always taken as posi-
the cross section or in the direction of closely tive) of the anchorage device or group
spaced anchors; of devices with respect to the centroid
beff 5 the lateral dimension of the effective bearing of the cross section;
area measured parallel to the smaller dimension h 5 the lateral dimension of the cross sec-
of the cross section; tion in the direction considered;
,c 5 the longitudinal extent of confining reinforce- a 5 the angle of inclination of the resultant
ment for the local zone, but not more than the of the tendon forces with respect to the
larger of 1.15 aeff or 1.15 beff; center line of the member.
Pu 5 the factored tendon load; 9.21.6.4 Edge-Tension Forces
t 5 the thickness of the section;
s 5 the center-to-center spacing of multiple anchor- 9.21.6.4.1 For multiple anchorages with a center-to-
ages; center spacing of less than 0.4 times the depth of the sec-
n 5 the number of anchorages in a row. tion, the spalling forces shall be given by Article
9.21.3.4.8. For larger spacings, the spalling forces shall be the bottom of each bearing surface plus the maximum
determined from a more detailed analysis, such as strut- dimension of that bearing surface.
and-tie models or other analytical procedures.
In no case shall the length of the local zone be taken as
9.21.6.4.2 If the centroid of all tendons considered is greater than 11⁄ 2 times the width of the local zone.
located outside of the kern of the section both spalling
forces and longitudinal edge tension forces are induced. 9.21.7.1.4 For closely spaced anchorages an en-
The longitudinal edge-tension force shall be determined larged local zone enclosing all individual anchorages shall
from an axial-flexural beam analysis at a section located also be considered.
at one-half the depth of the section away from the loaded
surface. The spalling force shall be taken as equal to the 9.21.7.2 Bearing Strength
longitudinal edge-tension force but not less than specified
in Article 9.21.3.4.8. 9.21.7.2.1 Anchorage devices may be either basic
anchorage devices meeting the bearing compressive
9.21.7 Design of the Local Zone strength limits of Articles 9.21.7.2.2 through 9.21.7.2.4 or
special anchorage devices meeting the requirements of
9.21.7.1 Dimensions of the Local Zone Article 9.21.7.3.
9.21.7.1.1 When no independently verified manufac- 9.21.7.2.2 The effective concrete bearing compres-
turer’s edge-distance recommendations for a particular sive strength fb used for design shall not exceed that of
anchorage device are available, the transverse dimensions Equations (9-39) or (9-40).
of the local zone in each direction shall be taken as the
larger of:
fb ≤ 0.7 φfci′ A / A g (9 - 39)
(1) The corresponding bearing plate size plus twice
the minimum concrete cover required for the particu-
lar application and environment. but, fb # 2.25 f f 9ci (9-40)
(2) The outer dimension of any required confining re-
inforcement plus the required concrete cover over the where:
confining reinforcing steel for the particular applica- fb 5 the maximum factored tendon load, Pu, divided
tion and environment. by the effective bearing area Ab;
f 9ci 5 the concrete compressive strength at stressing;
9.21.7.1.2 When independently verified manufac-
A 5 the maximum area of the portion of the support-
turer’s recommendations for minimum cover, spacing and
ing surface that is geometrically similar to the
edge distances for a particular anchorage device are avail-
loaded area and concentric with it;
able, the transverse dimensions of the local zone in each
Ag 5 the gross area of the bearing plate if the require-
direction shall be taken as the smaller of:
ments of Article 9.21.7.2.3 are met, or is the area
(1) Twice the edge distance specified by the anchorage calculated in accordance with Article 9.21.7.2.4;
device supplier. Ab 5 the effective net area of the bearing plate calcu-
(2) The center-to-center spacing specified by the an- lated as the area Ag minus the area of openings in
chorage device supplier. the bearing plate.
The manufacturer’s recommendations for spacing and Equations (9-39) and (9-40) are only valid if general zone
edge distance of anchorages shall be considered minimum reinforcement satisfying Article 9.21.3.4 is provided and
values. if the extent of the concrete along the tendon axis ahead
of the anchorage device is at least twice the length of the
9.21.7.1.3 The length of the local zone along the ten- local zone as defined in Article 9.21.7.1.3.
don axis shall be taken as the greater of:
9.21.7.2.3 The full bearing plate area may be used
(1) The maximum width of the local zone. for Ag and the calculation of Ab if the anchorage device is
(2) The length of the anchorage device confining rein- sufficiently rigid. To be considered sufficiently rigid, the
forcement. slenderness of the bearing plate (n/t) must not exceed the
(3) For anchorage devices with multiple-bearing sur- value given in Equation (9-41). The plate must also be
faces, the distance from the loaded concrete surface to checked to ensure that the plate material does not yield.
3
n/t # 0.08 Ïw
Ebw/ww
fb (9–41) 9.22 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES
where: 9.22.1 In pretensioned beams, vertical stirrups acting at

a unit stress of 20,000 psi to resist at least 4% of the total
n 5 the largest distance from the outer edge of the prestressing force shall be placed within the distance of
wedge plate to the outer edge of the bearing d/4 of the end of the beam.
plate. For rectangular-bearing plates this dis-
tance is measured parallel to the edges of the 9.22.2 For at least the distance d from the end of the
bearing plate. If the anchorage has no separate beam, nominal reinforcement shall be placed to enclose
wedge plate, the size of the wedge plate shall be the prestressing steel in the bottom flange.
taken as the distance between the extreme wedge
holes in the corresponding direction. 9.22.3 For box girders, transverse reinforcement shall
t 5 the average thickness of the bearing plate. be provided and anchored by extending the leg into the
Eb 5 the modulus of elasticity of the bearing-plate web of the girder.
material.
9.22.4 Unless otherwise specified, stress shall not be
9.21.7.2.4 For bearing plates that do not meet the transferred to concrete until the compressive strength of
stiffness requirements of Article 9.21.7.2.3, the effective the concrete as indicated by test cylinders, cured by meth-
gross-bearing area, Ag, shall be taken as the area geomet- ods identical with the curing of the member, is at least
rically similar to the wedge plate (or to the outer perime- 4,000 psi.
ter of the wedge-hole pattern for plates without separate
wedge plate) with dimensions increased by assuming load 9.23 CONCRETE STRENGTH AT
spreading at a 45° angle. A larger effective-bearing area STRESS TRANSFER
may be calculated by assuming an effective area and Unless otherwise specified, stress shall not be trans-
checking the new fb and n/t values for conformance with ferred to concrete until the compressive strength of the
Articles 9.21.7.2.2 and 9.21.7.2.3. concrete as indicated by test cylinders, cured by methods
identical with the curing of the members, is at least 4,000
9.21.7.3 Special Anchorage Devices psi for pretensioned members (other than piles) and 3,500
psi for post-tensioned members and pretensioned piles.
Special anchorage devices that do not meet the require-
9.24 DECK PANELS
ments of Article 9.21.7.2 as well as other devices that do
meet the requirements of Article 9.21.7.2 but which the en- 9.24.1 Deck panels shall be prestressed with pre-
gineer of record requires to have tested may be used pro- tensioned strands. The strands shall be in a direction
vided that they have been tested by an independent testing transverse to the stringers when the panels are placed on
agency acceptable to the engineer of record according to the supporting stringers. The top surface of the panels shall
the procedures described in Division II, Article 10.3.2 (or be roughened in such a manner as to ensure composite ac-
equivalent) and meet the acceptance criteria specified in Di- tion between the precast and cast-in-place concrete.
vision II, Article 10.3.2.3.10. For a series of similar special
anchorage devices, tests are only required for representative 9.24.2 Reinforcing bars, or equivalent mesh, shall be
samples unless tests for each capacity of the anchorages in placed in the panel transverse to the strands to provide at
the series are required by the engineer of record. least 0.11 square inches per foot of panel.
Part D
DETAILING
9.25 FLANGE REINFORCEMENT 9.26 COVER AND SPACING OF STEEL
Bar reinforcement for cast-in-place T-beam and box 9.26.1 Minimum Cover
girder flanges shall conform to the provisions in Articles
8.17.2.2 and 8.17.2.3 except that the minimum reinforcement The following minimum concrete cover shall be pro-
in bottom flanges shall be 0.3% of the flange section. vided for prestressing and conventional steel:
9.26.1.1 Prestressing Steel and Main 9.26.4 Size of Ducts

Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11⁄ 2 inch
9.26.4.1 For tendons made up of a number of wires,
9.26.1.2 Slab Reinforcement bars, or strands, duct area shall be at least twice the net
area of the prestressing steel.
9.26.1.2.1 Top of Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11⁄ 2 inch
When deicers are used . . . . . . . . . .2 inch
9.26.4.2 For tendons made up of a single wire, bar,
9.26.1.2.2 Bottom of Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 inch or strand, the duct diameter shall be at least 1⁄ 4 inch
larger than the nominal diameter of the wire, bar, or strand.
9.26.1.3 Stirrups and Ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 inch
9.26.1.4 When deicer chemicals are used, drainage 9.27 POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND
details shall dispose of deicer solutions without constant COUPLERS
contact with the prestressed girders. Where such contact
cannot be avoided, or in locations where members are ex- 9.27.1 Anchorages, couplers, and splices for bonded
posed to salt water, salt spray, or chemical vapor, addi- post-tensioned reinforcement shall develop at least 95% of
tional cover should be provided. the minimum specified ultimate strength of the prestress-
ing steel, tested in an unbonded state without exceeding
9.26.2 Minimum Spacing anticipated set. Bond transfer lengths between anchorages
and the zone where full prestressing force is required
9.26.2.1 The minimum clear spacing of prestressing under service and ultimate loads shall normally be suffi-
steel at the ends of beams shall be as follows: cient to develop the minimum specified ultimate strength
of the prestressing steel. Couplers and splices shall be
Pretensioning steel: The clear distance between placed in areas approved by the Engineer and enclosed in
strands shall not be less than 11 ⁄ 3 times the maximum a housing long enough to permit the necessary move-
size of the concrete aggregate. Also, the minimum ments. When anchorages or couplers are located at criti-
spacing center-to-center of strand shall be as follows: cal sections under ultimate load, the ultimate strength re-
Strand Size Spacing quired of the bonded tendons shall not exceed the ultimate
⁄ inch special, 9 ⁄ 16 inch, 9 ⁄ 16 inch
1 2 2 inches capacity of the tendon assembly, including the anchorage
special, and 6 ⁄ 10 inch or coupler, tested in an unbonded state.
7 ⁄ 16 inch and 1 ⁄ 2 inch 13 ⁄ 4 inches
3 ⁄ 8 inch 11 ⁄ 2 inches 9.27.2 The anchorages of unbonded tendons shall de-
velop at least 95% of the minimum specified ultimate
Post-tensioning steel: 11⁄ 2 inches or 11⁄ 2 times the maxi- strength of the prestressing steel without exceeding antic-
mum size of the concrete aggregate, whichever is greater. ipated set. The total elongation under ultimate load of the
tendon shall not be less than 2% measured in a minimum
gauge length of 10 feet.
9.26.2.2 Prestressing strands in deck panels shall be
spaced symmetrically and uniformly across the width of 9.27.3 For unbonded tendons, a dynamic test shall be
the panel. They shall not be spaced farther apart than 11⁄ 2 performed on a representative specimen and the tendon
times the total composite slab thickness or more than 18 shall withstand, without failure, 500,000 cycles from 60%
inches. to 66% of its minimum specified ultimate strength, and
also 50 cycles from 40% to 80% of its minimum specified
9.26.3 Bundling ultimate strength. The period of each cycle involves the
change from the lower stress level to the upper stress level
9.26.3.1 When post-tensioning steel is draped or de- and back to the lower. The specimen used for the second
flected, post-tensioning ducts may be bundled in groups dynamic test need not be the same used for the first dy-
of three maximum, provided that the spacing specified in namic test. Systems utilizing multiple strands, wires, or
Article 9.26.2 is maintained in the end 3 feet of the bars may be tested utilizing a test tendon of smaller capac-
member. ity than the full size tendon. The test tendon shall duplicate
the behavior of the full size tendon and generally shall not
9.26.3.2 Where pretensioning steel is bundled, all have less than 10% of the capacity of the full size tendon.
bundling shall be done in the middle third of the beam Dynamic tests are not required on bonded tendons, unless
length and the deflection points shall be investigated for the anchorage is located or used in such manner that re-
secondary stresses. peated load applications can be expected on the anchorage.
9.27.4 Couplings of unbonded tendons shall be used

1f* 2 }3 f 2D
2
only at locations specifically indicated and/or approved by su se (9-42)
the Engineer. Couplings shall not be used at points of sharp
tendon curvature. All couplings shall develop at least 95%
of the minimum specified ultimate strength of the pre- where D is the nominal diameter in inches, f*su and fse are
stressing steel without exceeding anticipated set. The cou- in kips per square inch, and the parenthetical expression
pling of tendons shall not reduce the elongation at rupture is considered to be without units.
below the requirements of the tendon itself. Couplings
and/or coupling components shall be enclosed in housings 9.28.2 Investigations may be limited to those cross sec-
long enough to permit the necessary movements. All the tions nearest each end of the member which are required
coupling components shall be completely protected with a to develop their full ultimate capacity.
coating material prior to final encasement in concrete.
9.28.3 Where strand is debonded at the end of a mem-
9.27.5 Anchorages, end fittings, couplers, and exposed ber and tension at service load is allowed in the precom-
tendons shall be permanently protected against corrosion. pressed tensile zone, the development length required
above shall be doubled.
9.28 EMBEDMENT OF PRESTRESSED
STRAND 9.29 BEARINGS
9.28.1 Three- or seven-wire pretensioning strand shall Bearing devices for prestressed concrete structures
be bonded beyond the critical section for a development shall be designed in accordance with Article 10.29 and
length in inches not less than Section 14.
Section 10
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Part A
r
10.1 APPLICATION As 5 total area of longitudinal reinforcing steel at
the interior support within the effective
10.1.1 Notations flange width (Article 10.38.5.1.2)
Asr 5 total area of longitudinal slab reinforcement
A 5 area of cross section (Articles 10.37.1.1, steel for each beam over interior support (Ar-
10.34.4, 10.48.1.1, 10.48.2.1, 10.48.4.2, ticle 10.38.5.1.3)
10.48.5.3, and 10.55.1) As 5 area of steel section (Articles 10.38.5.1.2,
A 5 bending moment coefficient (Article 10.54.1.1, and 10.54.2.1)
10.50.1.1.2) Asc 5 cross-sectional area of a stud shear connector
Ae 5 effective area of a flange or splice plate (Article 10.38.5.1.2)
with holes or a tension member with holes Aw 5 area of web of beam (Article 10.53.1.2)
(Articles 10.12, 10.18.2.2.1, 10.18.2.2.3, a 5 distance from center of bolt under con-
10.18.2.2.4, and 10.18.4.1) sideration to edge of plate, in. (Articles
AF 5 amplification factor (Articles 10.37.1.1 and 10.32.3.3.2 and 10.56.2)
10.55.1) a 5 spacing of transverse stiffeners (Article
(AFy)bf 5 product of area and yield point for bottom 10.39.4.4.2)
flange of steel section (Article 10.50.1.1.1) a 5 depth of stress block (Figure 10.50A)
(AFy)c 5 product of area and yield point of that part of a 5 ratio of numerically smaller to the larger end
reinforcing which lies in the compression moment (Article 10.54.2.2)
zone of the slab (Article 10.50.1.1.1) B 5 constant based on the number of stress cycles
(AFy)tf 5 product of area and yield point for top flange (Article 10.38.5.1.1)
of steel section (Article 10.50.1.1.1) B 5 constant for stiffeners (Articles 10.34.4.7
(AFy)w 5 product of area and yield point for web of and 10.48.5.3)
steel section (Article 10.50.1.1.1) b 5 compression flange width (Table 10.32.1A
Af 5 area of flange (Articles 10.39.4.4.2, and Articles 10.34.2.1, 10.48, 10.48.1.1,
10.48.2.1, 10.53.1.2, and 10.56.3) 10.48.2, 10.48.2.1, and 10.61.4)
Af 5 the sum of the area of filler plates on the top b 5 distance from center of bolt under consider-
and bottom of the connected plate (Article ation to toe of fillet of connected part, in. (Ar-
10.18.1.2.1) ticles 10.32.3.3.2 and 10.56.2)
Afc 5 area of compression flange (Articles b 5 effective width of slab (Article 10.50.1.1.1)
10.48.4.1 and 10.50.1.2.1) b 5 effective flange width (Articles 10.38.3 and
Ag 5 gross area of a flange, splice plate or tension 10.38.5.1.2)
member (Articles 10.18.2.2.2, 10.18.2.2.4, b 5 widest flange width (Article 10.15.2.1)
and 10.18.4.1) b 5 distance from edge of plate or edge of perfo-
An 5 net section of a tension member (Article ration to the point of support (Article
10.18.4.1) 10.35.2.3)
Ap 5 the smaller of either the connected plate area b 5 unsupported distance between points of sup-
or the sum of the splice plate areas on the top port (Article 10.35.2.7)
and bottom of the connected plate (Article b 5 flange width between webs (Articles
10.18.1.2.1) 10.37.3.1, 10.39.4.2, 10.51.5.1, and 10.55.3)
251
b9 5 width of stiffeners (Articles 10.34.5.2, d 5 depth of beam or girder, in. (Table 10.32.1A
10.34.6, 10.37.2.4, 10.39.4.5.1, and 10.55.2) and Articles 10.13, 10.48.2, 10.48.4.1, and
b9 5 width of a projecting flange element, angle, 10.50.1.1.2)
or stiffener (Articles 10.34.2.2, 10.34.4.7, d 5 diameter of rocker or roller, in. (Article
10.37.3.2, 10.39.4.5.1, 10.48.5.3, 10.51.5.5, 10.32.4.2)
and 10.55.3) db 5 beam depth (Article 10.56.3)
C 5 web buckling coefficient (Articles 10.34.4, dc 5 column depth (Article 10.56.3)
10.38.1.7, 10.48.5.3, and 10.48.8) do 5 spacing of intermediate stiffener (Articles
C 5 compressive force in the slab (Article 10.34.4, 10.34.5, 10.48.5.3, 10.48.6.3, and
10.50.1.1.1) 10.48.8)
C 5 equivalent moment factor (Article 10.54.2.1) ds 5 distance from the centerline of a plate longi-
C9 5 compressive force in top portion of steel sec- tudinal stiffener or the gage line of an angle
tion (Article 10.50.1.1.1) longitudinal stiffener to the inner surface or
Cb 5 bending coefficient (Table 10.32.1A and Ar- the leg of the compression flange component
ticles 10.48.4.1 and 10.50.2.2) (Articles 10.34.3.2.1, 10.34.5.1, 10.48.4.1,
Cc 5 column slenderness ratio dividing elastic and 10.49.3.2(a), and 10.61.1)
inelastic buckling (Table 10.32.1A) E 5 modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (Table
Cmx 5 coefficient about X axis (Article 10.36) 10.32.1A and Articles 10.15.3, 10.36, 10.37,
Cmy 5 coefficient about the Y axis (Article 10.36) 10.39.4.4.2, 10.54.1, and 10.55.1)
c 5 buckling stress coefficient (Article Ec 5 modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (Article
10.51.5.2) 10.38.5.1.2)
D 5 clear distance between flanges, in. (Article e 5 distance from the centerline of a splice to the
10.15.2) centroid of the connection on the side of the
D 5 clear unsupported distance between flange joint under consideration (Articles 10.18.2.3.3,
components (Articles 10.18.2.3.4, 10.18.2.3.7, 10.18.2.3.5, and 10.18.2.3.7)
10.18.2.3.8, 10.18.2.3.9, 10.34.3, 10.34.4, F 5 maximum induced stress in the bottom
flange (Article 10.20.2.1)
10.34.5, 10.37.2, 10.48.1, 10.48.2, 10.48.4,
F 5 maximum compressive stress, psi (Article
10.48.5, 10.48.6, 10.48.8, 10.49.2, 10.49.3.2,
10.41.4.6)
10.50.1.1.2, 10.50.2.1, 10.55.2, and 10.61.1)
Fa 5 allowable axial unit stress (Table 10.32.1A
D9 5 distance from the top of the slab to the neu-
and Articles 10.36, 10.37.1.2, and 10.55.1)
tral axis at which a composite section in pos-
Fb 5 allowable bending unit stress (Table 10.32.1A
itive bending theoretically reaches its plastic-
and Articles 10.18.2.2.3, 10.37.1.2, and
moment capacity when the maximum strain
10.55.1)
in the slab is at 0.003 (Article 10.50.1.1.2)
Fbx 5 compressive bending stress permitted about
Dc 5 clear distance between the neutral axis and the
the X axis (Article 10.36)
compression flange (Articles 10.34.3.2.1,
Fby 5 compressive bending stress permitted about
10.34.5.1, 10.48.4.1, 10.49.2, 10.49.3,
the Y axis (Article 10.36)
10.50(b), 10.57, and 10.61.1) Fcr 5 buckling stress of the compression flange
Dc 5 moments caused by dead load acting on com- plate or column (Articles 10.48.2, 10.50.2.2,
posite girder (Article 10.50.1.2.2) 10.51.1, 10.51.5, 10.54.1.1, and 10.54.2.1)
Dcp 5 depth of the web in compression at the plas- Fcr 5 local buckling stress of a stiffener (Articles
tic moment (Articles 10.50(b), 10.50.1.1.2, 10.34.4.7 and 10.48.5.3)
and 10.50.2.1) Fcf 5 design stress for the controlling flange at a
Dcs 5 depth of the web in compression of the non- point of splice (Articles 10.18.2.2.3 and
composite steel beam or girder (Articles 10.18.2.3.8)
10.34.5.1 and 10.49.3.2(a)) Fcu 5 design stress for the controlling flange at a
Dp 5 distance from the top of the slab to the plas- point of splice (Articles 10.18.2.2.1 and
tic neutral axis, in. (Article 10.50.1.1.2) 10.18.2.3.4)
Ds 5 moments caused by dead load acting on steel FD 5 maximum horizontal force (Article
girder (Article 10.50.1.2.2) 10.20.2.2)
d 5 bolt diameter (Table 10.32.3B) Fe 5 Euler buckling stress (Articles 10.37.1,
d 5 diameter of stud, in. (Article 10.38.5.1) 10.54.2.1, and 10.55.1)
Fe9 5 Euler stress divided by a factor of safety (Ar- fa 5 computed axial compression stress (Articles
ticle 10.36) 10.35.2.10, 10.36, 10.37, 10.55.2, and
Fncf 5 design stress for the noncontrolling flange at 10.55.3)
a point of splice (Article 10.18.2.2.3) fb 5 computed compressive bending stress (Arti-
Fncu 5 design stress for the noncontrolling flange at cles 10.34.2, 10.34.3, 10.34.5.2, 10.37,
a point of splice (Article 10.18.2.2.1) 10.39, and 10.55)
Fp 5 computed bearing stress due to design load fb 5 factored bending stress in the compression
(Table 10.32.3B) flange (Articles 10.48, 10.48.2.1(b),
Fs 5 limiting bending stress (Article 10.34.4) 10.48.4.1, 10.50.1.2.1, 10.50.2.2, 10.53, and
Fsr 5 allowable range of stress (Table 10.3.1A) 10.53.1.2)
F9t 5 reduced allowable tensile stress on rivet or fb 5 maximum factored noncomposite dead load
bolt due to the applied shear stress, ksi (Ar- compressive bending stress in the web (Arti-
ticles 10.32.3.3.4 and 10.56.1.3.3) cle 10.61.1)
F yr 5 specified minimum yield point of the rein- fc9 5 unit ultimate compressive strength of con-
forcing steel (Article 10.38.5.1.2) crete as determined by cylinder tests at age of
F.S. 5 factor of safety (Table 10.32.1A and Articles 28 days, psi (Articles 10.38.1, 10.38.5.1.2,
10.32.1 and 10.36) 10.45.3, and 10.50.1.1.1)
Fu 5 specified minimum tensile strength (Tables fcf 5 maximum flexural stress at the mid-thickness
10.2A, 10.32.1A and 10.32.3B and Article of the flange under consideration at a point of
10.18.4) splice (Articles 10.18.2.2.3 and 10.18.2.3.8)
Fu 5 tensile strength of electrode classification fcu 5 maximum flexural stress due to the factored
(Table 10.56A and Article 10.32.2) loads at the mid-thickness of the controlling
Fu 5 maximum bending strength of the flange flange at a point of splice (Articles 10.18.2.2.1
(Articles 10.48.8.2, 10.50.1.2.1, and and 10.18.2.3.4)
10.50.2.2) fDL 5 noncomposite dead load stress in the com-
Fv 5 allowable shear stress (Table 10.32.1A and pression flange (Articles 10.34.5.1 and
10.32.3B and Articles 10.18.2.3.6, 10.32.2, 10.49.3.2(a))
10.32.3, 10.34.4, 10.38.17, and 10.40.2.2) fDL 5 top flange compressive stress due to the fac-
Fv 5 shear strength of a fastener (Article 10.56.1.3) tored noncomposite dead load divided by the
Fvc 5 combined tension and shear in bearing-type factor Rb (Article 10.61.4)
connections (Article 10.56.1.3) fDL+LL 5 total noncomposite and composite dead-load
Fw 5 design shear stress in the web at a point of plus composite live-load stress in the com-
splice (Articles 10.18.2.3.6, 10.18.2.3.7, and pression flange at the most highly stressed
10.18.2.3.9) section of the web (Articles 10.34.5.1 and
Fy 5 specified minimum yield point of steel (Arti- 10.49.3.2(a))
cles 10.15.2.1, 10.15.3, 10.16.11, 10.32.1, fd,1 5 top flange compressive stress due to non-
10.32.4, 10.34, 10.35, 10.37.1.3, 10.38.1.7, composite dead load (Articles 10.34.2.1 and
10.38.5, 10.39.4, 10.40.2.2, 10.41.4.6, 10.46, 10.34.2.2)
10.48, 10.49, 10.50, 10.51.5, 10.54, and fncf 5 flexural stress at the mid-thickness of the non-
10.61.4) controlling flange concurrent with fcf (Articles
Fyf 5 specified minimum yield strength of the flange 10.18.2.2.3 and 10.18.2.3.8)
(Articles 10.18.2.2.1, 10.48.1.1, 10.53.1, fncu 5 flexural stress due to the factored loads at the
10.57.1, and 10.57.2) mid-thickness of the noncontrolling flange at
Fy stiffener 5 specified minimum yield strength of a a point of splice concurrent with fcu (Articles
transverse stiffener (Articles 10.34.4.7 and 10.18.2.2.1 and 10.18.2.3.4)
10.48.5.3) fo 5 maximum flexural stress due to D + βL (L + I)
Fyw 5 specified minimum yield strength of the web at the mid-thickness of the flange under
(Articles 10.18.2.2.1, 10.18.2.2.2, 10.18.2.3.4, consideration at a point of splice (Articles
10.53.1, and 10.61.1) 10.18.2.2.2 and 10.18.2.3.5)
Fy web 5 specified mimimum yield strength of the web fof 5 flexural stress due to D + βL (L + I) at the mid-
(Articles 10.34.4.7 and 10.48.5.3) thickness of the other flange at a point of
f 5 the lesser of (fb/Rb) or Fy (Articles splice concurrent with fo in the flange under
10.48.2.1(b), 10.48.2.2, and 10.53) consideration (Article 10.18.2.3.5)
fr 5 range of stress due to live load plus impact, K 5 effective length factor in plane of buckling
in the slab reinforcement over the support (Table 10.32.1A and Articles 10.37, 10.54.1,
(Article 10.38.5.1.3) and 10.54.2)
fr 5 modulus of rupture of concrete specified in Kb 5 effective length factor in the plane of bend-
Article 8.15.2.1.1 (Article 10.50.2.3) ing (Article 10.36)
fs 5 maximum longitudinal bending stress in the k 5 constant: 0.75 for rivets; 0.6 for high-
flange of the panels on either side of the strength bolts with thread excluded from
transverse stiffener (Article 10.39.4.4) shear plane (Article 10.32.3.3.4)
fs 5 factored bending stress in either the top or k 5 buckling coefficient (Articles 10.34.3.2.1,
bottom flange, whichever flange has the 10.34.4, 10.39.4.3, 10.48.4.1, 10.48.8,
larger ratio of (fs/Fu) (Article 10.48.8.2) 10.51.5.4, and 10.61.1)
ft 5 tensile stress due to applied loads (Articles k 5 distance from outer face of flange to toe of
10.32.3.3.3 and 10.56.1.3.2) web fillet of member to be stiffened (Article
ft 5 allowable tensile stress in the concrete spec- 10.56.3)
ified in Article 8.15.2.1.1 (Article 10.38.4.3) kl 5 buckling coefficient (Article 10.39.4.4)
fv 5 unit shear stress (Articles 10.32.3.2.3, L 5 distance between bolts in the direction of the
10.34.4.4, and 10.34.4.7) applied force (Table 10.32.3B)
fv 5 maximum shear stress in the web at a point of L 5 actual unbraced length (Table 10.32.1A and
splice (Article 10.18.2.3.6) Articles 10.7.4, 10.15.3, and 10.55.1)
fbx 5 computed compressive bending stress about L 5 1/2 of the length of the arch rib (Article
the x axis (Article 10.36) 10.37.1)
fby 5 computed compressive bending stress about L 5 distance between transverse beams (Article
the y axis (Article 10.36) 10.41.4.6)
g 5 gage between fasteners, in. (Articles Lb 5 unbraced length (Table 10.48.2.1.A and Arti-
10.16.14, 10.24.5, and 10.24.6) cles 10.36, 10.48.1.1, 10.48.2.1, 10.48.4.1,
H 5 height of stud, in. (Article 10.38.5.1.1) and 10.53.1.3)
Hw 5 horizontal design force resultant in the web Lc 5 length of member between points of support,
at a point of splice (Articles 10.18.2.3.8 and in. (Article 10.54.1.1)
10.18.2.3.9) Lc 5 clear distance between the holes, or between
Hwo 5 overload horizontal design force resultant the hole and the edge of the material in the di-
in the web at a point of splice (Article rection of the applied bearing force, in. (Table
10.18.2.3.5) 10.32.3B and Article 10.56.1.3.2)
Hwu 5 horizontal design force resultant in the web Lp 5 limiting unbraced length (Article 10.48.4.1)
at a point of splice (Articles 10.18.2.3.4 Lr 5 limiting unbraced length (Article 10.48.4.1)
and 10.18.2.3.5) , 5 member length (Table 10.32.1A and Article
h 5 average flange thickness of the channel 10.35.1)
flange, in. (Article 10.38.5.1.2) M 5 maximum bending moment (Articles
4
I 5 moment of inertia, in. (Articles 10.34.4, 10.48.8, 10.54.2.1, and 10.50.1.1.2)
10.34.5, 10.38.5.1.1, 10.48.5.3, and M1 5 smaller moment at the end of the unbraced
10.48.6.3) length of the member (Article 10.48.1.1(c))
Is 5 moment of inertia of stiffener (Articles M1 & M2 5 moments at two adjacent braced points (Ta-
10.37.2, 10.39.4.4.1, and 10.51.5.4) bles 10.32.1A and 10.36A and Articles
It 5 moment of inertia of transverse stiffeners 10.48.4.1 and 10.50.2.2)
(Article 10.39.4.4.2) Mc 5 column moment (Article 10.56.3.2)
Iy 5 moment of inertia of member about the ver- Mp 5 full plastic moment of the section (Articles
tical axis in the plane of the web, in4 (Article 10.50.1.1.2 and 10.54.2.1)
10.48.4.1) Mr 5 lateral torsional buckling moment or yield
Iyc 5 moment of inertia of compression flange moment (Articles 10.48.2, 10.48.4.1,
about the vertical axis in the plane of the web, 10.50.1.2.1, 10.50.2.2, and 10.53.1.3)
in4 (Table 10.32.1A and Article 10.48.4.1) Ms 5 elastic pier moment for loading producing
J 5 required ratio of rigidity of one transverse maximum positive moment in adjacent span
stiffener to that of the web plate (Articles (Article 10.50.1.1.2)
10.34.4.7 and 10.48.5.3) Mu 5 maximum bending strength (Articles
J 5 St. Venant torsional constant, in4 (Table 10.18.2.2.1, 10.48, 10.49, 10.50.1, 10.50.2,
10.32.1A and Article 10.48.4.1) 10.51.1, 10.53.1, 10.54.2.1, and 10.61.3)
Mv 5 design moment due to the eccentricity of the Ps 5 allowable slip resistance (Article 10.32.3.2.1)
design shear at a point of splice (Articles Pu 5 maximum axial compression capacity (Arti-
10.18.2.3.7 and 10.18.2.3.9) cle 10.54.1.1)
Mvo 5 overload design moment due to the eccentric- Pu 5 design force for checking the strength of a
ity of the overload design shear at a point of bolted splice in a tension member (Article
splice (Article 10.18.2.3.5) 10.18.4.1)
Mvu 5 design moment due to the eccentricity of the p 5 allowable bearing (Article 10.32.4.2)
design shear at a point of splice (Articles Q 5 prying tension per bolt (Articles 10.32.3.3.2
10.18.2.3.3 and 10.18.2.3.5) and 10.56.2)
Mw 5 design moment at a point of splice represent- Q 5 statical moment about the neutral axis (Arti-
ing the portion of the flexural moment as- cle 10.38.5.1.1)
sumed to be resisted by the web (Articles R 5 radius (Article 10.15.2.1)
10.18.2.3.8 and 10.18.2.3.9) R 5 number of design lanes per box girder (Arti-
Mwo 5 overload design moment at a point of splice cle 10.39.2.1)
representing the portion of the flexural mo- R 5 reduction factor for hybrid girders (Articles
ment assumed to be resisted by the web (Ar- 10.18.2.2.1, 10.18.2.2.2, 10.18.2.2.3,
ticle 10.18.2.3.5) 10.18.2.3.4, 10.18.2.3.8, 10.40.2.1.1,
Mwu 5 design moment at a point of splice represent- 10.53.1.2, and 10.53.1.3)
ing the portion of the flexural moment as- R 5 reduction factor applied to the design shear
sumed to be resisted by the web (Articles strength of fasteners passing through fillers
10.18.2.3.4 and 10.18.2.3.5) (Article 10.18.1.2.1)
My 5 moment capacity at first yield (Articles Rb 5 bending capacity reduction factor (Articles
10.18.2.2.1, 10.50.1.1.2, and 10.61.3) 10.48.2, 10.48.4.1, 10.50.1.2.1, 10.50.2.2,
10.53.1.2, 10.53.1.3, and 10.61.4)
N1 & N2 5 number of shear connectors (Article
Rcf 5 absolute value of the ratio of Fcf to fcf for the
10.38.5.1.2)
controlling flange at a point of splice (Articles
Nc 5 number of additional connectors for each
10.18.2.2.3 and 10.18.2.3.8)
beam at point of contraflexure (Article
Rcu 5 the absolute value of the ratio of Fcu to fcu for
10.38.5.1.3)
the controlling flange at a point of splice
Ns 5 number of slip planes in a slip-critical con-
(Articles 10.18.2.2.1 and 10.18.2.3.4)
nection (Articles 10.32.3.2.1 and 10.57.3.1)
Rev 5 a range of stress involving both tension and
Nw 5 number of roadway design lanes (Article
compression during a stress cycle (Table
10.39.2) 10.3.1B)
n 5 ratio of modulus of elasticity of steel to that Rs 5 vertical force at connections of vertical stiff-
of concrete (Article 10.38.1) eners to longitudinal stiffeners (Article
n 5 number of longitudinal stiffeners (Articles 10.39.4.4.8)
10.39.4.3, 10.39.4.4, and 10.51.5.4) Rw 5 vertical web force (Article 10.39.4.4.7)
P 5 allowable compressive axial load on mem- r 5 radius of gyration, in (Articles 10.35.1,
bers (Article 10.35.1) 10.37.1, 10.41.4.6, 10.48.6.3, 10.54.1.1,
P 5 axial compression on the member (Articles 10.54.2.1, and 10.55.1)
10.48.1.1, 10.48.2.1, and 10.54.2.1) rb 5 radius of gyration in plane of bending, in.
P, P1, P2, 5 force in the slab (Article 10.38.5.1.2) (Article 10.36)
& P3 ry 5 radius of gyration with respect to the Y-Y
Pcf 5 design force in the controlling flange at a point axis, in. (Article 10.48.1.1)
of splice (Article 10.18.2.2.3) r9 5 radius of gyration of the compression flange
Pcu 5 design force for the controlling flange at a about the axis in the plane of the web, in.
point of splice (Article 10.18.2.2.1) (Table 10.32.1A and Article 10.48.4.1)
Pfo 5 overload design force in the flange at a point of S 5 allowable rivet or bolt unit stress in shear
splice (Article 10.18.2.2.2) (Article 10.32.3.3.4)
3
Pncf 5 design force for the noncontrolling flange at a S 5 section modulus, in. (Articles 10.48.2,
point of splice (Article 10.18.2.2.3) 10.51.1, 10.53.1.2, and 10.53.1.3)
Pncu 5 design force in the noncontrolling flange at a S 5 pitch of any two successive holes in the chain
point of splice (Article 10.18.2.2.1) (Article 10.16.14.2)
Po 5 design force for checking slip of a bolted splice Sr 5 range of horizontal shear (Article
in a tension member (Article 10.18.4.2) 10.38.5.1.1)
Ss 5 section modulus of transverse stiffener, in.3 10.37.2, 10.48, 10.49.2, 10.49.3, 10.55.2,
(Articles 10.39.4.4 and 10.48.6.3) 10.56.3, and 10.61.1)
St 5 section modulus of longitudinal or transverse ttf 5 thickness of top flange (Article 10.50.1.1.1)
stiffener, in.3 (Article 10.48.6.3) t9 5 thickness of outstanding stiffener element
Su 5 ultimate strength of the shear connector (Ar- (Articles 10.39.4.5.1 and 10.51.5.5)
ticle 10.38.5.1.2) V 5 shearing force (Articles 10.35.1, 10.48.5.3,
Sxc 5 section modulus with respect to the com- 10.48.8, and 10.51.3)
pression flange, in.3 (Table 10.32.1A and V 5 maximum shear in the web at a point of
Articles 10.48.2, 10.48.4.1, 10.50.1.2.1, splice due to the factored loads (Article
10.50.2.2 and 10.53.1.2) 10.18.2.3.2)
Sxt 5 section modulus with respect to the tension Vo 5 maximum shear in the web at the point of splice
flange, in.3 (Articles 10.48.2 and 10.53.1.2) due to D + βL (L + I) (Article 10.18.2.3.5)
s 5 computed rivet or bolt unit stress in shear Vp 5 shear yielding strength of the web (Articles
(Article 10.32.3.3.4) 10.48.8 and 10.53.1.4)
T 5 range in tensile stress (Table 10.3.1B) Vr 5 range of shear due to live loads and impact,
T 5 direct tension per bolt due to external load kips (Article 10.38.5.1.1)
(Articles 10.32.3 and 10.56.2) Vu 5 maximum shear force (Articles 10.18.2.3.2,
T 5 arch rib thrust at the quarter point from 10.34.4, 10.48.5.3, 10.48.8, and 10.53.1.4)
dead1live1impact loading (Articles Vv 5 vertical shear (Article 10.39.3.1)
10.37.1 and 10.55.1) Vw 5 design shear for a web (Articles 10.39.3.1
t 5 thickness of the thinner outside plate or and 10.51.3)
shape (Article 10.35.2)
Vw 5 design shear in the web at a point of splice
t 5 thickness of members in compression (Arti-
(Articles 10.18.2.3.2, 10.18.2.3.3, and
cle 10.35.2)
10.18.2.3.5)
t 5 thickness of thinnest part connected, in (Ar-
Vwo 5 overload design shear in the web at a point
ticles 10.32.3.3.2 and 10.56.2)
of splice (Article 10.18.2.3.5)
t 5 computed rivet or bolt unit stress in tension,
Vwu 5 design shear in the web at a point of splice
including any stress due to prying action (Ar-
(Articles 10.18.2.3.2, 10.18.2.3.3, and
ticle 10.32.3.3.4)
10.18.2.3.5)
t 5 thickness of the wearing surface, in. (Article
10.41.2) W 5 length of a channel shear connector, in. (Ar-
t 5 flange thickness, in. (Articles 10.18.2.2.4, ticle 10.38.5.1.2)
10.34.2.1, 10.34.2.2, 10.39.4.2, 10.48, Wc 5 roadway width between curbs in feet or bar-
10.48.1.1, 10.48.2, 10.48.2.1, 10.51.5.1, and riers if curbs are not used (Article 10.39.2.1)
10.61.4) Wn 5 least net width of a flange (Article 10.18.2.2.4)
t 5 thickness of a flange angle (Article 10.34.2.2) WL 5 fraction of a wheel load (Article 10.39.2)
t 5 thickness of the web of a channel, in. (Arti- w 5 length of a channel shear connector in inches
cle 10.38.5.1.2) measured in a transverse direction on the
t 5 thickness of stiffener (Articles 10.34.4.7 and flange of a girder (Article 10.38.5.1.1)
10.48.5.3) w 5 unit weight of concrete, lb per cu ft (Article
tb 5 thickness of flange delivering concentrated 10.38.5.1.2)
force (Article 10.56.3.2) w 5 width of flange between longitudinal stiffen-
tc 5 thickness of flange of member to be stiffened ers (Articles 10.39.4.3, 10.39.4.4, and
(Article 10.56.3.2) 10.51.5.4)
tf 5 thickness of the flange (Articles 10.37.3, Yo 5 distance from the neutral axis to the extreme
10.55.3, and 10.39.4.3) outer fiber, in. (Article 10.15.3)
th 5 thickness of the concrete haunch above the wy 5 location of steel sections from neutral axis
beam or girder top flange (Article 10.50.1.1.2) (Article 10.50.1.1.1)
ts 5 thickness of stiffener (Article 10.37.2 and Z 5 plastic section modulus (Articles 10.48.1,
10.55.2) 10.53.1.1, and 10.54.2.1)
ts 5 slab thickness (Articles 10.38.5.1.2, Zr 5 allowable range of horizontal shear, in
10.50.1.1.1, and 10.50.1.1.2) pounds on an individual connector (Article
tw 5 web thickness, in. (Articles 10.15.2.1, 10.38.5.1)
10.18.2.3.4, 10.18.2.3.7, 10.18.2.3.8, a 5 constant based on the number of stress cycles
10.18.2.3.9, 10.34.3, 10.34.4, 10.34.5, (Article 10.38.5.1.1)
a 5 minimum specified yield strength of the web pounds per square inch.) The modulus of elasticity of all
divided by the minimum specified yield grades of structural steel shall be assumed to be
strength of the tension flange (Articles 29,000,000 psi and the coefficient of linear expansion
10.40.2 and 10.40.4) 0.0000065 per degree Fahrenheit.
a 5 factor for flange splice design equal to 1.0,
except that a lower value equal to (Mu/My) 10.2.3 Steels for Pins, Rollers, and Expansion
may be used for flanges subject to com- Rockers
pression at sections where Mu does not ex-
ceed My (Article 10.18.2.2.1) Steels for pins, rollers, and expansion rockers shall
a 5 constant equal to 1.3 for members without a conform to one of the designations listed in Tables 10.2A
longitudinal stiffener and 1.0 for members and 10.2B, or shall be stainless steel conforming to ASTM
with a longitudinal stiffener (Article 10.61.1) A 240 or ASTM A 276 HNS 21800.
b 5 area of the web divided by the area of the ten-
sion flange (Articles 10.40.2 and 10.53.1.2) 10.2.4 Fasteners—Rivets and Bolts
b 5 factor applied to gross area of flange, splice
plate or tension member in computing the Fasteners may be carbon steel bolts (ASTM A 307);
effective area (Articles 10.18.2.2.4 and power-driven rivets, AASHTO M 228 Grades 1 or 2
10.18.4.1) (ASTM A 502 Grades 1 or 2); or high-strength bolts,
g 5 the ratio of Af to Ap (Article 10.18.1.2.1) AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) or AASHTO M 253
g 5 load factor equal to 1.3 (Article 10.61) (ASTM A 490).
r 5 Fyw/Fyf (Article 10.53.1.2)
u 5 angle of inclination of the web plate to the
10.2.5 Weld Metal
vertical (Articles 10.39.3.1 and 10.51.3)
c 5 ratio of total cross-sectional area to the cross-
Weld metal shall conform to the current require-
sectional area of both flanges (Article 10.15.2)
ments of the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding
c 5 distance from the outer edge of the tension
Code.
flange to the neutral axis divided by the depth
of the steel section (Articles 10.40.2 and
10.53.1.2) 10.2.6 Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings, Malleable
D 5 amount of camber, in. (Article 10.15.3) Castings, and Cast Iron
DDL 5 dead load camber in inches at any point (Ar-
ticle 10.15.3) 10.2.6.1 Cast Steel and Ductile Iron
Dm 5 maximum value of DDL, in. (Article 10.15.3)
f 5 reduction factor (Articles 10.38.5.1.2, Cast steel shall conform to specifications for Steel
10.56.1.1, and 10.56.1.3) Castings for Highway Bridges, AASHTO M 192 (ASTM
f 5 longitudinal stiffener coefficient (Articles A 486); Mild-to-Medium-Strength Carbon-Steel Cast-
10.39.4.3 and 10.51.5.4) ings for General Application, AASHTO M 103 (ASTM
µ 5 slip coefficient in a slip-critical joint (Article A 27); and Corrosion-Resistant Iron-Chromium,
10.57.3) Iron-Chromium-Nickel and Nickel-Based Alloy Castings
for General Application, AASHTO M 163 (ASTM A
10.2 MATERIALS 743). Ductile iron castings shall conform to ASTM A
536.
10.2.1 General
10.2.6.2 Malleable Castings
These specifications recognize steels listed in the fol-
lowing subparagraphs. Other steels may be used; how- Malleable castings shall conform to specifications for
ever, their properties, strengths, allowable stresses, and Malleable Iron Castings, ASTM A 47, Grade 35018 (min-
workability must be established and specified. imum yield point 35,000 psi).
10.2.2 Structural Steels 10.2.6.3 Cast Iron
Structural steels shall conform to the material desig- Cast iron castings shall conform to specifications for
nated in Table 10.2A. (The stresses in this table are in Gray Iron Castings, AASHTO M 105, Class 30.
TABLE 10.2A
TABLE 10.2B
Part B
DESIGN DETAILS
10.3 REPETITIVE LOADING AND TOUGHNESS except for structures where other considerations indicate
CONSIDERATIONS a substantially different number of cycles, shall be
100,000 cycles.
10.3.1 Allowable Fatigue Stress Ranges
Members and fasteners subject to repeated variations 10.3.3 Charpy V-Notch Impact Requirements
or reversals of stress shall be designed so that the maxi-
mum stress does not exceed the basic allowable stresses 10.3.3.1 Main load carrying member components
given in Article 10.32 and that the actual range of stress subjected to tensile stress require supplemental impact
does not exceed the allowable fatigue stress range given properties as described in the Material Specifications.*
in Table 10.3.1A for the appropriate type and location
of material given in Table 10.3.1B and shown in Fig- 10.3.3.2 These impact requirements vary depending
ure 10.3.1C. For members with shear connectors provided on the type of steel, type of construction, welded or me-
throughout their entire length that also satisfy the provi- chanically fastened, and the average minimum service
sions of Article 10.38.4.3, the range of stress may be com- temperature to which the structure may be subjected.**
puted using the composite section assuming the concrete Table 10.3.3A contains the temperature zone designations.
deck to be fully effective for both positive and negative
moment. 10.3.3.3 Components requiring mandatory impact
For unpainted weathering steel, A709, all grades, the properties shall be designated on the drawings and the ap-
values of allowable fatigue stress range, Table 10.3.1A, as propriate zone shall be designated in the contract docu-
modified by footnote d, are valid only when the design ments.
and details are in accordance with the FHWA Technical
Advisory on Uncoated Weathering Steel in Structures,
dated October 3, 1989. 10.3.4 Shear
Main load carrying components subjected to tensile
stresses that may be considered nonredundant load path 10.3.4.1 When longitudinal beam or girder members
members—that is, where failure of a single element could in bridges designed for Case I roadways are investigated
cause collapse—shall be designed for the allowable stress for “over 2 million” stress cycles produced by placing a
ranges indicated in Table 10.3.1A for Nonredundant Load single truck on the bridge (see footnote c of Table
Path Structures. Examples of nonredundant load path 10.3.2A), the total shear force in the beam or girder under
members are flange and web plates in one or two girder this single-truck loading shall be limited to 0.58 FyDtwC.
bridges, main one-element truss members, hanger plates, The constant C, the ratio of the buckling shear stress to the
and caps at single or two-column bents. shear yield stress is defined in Article 10.34.4.2 or Article
10.48.8.1.
10.3.2 Load Cycles
10.3.2.1 The number of cycles of maximum stress 10.4 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF SPAN
range to be considered in the design shall be selected from
Table 10.3.2A unless traffic and loadometer surveys or For the calculation of stresses, span lengths shall be as-
other considerations indicate otherwise. The fatigue live sumed as the distance between centers of bearings or other
load preferably shall not exceed HS 20 loading. points of support.
10.3.2.2 Allowable fatigue stress ranges shall apply

*AASHTO Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and
to those Group Loadings that include live load or wind Methods of Sampling and Testing.
load. **The basis and philosophy used to develop these requirements are
given in a paper entitled “The Development of AASHTO Fracture-
Toughness Requirements for Bridge Steels’’ by John M. Barsom, Feb-
10.3.2.3 The number of cycles of stress range to be ruary 1975, available from the American Iron and Steel Institute, Wash-
considered for wind loads in combination with dead loads, ington, D.C.
TABLE 10.3.1A Allowable Fatigue Stress Range 10.5.3 For trusses the ratio of depth to length of span
preferably should not be less than 1⁄ 10.
10.5.4 For continuous span depth ratios the span length

shall be considered as the distance between the dead load
points of contraflexure.
10.5.5 The foregoing requirements as they relate to

beam or girder bridges may be exceeded at the discretion
of the designer.*
10.6 DEFLECTION
10.6.1 The term “deflection” as used herein shall be

the deflection computed in accordance with the assump-
tion made for loading when computing the stress in the
member.
10.6.2 Members having simple or continuous spans

preferably should be designed so that the deflection due to
service live load plus impact shall not exceed 1⁄ 800 of the
span, except on bridges in urban areas used in part by
pedestrians whereon the ratio preferably shall not exceed
1
⁄ 1000. For checking deflection, the service live load prefer-
ably shall not exceed HS 20 loading.
10.6.3 The deflection of cantilever arms due to service

live load plus impact preferably should be limited to 1⁄ 300
of the cantilever arm except for the case including pedes-
trian use, where the ratio preferably should be 1⁄ 375.
10.6.4 When spans have cross-bracing or diaphragms

sufficient in depth or strength to ensure lateral distribu-
tion of loads, the deflection may be computed for the
standard H or HS loading (M or MS) considering all
beams or stringers as acting together and having equal
deflection.
10.6.5 The moment of inertia of the gross cross-sec-

tional area shall be used for computing the deflections of
beams and girders. When the beam or girder is a part of a
composite member, the service live load may be consid-
10.5 DEPTH RATIOS ered as acting upon the composite section.
10.5.1 For beams or girders, the ratio of depth to length 10.6.6 The gross area of each truss member shall
of span preferably should not be less than 1⁄ 25. be used in computing deflections of trusses. If per-
forated plates are used, the effective area shall be the net
10.5.2 For composite girders, the ratio of the overall
depth of girder (concrete slab plus steel girder) to the
*For considerations to be taken into account when exceeding these
length of span preferably should not be less than 1⁄ 25, and limitations, reference is made to “Bulletin No. 19, Criteria for the De-
the ratio of depth of steel girder alone to length of span flection of Steel Bridges,’’ available from the American Iron and Steel
preferably should not be less than 1⁄ 30. Institute, Washington, D.C.
TABLE 10.3.1B
TABLE 10.3.1B (Continued)
TABLE 10.3.1B (Continued)
volume divided by the length from center to center of 10.7 LIMITING LENGTHS OF MEMBERS
perforations.
10.7.1 For compression members, the slenderness
10.6.7 The foregoing requirements as they relate to ratio, KL/r, shall not exceed 120 for main members, or
beam or girder bridges may be exceeded at the discretion those in which the major stresses result from dead or live
of the designer.* load, or both; and shall not exceed 140 for secondary
members, or those whose primary purpose is to brace the
*For considerations to be taken into account when exceeding these structure against lateral or longitudinal force, or to brace
limitations, reference is made to “Bulletin No. 19, Criteria for the De-
flection of Steel Bridges,’’ available from the American Iron and Steel or reduce the unbraced length of other members, main or
Institute, Washington, D.C. secondary.
FIGURE 10.3.1C Illustrative Examples
TABLE 10.3.2A Stress Cycles TABLE 10.3.3A Temperature Zone Designations for
Charpy V-Notch Impact Requirements
length between panel point intersections or centers of

braced points or centers of end connections; for sec-
ondary members, the length between the centers of the
end connections of such members or centers of braced
points.
10.7.5 For tension members, except rods, eyebars, ca-

bles, and plates, the ratio of unbraced length to radius of
gyration shall not exceed 200 for main members, shall not
exceed 240 for bracing members, and shall not exceed
140 for main members subject to a reversal of stress.
10.8 MINIMUM THICKNESS OF METAL
10.8.1 Structural steel (including bracing, cross frames,

and all types of gusset plates), except for webs of certain
rolled shapes, closed ribs in orthotropic decks, fillers, and
in railings, shall be not less than 5⁄ 16 inch in thickness. The
web thickness of rolled beams or channels shall not be
less than 0.23 inches. The thickness of closed ribs in or-
thotropic decks shall not be less than 3⁄ 16 inch.
10.7.2 In determining the radius of gyration, r, for the 10.8.2 Where the metal will be exposed to marked cor-
purpose of applying the limitations of the KL/r ratio, the rosive influences, it shall be increased in thickness or spe-
area of any portion of a member may be neglected pro- cially protected against corrosion.
vided that the strength of the member as calculated with-
out using the area thus neglected and the strength of the 10.8.3 It should be noted that there are other provisions
member as computed for the entire section with the KL/r in this section pertaining to thickness for fillers, segments
ratio applicable thereto, both equal or exceed the com- of compression members, gusset plates, etc. As stated
puted total force that the member must sustain. above, fillers need not be 5⁄ 16 inch minimum.
10.7.3 The radius of gyration and the effective area for 10.8.4 For compression members, refer to “Trusses”
carrying stress of a member containing perforated cover (Article 10.16).
plates shall be computed for a transverse section through
the maximum width of perforation. When perforations are 10.8.5 For stiffeners and other plates, refer to “Plate
staggered in opposite cover plates, the cross-sectional Girders” (Article 10.34).
area of the member shall be considered the same as for a
section having perforations in the same transverse plane. 10.8.6 For stiffeners and outstanding legs of angles, etc.,
refer to Article 10.10.
10.7.4 Actual unbraced length, L, shall be assumed as
follows: 10.9 EFFECTIVE AREA OF ANGLES AND
TEE SECTIONS IN TENSION
For the top chords of half-through trusses, the length
between panel points laterally supported as indicated 10.9.1 The effective area of a single angle tension mem-
under Article 10.16.12; for other main members, the ber, a tee section tension member, or each angle of a dou-
ble angle tension member in which the shapes are con- under Strength Design as specified in Articles 10.48.1,
nected back to back on the same side of a gusset plate shall 10.50.1.1, and 10.50.2.1. When computing the strength of
be assumed as the net area of the connected leg or flange a flexural member at a section with holes in the tension
plus one-half of the area of the outstanding leg. flange, an effective flange area, Ae, specified by Equation
(10-4g) shall be used for that flange in computing the elas-
10.9.2 If a double angle or tee section tension member tic section properties. The diameter of the holes shall be
is connected with the angles or flanges back to back on op- taken as specified in Article 10.16.14.6. In the case of the
posite sides of a gusset plate, the full net area of the shapes strength design method, the strength of compact sections
shall be considered effective. with holes in the tension flange shall not be taken greater
than the moment capacity at first yield.
10.9.3 When angles connect to separate gusset plates, as
in the case of a double-webbed truss, and the angles are
connected by stay plates located as near the gusset as prac- 10.13 COVER PLATES
ticable, or by other adequate means, the full net area of the
angles shall be considered effective. If the angles are not 10.13.1 The length of any cover plate added to a rolled
so connected, only 80% of the net areas shall be consid- beam shall be not less than (2d13) feet, where (d) is the
ered effective. depth of the beam in feet.
10.9.4 Lug angles may be considered as effective in 10.13.2 Partial length welded cover plates shall not be
transmitting stress, provided they are connected with at used on flanges more than 0.8 inches thick for nonredun-
least one-third more fasteners than required by the stress dant load path structures subjected to repetitive loadings
to be carried by the lug angle. that produce tension or reversal of stress in the member.
10.10 OUTSTANDING LEGS OF ANGLES 10.13.3 The maximum thickness of a single cover plate
on a flange shall not be greater than two times the thick-
The widths of outstanding legs of angles in compres- ness of the flange to which the cover plate is attached. The
sion (except where reinforced by plates) shall not exceed total thickness of all cover plates should not be greater
the following: than 21⁄ 2 times the flange thickness.
In main members carrying axial stress, 12 times the 10.13.4 Any partial length welded cover plate shall ex-
thickness. tend beyond the theoretical end by the terminal distance,
In bracing and other secondary members, 16 times the and it shall extend to a section where the stress range in
thickness. the beam flange is equal to the allowable fatigue stress
range for base metal adjacent to or connected by fillet
For other limitations, see Article 10.35.2. welds. The theoretical end of the cover plate, when using
service load design methods, is the section at which the
stress in the flange without that cover plate equals the al-
10.11 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION lowable service load stress, exclusive of fatigue consider-
ations. When using strength design methods, the theoret-
In all bridges, provisions shall be made in the design to ical end of the cover plate is the section at which the flange
resist thermal stresses induced, or means shall be provided strength without that cover plate equals the required
for movement caused by temperature changes. Provisions strength for the design loads, exclusive of fatigue require-
shall be made for changes in length of span resulting from ments. The terminal distance is two times the nominal
live load stresses. In spans more than 300 feet long, al- cover plate width for cover plates not welded across their
lowance shall be made for expansion and contraction in ends, and 11⁄ 2 times for cover plates welded across their
the floor. The expansion end shall be secured against lat- ends. The width at ends of tapered cover plates shall be
eral movement. not less than 3 inches. The weld connecting the cover
plate to the flange in its terminal distance shall be contin-
uous and of sufficient size to develop a total stress of not
10.12 FLEXURAL MEMBERS less than the computed stress in the cover plate at its the-
oretical end. All welds connecting cover plates to beam
Flexural members shall be designed using the elastic flanges shall be continuous and shall not be smaller than
section modulus except when utilizing compact sections the minimum size permitted by Article 10.23.2.
10.13.5 Any partial length end-bolted cover plate shall 14 bD

extend beyond the theoretical end by a terminal distance R= (10 -1)
Fy ψ t w
equal to the length of the end-bolted portion, and the cover
plate shall extend to a section where the stress range in the 7, 500 b
beam flange is equal to the allowable fatigue stress range R= (10 - 2)
Fy ψ
for base metal at ends of partial length welded cover plates
with high-strength bolted, slip-critical end connections In these equations, Fy is the specified minimum yield
(Table 10.3.1B). Beams with end-bolted cover plates shall point in kips per square inch of steel in the girder web, c
be fabricated in the following sequence: drill holes; clean is the ratio of the total cross-sectional area to the cross-
faying surfaces; install bolts; weld. The theoretical end of sectional area of both flanges, b is the widest flange width
the end-bolted cover plate is determined in the same man- in inches, D is the clear distance between flanges in
ner as that of a welded cover plate, as is specified in Arti- inches, tw is the web thickness in inches, and R is the ra-
cle 10.13.4. The bolts in the slip-critical connections of dius in inches.
the cover plate ends to the flange, shall be of sufficient
numbers to develop a total force of not less than the com- 10.15.2.2 In addition to the above requirements, the
puted force in the cover plate at the theoretical end. The radius shall not be less than 1,000 feet when the flange
slip resistance of the end-bolted connection shall be de- thickness exceeds 3 inches or the flange width exceeds
termined in accordance with Article 10.32.3.2 for service 30 inches.
load design, and Article 10.56.1.4 for load factor design.
The longitudinal welds connecting the cover plate to the
10.15.3 Camber
beam flange shall be continuous and stop a distance equal
to one bolt spacing before the first row of bolts in the end-
To compensate for possible loss of camber of heat-
bolted portion.
curved girders in service as residual stresses dissipate, the
amount of camber in inches, D at any section along the
10.14 CAMBER length L of the girder shall be equal to:
Girders should be cambered to compensate for dead ∆ DL

∆= (∆ M + ∆ R ) (10 - 3)
load deflections and vertical curvature required by profile ∆M
grade.
0.02 L2 Fy  1, 000 − R 
∆R =
EY  850 
o
10.15 HEAT-CURVED ROLLED BEAMS AND ∆ R = 0 for radii greater than 1, 000
WELDED PLATE GIRDERS
where DDL is the camber in inches at any point along the
10.15.1 Scope length L calculated by usual procedures to compensate for
deflection due to dead loads or any other specified loads;
This section pertains to rolled beams and welded I-sec- DM is the maximum value of DDL in inches within the
tion plate girders heat-curved to obtain a horizontal cur- length L; E is the modulus of elasticity in ksi; Fy is the
vature. Steels that are manufactured to a specified mini- specified minimum yield point in ksi of the girder flange;
mum yield point greater than 50,000 psi, except for Grade Yo is the distance from the neutral axis to the extreme
HPS70W steel, shall not be heat-curved. outer fiber in inches (maximum distance for nonsymmet-
rical sections); R is the radius of curvature in feet; and L
is the span length for simple spans or for continuous
10.15.2 Minimum Radius of Curvature spans, the distance between a simple end support and the
dead load contraflexure point, or the distance between
10.15.2.1 For heat-curved beams and girders, the points of dead load contraflexure. (L is measured in
horizontal radius of curvature measured to the center line inches.) Camber loss between dead load contraflexure
of the girder web shall not be less than 150 feet and shall points adjacent to piers is small and may be neglected.
not be less than the larger of the values calculated (at any
and all cross sections throughout the length of the girder) Note: Part of the camber loss is attributable to construc-
from the following two equations: tion loads and will occur during construction of the
bridge; total camber loss will be complete after cover plates and at the bottom with perforated plates or
several months of in-service loads. Therefore, a stay plates and lacing.
portion of the camber increase (approximately Double Box sections, made with side channels, beams,
50%) should be included in the bridge profile. angles and plates or side segments of plates only, con-
Camber losses of this nature (but generally smaller nected with a conventional solid web, together with top
in magnitude) are also known to occur in straight and bottom perforated cover plates or stay plates and
beams and girders. lacing.
10.16 TRUSSES 10.16.2.2 If the shape of the truss permits, compres-

sion chords shall be continuous.
10.16.1 General
10.16.2.3 In chords composed of angles in channel-
10.16.1.1 Component parts of individual truss mem-
shaped members, the vertical legs of the angles preferably
bers may be connected by welds, rivets, or high-strength
shall extend downward.
bolts.
10.16.2.4 If web members are subject to reversal of
10.16.1.2 Preference should be given to trusses with
stress, their end connections shall not be pinned. Counters
single intersection web systems. Members shall be sym-
preferably shall be rigid. Adjustable counters, if used,
metrical about the central plane of the truss.
shall have open turnbuckles, and in the design of these
10.16.1.3 Trusses preferably shall have inclined end members an allowance of 10,000 pounds per square inch
posts. Laterally unsupported hip joints shall be avoided. shall be made for initial stress. Only one set of diagonals
in any panel shall be adjustable. Sleeve nuts and loop bars
10.16.1.4 Main trusses shall be spaced a sufficient shall not be used.
distance apart, center to center, to be secure against over-
turning by the assumed lateral forces. 10.16.3 Secondary Stresses
10.16.1.5 For the calculation of stresses, effective The design and details shall be such that secondary
depths shall be assumed as follows: stresses will be as small as practicable. Secondary stresses
due to truss distortion or floor beam deflection usually
Riveted and bolted trusses, distance between centers of need not be considered in any member, the width of
gravity of the chords. which, measured parallel to the plane of distortion, is less
Pin-connected trusses, distance between centers of than one-tenth of its length. If the secondary stress ex-
chord pins. ceeds 4,000 pounds per square inch for tension members
and 3,000 for compression members, the excess shall be
10.16.2 Truss Members
treated as a primary stress. Stresses due to the flexural
10.16.2.1 Chord and web truss members shall usu- dead load moment of the member shall be considered as
ally be made in the following shapes: additional secondary stress.
“H” sections, made with two side segments (composed 10.16.4 Diaphragms
of angles or plates) with solid web, perforated web, or
web of stay plates and lacing. 10.16.4.1 There shall be diaphragms in the trusses at
Channel sections, made with two angle segments, with the end connections of floor beams.
solid web, perforated web, or web of stay plates and
lacing. 10.16.4.2 The gusset plates engaging the pedestal pin
Single Box sections, made with side channels, beams, at the end of the truss shall be connected by a diaphragm.
angles, and plates or side segments of plates only, con- Similarly, the webs of the pedestal shall, if practicable, be
nected top and bottom with perforated plates or stay connected by a diaphragm.
plates and lacing.
10.16.4.3 There shall be a diaphragm between gusset
Single Box sections, made with side channels, beams, plates engaging main members if the end tie plate is 4 feet
angles and plates only, connected at top with solid or more from the point of intersection of the members.
10.16.5 Camber 10.16.8.1 The ratio of length, in direction of stress, to

width of perforation, shall not exceed two.
The length of the truss members shall be such that the
camber will be equal to or greater than the deflection pro- 10.16.8.2 The clear distance between perforations in
duced by the dead load. the direction of stress shall not be less than the distance
between points of support.
10.16.6 Working Lines and Gravity Axes
10.16.8.3 The clear distance between the end perfo-
10.16.6.1 Main members shall be proportioned so ration and the end of the cover plate shall not be less than
that their gravity axes will be as nearly as practicable in 1.25 times the distance between points of support.
the center of the section.
10.16.8.4 The point of support shall be the inner line
10.16.6.2 In compression members of unsymmetri- of fasteners or fillet welds connecting the perforated plate
cal section, such as chord sections formed of side seg- to the flanges. For plates butt welded to the flange edge of
ments and a cover plate, the gravity axis of the section rolled segments, the point of support may be taken as the
shall coincide as nearly as practicable with the working weld whenever the ratio of the outstanding flange width
line, except that eccentricity may be introduced to coun- to flange thickness of the rolled segment is less than
teract dead load bending. In two-angle bottom chord or di- seven. Otherwise, the point of support shall be the root of
agonal members, the working line may be taken as the the flange of the rolled segment.
gage line nearest the back of the angle or at the center of
gravity for welded trusses. 10.16.8.5 The periphery of the perforation at all
points shall have a minimum radius of 11⁄ 2 inches.
10.16.7 Portal and Sway Bracing
10.16.8.6 For thickness of metal, see Article 10.35.2.
10.16.7.1 Through truss spans shall have portal brac-
ing, preferably, of the two-plane or box type, rigidly con-
10.16.9 Stay Plates
nected to the end post and the top chord flanges, and as
deep as the clearance will allow. If a single plane portal is
10.16.9.1 Where the open sides of compression
used, it shall be located, preferably, in the central trans-
members are not connected by perforated plates, such
verse plane of the end posts, with diaphragms between the
members shall be provided with lacing bars and shall have
webs of the posts to provide for a distribution of the por- stay plates as near each end as practicable. Stay plates
tal stresses. The portal bracing shall be designed to take shall be provided at intermediate points where the lacing
the full end reaction of the top chord lateral system, and is interrupted. In main members, the length of the end stay
the end posts shall be designed to transfer this reaction to plates between end fasteners shall be not less than 1 1⁄ 4
the truss bearings. times the distance between points of support and
the length of intermediate stay plates not less than 3⁄ 4 of
10.16.7.2 Through truss spans shall have sway brac- that distance. In lateral struts and other secondary mem-
ing 5 feet or more deep at each intermediate panel point. bers, the overall length of end and intermediate stay plates
Top lateral struts shall be at least as deep as the top chord. shall be not less than 3⁄ 4 of the distance between points of
support.
10.16.7.3 Deck truss spans shall have sway bracing
in the plane of the end posts and at all intermediate panel 10.16.9.2 The point of support shall be the inner line
points. This bracing shall extend the full depth of the of fasteners or fillet welds connecting the stay plates to
trusses below the floor system. The end sway bracing shall the flanges. For stay plates butt welded to the flange edge
be proportioned to carry the entire upper lateral stress to of rolled segments, the point of support may be taken as
the supports through the end posts of the truss. the weld whenever the ratio of outstanding flange width
to flange thickness of the rolled segment is less than
10.16.8 Perforated Cover Plates seven. Otherwise, the point of support shall be the root of
flange of rolled segment. When stay plates are butt
When perforated cover plates are used, the following welded to rolled segments of a member, the allowable
provisions shall govern their design. stress in the member shall be determined in accordance
with Article 10.3. Terminations of butt welds shall be 10.16.10.6 The diameter of fasteners in lacing bars
ground smooth. shall not exceed one-third the width of the bar. There shall
be at least two fasteners in each end of lacing bars con-
10.16.9.3 The separate segments of tension members nected to flanges more than 5 inches in width.
composed of shapes may be connected by perforated
plates or by stay plates or end stay plates and lacing.
End stay plates shall have the same minimum length as 10.16.11 Gusset Plates
specified for end stay plates on main compression mem-
10.16.11.1 Gusset or connection plates preferably
bers, and intermediate stay plates shall have a minimum
shall be used for connecting main members, except when
length of 3⁄ 4 of that specified for intermediate stay plates on
the members are pin-connected. The fasteners connecting
main compression members. The clear distance between
each member shall be symmetrical with the axis of the
stay plates on tension members shall not exceed 3 feet.
member, so far as practicable, and the full development of
10.16.9.4 The thickness of stay plates shall be not the elements of the member shall be given consideration.
less than 1⁄ 50 of the distance between points of support for The gusset plates shall be of ample thickness to resist
main members, and 1⁄ 60 of that distance for bracing mem- shear, direct stress, and flexure acting on the weakest or
bers. Stay plates shall be connected by not less than three critical section of maximum stress.
fasteners on each side, and in members having lacing bars
10.16.11.2 Re-entrant cuts, except curves made for
the last fastener in the stay plates preferably shall also pass
appearance, shall be avoided as far as practicable.
through the end of the adjacent bar.
10.16.11.3 If the length of unsupported edge of
10.16.10 Lacing Bars a gusset plate exceeds the value of the expres-
sion 11,000/ÏF wyw times its thickness, the edge shall be
When lacing bars are used, the following provisions stiffened.
shall govern their design.
10.16.11.4 Listed below are the values of the expres-
10.16.10.1 Lacing bars of compression members wwy for the following grades of steel:
sion 11,000/ÏF
shall be so spaced that the slenderness ratio of the portion
of the flange included between the lacing bar connections 36,000 psi, Y.P. Min 58
will be not more than 40 or more than 2⁄ 3 of the slender- 50,000 psi, Y.P. Min 49
ness ratio of the member. 70,000 psi, Y.P. Min 42
90,000 psi, Y.P. Min 37
10.16.10.2 The section of the lacing bars shall be de- 100,000 psi, Y.P. Min 35
termined by the formula for axial compression in which
L is taken as the distance along the bar between its con-
nections to the main segments for single lacing, and as
10.16.12 Half-Through Truss Spans
70% of that distance for double lacing.
10.16.12.1 The vertical truss members and the floor
10.16.10.3 If the distance across the member between
beams and their connections in half-through truss spans
fastener lines in the flanges is more than 15 inches and a
shall be proportioned to resist a lateral force of not less
bar with a single fastener in the connection is used, the lac-
than 300 pounds per linear foot applied at the top chord
ing shall be double and fastened at the intersections.
panel points of each truss.
10.16.10.4 The angle between the lacing bars and the 10.16.12.2 The top chord shall be considered as a
axis of the member shall be approximately 45° for double column with elastic lateral supports at the panel points.
lacing and 60° for single lacing. The critical buckling force of the column, so determined,
shall exceed the maximum force from dead load, live load,
10.16.10.5 Lacing bars may be shapes or flat bars. and impact in any panel of the top chord by not less than
For main members, the minimum thickness of flat bars 50%.*
shall be 1⁄ 40 of the distance along the bar between its con-
nections for single lacing and 1⁄ 60 for double lacing. For
*For a discussion of columns with elastic lateral supports, refer to Tim-
bracing members, the limits shall be 1⁄ 50 for single lacing oshenko & Gere, ``Theory of Elastic Stability,’’ McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
and 1⁄ 75 for double lacing. First Edition, p. 122.
10.16.13 Fastener Pitch in Ends of Compression shall be considered in determining the unit stress on the
Members net section.
In the ends of compression members, the pitch of fas- 10.16.14.6 The diameter of the hole shall be taken as
teners connecting the component parts of the member 1
⁄ 8 inch greater than the nominal diameter of the rivet or
shall not exceed four times the diameter of the fastener high-strength bolt, unless larger holes are permitted in ac-
for a length equal to 11⁄ 2 times the maximum width of the cordance with Article 10.24.
member. Beyond this point, the pitch shall be increased
gradually for a length equal to 11⁄ 2 times the maximum
width of the member until the maximum pitch is
10.17 BENTS AND TOWERS
reached.
10.17.1 General
10.16.14 Net Section of Riveted or High-Strength
Bolted Tension Members
Bents preferably shall be composed of two supporting
columns, and the bents usually shall be united in pairs to
10.16.14.1 The net section of a riveted or high-
form towers. The design of members for bents and towers
strength bolted tension member is the sum of the net sec-
is governed by applicable articles.
tions of its component parts. The net section of a part is
the product of the thickness of the part multiplied by its
least net width.
10.17.2 Single Bents
10.16.14.2 The net width for any chain of holes ex-
tending progressively across the part shall be obtained by Single bents shall have hinged ends or else shall be de-
deducting from the gross width the sum of the diameters signed to resist bending.
of all the holes in the chain and adding, for each gage
space in the chain, the quantity:
10.17.3 Batter
2
S
(10 - 4) Bents preferably shall have a sufficient spread at the
4g
base to prevent uplift under the assumed lateral loadings.
where: In general, the width of a bent at its base shall be not less
than one-third of its height.
S 5 pitch of any two successive holes in the chain;
g 5 gage of the same holes.
10.17.4 Bracing
The net section of the part is obtained from the chain that
gives the least net width.
10.17.4.1 Towers shall be braced, both transversely
10.16.14.3 For angles, the gross width shall be the and longitudinally, with stiff members having either
sum of the widths of the legs less the thickness. The gage welded, high-strength bolted or riveted connections. The
for holes in opposite legs shall be the sum of gages from sections of members of longitudinal bracing in each panel
back of angle less the thickness. shall not be less than those of the members in corre-
sponding panels of the transverse bracing.
10.16.14.4 At a splice, the total stress in the member
being spliced is transferred by fasteners to the splice 10.17.4.2 The bracing of long columns shall be de-
material. signed to fix the column about both axes at or near the
same point.
10.16.14.5 When determining the unit stress on any
least net width of either splice material or member being 10.17.4.3 Horizontal diagonal bracing shall be
spliced, the amount of the stress previously transferred placed in all towers having more than two vertical panels,
by fasteners adjacent to the section being investigated at alternate intermediate panel points.
10.17.5 Bottom Struts Af = sum of the area of the fillers on the top and
bottom of the connected plate
The bottom struts of towers shall be strong enough to Ap = smaller of either the connected plate area or
slide the movable shoes with the structure unloaded, the the sum of the splice plate areas on the top
coefficient of friction being assumed at 0.25. Provision for and bottom of the connected plate
expansion of the tower bracing shall be made in the col-
umn bearings. The design slip force, specified in Article 10.57.3.1 in the
case of the strength design method and in Article
10.18 SPLICES 10.32.3.2.1 in the case of the service load design method,
for slip-critical connections shall not be adjusted for the
10.18.1 General effect of the fillers. Fillers 1⁄4 inch or more in thickness
shall consist of not more than two plates, unless special
10.18.1.1 Design Strength permission is given by the Engineer.
Splices may be made by rivets, by high-strength bolts or 10.18.1.2.2 For bolted web splices with thick-
by the use of welding. In general, splices whether in tension, ness differences of 1⁄16 inch or less, no filler plates are
compression, bending, or shear, shall be designed in the case required.
of the service load design or strength design methods for a
capacity based on not less than the average of the required 10.18.1.2.3 Fillers for welded splices shall conform
design strength at the point of splice and the design strength to the requirements of the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5
of the member at the same point but, in any event, not less Bridge Welding Code.
than 75% of the design strength of the member, except as
specified herein. Bolted splices in flexural members shall
satisfy the requirements of Article 10.18.2. Bolted splices in 10.18.1.3 Design Force for Flange Splice Plates
compression members shall satisfy the requirements of Ar-
ticle 10.18.3. Bolted splices in tension members shall sat- For a flange splice with inner and outer splice plates,
isfy the requirements of Article 10.18.4. Welded splices the flange design force may be assumed to be divided
shall satisfy the requirements of Article 10.18.5. Where a equally to the inner and outer plates and their connec-
section changes at a splice, the smaller section is to be used tions when the areas of the inner and outer plates do not
to satisfy the above splice requirements. differ by more than 10%. When the areas of the inner and
outer plates differ by more than 10%, the design force in
10.18.1.2 Fillers each splice plate and its connection shall be determined
by multiplying the flange design force by the ratio of the
10.18.1.2.1 For fillers 1⁄4 inch and thicker in bolted or area of the splice plate under consideration to the total
riveted axially loaded connections, including girder flange area of the inner and outer splice plates. For this case, the
splices, additional fasteners shall be required to distribute shear strength of the connection shall be checked for the
the total stress in the member uniformly over the com- maximum calculated splice plate force acting on a sin-
bined section of the member and the filler. The filler shall gle shear plane. The slip resistance of high-strength
either be extended beyond the splice material and secured bolted connections for a flange splice with inner
by additional bolts, or as an alternate to extending the and outer splice plates shall always be checked for the
filler, an equivalent number of bolts may be included in flange design force divided equally to the two slip
the connection. Fillers 1⁄4 inch and thicker need not be ex- planes.
tended and developed provided that the design shear
strength of the fasteners, specified in Article 10.56.1.3.2 10.18.1.4 Truss Chords and Columns
in the case of the strength design method and in Table
10.32.3B in the case of the service load design method, is Splices in truss chords and columns shall be located
reduced by the following factor R: as near to the panel points as practicable and usually on
the side where the smaller stress occurs. The arrange-
R = [(1 + γ ) / (1 + 2 γ )] (10 - 4a) ment of plates, angles, or other splice elements shall be
such as to make proper provision for the stresses, both
Af axial and bending, in the component parts of the mem-
where: γ =
Ap bers spliced.
10.18.2 Flexural Members Mu 5 maximum bending strength of the section in pos-

itive or negative flexure at the point of splice,
10.18.2.1 General whichever causes the maximum compressive
stress due to the factored loads at the mid-thick-
10.18.2.1.1 In continuous spans, splices shall prefer- ness of the flange under consideration
ably be made at or near points of dead-load contraflexure. My 5 moment capacity at first yield for the section at
the point of splice used to compute Mu. For com-
10.18.2.1.2 In both flange and web splices, there posite sections, My shall be calculated in accor-
shall be not less than two rows of bolts on each side of the dance with Article 10.50(c). For hybrid sections,
joint. My shall be computed in accordance with Article
10.53.
10.18.2.1.3 Oversize or slotted holes shall not be used fcu 5 maximum elastic flexural stress due to the fac-
in either the member or the splice plates at bolted splices. tored loads at the mid-thickness of the control-
ling flange at the point of splice.
10.18.2.1.4 In both flange and web splices, high- R 5 reduction factor for hybrid girders specified in
strength bolted connections shall be proportioned to pre- Article 10.53.1.2. R shall be taken equal to 1.0
vent slip during erection of the steel and during the cast- when fcu is less than or equal to Fyw, where Fyw is
ing or placing of the deck. equal to the specified minimum yield strength of
the web. For homogeneous girders, R shall al-
10.18.2.1.5 In the case of the strength design ways be taken equal to 1.0.
method, the strength of compact sections at the point of Fyf 5 specified minimum yield strength of the flange
splice shall not be taken greater than the moment capac-
ity at first yield, computed by accounting for the holes in As a minimum, the splice plates for the noncontrolling
the tension flange as specified in Article 10.12. flange shall be proportioned for a design force, Pncu. Pncu
shall be taken equal to a design stress, Fncu, times the
10.18.2.1.6 Flange and web splices in areas of stress smaller effective flange area, Ae, on either side of the
reversal shall be checked for both positive and negative splice. Fncu is defined as follows:
flexure.
10.18.2.1.7 Riveted and bolted flange angle splices Fncu = R cu ( fncu / R ) ≥ 0.75αFyf (10 - 4c)
shall include two angles, one on each side of the flexural
member. where:
10.18.2.2 Flange Splices Rcu 5 the absolute value of the ratio of Fcu to fcu for the
controlling flange.
10.18.2.2.1 As a minimum, in the case of the strength fncu 5 flexural stress due to the factored loads at the
design method, the splice plates on the controlling flange mid-thickness of the noncontrolling flange at the
shall be proportioned for a design force, Pcu. The control- point of splice concurrent with fcu
ling flange shall be taken as the top or bottom flange for
the smaller section at the point of splice, whichever flange In calculating fcu, fncu, Mu, My and R, holes in the flange
has the maximum ratio of the elastic flexural stress at its subject to tension shall be accounted for as specified in Ar-
mid-thickness due to the factored loads to its maximum ticle 10.12. For a flange splice with inner and outer splice
strength. Pcu shall be taken equal to a design stress, Fcu, plates, the flange design force shall be proportioned to the
times the smaller effective flange area, Ae, on either side inner and outer plates and their connections as specified
of the splice. Ae is defined in Article 10.18.2.2.4 and Fcu is in Article 10.18.1.3. The effective area, Ae, of each splice
defined as follows: plate shall be sufficient to prevent yielding of the splice
plate under its calculated portion of the design force. Ae of
Fcu =
( fcu / R + αFyf ) ≥ 0.75αF (10 - 4b)
each splice plate shall be taken as defined in Article
2
yf 10.18.2.2.4. As a minimum, the connections for both the
top and bottom flange splices shall be proportioned to de-
where: velop the design force in the flange through shear in the
a 5 1.0 except that a lower value equal to (Mu/My) bolts and bearing at the bolt holes, as specified in Article
may be used for flanges in compression at sec- 10.56.1.3.2. Where filler plates are required, the require-
tions where Mu is less than My. ments of Article 10.18.1.2.1 shall also be satisfied.
10.18.2.2.2 As a minimum, in the case of the strength As a minimum, the splice plates for the noncontrolling
design method, high-strength bolted connections for both flange shall be proportioned for a design force, Pncf. Pncf
top and bottom flange splices shall be proportioned to pre- shall be taken equal to a design stress, Fncf, times the
vent slip at an overload design force, Pfo. For the flange smaller effective flange area, Ae, on either side of the
under consideration, Pfo shall be computed as follows: splice. Fncf is defined as follows:
Fncf = R cf ( fncf / R ) ≥ 0.75Fb (10 - 4f)

Pfo = fo / R A g (10 - 4d)
where:
where:
Rcf 5 the absolute value of the ratio of Fcf to fcf for the
fo 5 maximum flexural stress due to D 1 bL(L 1 I) at controlling flange
the mid-thickness of the flange under considera- fncf 5 flexural stress at the mid-thickness of the non-
tion for the smaller section at the point of splice, controlling flange at the point of splice concur-
where bL is defined in Article 3.22 rent with fcf
R 5 reduction factor for hybrid girders specified in
Article 10.53.1.2. R shall be taken equal to 1.0 In calculating Fcf, fncf and R, holes in the flange subject to
when fo is less than or equal to Fyw, where Fyw is tension shall be accounted for as specified in Article
equal to the specified minimum yield strength of 10.12. For a flange splice with inner and outer splice
the web. For homogeneous girders, R shall al- plates, the flange design force shall be proportioned to the
ways be taken equal to 1.0.
inner and outer plates and their connections as specified
Ag 5 smaller gross flange area on either side of the
in Article 10.18.1.3. The effective area, Ae, of each splice
splice
plate shall be sufficient to ensure that the stress in the
splice plate does not exceed the allowable flexural stress
fo and R shall be computed using the gross section of the
under its calculated portion of the design force. Ae of each
member. The slip resistance of the connection shall be
splice plate shall be taken as defined in Article
computed from Equation (10-172).
10.18.2.2.4. As a minimum, the connections for both the
top and bottom flange splices shall be proportioned to de-
10.18.2.2.3 As a minimum, in the case of the service
velop the design force in the flange through shear in the
load design method, the splice plates on the controlling
bolts and bearing at the bolt holes, as specified in Table
flange shall be proportioned for a design force, Pcf. The
10.32.3B. Where filler plates are required, the require-
controlling flange shall be taken as the top or bottom
ments of Article 10.18.1.2.1 shall also be satisfied. As a
flange for the smaller section at the point of splice,
minimum, high-strength bolted connections shall also be
whichever flange has the maximum ratio of the elastic
proportioned to prevent slip at a force equal to the maxi-
flexural stress at its mid-thickness to its allowable stress. Pcf
mum elastic flexural stress due to D + (L + I) at the mid-
shall be taken equal to a design stress, Fcf, times the smaller
thickness of the flange under consideration for the smaller
effective flange area, Ae, on either side of the splice. Ae is
section at the point of splice times the smaller value of the
defined in Article 10.18.2.2.4 and Fcf is defined as follows:
gross flange area on either side of the splice. The slip re-
sistance of the connection shall be determined as specified
( fcf / R + Fb )
Fcf = ≥ 0.75Fb (10 - 4e) in Article 10.32.3.2.1.
2
where: 10.18.2.2.4 For checking the strength of flange
splices, an effective area, Ae, shall be used for the flange
fcf 5 maximum elastic flexural stress at the mid-thick- and for the individual splice plates as follows:
ness of the controlling flange at the point of
splice. For flanges and their splice plates subject to tension:
Fb 5 allowable flexural stress for the flange under con-
sideration at the point of splice
A e = Wn t + βA g ≤ A g (10 - 4g)
R 5 reduction factor for hybrid girders specified in Ar-
ticle 10.40.2.1. R shall be taken equal to 1.0 when
where:
fcf is less than or equal to the allowable flexural
stress for the web steel. For homogeneous girders, Wn 5 least net width of the flange or splice plate com-
R shall always be taken equal to 1.0. puted as specified in Article 10.16.14
t 5 flange or splice plate thickness 10.18.2.3.3 As a minimum, in the case of the strength
Ag 5 gross area of the flange or splice plate design method, web splice plates and their connections
b 5 0.0 for M 270 Grade 100/100W steels, or when shall be proportioned for a design moment, Mvu, due to the
holes exceed 11⁄4 inch in diameter. eccentricity of the design shear at the point of splice de-
5 0.15 for all other steels and when holes are less fined as follows:
than or equal to 11⁄4 inch in diameter.
M vu = Vwu e (10 - 4k)
The diameter of the holes shall be taken as specified in Ar-
ticle 10.16.14.6. where:
Vwu 5 design shear in the web at the point of splice de-
For the flanges and their splice plates subject to
fined in Article 10.18.2.3.2
compression:
e 5 distance from the centerline of the splice to the
centroid of the connection on the side of the
Ae = Ag (10 - 4h) joint under consideration
10.18.2.3.4 As a minimum, in the case of the strength

10.18.2.3 Web Splices
design method, web splice plates and their connections
shall be proportioned for a design moment at the point of
10.18.2.3.1 In general, web splice plates and their
splice, Mwu, representing the portion of the flexural mo-
connections shall be proportioned for shear, a moment
ment that is assumed to be resisted by the web. Mwu shall
due to the eccentricity of the shear at the point of splice,
be applied at the mid-depth of the web. For sections where
and a portion of the flexural moment that is assumed to be
the neutral axis is not located at mid-depth of the web, a
resisted by the web at the point of splice.* Webs shall be horizontal design force resultant in the web at the point of
spliced symmetrically by plates on each side. The web splice, Hwu, shall also be applied at the mid-depth of the
splice plates shall extend as near as practical for the full web. Mwu and Hwu may be computed as follows:
depth between flanges.
t wD2
10.18.2.3.2 As a minimum, in the case of the strength M wu = RFcu − R cu fncu (10 - 4l)
design method, web splice plates and their connections 12
shall be proportioned for a design shear in the web at the t wD
point of splice, Vwu, defined as follows: H wu = ( RFcu + R cu fncu ) (10 - 4m)
2
For V < 0.5Vu: where:
Fcu 5 design stress for the controlling flange at the
Vwu = 1.5V (10 - 4i) point of splice defined in Article 10.18.2.2.1
(positive for tension; negative for compression)
For V ≥ 0.5Vu: R 5 reduction factor for hybrid girders specified in
Article 10.53.1.2. R shall be taken equal to 1.0
when fcu is less than or equal to Fyw, where Fyw is
Vwu =
[V + Vu ] (10 - 4j) equal to the specified minimum yield strength of
2 the web. For homogeneous girders, R shall al-
where: ways be taken equal to 1.0.
Rcu 5the absolute value of the ratio of Fcu to fcu for the
V 5 maximum shear in the web at the point of splice controlling flange
due to the factored loads fncu5 flexural stress due to the factored loads at the
Vu 5 shear capacity of the web at the point of splice mid-thickness of the noncontrolling flange at the
point of splice concurrent with fcu (positive for
tension; negative for compression)
*For an alternative approach for compact steel sections, reference is
made to Firas I. Sheikh-Ibrahim and Karl H. Frank, “The Ultimate 10.18.2.3.5 As a minimum, in the case of the strength
Strength of Symmetric Beam Bolted Splices,” AISC Engineering Jour-
nal, 3rd Quarter, 1998, and “The Ultimate Strength of Unsymmetric design method, web splice plates and their connections
Beam Bolted Splices,” AISC Engineering Journal, 2nd Quarter, 2001. shall be proportioned to develop the most critical combi-
nation of Vwu, Mvu, Mwu and Hwu. The connections shall be 10.18.2.3.6 As a minimum, in the case of the service
proportioned as eccentrically loaded connections to de- load design method, web splice plates and their connec-
velop the resultant design force through shear in the bolts tions shall be proportioned for a design shear stress in the
and bearing at the bolt holes, as specified in Article web at the point of splice, Fw, defined as follows:
10.56.1.3.2. In addition, as a minimum, high-strength
bolted connections for web splices shall be proportioned For fv < 0.5FV:
as eccentrically loaded connections to prevent slip under
the most critical combination of: 1) an overload design
Fw = 1.5fv (10 - 4r)
shear, Vwo, 2) an overload design moment, Mvo, due to the
eccentricity of the overload design shear, 3) an overload
For fv ≥ 0.5FV:
design moment, Mwo, applied at mid-depth of the web rep-
resenting the portion of the flexural moment that is as-
(fv + Fv )
sumed to be resisted by the web, and 4) for sections where Fw = (10 - 4s)
the neutral axis is not located at the mid-depth of the web, 2
an overload horizontal design force resultant, Hwo, applied where:
at mid-depth of the web, as follows:
fv 5 maximum shear stress in the web at the point of
splice
Vwo = Vo (10 - 4n) Fv 5 allowable shear stress in the web at the point of
splice
where:
Vo 5 maximum shear in the web due to D 1 bL(L1I) 10.18.2.3.7 As a minimum, in the case of the service
at the point of the splice, where bL is defined in load design method, web splice plates and their connec-
Article 3.22 tions shall be proportioned for a design moment, Mv, due
to the eccentricity of the design shear at the point of splice
M vo = Vwo e (10 - 4o) defined as follows:
Mwo and Hwo may be computed as follows: M v = Fw Dt w e (10 - 4t)
t wD2 where:
M wo = fo − fof (10 - 4p)
12 Fw 5 design shear stress in the web at the point of
splice defined in Article 10.18.2.3.6
t wD
H wo = (fo + fof ) (10 - 4q) D 5 web depth
2 tw 5 web thickness
where:
10.18.2.3.8 As a minimum, in cases of the service
fo 5 maximum flexural stress due to D 1 bL(L1I) at load design method, web splice plates and their connec-
the mid-thickness of the flange under consider- tions shall be proportioned for a design moment at the
ation for the smaller section at the point point of splice, Mw, representing the portion of the flex-
of splice (positive for tension; negative for com- ural moment that is assumed to be resisted by the web. Mw
pression) shall be applied at the mid-depth of the web. For sections
fof 5 flexural stress due to D 1 bL(L1I) at the mid- where the neutral axis is not located at the mid-depth of
thickness of the other flange at the point of splice the web, a horizontal design force resultant in the web at
concurrent with fo in the flange under considera- the point of splice, Hw, shall also be applied at the mid-
tion (positive for tension; negative for compres- depth of the web. Mw and Hw may be computed as follows:
sion)
fo and fof shall be computed using the gross section of the t wD2
member. The maximum resultant force on the eccentri- Mw = RFcf − R cf fncf (10 - 4u)
12
cally loaded connection shall not exceed the slip resis-
tance computed from Equation (10-172) with Nb taken t wD
Hw = (RFcf + R cf fncf ) (10 - 4v)
equal to 1.0. 2
where: 10.18.4 Tension Members

Fcf 5 design stress at the point of splice for the con-
10.18.4.1. As a minimum, splices in tension mem-
trolling flange defined in Article 10.18.2.2.3
bers shall be proportioned for a design force, Pu, equal to
(positive for tension; negative for compression)
the allowable design strength specified in Article
R 5 reduction factor for hybrid girders specified in
10.18.1.1 times the effective area of the member, Ae, de-
Article 10.40.2.1. R shall be taken equal to 1.0
fined as follows:
when Fcf is less than or equal to the allowable
flexural stress for the web steel. For homoge- A e = A n + βA g ≤ A g (10 - 4w)
neous girders, R shall always be taken equal to
1.0. where:
Rcf 5 the absolute value of the ratio of Fcf to fcf for the An 5 net section of the member computed as specified
controlling flange in Article 10.16.14
fncf 5 flexural stress at the mid-thickness of the non- b 5 0.0 for AASHTO M 270 Grade 100/100W
controlling flange at the point of splice concur- (ASTM A 709 Grade 100/100W) steels, or when
rent with fcf (positive for tension; negative for holes exceed 11⁄4 inch in diameter
compression) 5 0.15 for all other steels and when holes are less
than or equal to 11⁄4 inch in diameter.
10.18.2.3.9 As a minimum, in the case of the ser- Ag 5 gross area of the member
vice load design method, web splice plates and their
connections shall be proportioned to develop the most The diameter of the holes shall be taken as specified in Ar-
critical combination of FwDtw, Mv, Mw and Hw. The con- ticle 10.16.14.6. As a minimum, the connection shall be
nections shall be proportioned as eccentrically loaded proportioned to develop the design force through shear in
connections to develop the resultant design force the bolts and bearing at the bolt holes, as specified in Ar-
through shear in the bolts and bearing at the bolt holes, ticle 10.56.1.3.2 in the case of the strength design method
as specified in Table 10.32.3B. In addition, as a mini- and in Table 10.32.3B in the case of the service load de-
mum, high-strength bolted connections for web splices sign method.
shall be proportioned as eccentrically loaded connec-
tions to prevent slip under the most critical combina- 10.18.4.2 As a minimum, in the case of the strength
tion of shear, moment, and horizontal force due to D + design method, high-strength bolted connections for
(L + I) at the point of splice. The portion of the flexural splices in tension members shall be proportioned to pre-
moment that is assumed to be resisted by the web and vent slip at an overload design force, Po, equal to the max-
the horizontal force resultant shall be computed using imum tensile stress in the member due to D 1 bL (L 1 I)
the gross section of the member. The maximum resul- times the gross area of the member, where bL is defined in
tant force on the eccentrically loaded connection shall Article 3.22. The slip resistance of the connection shall be
not exceed the slip resistance computed from Article computed from Equation (10-172). In the case of the ser-
10.32.3.2.1 with Nb taken to equal 1.0. vice load design method, high-strength bolted connec-
tions shall be proportioned to prevent slip at a force equal
10.18.3 Compression Members to the maximum tensile stress in the member due to D +
(L + I) times the gross area of the member. The slip resis-
Compression members such as columns and chords tance of the connection shall be determined as specified in
shall have ends in close contact at riveted and bolted Article 10.32.3.2.1.
splices. Splices of such members which will be fabricated
and erected with close inspection and detailed with milled 10.18.5 Welded Splices
ends in full contact bearing at the splices may be held in
place by means of splice plates and rivets or high-strength 10.18.5.1 Tension and compression members may be
bolts proportioned for not less than 50% of the lower al- spliced by means of full penetration butt welds, preferably
lowable design strength of the sections spliced. The without the use of splice plates.
strength of compression members connected by high-
strength bolts or rivets shall be determined using the gross 10.18.5.2 Welded field splices preferably should be
section. arranged to minimize overhead welding.
10.18.5.3 Material of different widths spliced by butt design shall be designed for not less than the average of
welds shall have transitions conforming to Figure the required strength at the point of connection and the
10.18.5A. The type transition selected shall be consistent strength of the member at the same point, but, in any
with the Fatigue Stress Category from Table 10.3.1B for event, not less than 75% of the strength of the member.
the Groove Welded Connection used in the design of the
member. At butt-welded splices joining pieces of different 10.19.1.2 Connections shall be made symmetrical
thicknesses, there shall be a uniform slope between the off- about the axis of the members insofar as practicable. Con-
set surfaces, including the weld, of not more than 1 in 21⁄ 2. nections, except for lacing bars and handrails, shall con-
tain not less than two fasteners or equivalent weld.
10.19 STRENGTH OF CONNECTIONS
10.19.1.3 Members, including bracing, preferably
10.19.1 General shall be so connected that their gravity axes will intersect
in a point. Eccentric connections shall be avoided, if prac-
10.19.1.1 Except as otherwise provided herein, con- ticable, but if unavoidable the members shall be so pro-
nections for main members shall be designed in the case portioned that the combined fiber stresses will not exceed
of service load design for a capacity based on not less the allowed axial design stress.
than the average of the calculated design stress in the
member at the point of connection and the allowable 10.19.1.4 In the case of connections which transfer
stress of the member at the same point, but, in any event, total member shear at the end of the member, the gross
not less than 75% of the allowable stress in the member. section shall be taken as the gross section of the connected
Connections for main members in the case of load factor elements.
FIGURE 10.18.5A Splice Details
10.19.2 End Connections of Floor Beams and be at least 1⁄ 2 and preferably 3⁄ 4 the girder depth. Cross
Stringers frames shall be as deep as practicable. Intermediate cross
frames shall preferably be of the cross type or vee type.
10.19.2.1 The end connection shall be designed for End cross frames or diaphragms shall be proportioned to
the calculated member loads. The end connection angles adequately transmit all the lateral forces to the bearings.
of floor beams and stringers shall be not less than 3⁄ 8 inch Intermediate cross frames shall be normal to the main
in finished thickness. Except in cases of special end floor members when the supports are skewed more than 20°.
beam details, each end connection for floor beams and Cross frames on horizontally curved steel girder bridges
stringers shall be made with two angles. The length of shall be designed as main members with adequate pro-
these angles shall be as great as the flanges will permit. visions for transfer of lateral forces from the girder
Bracket or shelf angles which may be used to furnish sup- flanges. Cross frames and diaphragms shall be designed
port during erection shall not be considered in determining for horizontal wind forces as described in Article
the number of fasteners required to transmit end shear. 10.21.2.
10.19.2.2 End-connection details shall be designed 10.20.2 Stresses Due to Wind Loading When Top
with special care to provide clearance for making the field Flanges Are Continuously Supported
connection.
10.20.2.1 Flanges
10.19.2.3 End connections of stringers and floor
beams preferably shall be bolted with high-strength bolts; The maximum induced stresses, F, in the bottom flange
however, they may be riveted or welded. In the case of of each girder in the system can be computed from the fol-
welded end connections, they shall be designed for the lowing:
vertical loads and the end-bending moment resulting from
the deflection of the members. F 5 RFcb (10-5)
10.19.2.4 Where timber stringers frame into steel
floor beams, shelf angles with stiffeners shall be provided where:
to carry the total reaction. Shelf angles shall be not less
R = [0.2272 L − 11] Sd−2 / 3  when no bottom lateral 
than 7⁄ 16 inch thick.  bracing is provided 
(10 - 6)
10.19.3 End Connections of Diaphragms and Cross R = [0.059L − 0.64] Sd−1 / 2  when bottom lateral 
Frames  bracing is provided 
(10 - 7)
10.19.3.1 The end connections for diaphragms or
cross frames in straight rolled-beam and plate-girder
bridges shall be designed for the calculated member loads. 72 M cb
Fcb = ( psi) (10 - 8)
t f b 2f
10.19.3.2 Vertical connection plates such as trans-
M cb = .08WS2d (ft - lb) (10 - 9)
verse stiffeners which connect diaphragms or cross
frames to the beam or girder shall be rigidly connected to
both top and bottom flanges. W 5 wind loading along the exterior flange (lb/ft)
Sd 5 diaphragm spacing (ft)
10.20 DIAPHRAGMS AND CROSS FRAMES L 5 span length (ft)
tf 5 thickness of flange (in.)
10.20.1 General bf 5 width of flange (in.)
Rolled beam and plate girder spans shall be provided 10.20.2.2 Diaphragms and Cross Frames
with cross frames or diaphragms at each support and
with intermediate cross frames or diaphragms placed in The maximum horizontal force (FD) in the transverse di-
all bays and spaced at intervals not to exceed 25 feet. aphragms and cross frames is obtained from the following:
Diaphragms for rolled beams shall be at least 1⁄ 3 and
preferably 1⁄ 2 the beam depth and for plate girders shall FD 5 1.14WSd with or without bracing (10-10)
10.20.3 Stresses Due to Wind Load When Top 10.22 CLOSED SECTIONS AND POCKETS
Flanges Are Not Continuously Supported
10.22.1 Closed sections and pockets or depressions that
The stress shall be computed using the structural sys- will retain water, shall be avoided where practicable.
tem in the plane of the flanges under consideration. Pockets shall be provided with effective drain holes or be
filled with waterproofing material.
10.21 LATERAL BRACING
10.22.2 Details shall be so arranged that the destructive
10.21.1 The need for lateral bracing shall be investi- effects of bird life and the retention of dirt, leaves, and
gated. Flanges attached to concrete decks or other decks other foreign matter will be reduced to a minimum. Where
of comparable rigidity will not require lateral bracing. angles are used, either singly or in pairs, they preferably
shall be placed with the vertical legs extending down-
10.21.2 A horizontal wind force of 50 pounds per ward. Structural tees preferably shall have the web ex-
square foot shall be applied to the area of the super- tending downward.
structure exposed in elevation. Half of this force shall be
applied in the plane of each flange. The stress induced
10.23 WELDING
shall be computed in accordance with Article 10.20.2.1.
The allowable stress shall be factored in accordance with 10.23.1 General
Article 3.22.
10.23.1.1 Steel base to be welded, weld metal, and
10.21.3 When required, lateral bracing preferably shall welding design details shall conform to the requirements
be placed in the exterior bays between diaphragms or of the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code.
cross-frames. All required lateral bracing shall be placed
in or near the plane of the flange being braced. 10.23.1.2 Welding symbols shall conform with the
latest edition of the American Welding Society Publication
10.21.4 Where beams or girders comprise the main
AWS A2.4
members of through spans, such members shall be stiff-
ened against lateral deformation by means of gusset plates 10.23.1.3 Fabrication shall conform to Article
or knee braces with solid webs which shall be connected 11.4—Division II.
to the stiffeners on the main members and the floor beams.
If the unsupported length of the edge of the gusset plate
10.23.2 Effective Size of Fillet Welds
(or solid web) exceeds 60 times its thickness, the plate or
web shall have a stiffening plate or angles connected
along its unsupported edge. 10.23.2.1 Maximum Size of Fillet Welds
10.21.5 Through truss spans, deck truss spans, and The maximum size of a fillet weld that may be assumed
spandrel braced arches shall have top and bottom lateral in the design of a connection shall be such that the stresses
bracing. in the adjacent base material do not exceed the values al-
lowed in Article 10.32. The maximum size that may be
10.21.6 Bracing shall be composed of angles, other used along edges of connected parts shall be:
shapes, or welded sections. The smallest angle used in
bracing shall be 3 by 21⁄ 2 inches. There shall be not less (1) Along edges of material less than 1⁄ 4 inch thick, the
than two fasteners or equivalent weld in each end con- maximum size may be equal to the thickness of the ma-
nection of the angles. terial.
(2) Along edges of material 1⁄ 4 inch or more in thick-
10.21.7 If a double system of bracing is used, both sys- ness, the maximum size shall be 1⁄ 16 inch less than the
tems may be considered effective simultaneously if the thickness of the material, unless the weld is especially
members meet the requirements both as tension and com- designated on the drawings to be built out to obtain full
pression members. The members shall be connected at throat thickness.
their intersections.
10.23.2.2 Minimum Size of Fillet Welds
10.21.8 The lateral bracing of compression chords
preferably shall be as deep as the chords and effectively The minimum fillet weld size shall be as shown in the
connected to both flanges. following table.
nor inspected to the requirements of Article 11.5.6.4.9, Di-

vision II, but shall be tightened to the full effort of a man
using an ordinary spud wrench.
10.24.1.3 All bolts, except high-strength bolts ten-

sioned to the requirements of Table 11.5A or Table 11.5B,
Division II, shall have single self-locking nuts or double
nuts.
10.24.1.4 Joints required to resist shear between their

connected parts are designated as either slip-critical or
bearing-type connections. Slip-critical joints are defined
as joints subject to stress reversal, heavy impact loads, se-
vere vibration or where stress and strain due to joint slip-
10.23.3 Minimum Effective Length of Fillet page would be detrimental to the serviceability of the
Welds structure. They include:
The minimum effective length of a fillet weld shall be (1) Joints subject to fatigue loading.
four times its size and in no case less than 11⁄ 2 inches. (2) Joints with bolts installed in oversized holes.
(3) Except where the Engineer intends otherwise and
10.23.4 Fillet Weld End Returns so indicates in the contract documents, joints with bolts
installed in slotted holes where the force on the joint is
Fillet welds which support a tensile force that is not in a direction other than normal (between approxi-
parallel to the axis of the weld, or which are proportioned mately 80 and 100º) to the axis of the slot.
to withstand repeated stress, shall not terminate at corners (4) Joints subject to significant load reversal.
of parts or members but shall be returned continuously, (5) Joints in which welds and bolts share in transmit-
full size, around the corner for a length equal to twice the ting load at a common faying surface.
weld size where such return can be made in the same (6) Joints in which, in the judgment of the Engineer,
plane. End returns shall be indicated on design and detail any slip would be critical to the performance of the
drawings. joint or the structure and so designated on the contract
plans and specifications.
10.23.5 Seal Welds
10.24.1.5 High-strength bolted connections subject
Seal welding shall preferably be accomplished by a to computed tension or combined shear and computed
continuous weld combining the functions of sealing and tension shall be slip-critical connections.
strength, changing section only as the required strength or
the requirements of minimum size fillet weld, based on 10.24.1.6 Bolted bearing-type connections using
material thickness, may necessitate. high-strength bolts shall be limited to members in com-
pression and secondary members.
10.24 FASTENERS (RIVETS AND BOLTS)
10.24.1.7 The effective bearing area of a fastener
shall be its diameter multiplied by the thickness of the
10.24.1 General metal on which it bears. In metal less than 3⁄ 8 inch thick,
countersunk fasteners shall not be assumed to carry
10.24.1.1 In proportioning fasteners, for shear and stress. In metal 3⁄ 8 inch thick and over, one-half the depth
tension the cross-sectional area based upon the nominal of countersink shall be omitted in calculating the bearing
diameter shall be used. area.
10.24.1.2 High-strength bolts may be substituted for 10.24.1.8 In determining whether the bolt threads are
Grade 1 rivets (ASTM A 502) or ASTM A307 bolts. When excluded from the shear planes of the contact surfaces,
AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) high-strength bolts are thread length of bolts shall be calculated as two thread
substituted for ASTM A 307 bolts they need not be in- pitches greater than the specified thread length as an al-
stalled to the requirements of Article 11.5.6.4, Division II, lowance for thread runout.
10.24.1.9 In bearing-type connections, pull-out shear the load is applied approximately normal (between 80 and
in a plate should be investigated between the end of the 100º) to the axis of the slot. Long slotted holes may be
plate and the end row of fasteners. (See Table 10.32.3B, used in one of the connected parts at any individual fay-
footnote h). ing surface without regard for the direction of applied load
on connections which satisfy the requirements of Article
10.24.2 Hole Types 10.32.3.2.1 or Article 10.57.3.1, as applicable.
Hole types for high-strength bolted connections are 10.24.3 Washer Requirements
standard holes, oversize holes, short slotted holes and
long slotted holes. The nominal dimensions for each type Design details shall provide for washers in high-
hole shall be not greater than those shown in Table strength bolted connections as follows:
10.24.2, except as may be permitted under Division II, Ar-
ticle 11.4.8.1.4. 10.24.3.1 Where the outer face of the bolted parts has
a slope greater than 1:20 with respect to a plane normal to
10.24.2.1 In the absence of approval by the Engineer the bolt axis, a hardened beveled washer shall be used to
for use of other hole types, standard holes shall be used in compensate for the lack of parallelism.
high-strength bolted connections.
10.24.3.2 Hardened washers are not required for
10.24.2.2 When approved by the Engineer, oversize, connections using AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) and
short slotted holes or long slotted holes may be used sub- AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts except as required
ject to the following joint detail requirements. in Articles 10.24.3.3 through 10.24.3.7.
10.24.3.3 Hardened washers shall be used under the

10.24.2.2.1 Oversize holes may be used in all plies of
element turned in tightening when the tightening is to be
connections which satisfy the requirements of Article
performed by calibrated wrench method.
10.32.3.2.1 or Article 10.57.3, as applicable. Oversize
holes shall not be used in bearing-type connections. 10.24.3.4 Irrespective of the tightening method,
hardened washers shall be used under both the head and
10.24.2.2.2 Short slotted holes may be used in any or the nut when AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts are to
all plies of high-strength bolted connections designed on be installed in material having a specified yield point less
the basis of Table 10.32.3B or Table 10.56A, as applica- than 40 ksi.
ble, provided the load is applied approximately normal
(between 80 and 100º) to the axis of the slot. Short slot- 10.24.3.5 Where AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325)
ted holes may be used without regard for the direction bolts of any diameter or AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490)
of applied load in any or all plies of connections which bolts equal to or less than 1 inch in diameter are to be in-
satisfy the requirements of Article 10.32.3.2.1 or Article stalled in an oversize or short slotted hole in an outer ply, a
10.57.3.1, as applicable. hardened washer conforming to ASTM F 436 shall be used.
10.24.2.2.3 Long slotted holes may be used in one of 10.24.3.6 When AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490)
the connected parts at any individual faying surface in bolts over 1 inch in diameter are to be installed in an over-
high-strength bolted connections designed on the basis of size or short slotted hole in an outer ply, hardened wash-
Table 10.32.3B or Table 10.56A, as applicable, provided ers conforming to ASTM F 436 except with 5⁄ 16 inch min-
imum thickness shall be used under both the head and the
TABLE 10.24.2 Nominal Hole Dimension nut in lieu of standard thickness hardened washers. Mul-
tiple hardened washers with combined thickness equal to
Hole Dimensions
or greater than 5⁄ 16 inch do not satisfy this requirement.
Bolt Standard Oversize Short Slot Long Slot
(Dia.) (Dia.) (Dia.) (Width 3 Length) (Width 3 Length)
10.24.3.7 Where AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325)
5
⁄8 11
⁄ 16 13
⁄ 16 ⁄ 16 3 ⁄ 8
11 7
⁄ 16 3 1 ⁄ 16
11 9 bolts of any diameter or AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490)
3
⁄4 13
⁄ 16 15
⁄ 16 13
⁄ 16 3 1 ⁄ 16 3 17⁄ 8
13 bolts equal to or less than 1 inch in diameter are to be in-
7
⁄8 15
⁄ 16 1 1⁄ 16 15
⁄ 16 3 11⁄ 8 15
⁄ 16 3 23⁄ 16 stalled in a long slotted hole in an outer ply, a plate washer
1 1 1⁄ 16 1 1⁄ 4 11⁄ 16 3 15⁄ 16 1 ⁄ 16 3 21⁄ 2
1 or continuous bar of at least 5⁄ 16 inch thickness with stan-
≥11⁄ 8 d 1 1⁄ 16 d 1 5⁄ 16 (d 1 1⁄ 16) 3 (d 1 3⁄ 8) (d 1 1⁄ 16) 3 (2.5 3 d)
dard holes shall be provided. These washers or bars shall
have a size sufficient to completely cover the slot after in-
stallation and shall be of structural grade material, but For 3⁄ 4-inch fasteners, 21⁄ 2 inches
need not be hardened except as follows. When AASHTO For 5⁄ 8-inch fasteners, 21⁄ 4 inches
M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts over 1 inch in diameter are to
be used in long slotted holes in external plies, a single 10.24.5.3 Minimum Clear Distance
hardened washer conforming to ASTM F 436 but with 5⁄ 16 Between Holes
inch minimum thickness shall be used in lieu of washers
or bars of structural grade material. Multiple hardened When oversize or slotted holes are used, the minimum
washers with combined thickness equal to or greater than clear distance between the edges of adjacent bolt holes in
5
⁄ 16 inch do not satisfy this requirement. the direction of the force and transverse to the direction of
the force shall not be less than twice the diameter of the
10.24.4 Size of Fasteners (Rivets or High- bolt.
Strength Bolts)
10.24.5.4 Maximum Spacing of Fasteners
10.24.4.1 Fasteners shall be of the size shown on the
drawings, but generally shall be 3⁄ 4 inch or 7⁄ 8 inch in di- The maximum spacing of fasteners shall be in
ameter. Fasteners 5⁄ 8 inch in diameter shall not be used in accordance with the provisions of Article 10.24.6, as ap-
members carrying calculated stress except in 21⁄ 2-inch legs plicable.
of angles and in flanges of sections requiring 5⁄ 8-inch fas-
10.24.6 Maximum Spacing of Sealing and Stitch
teners.
Fasteners
10.24.4.2 The diameter of fasteners in angles carry- 10.24.6.1 Sealing Fasteners
ing calculated stress shall not exceed one-fourth the width
of the leg in which they are placed. For sealing against the penetration of moisture in joints,
the fastener spacing along a single line of fasteners adjacent
10.24.4.3 In angles whose size is not determined by to a free edge of an outside plate or shape shall not exceed
calculated stress, 5⁄ 8-inch fasteners may be used in 2-inch 4 inches 1 4t or 7 inches. If there is a second line of fas-
legs, 3⁄ 4-inch fasteners in 21⁄ 2-inch legs, 7⁄ 8-inch fasteners in teners uniformly staggered with those in the line adjacent
3-inch legs, and 1-inch fasteners in 31⁄ 2-inch legs. to the free edge, at a gage “g” less than 11⁄ 2 inches 1 4t
therefrom, the staggered spacing in two such lines, consid-
10.24.4.4 Structural shapes which do not admit the ered together, shall not exceed 4 inches 1 4t 2 3g/4 or 7
use of 5⁄ 8-inch diameter fasteners shall not be used except inches, but need not be less than one-half the requirement
in handrails. for a single line, t 5 the thickness in inches of the thinner
outside plate or shape, and g 5 gage between fasteners in
10.24.5 Spacing of Fasteners inches.
10.24.5.1 Pitch and Gage of Fasteners 10.24.6.2 Stitch Fasteners
The pitch of fasteners is the distance along the line of In built-up members where two or more plates or
principal stress, in inches, between centers of adjacent fas- shapes are in contact, stitch fasteners shall be used to en-
teners, measured along one or more fastener lines. The gage sure that the parts act as a unit and, in compression mem-
of fasteners is the distance in inches between adjacent lines bers, to prevent buckling. In compression members the
of fasteners or the distance from the back of angle or other pitch of stitch fasteners on any single line in the direction
shape to the first line of fasteners. of stress shall not exceed 12t, except that, if the fasteners on
adjacent lines are staggered and the gage, g, between the
10.24.5.2 Minimum Spacing of Fasteners line under consideration and the farther adjacent line (if
there are more than two lines) is less than 24t, the staggered
The minimum distance between centers of fasteners in pitch in the two lines, considered together, shall not exceed
standard holes shall be three times the diameter of 12t or 15t 2 3g/8. The gage between adjacent lines of fas-
the fastener but, preferably, shall not be less than the teners shall not exceed 24t; t 5 the thickness, in inches, of
following: the thinner outside plate or shape. In tension members the
pitch shall not exceed twice that specified for compression
For 1-inch fasteners, 31⁄ 2 inches members and the gage shall not exceed that specified for
For 7⁄ 8-inch fasteners, 3 inches compression members.
The maximum pitch of fasteners in built-up members 10.24.8 Long Rivets

shall be governed by the requirements for sealing or stitch
fasteners, whichever is the minimum. Rivets subjected to calculated stress and having a grip
For pitch of fasteners in the ends of compression mem- in excess of 41⁄ 2 diameters shall be increased in number at
bers, see Article 10.16.13. least 1% for each additional 1⁄ 16 inch of grip. If the grip
exceeds six times the diameter of the rivet, specially
10.24.7 Edge Distance of Fasteners designed rivets shall be used.
10.24.7.1 General
10.25 LINKS AND HANGERS
The minimum distance from the center of any fastener
in a standard hole to a sheared or thermally cut edge shall 10.25.1 Net Section
be:
In pin-connected tension members other than eyebars,
For 1-inch fasteners, 13⁄ 4 inches the net section across the pin hole shall be not less than
For 7⁄ 8-inch fasteners, 11⁄ 2 inches 140%, and the net section back of the pin hole not less
For 3⁄ 4-inch fasteners, 11⁄ 4 inches than 100% of the required net section of the body of the
For 5⁄ 8-inch fasteners, 11⁄ 8 inches member. The ratio of the net width (through the pin hole
transverse to the axis of the member) to the thickness of
The minimum distance from the center of any fastener the segment shall not be more than 8. Flanges not bearing
in a standard hole to a rolled or planed edge, except in on the pin shall not be considered in the net section across
flanges of beams and channels, shall be: the pin.
For 1-inch fasteners, 11⁄ 2 inches 10.25.2 Location of Pins

For 7⁄ 8-inch fasteners, 11⁄ 4 inches
For 3⁄ 4-inch fasteners, 11⁄ 8 inches Pins shall be so located with respect to the gravity axis
For 5⁄ 8-inch fasteners, 1 inch of the members as to reduce to a minimum the stresses due
to bending.
In the flanges of beams and channels the minimum dis-
tance from the center of a standard hole to the edge of the
flange shall be: 10.25.3 Size of Pins
For 1-inch fasteners, 11⁄ 4 inches Pins shall be proportioned for the maximum shears and
For 7⁄ 8-inch fasteners, 11⁄ 8 inches bending moments produced by the stresses in the mem-
For 3⁄ 4-inch fasteners, 1 inch bers connected. If there are eyebars among the parts con-
For 5⁄ 8-inch fasteners, 7⁄ 8 inch nected, the diameter of the pin shall be not less than
The maximum distance from the center of any fastener

 3 + ( yield point of steel) 
to any edge shall be eight times the thickness of the  4 400, 000  times the width of
thinnest outside plate, but shall not exceed 5 inches. the body of the
eyebar in
inches (10 -11)
10.24.7.2 When there is only a single transverse fas-
tener in the direction of the line of force in a standard or
10.25.4 Pin Plates
short slotted hole, the distance from the center of the hole
to the edge of the connected part shall not be less than 11⁄ 2
When necessary for the required section or bearing
times the diameter of the fastener, unless accounted for by
area, the section at the pin holes shall be increased on each
the bearing provisions of Table 10.32.3B or Article segment by plates so arranged as to reduce to a minimum
10.56.1.3.2. the eccentricity of the segment. One plate on each side
shall be as wide as the outstanding flanges will allow. At
10.24.7.3 When oversize or slotted holes are used, least one full-width plate on each segment shall extend to
the clear distance between edges of holes and edges of the far edge of the stay plate and the others not less than 6
members shall not be less than the diameter of the bolt. inches beyond the near edge. These plates shall be con-
nected by enough rivets, bolts, or fillet and plug welds to 10.27.2.2 Intersecting diagonal bars not far enough
transmit the bearing pressure, and so arranged as to dis- apart to clear each other at all times shall be clamped to-
tribute it uniformly over the full section. gether at the intersection.
10.27.2.3 Steel filling rings shall be provided, if

10.25.5 Pins and Pin Nuts needed, to prevent lateral movement of eyebars or other
members connected on the pin.
10.25.5.1 Pins shall be of sufficient length to secure a
full bearing of all parts connected upon the turned body of 10.28 FORKED ENDS
the pin. They shall be secured in position by hexagonal re-
cessed nuts or by hexagonal solid nuts with washers. If the Forked ends will be permitted only where unavoidable.
pins are bored, through rods with cap washers may be used. There shall be enough pin plates on forked ends to make
Pin nuts shall be malleable castings or steel. They shall be the section of each jaw equal to that of the member. The
secured by cotter pins in the screw ends or else the screw pin plates shall be long enough to develop the pin plate be-
ends shall be long enough to permit burring the threads. yond the near edge of the stay plate, but not less than the
length required by Article 10.25.4.
10.25.5.2 Members shall be restrained against lateral
movement on the pins and against lateral distortion due to 10.29 FIXED AND EXPANSION BEARINGS
the skew of the bridge.
10.29.1 General
10.26 UPSET ENDS
10.29.1.1 Fixed ends shall be firmly anchored. Bear-
ings for spans less than 50 feet need have no provision for
Bars and rods with screw ends, where specified, shall
deflection. Spans of 50 feet or greater shall be provided
be upset to provide a section at the root of the thread,
with a type of bearing employing a hinge, curved bearing
which will exceed the net section of the body of the mem-
plates, elastomeric pads, or pin arrangement for deflection
ber by at least 15%.
purposes.
10.27 EYEBARS 10.29.1.2 Spans of less than 50 feet may be arranged

to slide upon metal plates with smooth surfaces and no pro-
visions for deflection of the spans need be made. Spans of
10.27.1 Thickness and Net Section 50 feet and greater shall be provided with rollers, rockers,
or sliding plates for expansion purposes and shall also be
Eyebars shall be of a uniform thickness without rein- provided with a type of bearing employing a hinge, curved
forcement at the pin holes. The thickness of eyebars shall bearing plates, or pin arrangement for deflection purposes.
be not less than 1⁄ 8 of the width, nor less than 1⁄ 2 inch, and
not greater than 2 inches. The section of the head through 10.29.1.3 In lieu of the above requirements, elas-
the center of the pin hole shall exceed the required section tomeric bearings may be used. See Section 14 of this
of the body of the bar by at least 35%. The net section specification.
back of the pin hole shall not be less than 75% of the re-
quired net section of the body of the member. The radius 10.29.2 Bronze or Copper-Alloy Sliding Expansion
of transition between the head and body of the eyebar Bearings
shall be equal to or greater than the width of the head
through the center line of the pin hole. Bronze or copper-alloy sliding plates shall be cham-
fered at the ends. They shall be held securely in position,
10.27.2 Packing of Eyebars usually by being inset into the metal of the pedestals or sole
plates. Provisions shall be made against any accumulation
10.27.2.1 The eyebars of a set shall be symmetrical of dirt which will obstruct free movement of the span.
about the central plane of the truss and as nearly parallel
as practicable. Bars shall be as close together as practica- 10.29.3 Rollers
ble and held against lateral movement, but they shall be
so arranged that adjacent bars in the same panel will be Expansion rollers shall be connected by substantial
separated by at least 1⁄ 2 inch. side bars and shall be guided by gearing or other effectual
means to prevent lateral movement, skewing, and creep- bearings, this distance shall be measured from the center
ing. The rollers and bearing plates shall be protected from of the pin. In built-up pedestals and shoes, the web plates
dirt and water as far as practicable, and the design shall be and angles connecting them to the base plate shall be not
such that water will not be retained and that the roller less than 5⁄ 8 inch thick. If the size of the pedestal permits,
nests may be inspected and clean easily. the webs shall be rigidly connected transversely. The min-
imum thickness of the metal in cast steel pedestals shall
10.29.4 Sole Plates and Masonry Plates be 1 inch. Pedestals and shoes shall be so designed that the
load will be distributed uniformly over the entire bearing.
10.29.4.1 Sole plates and masonry plates shall have
a minimum thickness of 3⁄ 4 inch. 10.29.7.2 Webs and pin holes in the webs shall be
arranged to keep any eccentricity to a minimum. The net
10.29.4.2 For spans on inclined grades greater than section through the hole shall provide 140% of the net sec-
1% without hinged bearings, the sole plates shall be
tion required for the actual stress transmitted through the
beveled so that the bottom of the sole plate is level, unless
pedestal or shoe. Pins shall be of sufficient length to secure
the bottom of the sole plate is radially curved.
a full bearing. Pins shall be secured in position by appro-
10.29.5 Masonry Bearings priate nuts with washers. All portions of pedestals and
shoes shall be held against lateral movement of the pins.
Beams, girders, or trusses on masonry shall be so sup-
10.30 FLOOR SYSTEM
ported that the bottom chords or flanges will be above the
bridge seat, preferably not less than 6 inches.
10.30.1 Stringers
10.29.6 Anchor Bolts
Stringers preferably shall be framed into floor beams.
10.29.6.1 Trusses, girders, and rolled beam spans Stringers supported on the top flanges of floor beams
preferably shall be securely anchored to the substructure. preferably shall be continuous over two or more panels.
Anchor bolts shall be swedged or threaded to secure a sat-
isfactory grip upon the material used to embed them in the 10.30.2 Floor Beams
holes.
Floor beams preferably shall be at right angles to the
10.29.6.2 The following are the minimum require- trusses or main girders and shall be rigidly connected
ments for each bearing: thereto. Floor beam connections preferably shall be lo-
For rolled beam spans the outer beams shall be an- cated so the lateral bracing system will engage both the
chored at each end with 2 bolts, 1 inch in diameter, set floor beam and the main supporting member. In pin-con-
10 inches in the masonry. nected trusses, if the floor beams are located below the
bottom chord pins, the vertical posts shall be extended
For trusses and girders: sufficiently below the pins to make a rigid connection to
Spans 50 feet in length or less; 2 bolts, 1 inch in the floor beam.
diameter, set 10 inches in the masonry.
10.30.3 Cross Frames
Spans 51 to 100 feet; 2 bolts, 11⁄ 4 inches in diame-
ter, set 12 inches in the masonry.
In bridges with wooden floors and steel stringers, in-
Spans 101 to 150 feet; 2 bolts, 11⁄ 2 inches in diame- termediate cross frames (or diaphragms) shall be placed
ter, set 15 inches in the masonry. between stringers more than 20 feet long.
Spans greater than 150 feet; 4 bolts, 11⁄ 2 inches in di-
ameter, set 15 inches in the masonry. 10.30.4 Expansion Joints
10.30.4.1 To provide for expansion and contraction

10.29.6.3 Anchor bolts shall be designed to resist
movement, floor expansion joints shall be provided at all
uplift as specified in Article 3.17.
expansion ends of spans and at other points where they
10.29.7 Pedestals and Shoes may be necessary.
10.29.7.1 Pedestals and shoes preferably shall be 10.30.4.2 Apron plates, when used, shall be designed
made of cast steel or structural steel. The difference in to bridge the joint and to prevent, so far as practicable, the
width between the top and bottom bearing surfaces shall accumulation of roadway debris upon the bridge seats. Pre-
not exceed twice the distance between them. For hinged ferably, they shall be connected rigidly to the end floor beam.
10.30.5 End Floor Beams 10.30.8 Stay-in-Place Deck Forms
There shall be end floor beams in all square-ended 10.30.8.1 Concrete Deck Panels
trusses and girder spans and preferably in skew spans. End
floor beams for truss spans preferably shall be designed to When precast prestressed deck panels are used as per-
permit the use of jacks for lifting the superstructure. manent forms spanning between beams, stringers, or gird-
For this case, the allowable stresses may be increased 50%. ers, the requirements of Article 9.12, Deck Panels, and Ar-
ticle 9.23, Deck Panels, shall be met.
10.30.6 End Panel of Skewed Bridges 10.30.8.2 Metal Stay-in-Place Forms
In skew bridges without end floor beams, the end panel When metal stay-in-place forms are used as permanent
stringers shall be secured in correct position by end struts forms spanning between beams, stringers, or girders, the
connected to the stringers and to the main truss or girder. The forms shall be designed to support, as a minimum, the
end panel lateral bracing shall be attached to the main trusses weight of the concrete (including that in the corrugations,
or girders and also to the end struts. Adequate provisions if applicable), a construction load of 50 psf, and the weight
shall be made for the expansion movement of stringers. of the form. The forms shall be designed to be elastic under
construction loads. The elastic deformation caused by the
10.30.7 Sidewalk Brackets dead load of the forms, plastic concrete and reinforcement
shall not exceed a deflection of greater than L/180 or
Sidewalk brackets shall be connected in such a way 1
⁄ 2 inch for form work spans (L) of 10 feet or less, or a
that the bending stresses will be transferred directly to the deflection of L/240 or 3⁄ 4 inch for form work spans (L)
floor beams. over 10 feet.
Part C
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD
10.31 SCOPE Butt Welds:

The same as the base metal joined, except in the case
Allowable stress design is a method for proportioning
of joining metals of different yields when the lower
structural members using design loads and forces, allow-
able stresses, and design limitations for the appropriate yield material shall govern.
material under service conditions. See Part D—Strength
Design Method—Load Factor Design for an alternate de- Fillet Welds:
sign procedure.
Fv 5 0.27 Fu (10-12)
10.32 ALLOWABLE STRESSES where,

Fv 5 allowable basic shear stress;
10.32.1 Steel Fu 5 tensile strength of the electrode classification
Allowable stresses for steel shall be as specified in When detailing fillet welds for quenched and tempered
Table 10.32.1A. steels—the designer may use electrode classifications
with strengths less than the base metal provided that
10.32.2 Weld Metal this requirement is clearly specified on the plans.
Plug Welds:
Unless otherwise specified, the yield point and ultimate
strength of weld metal shall be equal to or greater than min- Fv 5 12,400 psi for resistance to shear stresses only,
imum specified value of the base metal. Allowable stresses where,
on the effective areas of weld metal shall be as follows: Fv 5 allowable basic shear stress.
TABLE 10.32.1A Allowable Stresses—Structural Steel (In pounds per square inch)
TABLE 10.32.1A Allowable Stresses—Structural Steel (In pounds per square inch) (Continued)
TABLE 10.32.3A Allowable Stresses for Low-Carbon 10.32.3.1.4 In bearing-type connections, pull-out
Steel Bolts and Power Driven Rivets (in psi) shear in a plate should be investigated between the end of
the plate and the end row of fasteners. (See Table
10.32.3B, footnote g.)
10.32.3.1.5 All bolts except high-strength bolts,

tensioned to the requirements of Division II. Table 11.5A
or Table 11.5B, shall have single self-locking nuts or
double nuts.
10.32.3.1.6 Joints, utilizing high-strength bolts,

required to resist shear between their connected parts are
designated as either slip-critical (See Article 10.24.1.4)
or bearing-type connections. Shear connections sub-
jected to stress reversal, or where slippage would be un-
desirable, shall be slip-critical connections. Potential slip
TABLE 10.32.3B Allowable Stresses on High-Strength

Bolts or Connected Material (ksi)
10.32.3 Fasteners (Rivets and Bolts)
Allowable stresses for fasteners shall be as listed in Ta-

bles 10.32.3.A and 10.32.3.B, and the allowable force on
a slip-critical connection shall be as provided by Article
10.32.3.2.1.
10.32.3.1 General
10.32.3.1.1 In proportioning fasteners for shear or

tension, the cross-sectional area based upon the nominal
diameter shall be used except as otherwise noted.
10.32.3.1.2 The effective bearing area of a fastener

shall be its diameter multiplied by the thickness of the metal
on which it bears. In metal less than 3 ⁄ 8 inch thick, counter-
sunk fasteners shall not be assumed to carry stress. In metal
3 ⁄ 8 inch thick and over, one-half of the depth of the counter-
sink shall be omitted in calculating the bearing area.
10.32.3.1.3 In determining whether the bolt threads

are excluded from the shear planes of the contact surfaces,
thread length of bolts shall be calculated as two thread
pitches greater than the specified thread length as an al-
lowance for thread runout.
of joints should be investigated at intermediate load Where

stages especially those joints located in composite
Fs 5 nominal slip resistance per unit of bolt area from
regions.
Table 10.32.3C, ksi.
Ab 5 area corresponding to the nominal body area of
10.32.3.1.7 The percentage of unit stress increase
the bolt sq in.
shown in Article 3.22, Combination of Loads, shall apply
Nb 5 number of bolts in the joint.
to allowable stresses in bolted slip-critical connections
Ns 5 number of slip planes.
using high-strength bolts, except that in no case shall the
percentage of allowable stress exceed 133%, and the re- Class A, B, or C surface conditions of the bolted parts as
quirements of Article 10.32.3.3 shall not be exceeded. defined in Table 10.32.3C shall be used in joints desig-
nated as slip-critical except as permitted in Article
10.32.3.1.8 Bolted bearing-type connections shall 10.32.3.2.2.
be limited to members in compression and secondary
members. 10.32.3.2.2 Subject to the approval of the Engineer,
coatings providing a slip coefficient less than 0.33 may be
10.32.3.2 The allowable stress in shear, bearing and used provided the mean slip coefficient is established by
tension for AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) and AASHTO test in accordance with the requirements of Article
M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts shall be as listed in Table 10.32.3.2.3, and the slip resistance per unit area are es-
10.32.3B. tablished. The slip resistance per unit area shall be taken
as equal to the slip resistance per unit area from Table
10.32.3.2.1 In addition to the allowable stress re- 10.32.3C for Class A coatings as appropriate for the hole
quirements of Article 10.32.3.2 the force on a slip-critical type and bolt type times the slip coefficient determined by
connection as defined in Article 10.24.1.4 shall not exceed test divided by 0.33.
the allowable slip force (Ps) of the connection according
to 10.32.3.2.3 Paint, used on the faying surfaces of
connections specified to be slip-critical, shall be qualified
Ps 5 FsAbNbNs (10-13) by test in accordance with “Test Method to Determine the
TABLE 10.32.3C Nominal Slip Resistance for Slip-Critical Connections (Slip Resistance per Unit of Bolt Area, Fs, ksi)
Slip Coefficient for Coatings Used in Bolted Joints” as 5 105 ksi for M 164 (A 325) bolts over 1-inch
adopted by the Research Council on Structural Connec- diameter;
tions. See Appendix A of Allowable Stress Design Speci- 5 150 ksi for M 253 (A 490) bolts.
fication for Structural Joints Using ASTM A 325 or A 490
Bolts published by the Research Council on Structural 10.32.3.3.4 Where rivets or high-strength bolts are
Connections. subject to both shear and tension, the tensile stress shall not
exceed the value obtained from the following equations:
10.32.3.3 Applied Tension, Combined Tension,
and Shear for fv/Fv # 0.33
F9t 5 Ft (10-16)
10.32.3.3.1 High-strength bolts preferably shall be
used for fasteners subject to tension or combined tension for fv/Fv . 0.33
and shear.
Ft′ = Ft 1 − (fv / Fv )2 (10 -17)
10.32.3.3.2 Bolts required to support applied load by
means of direct tension shall be so proportioned that their where
average tensile stress computed on the basis of nominal fv 5 computed rivet or bolt shear stress in shear, ksi;
bolt area will not exceed the appropriate stress in Table Fv 5 allowable shear stress on rivet or bolt from Table
10.32.3B. The applied load shall be the sum of the exter- 10.32.3A or Table 10.32.3B, ksi;
nal load and any tension resulting from prying action. The Ft 5 allowable tensile stress on rivet or bolt from
tension due to the prying action shall be Table 10.32.3A or Table 10.32.3B, ksi;
F9t 5 reduced allowable tensile stress on rivet or bolt
 3b t 3  due to the applied shear stress, ksi.
Q= − T (10 -14)
 8a 20 
Note: Equation (10-18) has been removed.
where
Q 5 the prying tension per bolt (taken as zero when 10.32.3.4 Fatigue
negative);
T 5 the direct tension per bolt due to external load; When subject to tensile fatigue loading, the tensile
a 5 distance from center of bolt to edge of plate in stress in the bolt due to the service load plus the pry-
inches; ing force resulting from application of service load
b 5 distance from center of bolt under consideration shall not exceed the following design stresses in kips
to toe of fillet of connected part in inches; per square inch. The nominal diameter of the bolt shall
t 5 thickness of thinnest part connected in inches. be used in calculating the bolt stress. The prying
force shall not exceed 60% of the externally applied
10.32.3.3.3 For combined shear and tension in load.
slip-critical joints using high-strength bolts where applied
forces reduce the total clamping force on the fric- AASHTO AASHTO
tion plane, the slip resistance per unit area of bolt, fv, shall M 164 M 253
not exceed the value obtained from the following equation: (ASTM (ASTM
Number of Cycles A 325) A 490)
fv 5 Fs(1 2 1.88ft/Fu) (10-15)
Not more than 20,000 38 47
where: From 20,000 to 500,000 35.5 44.0
ft 5 computed tensile stress in the bolt due to applied More than 500,000 27.5 34.0
loads including any stress due to prying action, ksi;
Fs 5 nominal slip resistance per unit of bolt area from 10.32.4 Pins, Rollers, and Expansion Rockers
Table 10.32.3C, ksi;
Fu 5 120 ksi for M 164 (A 325) bolts up to 1-inch 10.32.4.1 The effective bearing area of a pin shall be
diameter; its diameter multiplied by the thickness of the material on
TABLE 10.32.4.3A Allowable Stresses—Steel Bars and Steel Forgings
which it bears. When parts in contact have different yield 10.32.5.2 Malleable Castings
points, Fy shall be the smaller value.
Malleable castings shall conform to specifications for
10.32.4.2 Design stresses for Steel Bars, Carbon Cold Malleable Iron Castings, ASTM A 47 Grade 35018. The
Finished Standard Quality, AASHTO M 169 (ASTM A following allowable stresses in pounds per square inch
108), and Steel Forgings, Carbon and Alloy, for General shall be used:
Industrial Use, AASHTO M 102 (ASTM A 668), are given
in Table 10.32.4.3A. Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,000
Bending in Extreme Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18,000
Modulus of Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25,000,000
10.32.5 Cast Steel, Ductile Iron Castings, Malleable
Castings, and Cast Iron 10.32.5.3 Cast Iron
10.32.5.1 Cast Steel and Ductile Iron Cast iron castings shall conform to specifications for
Gray Iron Castings, AASHTO M 105 (ASTM A 48), Class
10.32.5.1.1 For cast steel conforming to speci- 30B. The following allowable stresses in pounds per
fications for Steel Castings for Highway Bridges, square inch shall be used:
AASHTO M 192 (ASTM A 486), Mild-to-Medium-
Bending in Extreme Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,000
Strength Carbon-Steel Castings for General Application,
Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,000
AASHTO M 103 (ASTM A 27), and Corrosion-Resistant
Direct Compression, Short Columns . . . . . . . 12,000
Iron-Chromium, Iron-Chromium-Nickel and Nickel-
Based Alloy Castings for General Application, AASHTO
10.32.5.4 Bronze or Copper-Alloy
M 163 (ASTM A 743), and for Ductile Iron Cast-
ings (ASTM A 536), the allowable stresses in pounds 10.32.5.4.1 Bronze castings, AASHTO M 107
per square inch shall be in accordance with Table (ASTM B 22), Copper Alloys 913 or 911, or Copper-
10.32.5.1A. Alloy Plates, AASHTO M 108 (ASTM B 100), shall be
specified.
10.32.5.1.2 When in contact with castings or steel of
a different yield point, the allowable unit bearing stress of 10.32.5.4.2 The allowable unit-bearing stress in
the material with the lower yield point shall govern. For pounds per square inch on bronze castings or copper-alloy
riveted or bolted connections, Article 10.32.3 shall govern. plates shall be 2,000.
TABLE 10.32.5.1A Allowable Stresses—Cast Steel and Ductile Iron
10.32.6 Bearing on Masonry 10.34 PLATE GIRDERS
10.32.6.1 The allowable unit-bearing stress in 10.34.1 General

pounds per square inch on the following types of masonry
shall be: 10.34.1.1 Girders shall be proportioned by the mo-
Granite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800 ment of inertia method. For members primarily in bend-
Sandstone and Limestone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 ing, the entire gross section shall be used when calculat-
ing tensile and compressive stresses. Holes for
10.32.6.2 The above bridge seat unit stress will apply high-strength bolts or rivets and/or open holes not ex-
only where the edge of the bridge seat projects at least 3 ceeding 11 ⁄ 4 inches, may be neglected provided the area
inches (average) beyond the edge of shoe or plate. Other- removed from each flange does not exceed 15% of that
wise, the unit stresses permitted will be 75% of the above flange. That area in excess of 15% shall be deducted from
amounts. the gross area.
10.32.6.3 For allowable unit-bearing stress on con- 10.34.1.2 The compression flanges of plate girders
crete masonry, refer to Article 8.15.2.1.3. supporting timber floors shall not be considered to be
laterally supported by the flooring unless the floor and
10.33 ROLLED BEAMS fastenings are specially designed to provide support.
10.33.1 General 10.34.2 Flanges
10.33.1.1 Rolled beams, including those with welded 10.34.2.1 Welded Girders
cover plates, shall be designed by the moment of inertia
method. Rolled beams with riveted cover plates shall be 10.34.2.1.1 Each flange may comprise a series of
designed on the same basis as riveted plate girders. plates joined end to end by full penetration butt welds.
Changes in flange areas may be accomplished by varying
10.33.1.2 The compression flanges of rolled beams the thickness and/or width of the flange plate, or by adding
supporting timber floors shall not be considered to be cover plates. Where plates of varying thicknesses or
laterally supported by the flooring unless the floor and fas- widths are connected, the splice shall be made in accor-
tenings are specially designed to provide adequate support. dance with Article 10.18 and welds ground smooth before
attaching to the web. The compression-flange width, b, on
fabricated I-shaped girders preferably shall not be less
10.33.2 Bearing Stiffeners than 0.2 times the web depth, but in no case shall it be less
than 0.15 times the web depth. If the area of the compres-
Suitable stiffeners shall be provided to stiffen the webs sion flange is less than the area of the tension flange, the
of rolled beams at bearings when the unit shear in the web minimum flange width may be based on two times the
adjacent to the bearing exceeds 75% of the allowable depth of the web in compression rather than the web
shear for girder webs. See the related provisions of Arti- depth. The compression-flange thickness, t, preferably
cle 10.34.6. shall not be less than 1.5 times the web thickness. The
width-to-thickness ratio, b/t, of flanges subject to tension 10.34.2.2.3 Where the calculated compressive bend-
shall not exceed 24. ing stress equals 0.55 Fy, the b9/t ratios for the various
grades of steel shall not exceed the following:
10.34.2.1.2 When cover plates are used, they shall be
designed in accordance with Article 10.13. 36,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b9/t 5 11
50,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b9/t 5 10
10.34.2.1.3 The ratio of compression flange plate 70,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b9/t 5 8.5
width to thickness shall not exceed the value determined 90,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b9/t 5 7.5
by the formula 100,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b9/t 5 7
b 3, 250 10.34.2.2.4 In the case of a composite girder the

= but in no case shall (10 -19) width of outstanding legs of top flange angles in com-
t fb b/t exceed 24 pression, except those reinforced by plates, shall not ex-
ceed the value determined by the following formula
10.34.2.1.4 Where the calculated compressive bend-
ing stress equals .55 Fy the (b/t) ratios for the various b ′ 1, 930 but in no case shall
grades of steel shall not exceed the following: = (10 - 22)
t fd , l b ′/t exceed 12
36,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 23
50,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 20 In the above b9 is the width of a flange angle, t is the thick-
70,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 17 ness, fb is the calculated maximum compressive stress,
90,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 15 and fd,l is the top flange compressive stress due to non-
100,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 14 composite dead load.
In the above b is the flange plate width, t is the thickness, 10.34.2.2.5 The gross area of the compression
and fb is the calculated maximum compressive bending flange, except for composite design, shall be not less than
stress. (See Article 10.40.3 for Hybrid Girders.) the gross area of the tension flange.
10.34.2.1.5 In the case of a composite girder the ratio 10.34.2.2.6 Flange plates shall be of equal thickness,
of the top compression flange plate width to thickness or shall decrease in thickness from the flange angles out-
shall not exceed the value determined by the formula ward. No plate shall have a thickness greater than that of
the flange angles.
b 3, 860 but in no case shall 10.34.2.2.7 At least one cover plate of the top
= (10 - 20)
t fd , l b/t exceed 24 flange shall extend the full length of the girder except
when the flange is covered with concrete. Any cover plate
where fd,l is the top flange compressive stress due to non- that is not full length shall extend beyond the theo-
retical cutoff point far enough to develop the capacity
composite dead load.
of the plate or shall extend to a section where the stress
in the remainder of the girder flange is equal to the al-
10.34.2.2 Riveted or Bolted Girders
lowable fatigue stress, whichever is greater. The theo-
retical cutoff point of the cover plate is the section at
10.34.2.2.1 Flange angles shall form as large a part
which the stress in the flange without that cover plate
of the area of the flange as practicable. Side plates shall
equals the allowable stress, exclusive of fatigue con-
not be used except where flange angles exceeding 7 ⁄ 8 inch siderations.
in thickness otherwise would be required.
10.34.2.2.8 The number of fasteners connecting the
10.34.2.2.2 Width of outstanding legs of flange flange angles to the web plate shall be sufficient to de-
angles in compression, except those reinforced by velop the increment of flange stress transmitted to the
plates, shall not exceed the value determined by the for- flange angles, combined with any load that is applied di-
mula rectly to the flange.
b ′ 1, 625 but in no case shall 10.34.2.2.9 Legs of angles 6 inches or greater in

= (10 - 21)
t fb b ′/t exceed 12 width, connected to web plates, shall have two lines of
fasteners. Cover plates over 14 inches wide shall have

four lines of fasteners.
10.34.3 Thickness of Web Plates
Depth of the web in inches for a symmetrical girder with transverse

stiffeners and one longitudinal stiffener located a distance D/5 from the
10.34.3.1 Girders Not Stiffened Longitudinally
10.34.3.1.1 The web plate thickness of plate girders

without longitudinal stiffeners shall not be less than that
determined by the formula
D fb
tw = (See Figure 10.34.3.1A.) (10 - 23)
23, 000
compression flange.
but in no case shall the thickness be less than D/170.
10.34.3.1.2 Where the calculated compressive bend-

ing stress in the flange equals the allowable bending
stress, the thickness of the web plate (with the web stiff-
ened or not stiffened, depending on the requirements for
transverse stiffeners) shall not be less than (where the Y.P.
is for the flange material)
36,000 psi, Y.P. Min. D/165

50,000 psi, Y.P. Min. D/140
70,000 psi, Y.P. Min. D/115
90,000 psi, Y.P. Min. D/105
100,000 psi, Y.P. Min. D/100 FIGURE 10.34.3.1A Web Thickness vs. Girder Depth for
Noncomposite Symmetrical Sections
10.34.3.2 Girders Stiffened Longitudinally
compression flange component, Dc is the depth of the
10.34.3.2.1 The web plate thickness of plate girders web in compression calculated by summing the stresses
equipped with longitudinal stiffeners shall not be less than from the applicable stages of loading, and fb is the calcu-
that determined by the formula lated flange bending stress in the compression flange.
The depth of web in compression, Dc, in composite sec-
D fb tions subjected to negative bending may be taken as
tw = (10 − 24) the depth of the web in compression of the composite
4, 050 k
section without summing the stresses from the various
2 2
ds  D  D stages of loading. When both edges of the web are in
for ≥ 0.4 k = 5.17  ≥ 9  compression, k shall be taken equal to 7.2.
Dc  ds   Dc 
2
ds  D  10.34.3.2.2 Where the calculated bending stress in
for < 0.4 k = 11.64 
Dc  Dc − ds  the flange equals the allowable bending stress, the thick-
ness of the web plate in a symmetrical girder stiffened
but in no case shall the thickness be less than D/340. For with transverse stiffeners in combination with one longi-
symmetrical girders see Figure 10.34.3.1.A. tudinal stiffener located a distance D/5 from the compres-
In the above, D (depth of the web) is the clear unsup- sion flange shall not be less than (where the Y.P. is for the
ported distance in inches between the flange compo- flange material)
nents, tw is the web thickness, k is the buckling coeffi-
cient, ds is the distance from the centerline of a plate 36,000 psi, Y.P. Min. D/327
longitudinal stiffener or the gage line of an angle longi- 50,000 psi, Y.P. Min. D/278
tudinal stiffener to the inner surface or the leg of the 70,000 psi, Y.P. Min. D/235
90,000 psi, Y.P. Min. D/207 for

100,000 psi, Y.P. Min. D/196
7, 500 k
D / tw >
In the above, D (depth of web) is the clear unsupported Fy
distance in inches between flange components.
4.5 × 10 7 k
C= (10 - 28)
10.34.4 Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners (D / t w )2 Fy
10.34.4.1 Transverse intermediate stiffeners may where

be omitted if the average calculated unit-shearing stress 5
k = 5+
in the gross section of the web plate at the point con- ( d o / D) 2
sidered, fv, is less than the value given by the following
equation: do 5 spacing of intermediate stiffener
Fy 5 yield strength of the web plate
7.33 × 10 7 Fy
Fv = ≤ (10 - 25) (Fy/3) in Equation (10-26) can be replaced by the allow-
(D / t w )2 3 able shearing stress given in Table 10.32.1A.
Transverse stiffeners shall be required if D/tw is greater
where than 150. The spacing of these stiffeners shall not exceed
the handling requirement D[260/(D/tw)]2.
D 5 unsupported depth of web plate between flanges
in inches;
tw 5 thickness of the web plate in inches; 10.34.4.3 The spacing of the first intermediate stiff-
Fv 5 allowable shear stress in psi. ener at the simple support end of a girder shall be such that
the shearing stress in the end panel shall not exceed the
10.34.4.2 Where transverse intermediate stiffeners value given by the following equation (the maximum
are required, the spacing of the transverse intermediate spacing is limited to 1.5D):
stiffener shall be such that the actual shearing stress will
not exceed the value given by the following equation; the Fv 5 CFy/3 # Fy/3 (10-29)
maximum spacing is further limited to 3D and is subject
to the handling requirement below: 10.34.4.4 If a girder panel is subjected to simultane-
ous action of shear and bending moment with the magni-
tude of the shear stress higher than 0.6 Fv, the bending ten-
Fy  0.87(1 − C) 
Fv = C +  (10 - 26) sile stress, Fs, shall be limited to
3  1 + (d o / D)2 
Fs 5 (.754 2 .34fv/Fv)Fy (10-30)
The constant C is equal to the buckling shear stress
where
divided by the shear yield stress, and is determined as
follows: fv 5 average calculated unit-shearing stress at the
section; live load shall be the load to produce
D 6, 000 k maximum moment at the section under consid-
for <
tw Fy eration
Fv 5 value obtained from Equation (10-26).
C = 1.0
10.34.4.5 Where the calculated shear stress equals the
allowable shear stress, transverse intermediate stiffeners
for may be omitted if the thickness of the web is not less than
6, 000 k 7, 500 k
≤ (D / t w ) ≤ 36,000 psi, Y.P. Min. D/78
Fy Fy 50,000 psi, Y.P. Min. D/66
(10 - 27)
70,000 psi, Y.P. Min. D/56
6, 000 k 90,000 psi, Y.P. Min. D/50
C=
(D / t w ) Fy 100,000 psi, Y.P. Min. D/47
10.34.4.6 Intermediate stiffeners preferably shall be 10.34.4.9 Transverse intermediate stiffeners need not
made of plates for welded plate girders and shall be made be in bearing with the tension flange. The distance be-
of angles for riveted plate girders. They may be in pairs, tween the end of the stiffener weld and the near edge of
one stiffener fastened on each side of the web plate, with the web-to-flange fillet welds shall not be less than 4tw or
a tight fit at the compression flange. They may, however, more than 6tw. Stiffeners at points of concentrated loading
be made of a single stiffener fastened to one side of the shall be placed in pairs and should be designed in accor-
web plate. Stiffeners provided on only one side of the web dance with Article 10.34.6. However, transverse stiffeners
must be in bearing against, but need not be attached to, the which connect diaphragms or crossframes to the beam or
compression flange for the stiffener to be effective. How- girder shall be rigidly connected to both the top and bot-
ever, transverse stiffeners which connect diaphragms or tom flanges.
crossframes to the beam or girder shall be rigidly con-
nected to both the top and bottom flanges. 10.34.4.10 The width of a plate or the outstanding
leg of an angle intermediate stiffener shall not be less than
10.34.4.7 The moment of inertia of any type of trans- 2 inches plus 1 ⁄ 30 the depth of the girder, and it shall prefer-
verse stiffener with reference to the plane defined in Arti- ably not be less than 1 ⁄ 4 the full width of the girder flange.
cle 10.34.4.8 shall not be less than The thickness of a plate or the outstanding leg of an angle
intermediate stiffener shall not be less than 1 ⁄ 16 its width.
I 5 dot w3 J (10-31) Intermediate stiffeners may be AASHTO M 270 Grade 36
steel.
where
2
10.34.5 Longitudinal Stiffeners
J 5 2.5 (D/do) 2 2, but not less than 0.5 (10-32)
In these expressions, 10.34.5.1 The optimum distance, ds, of a plate longi-
tudinal stiffener or the gage line of an angle longitudinal
I 5 minimum permissible moment of inertia of any stiffener from the inner surface or the leg of the compres-
4
type of transverse intermediate stiffener in inches ; sion flange component is D/5 for a symmetrical girder.
J 5 required ratio of rigidity of one transverse stiffener The optimum distance, ds, for an unsymmetrical compos-
to that of the web plate; ite girder in positive-moment regions may be determined
do 5 distance between stiffeners in inches; from the equation given below:
D 5 unsupported depth of web plate between flange
components in inches; ds 1
tw 5 thickness of the web plate in inches. = (10-32b)
D cs f
1 + 1.5 DL + LL
fDL
The gross cross-sectional area of intermediate trans-
verse stiffeners shall be greater than
where Dcs is the depth of the web in compression of the
 D f   Fy web 2 noncomposite steel beam or girder, fDL is the noncom-
A = 0.15B (1 − C) v  − 18 tw (10 − 32a ) posite dead-load stress in the compression flange, and
 t w  Fv   Fcr
fDL1LL is the total noncomposite and composite dead-
9, 025, 000
where Fcr = 2 ≤ Fy stiffener (10 − 32 b) load plus the composite live-load stress in the compres-
 b′  sion flange at the most highly stressed section of the
 t web. The optimum distance, ds, of the stiffener in negative-
moment regions of composite sections is 2Dc/5, where
where Fy stiffener is the yield strength of the stiffener; B 5 1.0 Dc is the depth of the web in compression of the com-
for stiffener pairs, 1.8 for single angles, and 2.4 for single posite section at the most highly stressed section of
plates; and C is computed by Article 10.34.4.2. When the web.
values computed by Equation (10-32a) approach zero or The longitudinal stiffener shall be proportioned so that
are negative, then transverse stiffeners need only meet the
requirements of Equation (10-31), and the requirements  d2 
of Article 10.34.4.10. I = Dt 3w  2.4 o2 − 0.13 (10 - 33)
 D 
10.34.4.8 When stiffeners are in pairs, the moment
where
of inertia shall be taken about the center line of the web
plate. When single stiffeners are used, the moment of I 5 minimum moment of inertia of the longitudinal
inertia shall be taken about the face in contact with the stiffener about its edge in contact with the web
4
web plate. plate in inches ;
D 5 unsupported distance between flange compo- on both sides of the web plate. Bearing stiffeners shall
nents in inches; be designed as columns, and their connection to the web
tw 5 thickness of the web plate in inches; shall be designed to transmit the entire end reac-
do 5 actual distance between transverse stiffeners in tion to the bearings. For stiffeners consisting of two
inches. plates, the column section shall be assumed to comprise
the two plates and a centrally located strip of the web plate
10.34.5.2 The thickness of the longitudinal stiffener whose width is equal to not more than 18 times
ts shall not be less than its thickness. For stiffeners consisting of four or more
plates, the column section shall be assumed to comprise
b ′ Fy the four or more plates and a centrally located strip of
(10 - 34) the web plate whose width is equal to that enclosed by
2, 600
the four or more plates plus a width of not more than 18
where times the web plate thickness. (See Article 10.40 for
Hybrid Girders.) The radius of gyration shall be computed
b9 5 width of stiffener about the axis through the center line of the web plate. The
Fy 5 yield strength of the longitudinal stiffener
stiffeners shall be ground to fit against the flange through
which they receive their reaction, or attached to the flange
10.34.5.3 The stress in the stiffener shall not be
by full penetration groove welds. Only the portions of the
greater than the basic allowable bending stress for the ma-
stiffeners outside the flange-to-web plate welds shall be
terial used in the stiffener.
considered effective in bearing. The thickness of the bear-
ing stiffener plates shall not be less than
10.34.5.4 Longitudinal stiffeners are usually placed
on one side only of the web plate. They need not be con-
tinuous and may be cut at their intersections with the b′ Fy
transverse stiffeners. (10 - 35)
12 33, 000
10.34.5.5 For longitudinally stiffened girders, trans-

verse stiffeners shall be spaced a distance, do, according The allowable compressive stress and the bearing pres-
to shear capacity as specified in Article 10.34.4.2, but not sure on the stiffeners shall not exceed the values specified
more than 1.5 times the web depth. The handling require- in Article 10.32.
ment given in Article 10.34.4.2 shall not apply to longitu-
dinally stiffened girders. The spacing of the first trans-
verse stiffener at the simple support end of a 10.34.6.2 Riveted or Bolted Girders
longitudinally stiffened girder shall be such that the shear-
ing stress in the end panel does not exceed the value given Over the end bearings of riveted or bolted plate girders
in Article 10.34.4.3. The maximum spacing of the first there shall be stiffener angles, the outstanding legs of
transverse stiffener at the simple support end of a longitu- which shall extend as nearly as practicable to the outer
dinally stiffened girder is limited to 1.5 times the web edge on the flange angle. Bearing stiffener angles shall
depth. The total web depth D shall be used in determining be proportioned for bearing on the outstanding legs of
the shear capacity of longitudinally stiffened girders in flange angles, no allowance being made for the portions
Articles 10.34.4.2 and 10.34.4.3. of the legs being fitted to the fillets of the flange angles.
Bearing stiffeners shall be arranged, and their con-
10.34.5.6 Transverse stiffeners for girder panels with nections to the web shall be designed to transmit the
longitudinal stiffeners shall be designed according to Ar- entire end reaction to the bearings. They shall not be
ticle 10.34.4.7. crimped. The thickness of the bearing stiffener angles
shall not be less than
10.34.6 Bearing Stiffeners
10.34.6.1 Welded Girders b′ Fy

(10 - 36)
12 33, 000
Over the end bearings of welded plate girders and
over the intermediate bearings of continuous welded plate
girders there shall be stiffeners. They shall extend as The allowable compressive stress and the bearing pres-
nearly as practicable to the outer edges of the flange sure on the stiffeners shall not exceed the values specified
plates. They preferably shall be made of plates placed in Article 10.32.
10.35 TRUSSES (Note: b is the distance from the edge of plate or edge of
perforation to the point of support.)
10.35.1 Perforated Cover Plates and Lacing Bars
10.35.2.4 When the compressive stress equals the
The shearing force normal to the member in the planes limiting factor of 0.44 Fy, the b/t ratio of the segments in-
of lacing or continuous perforated plates shall be assumed dicated above shall not be greater than the ratios shown
divided equally between all such parallel planes. The for the following grades of steel:
shearing force shall include that due to the weight of the
36,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 12
member plus any other external force. For compression
50,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 11
members, an additional force shall be added as obtained
70,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 19
by the following formula:
90,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 18
P  100 (l / r )Fy  100,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 17.5
V= + (10 - 37)

100  l / r + 10 3, 300, 000  10.35.2.5 Plates supported on two edges or webs of
main component segments—for members of box shape
consisting of main plates, rolled sections, or made up
In the above expression component segments with cover plates, the b/t ratio of the
V 5 normal shearing force in pounds; main plates or webs of the segments when used in com-
P 5 allowable compressive axial load on members in pression shall not be greater than the value obtained by
pounds; use of the formula
, 5 length of member in inches;
b 4, 000
r 5 radius of gyration of section about the axis per- = (10 - 39)
pendicular to plane of lacing or perforated plate t fa
in inches;
Fy 5 specified minimum yield point of type of steel but in no case shall b/t be greater than 45.
being used. (Note: b is the distance between points of support for the
plate and between roots of flanges for the webs of rolled
segments.)
10.35.2 Compression Members—Thickness of
Metal
10.35.2.6 When the compressive stresses equal the
limiting factor of 0.44 Fy, the b/t ratio of the plates and
10.35.2.1 Compression members shall be so designed
segments indicated above shall not be greater than the ra-
that the main elements of the section will be connected
tios shown for the following grades of steel:
directly to the gusset plates, pins, or other members.
36,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 32
10.35.2.2 The center of gravity of a built-up section
50,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 27
shall coincide as nearly as practicable with the center of
70,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 23
the section. Preferably, segments shall be connected by
90,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 20
solid webs or perforated cover plates.
100,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 19
10.35.2.3 Plates supported on one side, outstanding
10.35.2.7 Solid cover plates supported on two edges
legs of angles and perforated plates—for outstanding
or webs connecting main members or segments—for
plates, outstanding legs of angles, and perforated plates at
members of H or box shapes consisting of solid cover
the perforations, the b/t ratio of the plates or angle seg-
plates or solid webs connecting main plates or segments,
ments when used in compression shall not be greater than
the b/t ratio of the solid cover plates or webs when used in
the value obtained by use of the formula
compression shall not be greater than the value obtained
by use of the formula
b 1, 625
= (10 - 38)
t fa b 5, 000
= (10 - 40)
t fa
but in no case shall b/t be greater than 12 for main mem-
bers and 16 for secondary members. but in no case shall b/t be greater than 50.
(Note: b is the unsupported distance between points of rolled segments the point of support may be taken as the
support.) weld whenever the ratio of outstanding flange width to
flange thickness of the rolled segment is less than seven.
10.35.2.8 When the compressive stresses equal the Otherwise, point of support shall be the root of flange of
limiting factor of 0.44 Fy, the b/t ratio of the cover plate rolled segment. Terminations of the butt welds are to be
and webs indicated above shall not be greater than the ra- ground smooth.
tios shown for the following grades of steel:
10.36 COMBINED STRESSES
36,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 40
50,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 34 All members subjected to both axial compression and
70,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 28 bending stresses shall be proportioned to satisfy the fol-
90,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 25 lowing requirements
100,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 24
10.35.2.9 Perforated cover plates supported on two fa Cmxfbx Cmyfby

} 1 }} 1 }} # 1.0 (10-42)
1 2 1 2
edges—for members of box shapes consisting of perfo- Fa fa fa
1 2 }} Fbx 1 2 }} Fby
rated cover plates connecting main plates or segments, the F9ex F9ey
b/t ratio of the perforated cover plates when used in com-
pression shall not be greater than the value obtained by and
use of the formula fby
fa f
+ bx + ≤ 1.0 (at points of support)
0.472 Fy Fbx Fby
b 6, 000 (10-43)
= (10 - 41)
t fa
where
but in no case shall b/t be greater than 55. π2E
(Note: b is the distance between points of support. Atten- Fe′ = (10 - 44)
F.S. (K b L b / rb ) 2
tion is directed to requirements for plate thickness at per-
forations, namely, plate supported on one side, which also
shall be satisfied.) fa 5 computed axial stress;
fbx or fby 5 computed compressive bending stress
10.35.2.10 When the compressive stresses equal the about the x axis and y axis, respectively;
limiting factor of 0.44 Fy, the b/t ratio of the perforated Fa 5 axial stress that would be permitted if axial
cover plates shall not be greater than the ratios shown for force alone existed, regardless of the plane
the following grades of steel: of bending;
Fbx, Fby 5 compressive bending stress that would be
36,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 48 permitted if bending moment alone existed
50,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 41 about the x axis and the y axis, respec-
70,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 34 tively, as evaluated according to Table
90,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 30 10.32.1A;
100,000 psi, Y.P. Min. b/t 5 29 F e9 5 Euler buckling stress divided by a factor of
safety;
E 5 modulus of elasticity of steel;
In the above expressions—
Kb 5 effective length factor in the plane of bend-
fa 5 computed compressive stress; ing (see Appendix C);
b 5 width (defined as indicated for each expres- Lb 5 actual unbraced length in the plane of
sion); bending;
t 5 plate or web thickness. rb 5 radius of gyration in the plane of bending;
Cmx, Cmy 5 coefficient about the x axis and y axis, re-
10.35.2.11 The point of support shall be the inner line spectively, whose value is taken from
of fasteners or fillet welds connecting the plate to the main Table 10.36A;
segment. For plates butt welded to the flange edge of F.S. 5 factor of safety 5 2.12.
TABLE 10.36A Bending-Compression Interaction Coefficients
10.37 SOLID RIB ARCHES 10.37.1.2 The arch rib shall be proportioned to sat-
isfy the following requirement:
10.37.1 Moment Amplification and Allowable Stress
fa fb
+ ≤1 (10 - 47)
10.37.1.1 Live load plus impact moments that are de- Fa Fb
termined by an analysis which neglects arch rib deflection
shall be increased by an amplification factor AF where
1 fa 5 the computed axial stress;
AF = (10 - 45)
1.70 T fb 5 the calculated bending stress, including moment
1−
AFe amplification, at the extreme fiber;
Fa 5 the allowable axial unit stress;
where Fb 5 the allowable bending unit stress.
T 5 arch rib thrust at the quarter point from dead plus
live plus impact loading; 10.37.1.3 For buckling in the vertical plane
π2E
3 1 2
4
Fe = K}L 2F
2 (Euler buckling stress) (10 - 46) } y
 KL  Fy r
 r  Fa 5 } }}
1 2 4p2E (10-48)
2.12
L 5 one-half of the length of the arch rib;
A 5 area of cross section; where KL is as defined above.
r 5 radius of gyration;
K 5 factor to account for effective length. 10.37.1.4 The effects of lateral slenderness should be
investigated. Tied arch ribs, with the tie and roadway sus-
K Values for Use in Calculating Fe and Fa pended from the rib, are not subject to moment amplifica-
tion, and Fa shall be based on an effective length equal to
Rise to Span 3-Hinged 2-Hinged
the distance along the arch axis between suspenders, for
Ratio Arch Arch Fixed Arch
buckling in the vertical plane. However, the smaller cross-
0.1–0.2 1.16 1.04 0.70 sectional area of cable suspenders may result in an effec-
0.2–0.3 1.13 1.10 0.70 tive length slightly longer than the distance between sus-
0.3–0.4 1.16 1.16 0.72 penders.
10.37.2 Web Plates b′ 4, 250

= , maximum b/t f = 47 (10 - 56)
tf fa + fb
10.37.2.1 The depth to thickness ratio D/tw of the
web plates, having no longitudinal stiffeners, shall not be
greater than the following: 10.37.3.2 The b9/tf ratio for the overhang width of
flange plates shall be not greater than
D 5, 000
= , maximum D/t w = 60 (10 - 49) b′ 1, 625
tw fa = , maximum b ′/t f = 12 (10 - 57)
tf fa + fb
where tw 5 web thickness.
10.37.2.2 If one longitudinal stiffener is used at mid- 10.38 COMPOSITE GIRDERS

depth of the web, maximum D/tw shall be as follows:
10.38.1 General
D 7, 500
= , maximum D/t w = 90 (10 - 50) 10.38.1.1 This section pertains to structures com-
tw fa posed of steel girders with concrete slabs connected by
shear connectors.
and the moment of inertia of the stiffener about an axis
parallel to the web and at the base of the stiffener shall be 10.38.1.2 General specifications pertaining to the de-
equal to sign of concrete and steel structures shall apply to struc-
tures utilizing composite girders where such specifica-
3
Is 5 0.75 Dt w (10-51) tions are applicable. Composite girders and slabs shall be
designed and the stresses computed by the composite mo-
10.37.2.3 If two longitudinal stiffeners are used at ment of inertia method and shall be consistent with the
the one-third points of the web depth D, maximum D/tw predetermined properties of the various materials used.
shall be as follows:
10.38.1.3 The ratio of the moduli of elasticity of steel
D 10, 000 (29,000,000 psi) to those of normal weight concrete (W 5
= , maximum D/t w = 120 (10 - 52) 145 pcf) of various design strengths shall be as follows:
tw fa
f c9 5 unit ultimate compressive strength of concrete as
and the moment of inertia of each stiffener shall be determined by cylinder tests at the age of 28 days
in pounds per square inch.
Is 5 2.2 Dt w3 (10-53) n 5 ratio of modulus of elasticity of steel to that of
concrete. The value of n, as a function of the ul-
10.37.2.4 The width to thickness ratio b9/t s of any
timate cylinder strength of concrete, shall be as-
outstanding element of the web stiffeners shall not exceed
sumed as follows:
the following:
f c9 5 2,000–2,300 n 5 11
b′ 1, 625 2,400–2,800 5 10
= , maximum b ′/t s = 12 (10 - 54) 2,900–3,500 5 19
ts f
fa + b 3,600–4,500 5 18
3
4,600–5,900 5 17
10.37.2.5 Web plate equations apply between limits 6,000 or more 5 16
fb 10.38.1.4 The effect of creep shall be considered in
0.2 ≤ ≤ 0.7 (10 - 55)
fa + fb the design of composite girders which have dead loads
acting on the composite section. In such structures,
10.37.3 Flange Plates stresses and horizontal shears produced by dead loads act-
ing on the composite section shall be computed for n as
10.37.3.1 The b/tf ratio for the width of flange plates given above or for this value multiplied by 3, whichever
between webs shall be not greater than gives the higher stresses and shears.
10.38.1.5 If concrete with expansive characteristics 10.38.2.2 The capacity of stud and channel shear
is used, composite design should be used with caution and connectors welded to the girders is given in Article
provision must be made in the design to accommodate the 10.38.5. Channel shear connectors shall have at least
expansion. 3 ⁄ 16-inch fillet welds placed along the heel and toe of the
channel.
10.38.1.6 Composite sections in simple spans and
the positive moment regions of continuous spans should 10.38.2.3 The clear depth of concrete cover over the
preferably be proportioned so that the neutral axis lies tops of the shear connectors shall be not less than 2 inches.
below the top surface of the steel beam. Concrete on the Shear connectors shall penetrate at least 2 inches above
tension side of the neutral axis shall not be considered in bottom of slab.
calculating resisting moments. In the negative moment re-
gions of continuous spans, only the slab reinforcement 10.38.2.4 The clear distance between the edge of a
can be considered to act compositely with the steel beams girder flange and the edge of the shear connectors shall be
in calculating resisting moments. Mechanical anchorages not less than 1 inch. Adjacent stud shear connectors shall
shall be provided in the composite regions to develop not be closer than 4 diameters center to center.
stresses on the plane joining the concrete and the steel.
Concrete on the tension side of the neutral axis may be 10.38.3 Effective Flange Width
considered in computing moments of inertia for deflection
calculations, for determining stiffness factors used in cal- 10.38.3.1 In composite girder construction the as-
culating moments and shears, and for computing fatigue sumed effective width of the slab as a T-beam flange shall
stress ranges and fatigue shear ranges as permitted under not exceed the following:
the provisions of Articles 10.3.1 and 10.38.5.1.
(1) One-fourth of the span length of the girder.
10.38.1.7 The steel beams or girders, especially if not (2) The distance center to center of girders.
supported by intermediate falsework, shall be investigated (3) Twelve times the least thickness of the slab.
for stability and strength for the loading applied during the
time the concrete is in place and before it has hardened. 10.38.3.2 For girders having a flange on one side
The casting or placing sequence specified in the plans for only, the effective flange width shall not exceed 1⁄ 12 of the
the composite concrete deck shall be considered when cal- span length of the girder, or six times the thickness of the
culating the moments and shears on the steel section. The slab, or one-half the distance center to center of the next
maximum flange compression stress shall not exceed the girder.
value specified in Table 10.32.1A for partially supported
or unsupported compression flanges multiplied by a factor 10.38.4 Stresses
of 1.4, but not to exceed 0.55Fy. The sum of the noncom-
posite and composite dead-load shears in the web shall not 10.38.4.1 Maximum compressive and tensile
exceed the shear-buckling capacity of the web multiplied stresses in girders that are not provided with temporary
by 1.35, nor the allowable shear stress, as follows: supports during the placing of the permanent dead load
shall be the sum of the stresses produced by the dead loads
Fv = 0.45CFy ≤ 0.33Fy (10-57a) acting on the steel girders alone and the stresses produced
by the superimposed loads acting on the composite girder.
where C is specified in Article 10.34.4.2. When girders are provided with effective intermediate
supports that are kept in place until the concrete has at-
10.38.2 Shear Connectors tained 75% of its required 28-day strength, the dead and
live load stresses shall be computed on the basis of the
10.38.2.1 The mechanical means used at the junction composite section.
of the girder and slab for the purpose of developing the
shear resistance necessary to produce composite action 10.38.4.2 A continuous composite bridge may be
shall conform to the specifications of the respective mate- built with shear connectors either in the positive moment
rials as provided in Division II. The shear connectors shall regions or throughout the length of the bridge. The posi-
be of types that permit a thorough compaction of the con- tive moment regions may be designed with composite
crete in order to ensure that their entire surfaces are in sections as in simple spans. Shear connectors shall be
contact with the concrete. They shall be capable of resist- provided in the negative moment portion in which the re-
ing both horizontal and vertical movement between the inforcement steel embedded in the concrete is considered
concrete and the steel. a part of the composite section. In case the reinforcement
steel embedded in the concrete is not used in computing 10.38.5.1.1 Fatigue

section properties for negative moments, shear connectors
need not be provided in these portions of the spans, but The range of horizontal shear shall be computed by the
additional anchorage connectors shall be placed in the re- formula
gion of the point of dead load contra-flexure in accordance Vr Q
with Article 10.38.5.1.3. Shear connectors shall be pro- Sr = (10 - 58)
I
vided in accordance with Article 10.38.5.
where
10.38.4.3 The minimum longitudinal reinforcement Sr 5 range of horizontal shear, in kips per inch, at the
including the longitudinal distribution reinforcement junction of the slab and girder at the point in the
must equal or exceed 1% of the cross-sectional area of the span under consideration;
concrete slab whenever the longitudinal tensile stress in Vr 5 range of shear due to live loads and impact
the concrete slab due to either the construction loads or the in kips; at any section, the range of shear shall
design loads exceeds ft specified in Article 8.15.2.1.1. The be taken as the difference in the minimum and
area of the concrete slab shall be taken equal to the struc- maximum shear envelopes (excluding dead loads);
tural thickness times the entire width of the bridge deck. Q 5 statical moment about the neutral axis of the
The required reinforcement shall be No. 6 bars or composite section of the transformed concrete
smaller spaced at not more than 12 inches. Two-thirds of area, in3. Between points of dead-load con-
this required reinforcement is to be placed in the top layer traflexure, the statical moment about the neutral
of slab. Placement of distribution steel as specified in Ar- axis of the composite section of the area of rein-
ticle 3.24.10 is waived. forcement embedded in the concrete may be used
unless the transformed concrete area is considered
10.38.4.4 When shear connectors are omitted from to be fully effective for negative moment in com-
the negative moment region, the longitudinal reinforce- puting the longitudinal range of stress;
ment shall be extended into the positive moment region I 5 moment of inertia of the transformed composite
beyond the anchorage connectors at least 40 times the re- section, in4. Between points of dead-load con-
inforcement diameter. For epoxy-coated bars, the length traflexure, the moment of inertia of the steel
to be extended into the positive moment region beyond girder including the area of reinforcement em-
the anchorage connectors should be modified to comply bedded in the concrete may be used unless the
with Article 8.25.2.3. transformed concrete area is considered to be
fully effective for negative moment in comput-
10.38.5 Shear ing the longitudinal range of stress.
(In the formula, the concrete area is transformed into an
10.38.5.1 Horizontal Shear equivalent area of steel by dividing the effective concrete
flange width by the modular ratio, n.)
The maximum pitch of shear connectors shall not ex- The allowable range of horizontal shear, Zr, in pounds
ceed 24 inches except over the interior supports of con- on an individual connector is as follows:
tinuous beams where wider spacing may be used to avoid
placing connectors at locations of high stresses in the ten- Channels
sion flange.
Zr 5 Bw (10-59)
Resistance to horizontal shear shall be provided by me-
chanical shear connectors at the junction of the concrete Welded studs (for H/d $ 4)
slab and the steel girder. The shear connectors shall be
mechanical devices placed transversely across the flange Z r 5 a d2 (10-60)
of the girder spaced at regular or variable intervals. The
where
shear connectors shall be designed for fatigue* and
checked for ultimate strength. w 5 length of a channel shear connector, in inches,
measured in a transverse direction on the flange
of a girder;
d 5 diameter of stud in inches;
a 5 13,000 for 100,000 cycles
*Reference is made to the paper titled “Fatigue Strength of Shear Con- 10,600 for 500,000 cycles
nectors,” by Roger G. Slutter and John W. Fisher, in Highway Research
Record, No. 147, published by the Highway Research Board, Washing- 7,850 for 2,000,000 cycles
ton, D.C., 1966. 5,500 for over 2,000,000 cycles;
B 5 4,000 for 100,000 cycles The number of connectors, N2, required between the
3,000 for 500,000 cycles points of maximum positive moment and points of adja-
2,400 for 2,000,000 cycles cent maximum negative moment shall equal or exceed the
2,100 for over 2,000,000 cycles; number given by the formula
H 5 height of stud in inches. P + P3
N2 = (10-64)
The required pitch of shear connectors is determined φSu
by dividing the allowable range of horizontal shear of all At points of maximum negative moment the force in
connectors at one transverse girder cross-section (SZr) by
the slab is taken as
the horizontal range of shear Sr, but not to exceed the max-
imum pitch specified in Article 10.38.5.1. Over the inte- r r
P3 5 A s F y* (10-65)
rior supports of continuous beams the pitch may be mod-
ified to avoid placing the connectors at locations of high
where
stresses in the tension flange provided that the total num-
ber of connectors remains unchanged. A sr 5 total area of longitudinal reinforcing steel at
the interior support within the effective flange
10.38.5.1.2 Ultimate Strength width;
r
F y* 5 specified minimum yield point of the reinforc-
The number of connectors so provided for fatigue shall ing steel.
be checked to ensure that adequate connectors are pro-
vided for ultimate strength. The ultimate strength of the shear connector is given as
The number of shear connectors required shall equal or follows:
exceed the number given by the formula
Channels
P
N1 = t
Su = 550  h +  W fc′
(10-61)
φSu  (10-66)
2
where Welded studs (for H/d . 4)

N1 5 number of connectors between points of maxi- Su = 0.4d 2 fc′ E c ≤ 60, 000 A sc (10-67)
mum positive moment and adjacent end sup-
ports; where
Su 5 ultimate strength of the shear connector as given
below; Ec 5 modulus of elasticity of the concrete in pounds
f 5 reduction factor 5 0.85; per square inch;
P 5 force in the slab as defined hereafter as P1 or
P2. E c = w 3 / 2 33 fc′ (10-68)
At points of maximum positive moment, the force in Su 5 ultimate strength of individual shear connector in
the slab is taken as the smaller value of the formulas pounds;
Asc 5 cross-sectional area of a stud shear connector in
P1 5 AsFy (10-62) square inches;
or h 5 average flange thickness of the channel flange in
inches;
P2 5 0.85fc9bts (10-63) t 5 thickness of the web of a channel in inches;
W 5 length of a channel shear connector in inches;
where
fc9 5 compressive strength of the concrete in 28 days
As 5 total area of the steel section including cover- in pounds per square inch;
plates; d 5 diameter of stud in inches;
Fy 5 specified minimum yield point of the steel being w 5 unit weight of concrete in pounds per cubic foot.
used;
f c9 5 compressive strength of concrete at age of 28
days;
b 5 effective flange width given in Article 10.38.3; *When reinforcement steel embedded in the top slab is not used in
ts 5 thickness of the concrete slab. computing section properties for negative moments, P3 is equal to zero.
10.38.5.1.3 Additional Connectors to Develop Slab by two or more single cell composite box girders. The dis-
Stresses tance center-to-center of flanges of each box should be the
same and the average distance center-to-center of flanges
The number of additional connectors required at points
of adjacent boxes shall be not greater than 1.2 times and
of contraflexure when reinforcing steel embedded in the
not less than 0.8 times the distance center-to-center of
concrete is not used in computing section properties for
negative moments shall be computed by the formula flanges of each box. In addition to the above, when nonpa-
rallel girders are used, the distance center-to-center of ad-
Nc 5 Asrfr / Zr (10-69) jacent flanges at supports shall be not greater than 1.35
times and not less than 0.65 times the distance center-to-
where
center of flanges of each box. The cantilever overhang of
Nc 5 number of additional connectors for each beam the deck slab, including curbs and parapets, shall be lim-
at point of contraflexure; ited to 60% of the average distance center-to-center of
Asr 5 total area of longitudinal slab reinforcing steel flanges of adjacent boxes, but shall in no case exceed 6
for each beam over interior support; feet.
fr 5 range of stress due to live load plus impact in
the slab reinforcement over the support (in lieu 10.39.1.2 The provisions of Division I, Design, shall
of more accurate computations, fr may be taken govern where applicable, except as specifically modified
as equal to 10,000 psi); by Articles 10.39.1 through 10.39.8.
Zr 5 allowable range of horizontal shear on an indi-
vidual shear connector.
10.39.2 Lateral Distribution of Loads for Bending
Moment
The additional connectors, Nc, shall be placed adjacent
to the point of dead load contraflexure within a distance
10.39.2.1 The live load bending moment for each
equal to one-third the effective slab width, i.e., placed ei-
box girder shall be determined by applying to the girder,
ther side of this point or centered about it. It is preferable
to locate field splices so that they clear the connectors. the fraction WL of a wheel load (both front and rear), de-
termined by the following equation:
10.38.5.2 Vertical Shear
0.85
WL = 0.1 + 1.7R + (10-70)
The intensity of unit-shearing stress in a composite Nw
girder may be determined on the basis that the web of the
steel girder carries the total external shear, neglecting the where
effects of the steel flanges and of the concrete slab.
The shear may be assumed to be uniformly distributed Nw
R= (10-71)
throughout the gross area of the web. Number of Box Girders
10.38.6 Deflection Nw 5 Wc/12 reduced to the nearest whole number;

Wc 5 roadway width between curbs in feet, or barriers
10.38.6.1 The provisions of Article 10.6 in regard to if curbs are not used. R shall not be less than 0.5
deflections from live load plus impact also shall be ap- or greater than 1.5.
plicable to composite girders.
10.39.2.2 The provision of Article 3.12, Reduction of
10.38.6.2 When the girders are not provided with Load Intensity, shall not apply in the design of box gird-
falsework or other effective intermediate support during the ers when using the design load WL given by the above
placing of the concrete slab, the deflection due to the weight
equation.
of the slab and other permanent dead loads added before the
concrete has attained 75% of its required 28-day strength
shall be computed on the basis of noncomposite action. 10.39.3 Design of Web Plates
10.39 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS 10.39.3.1 Vertical Shear
10.39.1 General The design shear Vw for a web shall be calculated using
the following equation:
10.39.1.1 This section pertains to the design of sim-
ple and continuous bridges of moderate length supported Vw 5 Vv /cos u (10-72)
where 10.39.4.2.2 For greater b/t ratios, but not exceeding

13, 300 Fy , the stress in an unstiffened bottom flange shall
Vv 5 vertical shear;
not exceed the value determined by the use of the formula
u 5 angle of inclination of the web plate to the verti-
cal. fb 5 0.55Fy 2 0.224Fy 3
10.39.3.2 Secondary Bending Stresses   b Fy  

  13, 300 − 
1 − sin  π × t 
10.39.3.2.1 Web plates may be plumb (90° to bottom   
 2 7,160  (10-74)
of flange) or inclined. If the inclination of the web plates
to a plane normal to the bottom flange is no greater than 1 10.39.4.2.3 For values of b/t exceeding 13,300/ÏF wyw,
to 4, and the width of the bottom flange is no greater than the stress in the flange shall not exceed the value given by
20% of the span, then the transverse bending stresses re- the formula
sulting from distortion of the span, and the transverse
t 2
bending stresses resulting from distortion of the girder fb = 57.6   × 10 6 (10-75)
cross section and from vibrations of the bottom plate need  b
not be considered. For structures in this category trans-
verse bending stresses due to supplementary loadings, 10.39.4.2.4 The b/t ratio preferably should not ex-
such as utilities, shall not exceed 5,000 psi. ceed 60 except in areas of low stress near points of dead
load contraflexure.
10.39.3.2.2 For structures exceeding these limits, a
detailed evaluation of the transverse bending stresses due 10.39.4.2.5 Should the b/t ratio exceed 45, longitudi-
to all causes shall be made. These stresses shall be limited nal stiffeners should be considered.
to a maximum stress or range of stress of 20,000 psi.
10.39.4.2.6 Unstiffened compression flanges shall
10.39.4 Design of Bottom Flange Plates also satisfy the provisions of Article 10.39.4.1. The effec-
tive flange plate width shall be used to calculate the flange
10.39.4.1 Tension Flanges bending stress. The full flange plate width shall be used to
calculate the allowable bending stress.
10.39.4.1.1 In cases of simply supported spans, the
bottom flange shall be considered completely effective in 10.39.4.3 Compression Flanges Stiffened
resisting bending if its width does not exceed one-fifth the Longitudinally*
span length. If the flange plate width exceeds one-fifth of
the span, an amount equal to one-fifth of the span only 10.39.4.3.1 Longitudinal stiffeners shall be at equal
shall be considered effective. spacings across the flange width and shall be proportioned
so that the moment of inertia of each stiffener about an
10.39.4.1.2 For continuous spans, the criteria above axis parallel to the flange and at the base of the stiffener is
shall be applied to the lengths between points of con- at least equal to
traflexure.
Is 5 f t f3w (10-76)
10.39.4.2 Compression Flanges Unstiffened where
3 4
10.39.4.2.1 Unstiffened compression flanges de- f 5 0.07 k n for values of n greater than 1;
signed for the basic allowable stress of 0.55 Fy shall have f 5 0.125 k3 for a value of n 5 1;
a width to thickness ratio equal to or less than the value tf5 thickness of the flange;
obtained by the use of the formula w 5 width of flange between longitudinal stiffeners or
distance from a web to the nearest longitudinal
b 6,140 stiffener;
= (10-73) n 5 number of longitudinal stiffeners;
t Fy
k 5 buckling coefficient which shall not exceed 4.
where
b 5 flange width between webs in inches; *In solving these equations a value of k between 2 and 4 generally
t 5 flange thickness in inches. should be assumed.
FIGURE 10.39.4.3A. Longitudinal Stiffeners—Box Girder Compression Flange
FIGURE 10.39.4.3B Spacing and Size of Transverse Stiffeners (for Flange Stiffened Longitudinally and Transversely)
10.39.4.3.2 For the flange, including stiffeners, to be Is 5 8 tf3w (10-80)

designed for the basic allowable stress of 0.55 Fy, the ratio
w/t shall not exceed the value given by the formula 10.39.4.4.2 The transverse stiffeners shall be propor-
tioned so that the moment of inertia of each stiffener about
w 3, 070 k an axis through the centroid of the section and parallel to
= (10-77) its bottom edge is at least equal to
t Fy
fs A f
I t = 0.10 ( n + 1)3 w 3 (10-81)
10.39.4.3.3 For greater values of w/t but not exceed- E a
ing 60 or (6,650 Ïkw)/ÏF ww,
y whichever is less, the stress in
the flange, including stiffeners, shall not exceed the value where
determined by the formula
Af 5 area of bottom flange including longitudinal
fb 5 0.55Fy 2 0.224Fy 3 stiffeners;
a 5 spacing of transverse stiffeners;
3 1 24
w Fy fs 5 maximum longitudinal bending stress in the
6, 650 k −
π t flange of the panels on either side of the trans-
1 2 sin × (10–78)
verse stiffener;
2 3, 580 k
E 5 modulus of elasticity of steel.
10.39.4.3.4 For values of w/t exceeding (6,650 Ïk w)/
10.39.4.4.3 For the flange, including stiffeners, to be
ÏF wyw but not exceeding 60, the stress in the flange, in-
designed for the basic allowable stress of 0.55 Fy, the ratio
cluding stiffeners, shall not exceed the value given by the
formula w/t for the longitudinal stiffeners shall not exceed the
value given by the formula
fb 5 14.4 k(t/w)2 3 106 (10-79)
w 3, 070 k1
= (10–82)
10.39.4.3.5 When longitudinal stiffeners are used, it t Fy
is preferable to have at least one transverse stiffener
placed near the point of dead load contraflexure. The stiff-
ener should have a size equal to that of a longitudinal stiff- where
ener.
[1 + (a / b)2 ]2 + 87.3
10.39.4.3.6 If the longitudinal stiffeners are placed at kl = (10–83)
their maximum w/t ratio to be designed for the basic al- ( n + 1)2 (a / b)2 [1 + 0.1( n + 1)]
lowable design stresses of 0.55 Fy and the number of lon-
gitudinal stiffeners exceeds 2, then transverse stiffeners 10.39.4.4.4 For greater values of w/t, but not ex-
should be considered. ceeding 60 or (6,650 Ïkw1w)/ÏF wyw, whichever is less, the
stress in the flange, including stiffeners, shall not exceed
10.39.4.3.7 Compression flanges stiffened longitudi- the value determined by the formula
nally shall also satisfy the provisions of Article 10.39.4.1.
The effective flange plate width shall be used to calculate fb 5 0.55Fy 2 0.224Fy 3
the flange bending stress. The full flange plate width shall
be used to calculate the allowable bending stress. wÏw Fwy
3 1 24
6,650 Ïkw1w 2 }}
t
p
10.39.4.4 Compression Flanges Stiffened 1 2 sin }} 3 }}} 3,580 Ïkw w (10–84)
Longitudinally and Transversely 2 1
10.39.4.4.1 The longitudinal stiffeners shall be at

equal spacings across the flange width and shall be pro- 10.39.4.4.5 For values of w/t exceeding (6,650
portioned so that the moment of inertia of each stiffener Ïk w1w)/ÏF
wyw but not exceeding 60, the stress in the flange,
about an axis parallel to the flange and at the base of the including stiffeners, shall not exceed the value given by
stiffener is at least equal to the formula
10.39.4.5.2 Longitudinal stiffeners shall be extended

t 2
fb = 14.4 k1   × 10 6
to locations where the maximum stress in the flange does
 w (10–85)
not exceed that allowed for base metal adjacent to or con-
nected by fillet welds.
10.39.4.4.6 The maximum value of the buckling co-
efficient, k1, shall be 4. When k1 has its maximum value, 10.39.5 Design of Flange to Web Welds
the transverse stiffeners shall have a spacing, a, equal to
or less than 4w. If the ratio a/b exceeds 3, transverse stiff- The total effective thickness of the web-flange welds
eners are not necessary. shall be not less than the thickness of the web, except,
when two or more interior intermediate diaphragms per
10.39.4.4.7 The transverse stiffeners need not be span are provided, the minimum size fillet welds specified
connected to the flange plate but shall be connected to the in Article 10.23.2.2 may be used. Regardless of the type
webs of the box and to each longitudinal stiffener. The weld used, welds shall be deposited on both sides of the
connection to the web shall be designed to resist the ver- connecting flange or web plate.
tical force determined by the formula
10.39.6 Diaphragms
Fy Ss
Rw = (10–86) 10.39.6.1 Diaphragms, cross-frames, or other means
2b
shall be provided within the box girders at each support to
where Ss 5 section modulus of the transverse stiffener. resist transverse rotation, displacement, and distortion.
10.39.4.4.8 The connection to each longitudinal 10.39.6.2 Intermediate diaphragms or cross-frames

stiffener shall be designed to resist the vertical force de- are not required for steel box girder bridges designed in
accordance with this specification.
termined by the formula
10.39.7 Lateral Bracing
Fy Ss
Rs = (10–87)
nb Generally, no lateral bracing system is required be-
tween box girders. A horizontal wind load of 50 pounds
10.39.4.4.9 Compression flanges stiffened longitudi- per square foot shall be applied to the area of the super-
nally and transversely shall also satisfy the provisions of structure exposed in elevation. Half of the resulting force
Article 10.39.4.1. The effective flange plate width shall shall be applied in the plane of the bottom flange. The sec-
be used to calculate the flange bending stress. The full tion assumed to resist the horizontal load shall consist of
flange plate width shall be used to calculate the allowable the bottom flange acting as a web and 12 times the thick-
bending stress. ness of the webs acting as flanges. A lateral bracing sys-
tem shall be provided if the combined stresses due to the
10.39.4.5 Compression Flange Stiffeners, specified horizontal force and dead load of steel and deck
General exceed 150% of the allowable design stress.
10.39.4.5.1 The width to thickness ratio of any out- 10.39.8 Access and Drainage
standing element of the flange stiffeners shall not exceed
the value determined by the formula Consistent with climate, location, and materials, con-
sideration shall be given to the providing of manholes, or
other openings, either in the deck slab or in the steel box
b ′ 2, 600
= (10–88) for form removal, inspection, maintenance, drainage, etc.
t′ Fy
where 10.40 HYBRID GIRDERS
b9 5 width of any outstanding stiffener element 10.40.1 General

t9 5 thickness of outstanding stiffener element
Fy 5 yield strength of outstanding stiffener ele- 10.40.1.1 This section pertains to the design of
ment. girders that utilize a lower strength steel in the web
10.40.1.2 The provisions of Division I, Design, shall

govern where applicable, except as specifically modified
by Articles 10.40.1 through 10.40.4.
10.40.2 Allowable Stresses
10.40.2.1 Bending
10.40.2.1.1 The bending stress in the web may ex-

ceed the allowable stress for the web steel provided that
the stress in each flange does not exceed the allowable
stress from Articles 10.3 or 10.32 for the steel in that
flange multiplied by the reduction factor, R.
βψ (1- α )2 (3 − ψ + ψα )
R = 1− (10 - 89)
6 + βψ (3 − ψ )
(See Figure 10.40.2.1A and 10.40.2.1B.)
FIGURE 10.40.2.1A where:

a 5 minimum specified yield strength of the web di-
vided by the minimum specified yield strength of
the tension flange;*
b 5 area of the web divided by the area of the tension
flange;*
c 5 distance from the outer edge of the tension
flange* to the neutral axis (of the transformed
section for composite girders) divided by the
depth of the steel section.
10.40.2.1.2 The bending stress in the concrete slab in

composite girders shall not exceed the allowable stress for
the concrete multiplied by R.
10.40.2.1.3 R shall be taken as 1.0 at sections where

the bending stress in both flanges does not exceed the al-
lowable stress for the web.
10.40.2.1.4 Longitudinal web stiffeners preferably

shall not be located in yielded portions of the web.
FIGURE 10.40.2.1B 10.40.2.2 Shear
than in one or both of the flanges. It applies to composite The design of the web for a hybrid girder shall be in
and noncomposite plate girders, and composite box compliance with Article 10.34.3 except that Equation
girders. At any cross section where the bending stress in (10-26) of Article 10.34.4.2 for the allowable average
either flange exceeds 55% of the minimum specified shear stress in the web of transversely stiffened nonhybrid
yield strength of the web steel, the compression-flange girders shall be replaced by the following equation for the
area shall not be less than the tension-flange area. The allowable average shear stress in the web of transversely
top-flange area shall include the transformed area of any stiffened hybrid girders:
portion of the slab or reinforcing steel that is considered
to act compositely with the steel girder. *Bottom flange of orthotropic deck bridges.
Fv 5 CFy / 3 # Fy / 3 (10-90) 10.41.1.3 For an alternate design method (Strength

Design), see Article 10.60.
where Fy is equal to the specified minimum yield strength
10.41.2 Wheel Load Contact Area
of the web. The provisions of Article 10.34.4.4, and the
equation for A in Article 10.34.4.7 are not applicable to The wheel loads specified in Article 3.7 shall be uni-
hybrid girders. formly distributed to the deck plate over the rectangular
area defined below:
10.40.2.3 Fatigue
Width Length
Hybrid girders shall be designed for the allowable Wheel Load Perpendicular in Direction
fatigue stress range given in Article 10.3 and Table 10.3.1A. (kip) to Traffic (inches) of Traffic (inches)
8 20 1 2t 8 1 2t
10.40.3 Plate Thickness Requirements 12 20 1 2t 8 1 2t
16 24 1 2t 8 1 2t
In calculating the maximum width-to-thickness ratio
In the above table, t is the thickness of the wearing sur-
of the flange plate according to Article 10.34.2, fb shall be
face in inches.
taken as the lesser of the calculated bending stress in the
compression flange divided by the reduction factor, R, or the 10.41.3 Effective Width of Deck Plate
allowable bending stress for the compression flange.
10.41.3.1 Ribs and Beams
10.40.4 Bearing Stiffener Requirements The effective width of deck plate acting as the top
flange of a longitudinal rib or a transverse beam may be
In designing bearing stiffeners at interior supports of calculated by accepted approximate methods.*
continuous hybrid girders for which a is less than 0.7, no
part of the web shall be assumed to act in bearing. 10.41.3.2 Girders
10.41 ORTHOTROPIC-DECK 10.41.3.2.1 The full width of deck plate may be con-
SUPERSTRUCTURES sidered effective in acting as the top flange of the girders
if the effective span of the girders is not less than: (1) 5
10.41.1 General
times the maximum distance between girder webs and (2)
10.41.1.1 This section pertains to the design of steel 10 times the maximum distance from edge of the deck to
bridges that utilize a stiffened steel plate as a deck. Usu- the nearest girder web. The effective span shall be taken
ally the deck plate is stiffened by longitudinal ribs and as the actual span for simple spans and the distance be-
transverse beams; effective widths of deck plate act as the tween points of contraflexure for continuous spans. Alter-
top flanges of these ribs and beams. Usually the deck in- natively, the effective width may be determined by ac-
cluding longitudinal ribs, acts as the top flange of the main cepted analytical methods.
box or plate girders. As used in Articles 10.41.1 through
10.41.4.10, the terms rib and beam refer to sections that 10.41.3.2.2 The effective width of the bottom flange
include an effective width of deck plate. of a box girder shall be determined according to the pro-
visions of Article 10.39.4.1.
10.41.1.2 The provisions of Division I, Design, shall
govern where applicable, except as specifically modified 10.41.4 Allowable Stresses
by Articles 10.41.1 through 10.41.4.10.
An appropriate method of elastic analysis, such as the 10.41.4.1 Local Bending Stresses in Deck Plate
equivalent-orthotropic-slab method or the equivalent-grid
method, shall be used in designing the deck. The equiva- The term local bending stresses refers to the stresses
lent stiffness properties shall be selected to correctly sim- caused in the deck plate as it carries a wheel load to the
ulate the actual deck. An appropriate method of elastic ribs and beams. The local transverse bending stresses
analysis, such as the thin-walled-beam method, that ac- caused in the deck plate by the specified wheel load plus
counts for the effects of torsional distortions of the cross- 30% impact shall not exceed 30,000 psi unless a higher al-
sectional shape shall be used in designing the girders of or- lowable stress is justified by a detailed fatigue analysis or
thotropic-deck box-girder bridges. The box-girder design
*“Design Manual for Orthotropic Steel Plate Deck Bridges,” AISC,
shall be checked for lane or truck loading arrangements 1963, or “Orthotropic Bridges, Theory and Design,” by M.S. Troitsky,
that produce maximum distortional (torsional) effects. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation, 1967.
by applicable fatigue-test results. For deck configurations 10.41.4.6 Maximum Slenderness of

in which the spacing of transverse beams is at least 3 times Longitudinal Ribs
the spacing of longitudinal-rib webs, the local longitudi-
nal and transverse bending stresses in the deck plate need The slenderness, L/r, of a longitudinal rib shall not ex-
not be combined with the other bending stresses covered ceed the value given by the following formula unless it
in Articles 10.41.4.2 and 10.41.4.3. can be shown by a detailed analysis that overall buckling
of the deck will not occur as a result of compressive stress
10.41.4.2 Bending Stresses in Longitudinal Ribs induced by bending of the girders
The total bending stresses in longitudinal ribs due to a 1, 500 2, 700 F

 L = 1, 000 − (10-91)
combination of (1) bending of the rib and (2) bending of  r  max Fy Fy2
the girders may exceed the allowable bending stresses in
Article 10.32 by 25%. The bending stress due to each of
where
the two individual modes shall not exceed the allowable
bending stresses in Article 10.32. L 5 distance between transverse beams;
r 5 radius of gyration about the horizontal centroidal
10.41.4.3 Bending Stresses in Transverse Beams axis of the rib including an effective width of
deck plate;
The bending stresses in transverse beams shall not ex- F 5 maximum compressive stress in psi in the deck
ceed the allowable bending stresses in Article 10.32. plate as a result of the deck acting as the top
flange of the girders; this stress shall be taken as
10.41.4.4 Intersections of Ribs, Beams, and positive;
Girders Fy 5 yield strength of rib material in psi.
Connections between ribs and the webs of beams, 10.41.4.7 Diaphragms

holes in the webs of beams to permit passage of ribs,
connections of beams to the webs of girders, and rib Diaphragms, cross frames, or other means shall be
splices may affect the fatigue life of the bridge when they provided at each support to transmit lateral forces to
occur in regions of tensile stress. Where applicable, the the bearings and to resist transverse rotation, displace-
number of cycles of maximum stress and the allowable fa- ment, and distortion. Intermediate diaphragms or
tigue stresses given in Article 10.3 shall be applied in de- cross frames shall be provided at locations consistent
with the analysis of the girders. The stiffness and strength
signing these details; elsewhere, a rational fatigue analy-
of the intermediate and support diaphragms or cross
sis shall be made in designing the details. Connections
frames shall be consistent with the analysis of the
between webs of longitudinal ribs and the deck plate shall
girders.
be designed to sustain the transverse bending fatigue
stresses caused in the webs by wheel loads.
10.41.4.8 Stiffness Requirements
10.41.4.5 Thickness of Plate Elements
10.41.4.8.1 Deflections
10.41.4.5.1 Longitudinal Ribs and Deck Plate The deflections of ribs, beams, and girders due to live
load plus impact may exceed the limitations in Article
Plate elements comprising longitudinal ribs, and
10.6 but preferably shall not exceed 1 ⁄ 500 of their span. The
deck-plate elements between webs of these ribs, shall calculation of the deflections shall be consistent with the
meet the minimum thickness requirements of Article analysis used to calculate the stresses.
10.35.2. The quantity fa may be taken as 75% of the sum To prevent excessive deterioration of the wearing sur-
of the compressive stresses due to (1) bending of the rib face, the deflection of the deck plate due to the specified
and (2) bending of the girder, but not less than the com- wheel load plus 30% impact preferably shall be less than
pressive stress due to either of these two individual bend- 1 ⁄ 300 of the distance between webs of ribs. The stiffening
ing modes. effect of the wearing surface shall not be included in cal-
culating the deflection of the deck plate.
10.41.4.5.2 Girders and Transverse Beams
10.41.4.8.2 Vibrations
Plate elements of box girders, plate girders, and trans-
verse beams shall meet the requirements of Articles The vibrational characteristics of the bridge shall be
10.34.2 to 10.34.6 and 10.39.4. considered in arriving at a proper design.
10.41.4.9 Wearing Surface vehicle fuels and oils, and (5) resistance to deterioration
from deicing salts, oils, gasolines, diesel fuels, and
A suitable wearing surface shall be adequately bonded kerosenes.
to the top of the deck plate to provide a smooth, nonskid
riding surface and to protect the top of the plate against 10.41.4.10 Closed Ribs
corrosion and abrasion. The wearing surface material
shall provide (1) sufficient ductility to accommodate, Closed ribs without access holes for inspection, clean-
without cracking or debonding, expansion and contrac- ing, and painting are permitted. Such ribs shall be sealed
tion imposed by the deck plate, (2) sufficient fatigue against the entrance of moisture by continuously welding
strength to withstand flexural cracking due to deck-plate (1) the rib webs to the deck plate, (2) splices in the ribs,
deflections, (3) sufficient durability to resist rutting, shov- and (3) diaphragms, or transverse beam webs, to the ends
ing, and wearing, (4) imperviousness to water and motor- of the ribs.
Part D
STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
10.42 SCOPE their computed maximum strengths shall be at least equal

to the total effects of design loads multiplied by their re-
Load factor design is a method of proportioning struc- spective load factors specified in Article 3.22.
tural members for multiples of the design loads. To ensure
serviceability and durability, consideration is given to the 10.44.3 Service behavior shall be investigated as speci-
control of permanent deformations under overloads, to the fied in Articles 10.57 through 10.59.
fatigue characteristics under service loadings, and to the
control of live load deflections under service loadings. See 10.45 ASSUMPTIONS
Part C—Service Load Design Method—Allowable Stress
Design for an alternate design procedure. 10.45.1 Strain in flexural members shall be assumed di-
rectly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
10.43 LOADS
10.45.2 Stress in steel below the yield strength, Fy,
10.43.1 Service live loads are vehicles which may oper- of the grade of steel used shall be taken as 29,000,000 psi
ate on a highway legally without special load permit. times the steel strain. For strain greater than that
corresponding to the yield strength, Fy, the stress shall
10.43.2 For design purposes, the service loads are be considered independent of strain and equal to the yield
taken as the dead, live, and impact loadings described in strength, Fy. This assumption shall apply also to the lon-
Section 3. gitudinal reinforcement in the concrete floor slab in the
region of negative moment when shear connectors are
10.43.3 Overloads are the live loads that can be allowed provided to ensure composite action in this region.
on a structure on infrequent occasions without causing
permanent damage. For design purposes, the maximum 10.45.3 At maximum strength the compressive stress in
overload is taken as 5(L 1 I)/3. the concrete slab of a composite beam shall be assumed
independent of strain and equal to 0.85f c9.
10.43.4 The maximum loads are the loadings specified
in Article 10.47. 10.45.4 Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected
in flexural calculations, except as permitted under the pro-
10.44 DESIGN THEORY visions of Articles 10.57.2, 10.58.1, and 10.58.2.2.
10.44.1 The moments, shears, and other forces shall be 10.46 DESIGN STRESS FOR STRUCTURAL
determined by assuming elastic behavior of the structure STEEL
except as modified in Article 10.48.1.3.
The design stress for structural steel shall be the spec-
10.44.2 The members shall be proportioned by the ified minimum yield point or yield strength, Fy, of the steel
methods specified in Articles 10.48 through 10.56 so that used as set forth in Article 10.2.
10.47 MAXIMUM DESIGN LOADS where b is the flange width and t is the flange thickness.
The maximum moments, shears, or forces to be sus- (b) Web thickness

tained by a stress-carrying member shall be computed for
D 19, 230
the load combinations specified in Article 3.22. Each part ≤ (10-94)
of the structure shall be proportioned for the group loads tw Fy
that are applicable and the maximum design required by
the group loading combinations shall be used. where D is the clear distance between the flanges and
tw is the web thickness.
10.48 FLEXURAL MEMBERS When both b/t and D/tw exceed 75% of the above lim-
its, the following interaction equation shall apply
Flexural members are subject to the following require-
ments in this article in addition to any applicable require- D b 33, 650
+ 4.68   ≤ (10-95)
ments from Articles 10.49 through 10.61 that may super- tw  t Fyf
sede these requirements. The compression-flange width,
b, on fabricated I-shaped girders preferably shall not be
less than 0.2 times the web depth, but in no case shall it be where Fyf is the yield strength of the compression flange.
less than 0.15 times the web depth. If the area of the com-
pression flange is less than the area of the tension flange, (c) Spacing of lateral bracing for compression flange
the minimum flange width may be based on two times the
depth of the web in compression rather than the web L b [3.6 − 2.2(M1 / M u )] × 10 6
≤ (10-96)
depth. The compression-flange thickness, t, preferably ry Fy
shall not be less than 1.5 times the web thickness. The
width-to-thickness ratio, b/t, of flanges subject to tension where Lb is the distance between points of bracing of the
shall not exceed 24. compression flange, ry is the radius of gyration of the
steel section with respect to the Y-Y axis, M1 is the
10.48.1 Compact Sections smaller moment at the end of the unbraced length of the
member, and Mu is the ultimate moment from Equation
Sections of properly braced constant-depth flexural (10-92) at the other end of the unbraced length: (M1/Mu)
members without longitudinal web stiffeners, without is positive when moments cause single curvature be-
holes in the tension flange and with high resistance to tween brace points. (M1/Mu) is negative when moments
local buckling qualify as compact sections. cause reverse curvature between brace points.
Sections of rolled or fabricated flexural members
meeting the requirements of Article 10.48.1.1 below shall The required lateral bracing shall be provided by
be considered compact sections and the maximum braces capable of preventing lateral displacement and
strength shall be computed as twisting of the main members or by embedment of the
top and sides of the compression flange in concrete.
Mu 5 FyZ (10-92)
(d) Maximum axial compression
where Fy is the specified yield point of the steel being
used, and Z is the plastic section modulus.* P # 0.15 FyA (10-97)
where A is the area of the cross section. Members with
10.48.1.1 Compact sections shall meet the following axial loads in excess of 0.15FyA should be designed as
requirements: (For certain frequently used steels these re- beam-columns as specified in Article 10.54.2.
quirements are listed in Table 10.48.1.2A.)
10.48.1.2 Article 10.48.1 is applicable to steels with
(a) Compression flange a demonstrated ability to reach Mp. Steels such as
AASHTO M 270 Grades 36, 50, and 50W (ASTM A 709
b 4,110
≤ (10-93) Grades 36, 50, and 50W), and AASHTO M 270 Grade
t Fy HPS70W (ASTM A 709 Grade HPS70W) meet these re-
quirements. The limitations set forth in Article 10.48.1 are
given in Table 10.48.1.2A.
*Values for rolled sections are listed in the Manual of Steel Construc-
tion, Ninth Edition, 1989, American Institute of Steel Construction. Ap-
pendix D shows the method of computing Z as presented in the Com- 10.48.1.3 In the design of a continuous beam with
mentary of AISI Bulletin 15. compact negative-moment support sections of AASHTO
TABLE 10.48.1.2A Limitations for Compact Sections fb 5 factored bending stress in the compression
Fy (psi) 36,000 50,000 70,000
flange, but not to exceed Fy
b/t 21.7 18.4 15.5 10.48.2.1 The above equations are applicable to
sections meeting the following requirements:
D/tw 101 86 72
(a) Compression flange
Lb/ry (Ml/Mu = 0*) 100 72 51
b
Lb/ry (Ml/Mu = 1*) 39 28 20 ≤ 24 (10-100)
t
* For values of Ml/Mu other than 0 and 1, use Equation (10-96).
(b) Web thickness
M 270 Grades 36, 50 and 50W (ASTM A 709 Grades 36, The web thickness shall meet the requirement given by
50, and 50W) steel complying with the provision of Arti- Equation (10-104) or Equation (10-109), as applicable,
cle 10.48.1.1, negative moments over such supports at subject to the corresponding requirements of Article
Overload and Maximum Load determined by elastic 10.49.2 or 10.49.3. For unstiffened webs, the web
analysis may be reduced by a maximum of 10%. Such re- thickness shall not be less than D/150.
ductions shall be accompanied by an increase in moments
throughout adjacent spans statically equivalent and oppo- (c) Spacing of lateral bracing for compression flange
site in sign to the decrease of negative moments at the ad-
jacent supports. For example, the increase in moment at the 20, 000, 000 A f
Lb ≤ (10-101)
center of the span shall equal the average decrease of the Fy d
moments at the two adjacent supports. The reduction shall
where d is the depth of beam or girder, and Af is the
not apply to the negative moment of a cantilever.
flange area. If Equation (10-101) is not satisfied, Mu
This 10% redistribution of moment shall not apply to
calculated from Equation (10-99) shall not exceed Mu
compact sections of AASHTO M 270 Grade HPS70W or
calculated from the provisions of Article 10.48.4.1.
Grade 70W (ASTM A 709 Grade HPS70W or Grade
70W) steel. (d) Maximum axial compression
10.48.2 Braced Noncompact Sections P # 0.15 FyA. (10-102)
For sections of rolled or fabricated flexural members Members with axial loads in excess of 0.15 FyA should
not meeting the requirements of Article 10.48.1.1 but be designed as beam-columns as specified in Article
meeting the requirements of Article 10.48.2.1 below, the 10.54.2.
maximum strength shall be computed as the lesser of
10.48.2.2 The limitations set forth in Article
Mu 5 Fy Sxt (10-98) 10.48.2.1 above are given in Table 10.48.2.1A.
or
10.48.3 Transitions
Mu 5 Fcr SxcRb (10-99)
The maximum strength of sections with geometric
subject to the requirement of Article 10.48.2.1(c) where
properties falling between the limits of Articles 10.48.1
t 2 and 10.48.2 may be computed by straight-line interpola-
Fcr 5  4, 400  ≤ Fy TABLE 10.48.2.1A Limitations for Braced Noncompact
 b Sections
b 5 compression flange width
t 5 compression flange thickness
Sxt 5 section modulus with respect to tension flange
(in.3 )
Sxc5 section modulus with respect to compression
flange (in.3)
Rb 5 flange-stress reduction factor determined from the
provisions of Article 10.48.4.1, with fb substituted
for the term Mr/Sxc when Equation (10-103b)
applies
tion, except that the web thickness must always satisfy Ar- Mr 5 lateral torsional buckling moment, or yield
ticle 10.48.1.1(b). moment, defined below (lb-in.);
10.48.4 Partially Braced Members Sxc 5 section modulus with respect to compression
flange (in.3). Use Sxc for live load for a com-
Members not meeting the lateral bracing requirement posite section;
of Article 10.48.2.1(c) shall be braced at discrete locations l 5 15,400 for all sections where Dc is less than
spaced at a distance, Lb, such that the maximum strength or equal to D/2;
of the section under consideration satisfies the require- 5 12,500 for sections where Dc is greater than
ments of Article 10.48.4.1. Bracing shall be provided such D/2.
that lateral deflection of the compression flange is restrained
and the entire section is restrained against twisting. The moment capacity, Mr, cannot exceed the yield mo-
ment, My. In addition Mr cannot exceed the lateral tor-
10.48.4.1 If the lateral bracing requirement of Arti- sional buckling moment given below:
cle 10.48.2.1(c) is not satisfied and the ratio of the mo-
ment of inertia of the compression flange to the moment
of inertia of the member about the vertical axis of the web, D λ
Iyc/Iy, is within the limits of 0.1 # Iyc/Iy # 0.9, the maxi- For sections with c ≤ or with longitudinally
tw Fy
mum strength for the limit state of lateral-torsional buck- stiffened webs
ling shall be computed as
Mu 5 MrRb (10-103a) 2
 I yc  J  d 
Rb 5 1 for longitudinally stiffened girders if the web M r = 91 × 10 6 C b   0.772 + 9.87   ≤ M y
 Lb  I yc  Lb 
slenderness satisfies the following requirement:
D k
≤ 5, 460 (10-103c)
tw fb λ D 
For sections with <  c
where Fy  tw 
2 2
ds  D  D
for ≥ 0.4 k = 5.17  ≥ 9 
Dc  ds   Dc  for Lb ≤ Lp
2 Mr = My (10 -103d)
ds  D 
for < 0.4 k = 11.64  for Lr ≥ Lb > Lp
Dc  Dc − ds 
  Lb − Lp  
ds 5 the distance from the centerline of a plate M r = C b Fy Sxc 1 − 0.5  
longitudinal stiffener or the gage line of an   L r − L p   (10-103e)
angle longitudinal stiffener to the inner surface 1/ 2
or the leg of the compression flange component.  572 × 10 6 I yc d 
Lr =   (10 - 103f )
fb 5 factored bending stress in the compression  Fy Sxc 
flange
for Lb > Lr
When both edges of the web are in compression,
k shall be taken equal to 7.2. Fy Sxc  L r  2
M r = Cb   (10 -103g)
Otherwise, for girders with or without longitudinal stiff- 2  Lb 
eners, Rb shall be calculated as Lb 5 unbraced length of the compression flange,
23 !§§ 4
l in.
1
Dctw Dc }
Rb 5 1 2 0.002 } } 2 Mr # 1.0 Lp 5 9,500r9/ÏF wyw, in.
Afc tw }}
Sxc r9 5 radius of gyration of compression flange
(10-103b) about the vertical axis in the plane of the
Dc 5 depth of the web in compression (in.). For web, in.
composite beams and girders, Dc shall be Iyc 5 moment of inertia of compression flange
calculated in accordance with the provisions about the vertical axis in the plane of the
specified in Article 10.50(b). web, in.4
tw 5 thickness of web (in.); d 5 depth of girder, in.
2
Afc 5 area of compression flange (in. );
3 3 3
[(bt )c 1 (bt )t 1 Dtw ] If the web slenderness D/tw exceeds the upper limit, either
J 5 }}} where b and t repre- the section shall be modified to comply with the limit, or a
3
longitudinal stiffener shall be provided.
sent the flange width and thickness of the
compression and tension flange, respectively, 10.48.5.2 The maximum bending strength of trans-
4
in. versely stiffened girders meeting the requirements of Ar-
Cb 5 1.75 1 1.05 (M1/M2) 1 0.3(M1/M2)2 # 2.3 ticle 10.48.5.1 shall be computed by Articles 10.48.1,
where M1 is the smaller and M2 the larger 10.48.2, 10.48.4.1, 10.50, 10.51, or 10.53, as applicable,
end moment in the unbraced segment of the subject to the requirements of Article 10.48.8.2.
beam; M1/M2 is positive when the moments
cause reverse curvature and negative when 10.48.5.3 The shear capacity of transversely stiff-
bent in single curvature. ened girders shall be computed by Article 10.48.8. The
Cb 5 1.0 for unbraced cantilevers and for mem- width-to-thickness ratio of transverse stiffeners shall be
bers where the moment within a significant such that
portion of the unbraced segment is greater
than or equal to the larger of the segment end b′
moments.* ≤ 16 (10-105)
t
The compression flange shall satisfy the requirement of Ar-
ticle 10.48.2.1(a). The web thickness shall meet the where b9 is the projecting width of the stiffener.
requirement given by Equation (10-104) or Equation The gross cross-sectional area of intermediate trans-
(10-109), as applicable, subject to the corresponding verse stiffeners shall not be less than
requirements of Article 10.49.2 or 10.49.3. For unstiffened
 D  V  Fy web 2
webs, the web thickness shall not be less than D/150. A = 0.15B (1 − C)  − 18 tw (10 − 106a )
 tw  Vu   Fcr
10.48.4.2 Members with axial loads in excess of 9, 025, 000
0.15FyA should be designed as beam-columns as specified where Fcr = 2 ≤ Fy stiffener (10 − 106 b)
 b′ 
in Article 10.54.2.  t
10.48.5 Transversely Stiffened Girders where Fy stiffener is the yield strength of the stiffener;
B 5 1.0 for stiffener pairs, 1.8 for single angles, and 2.4
10.48.5.1 For girders not meeting the shear require- for single plates; and C is computed by Article 10.48.8.1.
ments of Article 10.48.8.1 (Equation 10-113) transverse When values computed by Equation (10-106a) approach
stiffeners are required for the web. For girders with trans- zero or are negative, then transverse stiffeners need only
verse stiffeners but without longitudinal stiffeners the meet the requirements of Equations (10-105) and (10-107),
thickness of the web shall meet the requirement: and Article 10.34.4.10.
The moment of inertia of transverse stiffeners with
D 36, 500 reference to the plane defined below shall be not less
≤ (10-104) than
tw Fy
3
I 5 dotw J (10-107)
subject to the web thickness requirement of Article
10.49.2. For different grades of steel this limit is where
2
D/tw Fy(psi) J 5 2.5(D/do) 2 2, but not less than 0.5 (10-108)
do 5 distance between transverse stiffeners
192 36,000
163 50,000 When stiffeners are in pairs, the moment of inertia
138 70,000 shall be taken about the center line of the web plate. When
122 90,000 single stiffeners are used, the moment of inertia shall be
115 100,000 taken about the face in contact with the web plate.
Transverse stiffeners need not be in bearing with the
tension flange. The distance between the end of the stiff-
* For the use of larger Cb values, see Structural Stability Research
Council Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures, 4th Ed., ener weld and the near edge of the web-to-flange fillet
pg. 135. weld shall not be less than 4tw or more than 6tw. Stiffeners
provided on only one side of the web must be in bearing where:

against, but need not be attached to, the compression
I 5 moment of inertia of the longitudinal stiffener
flange for the stiffener to be effective. However, trans-
about its edge in contact with the web plate, in4.
verse stiffeners which connect diaphragms or crossframes
to the beam or girder shall be rigidly connected to both the (c) the radius of gyration of the stiffener is not less
top and bottom flanges. than
10.48.6 Longitudinally Stiffened Girders
d o Fy
r≥ (10-111)
10.48.6.1 Longitudinal stiffeners shall be required on 23, 000
symmetrical girders when the web thickness is less than
that specified by Article 10.48.5.1 and shall be placed at a In computing the r value above, a centrally located web
distance D/5 from the inner surface of the compression strip not more than 18tw in width shall be considered as a
flange. part of the longitudinal stiffener. Transverse stiffeners for
The web thickness of plate girders with transverse girder panels with longitudinal stiffeners shall be designed
stiffeners and one longitudinal stiffener shall meet the according to Article 10.48.5.3. In addition, the section mod-
requirement: ulus of the transverse stiffener shall be not less than
1
D 73, 000
≤ ss = (D / d o ) St (10-112)
(10-109) 3
tw Fy
where D is the total panel depth (clear distance between
For different grades of steel, this limit is flange components) and St is the section modulus of the
longitudinal stiffener.
D/tw Fy(psi)
385 36,000 10.48.7 Bearing Stiffeners
326 50,000
Bearing stiffeners shall be designed for beams and
276 70,000
243 90,000 girders as specified in Articles 10.33.2 and 10.34.6.
231 100,000
10.48.8 Shear
Singly symmetric girders are subject to the requirements
of Article 10.49.3. 10.48.8.1 The shear capacity of webs of rolled or
fabricated flexural members shall be computed as follows:
10.48.6.2 The maximum bending strength of longi-
tudinally stiffened girders meeting the requirements of For unstiffened webs, the shear capacity shall be lim-
Article 10.48.6.1 shall be computed by Articles 10.48.2, ited to the plastic or buckling shear force as follows:
10.48.4.1, 10.50.1.2, 10.50.2.2, 10.51, or 10.53, as ap-
plicable, subject to the requirements of Article 10.48.8.2. Vu 5 CVp (10-113)
For stiffened web panels complying with the provisions
10.48.6.3 The shear capacity of girders with one of Article 10.48.8.3, the shear capacity shall be determined
longitudinal stiffener shall be computed by Article by including post-buckling resistance due to tension-field
10.48.8. action as follows:
The dimensions of the longitudinal stiffener shall be
such that  0.87 (1 − C) 
Vu = Vp C +  (10-114)
 1 + (d o / D)2 
(a) the thickness of the longitudinal stiffener is not
less than that given by Article 10.34.5.2, and the fac-
Vp is equal to the plastic shear force and is determined
tored bending stress in the longitudinal stiffener is not
as follows:
greater than the yield strength of the longitudinal
stiffener. Vp 5 0.58Fy Dtw (10-115)
(b) the rigidity of the stiffener is not less than:
The constant C is equal to the buckling shear stress
2
 d 
Dt 3w 2.4  o 
divided by the shear yield stress, and is determined as
I≥ − 0.13 (10-110)
  
D  follows:
ticle 10.48.8.1, Equation (10-113), subject to the handling

D 6, 000 k
for < requirement below.
tw Fy Transverse stiffeners shall be required if D/tw is greater
C = 1.0 than 150. The spacing of these stiffeners shall not exceed
the handling requirement D[260/(D/tw)]2.
6, 000 k D 7, 500 k
for ≤ ≤ For longitudinally stiffened girders, transverse stiffen-
Fy tw Fy ers shall be spaced a distance, do, according to shear ca-
pacity as specified in Article 10.48.8.1, but not more than
6, 000 k
C= (10 -116) 1.5 times the web depth. The handling requirement given
 D above shall not apply to longitudinally stiffened girders.
  Fy
 tw  The total web depth D shall be used in determining the
D 7, 500 k shear capacity of longitudinally stiffened girders in Arti-
for > cle 10.48.8.1 and in Equation (10-119).
tw Fy
The first stiffener space at the simple support end of a
4.5 × 10 7 k transversely or longitudinally stiffened girder shall be such
C= 2 (10 -117) that the shear force in the end panel will not exceed the plas-
 D tic or buckling shear force given by the following equation
  Fy
 tw 
Vu 5 CVp (10-119)
where the buckling coefficient, k 5 5 1 [5 4 (do/D)2],
except k shall be taken as 5 for unstiffened beams and For transversely stiffened girders, the maximum spacing
girders. of the first transverse stiffener is limited to 1.5D. For lon-
gitudinally stiffened girders, the maximum spacing of the
first transverse stiffener is also limited to 1.5D.
D 5 clear, unsupported distance between flange
components; 10.49 SINGLY SYMMETRIC SECTIONS
do 5 distance between transverse stiffeners;
Fy 5 yield strength of the web plate. 10.49.1 General
10.48.8.2 If a girder panel is controlled by Equation
For sections symmetric about the vertical axis but un-
(10-114) and is subjected to the simultaneous action of
symmetric with respect to the horizontal centroidal axis,
shear and bending moment with the magnitude of the mo-
the provisions of Articles 10.48.1 through 10.48.4 shall be
ment greater than 0.75Mu, the shear shall be limited to not applicable.
more than
V/Vu 5 2.2 2 (1.6M/Mu) (10-118) 10.49.2 Singly Symmetric Sections with Transverse
Stiffeners
If girder panel of a composite noncompact section is
controlled by Equation (10-114) and is subjected to the si-
Girders with transverse stiffeners shall be designed and
multaneous action of shear and bending moment with the
evaluated by the provisions of Article 10.48.5 except that
magnitude of the factored bending stress fs greater than
when Dc, the clear distance between the neutral axis and
0.75 Fu, the shear shall instead be limited to not more than: the compression flange, exceeds D/2 the web thickness,
V Vu = 2.2 − (1.6fs Fu ) (10 − 118a ) tw, shall meet the requirement
where fs 5 factored bending stress in either the top or D c 18, 250

≤ (10 -120)
bottom flange, whichever flange has the tw Fy
larger ratio of (fs/Fu)
Fu 5 maximum bending strength of either the top If the web slenderness Dc/tw exceeds the upper limit,
or bottom flange, whichever flange has the either the section shall be modified to comply with the
larger ratio of (fs/Fu) limit, or a longitudinal stiffener shall be provided.
10.48.8.3 Where transverse intermediate stiffeners 10.49.3 Longitudinally Stiffened Singly Symmetric
are required, transverse stiffeners shall be spaced at a dis- Sections
tance, do, according to shear capacity as specified in Arti-
cle 10.48.8.1, but not more than 3D. Transverse stiffeners 10.49.3.1 Longitudinal stiffeners shall be required on
may be omitted in those portions of the girders where the singly symmetric sections when the web thickness is less
maximum shear force is less than the value given by Ar- than that specified by Article 10.49.2.
10.49.3.2 For girders with one longitudinal stiffener 10.50 COMPOSITE SECTIONS
and transverse stiffeners, the provisions of Article 10.48.6
for symmetrical sections shall be applicable in addition to Composite sections shall be so proportioned that the
the following: following criteria are satisfied.
(a) The optimum distance, ds, of a plate longitudinal (a) The maximum strength of any section shall not be
stiffener or the gage line of an angle longitudinal stiff- less than the sum of the computed moments at that sec-
ener from the inner surface or the leg of the compres- tion multiplied by the appropriate load factors.
sion flange component is D/5 for a symmetrical girder. (b) The web of the steel section shall be designed to
The optimum distance, ds, for a singly symmetric com- carry the total external shear and must satisfy the ap-
posite girder in positive-moment regions may be de- plicable provisions of Articles 10.48 and 10.49. The
termined from the equation given below value of Dc shall be taken as the clear distance between
the neutral axis and the compression flange. In posi-
ds 1 tive-moment regions, the value of Dc shall be calcu-
= (10-121) lated by summing the stresses due to the appropriate
D cs f
1 + 1.5 DL + LL loadings acting on the respective cross sections sup-
fDL
porting the loading. The depth of web in compression,
Dc, in composite sections subjected to negative bend-
where Dcs is the depth of the web in compression of the
noncomposite steel beam or girder, fDL is the non- ing may be taken as the depth of the web in com-
composite dead-load stress in the compression flange, pression of the composite section without summing the
and fDL1LL is the total noncomposite and composite stresses from the various stages of loading. The web
dead-load plus the composite live-load stress in the depth in compression, Dcp, of sections meeting the
compression flange at the most highly stressed section web compactness and ductility requirements of Article
of the web. The optimum distance, ds, of the stiffener 10.50.1.1.2 under the maximum design loads shall be
in negative-moment regions of composite sections is calculated from the fully plastic cross section ignoring
2Dc /5, where Dc is the depth of the web in compression the sequence of load application. Girders with a web
of the composite section at the most highly stressed slenderness exceeding the limits of Article 10.48.5.1 or
section of the web. 10.49.2 shall either be modified to comply with these
(b) When Dc exceeds D/2, the web thickness, tw, shall limits or else shall be stiffened by one longitudinal
meet the requirement stiffener.
(c) The moment capacity at first yield shall be com-
puted considering the application of the dead and live
Dc 36, 500
≤ (10 -122) loads to the steel and composite sections.
tw Fy (d) The steel beam or girder shall satisfy the con-
structibility requirements of Article 10.61.
10.49.4 Singly Symmetric Braced Noncompact
Sections
Singly symmetric braced, noncompact sections of

rolled or fabricated flexural members shall be designed
and evaluated by the provisions of Article 10.48.2.
10.49.5 Partially Braced Members with Singly

Symmetric Sections
The maximum strength of singly symmetric sections

meeting all requirements of Article 10.48.2.1, except
for the lateral bracing requirement given by Equation
(10-101), shall be computed as the lesser of Mu calculated
from Equation (10-98) or Mu calculated from Equation
(10-99), with Mu calculated from Equation (10-99) not to
exceed Mu calculated from the provisions of Article
10.48.4.1. FIGURE 10.50A
10.50.1 Positive Moment Sections for C ′ < ( AFy ) tf

C′
10.50.1.1 Compact Sections y= t tf (10 -127)
( AFy ) tf
The maximum strength, Mu, of compact composite sec- for C ′ ≥ (AFy ) tf
tions in positive-moment regions shall be computed in ac-
cordance with Article 10.50.1.1.2. The steel shall have the C ′ − ( AFy ) tf
y = t tf + D (10 -128)
demonstrated ability to reach Mp. Steels such as AASHTO ( AFy ) w
M 270 Grades 36, 50, and 50W (ASTM A 709 Grades 36,
50, and 50W), and AASHTO M 270 Grade HPS70W (e) The maximum strength of the section in bending is
(ASTM A 709 Grade HPS70W) meet these requirements. the first moment of all forces about the neutral axis, tak-
ing all forces and moment arms as positive quantities.
10.50.1.1.1 The resultant moment of the fully plastic
stress distribution may be computed as follows: 10.50.1.1.2 Composite sections of constant-depth
members in positive-moment regions without longitudi-
(a) The compressive force in the slab, C, is equal to the nal web stiffeners and without holes in the tension flange
smallest of the values given by the following Equations: shall qualify as compact when the web of the steel section
satisfies the following requirement:
C 5 0.85fc9 bts 1 (AFy)c (10-123) 2 D cp 19, 230
≤ (10 -129)
where b is the effective width of slab, specified in Ar- tw Fy
ticle 10.38.3, ts is the slab thickness, and (AFy)c is the
product of the area and yield point of that part of rein-
where Dcp is the depth of the web in compression at the
forcement which lies in the compression zone of the
plastic moment calculated in accordance with Article
slab.
10.50.1.1.1, and tw is the web thickness. Equation (10-129)
is satisfied if the neutral axis at the plastic moment is
C 5 (AFy)bf 1 (AFy)tf 1 (AFy)w (10-124)
located above the web; otherwise Dcp shall be computed
as wy from Equation (10-128) minus ttf. Also, the distance
where (AFy)bf is the product of area and yield point
for bottom flange of steel section (including cover from the top of the slab to the neutral axis at the plastic
plate if any), (AFy)tf is the product of area and yield moment, Dp, shall satisfy
point for top flange of steel section, and (AFy)w is
 Dp 
the product of area and yield point for web of steel sec-   ≤5 (10 -129a)
tion.  D′ 
(b) The depth of the stress block is computed from the
compressive force in the slab. where
(d 1 ts 1 th)
C − ( AFy ) c D9 5 b }};
7.5
a= (10 -125)
0.85fc′b b 5 0.9 for Fy 5 36,000 psi;
5 0.7 for Fy 5 50,000 and 70,000 psi;
(c) When the compressive force in the slab is less than d 5 depth of the steel beam or girder;
the value given by Equation (10-124), the top portion of ts 5 thickness of the slab;
the steel section will be subjected to the compressive th 5 thickness of the concrete haunch above the beam
force C9 (Figure 10.50A) given by the following equa- or girder top flange.
tion: Equation (10-129a) need not be checked for sections
where the maximum flange stress does not exceed the
∑ ( AFy ) − C specified minimum flange yield stress.
C′ = (10 -126) The maximum bending strength, Mu, of compact com-
2
posite sections in simple spans or in the positive-moment
(d) The location of the neutral axis within the steel regions of continuous spans with compact noncomposite
section measured from the top of the steel section may or composite negative-moment pier sections shall be
be determined as follows: taken as
for Dp # D9 in the span shall not exceed My, for the loading which pro-
duces the maximum negative moment at the adjacent
Mu 5 Mp (10-129b) pier(s).
For composite sections in positive-moment regions not
for D9 , Dp # 5D9 satisfying the requirements of Equation (10-129) or Equa-
tion (10-129a), or of variable-depth members or with lon-
5M p − 0.85M y 0.85M y − M p  D p  gitudinal web stiffeners, or with holes in the tension
Mu = +   (10 -129c) flange, the maximum bending strength shall be deter-
4 4  D′ 
mined as specified in Article 10.50.1.2.
where
10.50.1.2 Noncompact Sections
Mp 5 plastic moment capacity of the composite posi-
tive moment section calculated in accordance 10.50.1.2.1 When the steel section does not satisfy
with Article 10.50.1.1.1; the compactness requirements of Article 10.50.1.1.2, the
My 5 moment capacity at first yield of the composite sum of the bending stresses due to the appropriate load-
positive moment section calculated as Fy times ings acting on the respective cross sections supporting the
the section modulus with respect to the tension loadings shall not exceed the maximum strength, Fu, of
flange. The modular ratio, n, shall be used to the tension flange taken equal to Fy or the maximum
compute the transformed section properties.
strength, Fu, of the compression flange taken equal to
In continuous spans with compact composite positive- FyRb, where Rb is the flange-stress reduction factor deter-
moment sections, but with noncompact noncomposite or mined from the provisions of Article 10.48.4.1. When Rb
composite negative-moment pier sections, the maximum is determined from Equation (10-103b), fb shall be substi-
bending strength, Mu, of the composite positive-moment tuted for the term Mr/Sxc and Afc shall be taken as the ef-
sections shall be taken as either the moment capacity at fective combined transformed area of the top flange and
first yield determined as specified in Article 10.50(c), or as concrete deck that yields Dc calculated in accordance with
Article 10.50(b). fb is equal to the factored bending stress
Mu 5 My 1 A(Mu 2 Ms)pier (10-129d) in the compression flange, but not to exceed Fy. The re-
sulting Rb factor shall be distributed to the top flange and
where concrete deck in proportion to their relative stiffness. The
My 5 the moment capacity at first yield of provisions of Article 10.48.2.1(b) shall apply.
the compact positive moment section
calculated in accordance with Article 10.50.1.2.2 When the girders are not provided with
10.50(c); temporary supports during the placing of dead loads, the
(Mu 2 Ms)Pier 5 moment capacity of the noncompact sum of the stresses produced by 1.30Ds acting on the steel
section at the pier, Mu, given by Arti- girder alone with 1.30(Dc 1 5(L 1 I)/3) acting on the
cle 10.48.2 or Article 10.48.4, minus composite girder shall not exceed yield stress at any point,
the elastic moment at the pier, Ms, for where Ds and Dc are the moments caused by the dead load
the loading producing maximum pos- acting on the steel girder and composite girder, respec-
itive bending in the span. Use the tively.
smaller value of the difference for the
two-pier sections for interior spans; 10.50.1.2.3 When the girders are provided with ef-
A 5 1 for interior spans; fective intermediate supports that are kept in place until
5 distance from end support to the loca- the concrete has attained 75% of its required 28-day
tion of maximum positive moment di- strength, stresses produced by the loading, 1.30(D 1 5(L
vided by the span length for end spans. 1 I)/3), acting on the composite girder, shall not exceed
yield stress at any point.
Mu computed from Equation (10-129d) shall not exceed
the applicable value of Mu computed from either Equation 10.50.2 Negative Moment Sections
(10-129b) or Equation (10-129c).
For continuous spans where the maximum bending The maximum bending strength of composite sections
strength of the positive-moment sections is determined in negative moment regions shall be computed in accor-
from Equation (10-129d), the maximum positive moment dance with Article 10.50.2.1 or 10.50.2.2, as applicable.
It shall be assumed that the concrete slab does not carry whenever the longitudinal tensile stress in the concrete
tensile stresses. In cases where the slab reinforcement is slab due to either the factored construction loads or the
continuous over interior supports, the reinforcement may overload specified in Article 10.57 exceeds 0.9fr, where fr
be considered to act compositely with the steel section. is the modulus of rupture specified in Article 8.15.2.1.1.
The area of the concrete slab shall be taken equal to the
10.50.2.1 Compact Sections structural thickness times the entire width of the bridge
deck. The required reinforcement shall be No. 6 bars or
Composite sections of constant-depth members in nega- smaller spaced at not more than 12 inches. Two-thirds of
tive bending without longitudinal web stiffeners and with- this required reinforcement is to be placed in the top layer
out holes in the tension flange qualify as compact when their of slab. Placement of distribution steel as specified in Ar-
steel section meets the requirements of Article 10.48.1.1, ticle 3.24.10 is waived.
and has the demonstrated ability to reach Mp. Steels such as
AASHTO M 270 Grades 36, 50, and 50W (ASTM A 709 10.50.2.4
Grades 36, 50, and 50W), and AASHTO M 270 Grade
HPS70W (ASTM A 709 Grade HPS70W) meet these re- When shear connectors are omitted from the negative
quirements. Mu shall be computed as the resultant moment moment region, the longitudinal reinforcement shall be
of the fully plastic stress distribution acting on the section extended into the positive moment region beyond the an-
including any composite rebars. chorage connectors at least 40 times the reinforcement di-
If the distance from the neutral axis to the compression ameter.
flange exceeds D/2, the compact section requirements
given by Equations (10-94) and (10-95) must be modified
by replacing D with the quantity 2Dcp, where Dcp is the 10.51 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS*
depth of the web in compression at the plastic moment.
This section pertains to the design of simple and con-
10.50.2.2 Noncompact Sections tinuous bridges of moderate length supported by two or
more single-cell composite box girders. The distance cen-
When the steel section does not satisfy the compactness ter-to-center flanges of adjacent boxes shall be not greater
requirements of Article 10.50.2.1 but does satisfy all the re- than 1.2 times and not less than 0.8 times the distance cen-
quirements of Article 10.48.2.1, the sum of the bending ter-to-center of the flanges of each box. In addition to the
stresses due to the appropriate loadings acting on the re- above, when nonparallel girders are used the distance cen-
spective cross sections supporting the loadings shall not exter-to-center of adjacent flanges at supports shall be not
ceed the maximum strength, Fu, of the tension flange taken greater than 1.35 times and not less than 0.65 times the
equal to Fy or the maximum strength, Fu, of the compres- distance center-to-center of the flanges of each box. The
sion flange taken equal to FcrRb, where Fcr is the critical cantilever overhang of the deck slab, including curbs and
compression flange stress specified in Article 10.48.2 and parapet, shall be limited to 60% of the distance between
Rb is the flange-stress reduction factor determined from the the centers of adjacent top steel flanges of adjacent box
provisions of Article 10.48.4.1. When Rb is determined girders, but in no case greater than 6 feet.
from Equation (10-103b), fb shall be substituted for the term
Mr/Sxc. fb is equal to the factored bending stress in the com- 10.51.1 Maximum Strength
pression flange, but not to exceed Fy. When all requirements
of Article 10.48.2.1 are satisfied, except for the lateral brac- The maximum strength of box girders shall be deter-
ing requirement given by Equation (10-101), Fu of the mined according to the applicable provisions of Articles
compression flange shall be taken equal to FcrRb, but not to 10.48, 10.49, and 10.50. In addition, the maximum
exceed Mu/Sxc, where Mu and Sxc are determined according strength of the negative moment sections shall be limited
to the provisions of Article 10.48.4.1. In determining the by
factor Cb in Article 10.48.4.1, the smaller and larger values
of fb at each end of the unbraced segment of the girder shall Mu 5 FcrS (10-130)
be substituted for the smaller and larger end moments, M1
and M2, respectively. where Fcr is the buckling stress of the bottom flange plate
as given in Article 10.51.5.
10.50.2.3
The minimum longitudinal reinforcement including *For information regarding the design of long-span steel box girder
bridges, Report No. FHWA-TS-80-205, “Proposed Design Specifica-
the longitudinal distribution reinforcement must equal or tions for Steel Box Girder Bridges” is available from the Federal High-
exceed 1% of the cross-sectional area of the concrete slab way Administration.
10.51.2 Lateral Distribution b

13, 300 − Fy
c= t (10 -135)
The live-load bending moment for each box girder 7, 160
shall be determined in accordance with Article 10.39.2.
10.51.5.3 For values of
10.51.3 Web Plates
b 13, 300
> (10 -136)
The design shear Vw for a web shall be calculated using t Fy
the following equation
the buckling stress of the flange is given by the formula
Vw 5 V/cos u (10-131)
Fcr 5 105(t/b)2 3 106 (10-137)
where V 5 one-half of the total vertical shear force on one
box girder, and u 5 the angle of inclination of the web
plate to the vertical. 10.51.5.4 If longitudinal stiffeners are used, they
The inclination of the web plates to the vertical shall shall be equally spaced across the flange width and shall
not exceed 1 to 4. be proportioned so that the moment of inertia of each stiff-
ener about an axis parallel to the flange and at the base of
the stiffener is at least equal to
10.51.4 Tension Flanges
3
In the case of simply supported spans, the bottom Is 5 f t w (10-138)
flange shall be considered fully effective in resisting bend- where
ing if its width does not exceed one-fifth the span length.
If the flange plate width exceeds one-fifth of the span, f 5 0.07k3n4 when n equals 2, 3, 4, or 5;
only an amount equal to one-fifth of the span shall be con- f 5 0.125k3 when n 5 1;
sidered effective. w 5 width of flange between longitudinal stiffeners or
For continuous spans, the requirements above shall be distance from a web to the nearest longitudinal
applied to the distance between points of contraflexure. stiffener;
n 5 number of longitudinal stiffeners;
k 5 buckling coefficient which shall not exceed 4.
10.51.5 Compression Flanges
10.51.5.1 Unstiffened compression flanges designed 10.51.5.4.1

for the yield stress, Fy, shall have a width-to-thickness ratio For a longitudinally stiffened flange designed for the
equal to or less than the value obtained from the formula yield stress Fy, the ratio w/t shall not exceed the value
given by the formula
b 6, 140
= (10 -132)
t Fy
w 3, 070 k
= (10 -139)
where b 5 flange width between webs in inches, and t 5 t Fy
flange thickness in inches.
10.51.5.2 For greater b/t ratios, 10.51.5.4.2 For greater values of w/t
6, 140 b 13, 300

< ≤ (10 -133) 3, 070 k w 6, 650 k
Fy t Fy < ≤ (10 -140)
Fy t Fy
the buckling stress of an unstiffened bottom flange is

given by the formula the buckling stress of the flange, including stiffeners, is
given by Article 10.51.5.2 in which c shall be taken as
cπ
Fcr = 0.592 Fy 1 + 0.687 sin  (10 -134)
 2 6, 650 k −
w
Fy
c= t (10 -141)
in which c shall be taken as 3, 580 k
10.51.5.4.3 For values of when two or more interior intermediate diaphragms per
span are provided, the minimum size fillet welds specified
w 6, 650 k in Article 10.23.2.2 may be used. Regardless of the type
> (10 -142) weld used, welds shall be deposited on both sides of the
t Fy
connecting flange or web plate.
the buckling stress of the flange, including stiffeners, is
given by the formula 10.52 SHEAR CONNECTORS
Fcr 5 26.2k(t/w)2 3 106 (10-143) 10.52.1 General
10.51.5.4.4 When longitudinal stiffeners are used, it The horizontal shear at the interface between the con-
is preferable to have at least one transverse stiffener crete slab and the steel girder shall be provided for by me-
placed near the point of dead load contraflexure. The stiff- chanical shear connectors throughout the simple spans
ener should have a size equal to that of a longitudinal stiff- and the positive moment regions of continuous spans. In
ener. The number of longitudinal stiffeners preferably the negative moment regions, shear connectors shall be
shall not exceed 2. If the number of longitudinal stiffen- provided when the reinforcing steel embedded in the con-
ers exceeds 2, then the use of additional transverse stiff- crete is considered a part of the composite section. In case
eners should be considered. the reinforcing steel embedded in the concrete is not con-
sidered in computing section properties of negative mo-
10.51.5.5 The width-to-thickness ratio of any out- ment sections, shear connectors need not be provided in
standing element of the flange stiffeners shall not exceed these portions of the span, but additional connectors shall
the value determined by the formula be placed in the region of the points of dead load con-
traflexure as specified in Article 10.38.5.1.3.
b ′ 2, 600
= (10 -144) 10.52.2 Design of Connectors
t′ Fy
The number of shear connectors shall be determined in
where
accordance with Article 10.38.5.1.2 and checked for fa-
b9 5 width of any outstanding stiffener element, tigue in accordance with Articles 10.38.5.1.1 and
and; 10.38.5.1.3.
t9 5 thickness of outstanding stiffener element;
Fy 5 yield strength of outstanding stiffener ele- 10.52.3 Maximum Spacing
ment.
The maximum pitch shall not exceed 24 inches except
10.51.5.6 Compression flanges shall also satisfy the over the interior supports of continuous beams where
provisions of Article 10.51.4. The effective flange plate wider spacing may be used to avoid placing connectors at
width shall be used to calculate the factored flange bend- locations of high stresses in the tension flange.
ing stress. The full flange plate width shall be used to cal-
culate the buckling stress of the flange. 10.53 HYBRID GIRDERS
10.51.6 Diaphragms This section pertains to the design of girders that uti-
lize a lower strength steel in the web than in one or both
Diaphragms, cross-frames, or other means shall be of the flanges. It applies to composite and noncomposite
provided within the box girders at each support to resist plate girders and to composite box girders. At any cross
transverse rotation, displacement, and distortion. section where the bending stress in either flange caused by
Intermediate diaphragms or cross-frames are not re- the maximum design load exceeds the minimum specified
quired for box girder bridges designed in accordance with yield strength of the web steel, the compression-flange
this specification. area shall not be less than the tension-flange area. The top-
flange area shall include the transformed area of any por-
10.51.7 Design of Flange to Web Welds tion of the slab or reinforcing steel that is considered to act
compositely with the steel girder.
The total effective thickness of the web-flange welds The provisions of Articles 10.48 through 10.52,
shall not be less than the thickness of the web, except, 10.57.1, and 10.57.2 shall apply to hybrid beams and gird-
ers except as modified below. In all equations of these ar-

 βψ (1 − ρ)2 (3 − ψ + ρψ ) 
ticles, Fy shall be taken as the minimum specified yield R = 1−   (10 -148)
strength of the steel of the element under consideration  6 + βψ (3 − ψ ) 
with the following exceptions
where c is the distance from the outer fiber of the tension
flange to the neutral axis divided by the depth of the steel
(1) In Articles 10.48.1.1(b), 10.48.4.1, 10.48.5.1, section. R shall be taken as 1.0 at sections where the stress
10.48.6.1, 10.49.2, 10.49.3.2(b), and 10.50.1.1.2, use Fy in both flanges caused by the maximum design loads does
of the compression flange. not exceed the specified minimum yield strength of the web.
(2) Articles 10.57.1 and 10.57.2 shall apply to the
flanges, but not to the web of hybrid girders. 10.53.1.3 Partially Braced Members
The provision specified in Article 10.40.4 shall also
apply. Longitudinal web stiffeners preferably shall not be The strength of noncompact hybrid sections of par-
located in yielded portions of the web. tially braced members not satisfying the lateral bracing re-
quirement given by Equation (10-101) shall be calculated
10.53.1 Noncomposite Hybrid Sections as the lesser of Mu calculated from Equation (10-146) or
Mu calculated from Equation (10-146a). Mu calculated
10.53.1.1 Compact Sections from Equation (10-146a) is not to exceed Mu calculated
from the provisions of Article 10.48.4.1 with Equation
The equation of Article 10.48.1 for the maximum (10-103a) replaced by the expression
strength of compact sections shall be replaced by the
expression Mu 5 MrRbR (10-148a)
Mu 5 FyfZ (10-145) and the yield moment calculated as
where Fyf is the specified minimum yield strength of the My 5 FyfS R (10-148b)
flange, and Z is the plastic section modulus.
In computing Z, the web thickness shall be multiplied where the appropriate R is determined from Article
by the ratio of the minimum specified yield strength of the 10.53.1.2 above, and Rb is determined by Equation (10-
web, Fyw, to the minimum specified yield strength of the 103b).
flange, Fyf.
10.53.2 Composite Hybrid Sections
10.53.1.2 Braced Noncompact Sections
The maximum strength of a compact composite section
The equations of Article 10.48.2 for the maximum shall be computed as specified in Article 10.50.1.1.2 or Ar-
strength of braced noncompact sections shall be replaced ticle 10.50.2.1, as applicable, using the specified minimum
by the expressions yield strength of the element under consideration to com-
pute the plastic moment capacity. The yield moment in Ar-
Mu 5 FyfSxtR (10-146) ticle 10.50.1.1.2 shall be multiplied by R (for unsymmet-
rical sections) from Article 10.53.1.2, with C calculated as
specified below for noncompact composite sections.
M u = Fcr Sxc R b R (10 − 146a )
The maximum strength of a noncompact composite
For symmetrical sections section shall be taken as the maximum strength computed
from Article 10.50.1.2 or Article 10.50.2.2, as applicable,
times R (for unsymmetrical sections) from Article
12 + β (3ρ − ρ3 ) 10.53.1.2, in which c is the distance from the outer fiber
R= (10 -147)
12 + 2β of the tension flange to the neutral axis of the transformed
section divided by the depth of the steel section.
where
10.53.3 Shear
r 5 Fyw/Fyf
b 5 Aw/Af Equation (10-114) of Article 10.48.8.1 for the shear ca-
pacity of transversely stiffened girders shall be replaced
For unsymmetrical sections by the expression
Vu 5 VpC (10-149) 10.54.1.2 Effective Length
The provisions of Article 10.48.8.2, and the equation The effective length factor K shall be determined as
for A in Article 10.48.5.3 are not applicable to hybrid follows
girders.
(a) For members having lateral support in both direc-
10.54 COMPRESSION MEMBERS tions at its ends
10.54.1 Axial Loading K 5 0.75 for riveted, bolted, or welded end connec-
10.54.1.1 Maximum Capacity tions;
K 5 0.875 for pinned ends.
The maximum strength of concentrically loaded
columns shall be computed as (b) For members having ends not fully supported lat-
erally by diagonal bracing or an attachment to an adja-
Pu 5 0.85AsFcr (10-150) cent structure, the effective length factor shall be de-
termined by a rational procedure.**
where As is the gross effective area of the column cross
section and Fcr is determined by one of the following two 10.54.2 Combined Axial Load and Bending
formulas*: 10.54.2.1 Maximum Capacity
 Fy  KL c  2  The combined maximum axial force P and the maximum

Fcr = Fy 1 − (10 -151)
 4 π 2 E  r   bending moment M acting on a beam-column subjected to
eccentric loading shall satisfy the following equations:
KL c 2π 2 E
for ≤ (10 -152)
r Fy P MC
+ ≤ 1.0 (10 -155)
0.85A s Fcr  P 
M u 1 − 
π2E  A s Fe 
Fcr = 2 (10 -153)
 KL c  P M
 r  + ≤ 1.0 (10 -156)
0.85A s Fy Mp
KL c 2π 2 E
for > (10 -154) where:
r Fy
Fcr 5 buckling stress as determined by the equations of
Article 10.54.1.1;
where
Mu 5 maximum strength as determined by Articles
K 5 effective length factor in the plane of buckling; 10.48.1, 10.48.2, or 10.48.4;
Lc 5 length of the member between points of support
in inches;
r 5 radius of gyration in the plane of buckling in Eπ 2
Fe = 2 =
the Euler Buckling stress
inches;  KL c  in the plane of bending;
Fy 5 yield stress of the steel in pounds per square inch;  r 
E 5 29,000,000 pounds per square inch; (10-157)
Fcr 5 buckling stress in pounds per square inch.
C 5 equivalent moment factor, as defined below;
Mp 5 FyZ, the full plastic moment of the section;
Z 5 plastic section modulus;
*Singly symmetric and unsymmetric compression members, such as KL
angles or tees, and doubly symmetric compression members, such as
}c 5 effective slenderness ratio in the plane of
r
cruciform or built-up members with very thin walls, may also require bending.
consideration of flexural-torsional and torsional buckling. Refer to the
Manual of Steel Construction, Ninth Edition, 1989, American Institute **B. G. Johnston, Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Struc-
of Steel Construction. tures, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1976.
10.54.2.2 Equivalent Moment Factor C The b9/ts ratio for the stiffeners shall be
If the ends of the beam-column are restrained from b′ 2, 200 b′

sidesway in the plane of bending by diagonal bracing or = maximum = 12 (10 -164)
ts fb ts
attachment to an adjacent laterally braced structure, then fa +
the value of equivalent moment factor, C, may be com- 3
puted by the formula
10.55.3 Flange Plates
C 5 0.6 1 0.4a (10-158)
where a is the ratio of the numerically smaller to the larger b′ 5, 700

= for width between webs (10 -165)
end moment. The ratio a is positive when the two end mo- tf fa + fb
ments act in an opposing sense (i.e., one acts clockwise
and the other acts counterclockwise) and negative when b′ 2, 200
= for overhang widths,
they act in the same sense. In all cases, factor C may be tf fa + fb maximum b ′/t = 12 (10 -166)
f
taken conservatively as unity.
10.55 SOLID RIB ARCHES 10.56 SPLICES, CONNECTIONS, AND DETAILS

10.56.1 Connectors
See Article 3.2 for load factors and combinations. Use
Service Load Design Method for factored loads and the 10.56.1.1 General
formulas changed as follows:
Connectors and connections shall be proportioned so
10.55.1 Moment Amplification and Allowable that their design resistance, fR, (maximum strength mul-
Stresses tiplied by a resistance factor) as given in this Article, as
applicable, shall be at least equal to the effects of service
1 loads multiplied by their respective load factors as speci-
AF = (10 - 159)
1.18T fied in Article 3.22.
1−
AFe
10.56.1.2 Welds
1}Kr}L 2 F
3 4
2
y The ultimate strength of the weld metal in groove and
Fy
Fa 5 } 1 2 }} and Fb 5 Fy fillet welds shall be equal to or greater than that of the base
1.18 4p2E
metal, except that the designer may use electrode classifi-
(10-160) cations with strengths less than the base metal when de-
tailing fillet welds for quenched and tempered steels.
10.55.2 Web Plates However, the welding procedure and weld metal shall be
selected to ensure sound welds. The effective weld area
No longitudinal stiffener shall be taken as defined in ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5
Bridge Welding Code, Article 2.3.
6, 750
D / tw = (10 -161)
fa 10.56.1.3 Bolts and Rivets
One longitudinal stiffener
10.56.1.3.1 In proportioning fasteners, the cross sec-
tional area based upon nominal diameter shall be used.
10, 150
D / tw = (10 -162)
fa 10.56.1.3.2 The design force, fR, in kips, for
AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) and AASHTO M 253
Two longitudinal stiffeners
(ASTM A 490) high-strength bolts subject to applied axial
tension or shear is given by
13, 500
D / tw = (10 -163)
fa fR 5 fFAb (10-166a)
TABLE 10.56A Design Strength of Connectors
where The design bearing force for the connection is equal to

the sum of the design bearing forces for the individual
fF 5 design strength per bolt area as given in Table
bolts in the connection.
10.56A for appropriate kind of load, ksi;
Ab 5 area of bolt corresponding to nominal diameter, In the foregoing
sq in. fR 5 design bearing force, kips.
Fu 5 specified minimum tensile strength of the con-
The design bearing force, fR, on the connected mate- nected material, ksi.
rial in standard, oversized, short-slotted holes loaded in Lc 5 clear distance between the holes or between the
any direction, or long-slotted holes parallel to the applied hole and the edge of the material in the direction
bearing force shall be taken as of the applied bearing force, in.
d 5 nominal diameter of bolt, in.
fR 5 0.9LctFu # 1.8dtFu (10-166b) t 5 thickness of connected material, in.
The design bearing force, fR, on the connected mate- 10.56.1.3.3 High-strength bolts preferably shall be
rial in long-slotted holes perpendicular to the applied used for fasteners subject to tension or combined shear
bearing force shall be taken as and tension.
For combined tension and shear, bolts and rivets shall
fR 5 0.75LctFu # 1.5dtFu (10-166c) be proportioned so that the tensile stress does not exceed
for fv /Fv ≤ 0.33 10.56.3 Rigid Connections

Ft′ = Ft (10 -167)
10.56.3.1 All rigid frame connections, the rigidity of
for fv /Fv > 0.33 which is essential to the continuity assumed as the basis
of design, shall be capable of resisting the moments,
Ft′ = Ft 1 − (fv /Fv )2 (10 -167a)
shears, and axial loads to which they are subjected by
maximum loads.
where
10.56.3.2 The beam web shall equal or exceed the
fv 5 computed rivet or bolt stress in shear, ksi; thickness given by
Fv 5 design shear strength of rivet or bolt from Table
10.56A, ksi;  Mc 
tw ≥ 3  (10 -169)
Ft 5 design tensile strength of rivet or bolt from Table  Fy d b d c 
10.56A, ksi;
Ft9 5 reduced design tensile strength of rivet or bolt where
due to the applied shear stress, ksi.
Mc 5 column moment;
db 5 beam depth;
10.56.1.4 Slip-Critical Joints dc 5 column depth.
Slip-critical joints shall be designed to prevent slip at When the thickness of the connection web is less than
the overload in accordance with Article 10.57.3, but as a that given by the above formula, the web shall be
minimum the bolts shall be capable of developing the strengthened by diagonal stiffeners or by a reinforcing
minimum strength requirements in shear and bearing of plate in contact with the web over the connection area.
Article 10.56.1.3 under the maximum design loads. At joints where the flanges of one member are rigidly
Potential slip of joints should be investigated at inter- framed into one flange of another member, the thickness
mediate load stages especially those joints located in com- of the web, tw, supporting the latter flange and the thick-
posite regions. ness of the latter flange, tc, shall be checked by the for-
mulas below. Stiffeners are required on the web of the sec-
10.56.2 Bolts Subjected to Prying Action by ond member opposite the compression flange of the first
Connected Parts member when
Bolts required to support applied load by means of di- Af

rect tension shall be proportioned for the sum of the ex- tw < (10 -170)
t b + 5k
ternal load and tension resulting from prying action pro-
duced by deformation of the connected parts. The total and opposite the tension flange of the first member
tension should not exceed the values given in Table when
10.56A.
The tension due to prying actions shall be computed as t c < 0.4 A f (10 -171)
 3b t3  where
Q= − T (10 -168)
 8a 20  tw 5 thickness of web to be stiffened;
k 5 distance from outer face of flange to toe of web
where fillet of member to be stiffened;
tb 5 thickness of flange delivering concentrated force;
Q 5 prying tension per bolt (taken as zero when nega- tc 5 thickness of flange of member to be stiffened;
tive); Af 5 area of flange delivering concentrated load.
T 5 direct tension per bolt due to external load;
a 5 distance from center of bolt to edge of plate; 10.57 OVERLOAD
b 5 distance from center of bolt to toe of fillet of con-
nected part; For AASHTO H or HS loadings, the overload is defined
t 5 thickness of thinnest part connected in inches. as D 1 5(L1I)/3, except for beams and girders designed
TABLE 10.57A Design Slip Resistance for Slip-Critical Connections

(Slip Resistance per Unit of Bolt Area, fFs 5 fTbm, ksi)
for the Group IA load combination specified in Article stresses, the presence or absence of temporary supports
3.5.1 for which overload is defined as D 1 2.2(L1I) with during the construction shall be considered. For members
(L1I) assumed to occupy a single lane without concur- with shear connectors provided throughout their entire
rent loading in any other lane. For beams and girders de- length that also satisfy the provisions of Article
signed for an overload vehicle selected by the operating 10.50.2.3, the overload flange stresses caused by loads
agency in accordance with the Group IB load combina- acting on the appropriate composite section may be com-
tion, the overload is defined as D 1 (L1I). If moment re- puted assuming the concrete deck to be fully effective for
distribution is permitted under the provisions of Article both positive and negative moment. For this case, the re-
10.48.1.3, the limitations specified in Articles 10.57.1 sulting stresses shall be combined with the stresses due
and 10.57.2 shall apply to the modified moments, but not to loads acting on the noncomposite section to calculate
to the original moments. Web bend-buckling shall be Dc for checking web bend buckling.
checked for the overload according to Equation (10-173).
For composite sections, Dc shall be calculated in accor- 10.57.3 Slip-Critical Joints
dance with Article 10.50(b). Sections that do not satisfy
Equation (10-173) shall be modified to comply with the 10.57.3.1 In addition to the requirements of Arti-
requirement. cles 10.56.1.3.1 and 10.56.1.3.2 for fasteners, the force
caused by D 1 5(L 1 I)/3 on a slip-critical joint shall not
10.57.1 Noncomposite Sections exceed the design slip force (fRs) given by
At noncomposite sections, the maximum overload fRs 5 fFsAbNbNs (10-172a)

flange stress shall not exceed 0.8Fy.
where
10.57.2 Composite Sections fFs 5 fTbµ, design slip resistance per unit of bolt area
given in Table 10.57A, ksi;
At composite sections, the maximum overload flange Ab 5 area corresponding to the nominal body area of
stress shall not exceed 0.95Fy. In computing dead load the bolt, sq in.;
Nb 5 number of bolts in the joint; Fu 5 120 ksi for M 164 (A 325) bolts up to 1-inch
Ns 5 number of slip planes; diameter;
Tb 5 specified tension in the bolt; 5 105 ksi for M 164 (A 325) bolts over 1-inch
µ 5 slip coefficient; diameter;
5 0.33 for clean mill scale and Class A coatings 5 150 ksi for M 253 (A 490) bolts.
5 0.50 for blast-cleaned surfaces and Class B
coatings;
5 0.33 for hot-dip galvanized and roughened 10.58 FATIGUE
surfaces;
f 5 1.0 for standard holes; 10.58.1 General
5 0.85 for oversized and short slotted holes;
5 0.70 for long slotted holes loaded transversely; The analysis of the probability of fatigue of steel mem-
5 0.60 for long slotted holes loaded longitudinally. bers or connections under service loads and the allowable
range of stress for fatigue shall conform to Article 10.3,
Class A, B, or C surface conditions of the bolted parts as except that the limitation imposed by the basic criteria
defined in Table 10.57A shall be used in joints designated given in Article 10.3.1 shall not apply. For members with
as slip-critical except as permitted in Article 10.57.3.2. shear connectors provided throughout their entire length
that also satisfy the provisions of Article 10.50.2.3, the
10.57.3.2 Subject to the approval of the Engineer, range of stress may be computed using the composite sec-
coatings providing a slip coefficient less than 0.33 may be tion assuming the concrete deck to be fully effective for
used provided the mean slip coefficient is established by both positive and negative moment.
test in accordance with the requirements of Article
10.57.3.3, and the slip resistance per unit area established. 10.58.2 Composite Construction
The slip resistance per unit area shall be taken as equal to
the slip resistance per unit area from Table 10.57A for 10.58.2.1 Slab Reinforcement
Class A coatings as appropriate for the hole type and bolt
type times the slip coefficient determined by test divided When composite action is provided in the negative mo-
by 0.33. ment region, the range of stress in slab reinforcement shall
be limited to 20,000 psi.
10.57.3.3 Paint, used on the faying surfaces of con-
nections specified to be slip critical, shall be qualified by 10.58.2.2 Shear Connectors
test in accordance with “Test Method to Determine the
Slip Coefficient for Coatings Used in Bolted Joints” as The shear connectors shall be designed for fatigue in
adopted by the Research Council on Structural Connec- accordance with Article 10.38.5.1.
tions. See Appendix A of Allowable Stress Design Speci-
fication for Structural Joints Using ASTM A 325 or A 490 10.58.3 Hybrid Beams and Girders
Bolts, published by the Research Council on Structural
Connections. Hybrid girders shall be designed for fatigue in accor-
dance with Article 10.3.
10.57.3.4 For combined shear and tension in slip crit-
ical joints where applied forces reduce the total clamping
force on the friction plane, the design slip force shall not ex- 10.59 DEFLECTION
ceed the value fRs9 obtained from the following equation:
The control of deflection of steel or of composite steel
fR9s 5 fRs (1 2 1.88ft/Fu) (10-172b) and concrete structures shall conform to the provision of
Article 10.6.
where
ft 5 computed tensile stress in the bolt due to ap- 10.60 ORTHOTROPIC SUPERSTRUCTURES
plied loads including any stress due to prying
action, ksi; A rational analysis based on the Strength Design
fRs 5 design slip force specified in Equation (10-172a), Method, in accordance with the specifications, will be
kips; considered as compliance with the specifications.
10.61 CONSTRUCTIBILITY 2
ds  D 
for < 0.4 k = 11.64 
The moment and shear capacity of a steel beam or girder Dc  Dc − ds 
shall meet the requirements specified below to control local
where
buckling of the web and compression flange, and to prevent
lateral torsional buckling of the cross section under the ds 5 the distance from the centerline of a plate longi-
noncomposite dead load prior to hardening of the deck tudinal stiffener or the gage line of an angle lon-
slab. The casting or placing sequence of the concrete deck gitudinal stiffener to the inner surface or the leg of
specified in the plans shall be considered in determining the the compression flange component.
applied moments and shears. A load factor of g 5 1.3 shall
For members with or without a longitudinal stiffener,
be used in calculating the applied moments and shears.
k shall be taken equal to 7.2 when both edges of the web
are in compression.
10.61.1 Web Bend Buckling
The web thickness requirements specified in Articles
10.48.5.1, 10.48.6.1, 10.49.2, and 10.49.3.2(b) shall not
The maximum factored noncomposite dead load com- be applied to the constructibility load case.
pressive bending stress in the web shall not exceed the
value given below:
10.61.2 Web Shear Buckling
26, 200, 000αk
fb ≤ 2 ≤ Fyw (10-173)
 D The sum of the factored noncomposite and composite
 
 tw  dead-load shears shall not exceed the shear buckling ca-
pacity of the web specified in Article 10.48.8.1 (Equation
where 10-113).
Fyw 5 specified minimum yield strength of the web
Dc 5 depth of the web of the steel beam or girder in 10.61.3 Lateral-Torsional Buckling of the Cross
compression Section
D 5 web depth
tw 5 thickness of web The maximum factored non-composite dead-load mo-
k 5 9(D/Dc)2 for members without a longitudinal ment shall not exceed the value of Mu calculated for the
stiffener steel beam or girder using the equations specified in Arti-
a 5 1.3 for members without a longitudinal stiffener cle 10.48.4.1, nor My.
a 5 1.0 for members with a longitudinal stiffener
Sections without longitudinal stiffeners that do not satisfy 10.61.4 Compression Flange Local Buckling
Equation (10-173) shall either be modified to comply with
the requirement or a longitudinal stiffener shall be added The ratio of the top compression flange width to thick-
to the web at a location on the web that satisfies both Equa- ness in positive-moment regions shall not exceed the
tion (10-173) and all strength requirements, which may or value determined by the formula
may not correspond to the optimum location of the longi-
tudinal stiffener specified in Article 10.49.3.2(a). For lon- b 4, 400
gitudinally stiffened girders, the buckling coefficient, k, is = ≤ 24 (10-174)
calculated as t fd,
2 2 where fd, is the top-flange compressive stress due to the

ds  D  D
for ≥ 0.4 k = 5.17  ≥ 9  factored noncomposite dead load divided by the factor Rb
Dc  ds   Dc  specified in Article 10.48.4.1, but not to exceed Fy.
Section 11
ALUMINUM DESIGN
11.1 GENERAL 11.4 STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS FOR HIGHWAY

SIGNS, LUMINAIRES, AND TRAFFIC
The purpose of this section is to provide a location for SIGNALS
indexing aluminum design, material fabrication, and con-
struction specifications. The AASHTO Standard Specifications for Structural
Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Sig-
nals shall be used for the design and preparation of plans
11.2 BRIDGES
and specifications, fabrication, and erection of aluminum
sign supports, luminaires, and traffic signals. Welding
The Specifications for Aluminum Structures, Fifth Edi-
shall conform to Section 10 of the current AWS D1.2
tion, December 1986, published by the Aluminum Asso-
Structural Welding Code—Aluminum, and workmanship
ciation, Inc., as it applies to “Bridge and Similar Type
requirements for Class I structures. Special consideration
Structures,” are intended to serve as a standard or guide
may be given to certain support structures, which may be
for the preparation of plans and specifications and as a ref-
designed and fabricated according to the provisions of Ar-
erence for designers, fabricators, and erectors of alu-
ticle 11.2, Bridges.
minum bridge and railing structures and their aluminum
structural components. Welding shall conform to Section
10 of the current AWS D1.2 Structural Welding Code—
11.5 BRIDGE RAILING
Aluminum, and workmanship requirements for Class II
structures.
The design of aluminum bridge railing shall be gov-
erned by Article 2.7; the fabrication and erection shall
11.3 SOIL-METAL PLATE INTERACTION conform to Section 6 of the Specifications for Aluminum
SYSTEMS Structures, Fifth Edition, 1986; and the welding shall con-
form to Section 10 of the current AWS D1.2 Structural
The design of aluminum soil-metal plate interaction Welding Code—Aluminum, and workmanship require-
systems shall be in accordance with Section 12. Fabrica- ments for Class II Structures. The AASHTO Roadside
tion and installation shall be in accordance with Section Design Guide should be consulted for guidance on the
23—Division II. safety considerations in the design of bridge rail.
337
Section 12
SOIL-CORRUGATED METAL STRUCTURE
INTERACTION SYSTEMS
12.1 GENERAL k 5 soil stiffness factor (Articles 12.2.2 and 12.3.2)

Md1 5 dead load factored moment (Article 12.8.4.3.3)
12.1.1 Scope Mll 5 live load factored moment (Article 12.8.4.3.3)
Mpc 5 crown plastic moment capacity (Article
The specifications of this Section are intended for the 12.8.4.3.3)
structural design of corrugated metal structures. It must be Mph 5 haunch plastic moment capacity (Article
recognized that a buried flexible structure is a composite 12.8.4.3.3)
structure made up of the metal ring and the soil envelope, P 5 design load (Article 12.1.4)
and that both materials play a vital part in the structural P 5 proportion of total moment carried by the crown.
design of flexible metal structures. Limits for P are given in Table 12.7.4D (Article
Only Article 12.7 is applicable to structural plate box 12.8.4.3.3)
culverts. r 5 radius of gyration of corrugation (Articles 12.2.2
and 12.3.2)
12.1.2 Notations rc 5 radius of crown (Table 12.8.2A)
rh 5 radius of haunch (Table 12.8.2A)
A 5 required wall area (Article 12.2.1) R 5 rise of box culvert (Articles 12.7.2 and 12.8.4.4)
A 5 area of pipe wall (Article 12.3.1) Rh 5 haunch moment reduction factor (Article
AL 5 total axle load on single axle or tandem axles (Ar- 12.8.4.3.3)
ticles 12.8.4.3.2 and 12.8.4.4) S 5 diameter of span (Articles 12.1.4, 12.2.2, 12.8.2,
C1 5 number of axles coefficient (Article 12.8.4.3.2) and 12.8.4.4)
C2 5 number of wheels per axle coefficient (Article s 5 pipe diameter or span (Articles 12.2.4, 12.3.2, and
12.8.4.3.2) 12.3.4)
Cd1 5 dead load adjustment coefficient (Article SF 5 safety factor (Article 12.2.3)
12.8.4.3.2) SS 5 required seam strength (Articles 12.2.3 and
C,, 5 live load adjustment coefficient (Article 12.3.3)
12.8.4.3.2) T 5 thrust (Article 12.1.4)
D 5 straight leg of haunch (Article 12.8.2) TL 5 thrust, load factor (Articles 12.3.1 and 12.3.3)
Em 5 modulus of elasticity of metal (Articles 12.2.2 and Ts 5 thrust, service load (Articles 12.2.1 and 12.2.3)
12.3.2) t 5 length of stiffening rib on leg (Article 12.8.2)
Em 5 modulus of elasticity of pipe material (Articles V 5 reaction acting in leg direction (Article 12.8.4.4)
12.2.4 and 12.3.4) D 5 haunch radius included angle (Table 12.8.2A)
FF 5 flexibility factor (Articles 12.2.4 and 12.3.4) g 5 unit weight of backfill (Articles 12.8.4.3.2 and
fa 5 allowable stress—specified minimum yield point 12.8.4.4)
divided by safety factor (Article 12.2.1) f 5 capacity modification factor (Articles 12.3.1 and
fcr 5 critical buckling stress (Articles 12.2.2 and 12.3.2) 12.3.3)
fu 5 specified minimum tensile strength (Articles
12.2.2 and 12.3.2) 12.1.3 Loads
fy 5 specified minimum yield point (Article 12.3.1)
H 5 height of cover above crown (Article 12.8.4.4) Design load, P, shall be the pressure acting on the struc-
I 5 moment of inertia, per unit length, of cross section ture. For earth pressures, see Article 3.20. For live load,
of the pipe wall (Articles 12.2.4 and 12.3.4) see Articles 3.4 to 3.7, 3.11, 3.12, and 6.4, except that the
339
words “When the depth of fill is 2 feet or more” in Article (3) The density of the embankment material above
6.4.1 need not be considered. For loading combinations, the pipe must be determined. See Article 6.2.
see Article 3.22. (b) Dimensions of soil envelope.
The general recommended criteria for lateral limits of
12.1.4 Design
the culvert soil envelope are as follows:
12.1.4.1 The thrust in the wall shall be checked by
three criteria. Each considers the mutual function of the (1) Trench installations—2-feet minimum each side
metal wall and the soil envelope surrounding it. The cri- of culvert. This recommended limit should be modified
teria are: as necessary to account for variables such as poor in
situ soils.
(a) Wall area; (2) Embankment installations—one diameter or span
(b) Buckling stress; each side of culvert.
(c) Seam strength (structures with longitudinal seams). (3) The minimum upper limit of the soil envelope is 1
foot above the culvert.
12.1.4.2 The thrust in the wall is:
12.1.6.2 Pipe Arch Design
S
T = P × (12 -1)
2 The design of the corner backfill shall account for
where: corner pressure which shall be considered to be approxi-
P 5 design load, in pounds per square foot; mately equal to thrust divided by the radius of the
S 5 diameter or span, in feet; pipe arch corner. The soil envelope around the corners of
T 5 thrust, in pounds per foot. pipe arches shall be capable of supporting this pressure.
12.1.4.3 Handling and installation strength shall be 12.1.6.3 Arch Design

sufficient to withstand impact forces when shipping and
placing the pipe. 12.1.6.3.1 Special design considerations may be ap-
plicable; a buried flexible structure may raise two impor-
12.1.5 Materials tant considerations. The first is that it is undesirable to
make the metal arch relatively unyielding or fixed com-
The materials shall conform to the AASHTO specifi- pared with the adjacent sidefill. The use of massive foot-
cations referenced herein. ings or piles to prevent any settlement of the arch is gen-
erally not recommended.
12.1.6 Soil Design Where poor materials are encountered, consideration
should be given to removing some or all of this poor ma-
12.1.6.1 Soil Parameters terial and replacing it with acceptable material.
The footing should be designed to provide uniform
The performance of a flexible culvert is dependent on
longitudinal settlement, of acceptable magnitude from a
soil structure interaction and soil stiffness.
functional aspect. Providing for the arch to settle will pro-
The following must be considered:
tect it from possible drag down forces caused by the con-
solidation of the adjacent sidefill.
(a) Soils:
(1) The type and anticipated behavior of the foun- The second consideration is bearing pressure of soils
dation soil must be considered; i.e., stability for under footings. Recognition must be given to the effect of
bedding and settlement under load. depth of the base of footing and the direction of the foot-
(2) The type, compacted density, and strength ing reaction from the arch.
properties of the soil envelope immediately adjacent Footing reactions for the metal arch are considered to
to the pipe must be established. Good side fill is ob- act tangential to the metal plate at its point of connection
tained from a granular material with little or no plas- to the footing. The value of the reaction is the thrust in the
ticity and free of organic material, i.e., AASHTO metal arch plate at the footing.
classification groups A-1, A-2, and A-3, compacted
to a minimum 90% of standard density based on 12.1.6.3.2 Invert slabs and other appropriate mea-
AASHTO Specification T 99 (ASTM D 698). sures shall be provided to anticipate scour.
12.1.7 Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions 12.2.2 Buckling
Extra metal thickness, or coatings, may be required for Corrugations with the required wall area, A, shall be
resistance to corrosion and abrasion. For highly abrasive checked for possible buckling. If the allowable buckling
conditions, a special design may be required. stress, fcr/SF, is less than fa, the required area must be re-
calculated using fcr/SF in lieu of fa. Formulae for buckling
are:
12.1.8 Minimum Spacing
r 24 E m fu2  kS  2
When multiple lines of pipes or pipe arches greater If S < then fcr = fu − (12 - 3)
than 48 inches in diameter or span are used, they shall be k fu 48E m  r 
spaced so that the sides of the pipe shall be no closer than
one-half diameter or 3 feet, whichever is less, to permit r 24 E m 12 E m
If S < then fcr = (12 - 4)
adequate compaction of backfill material. For diameters k fu ( kS / r )2
up to and including 48 inches, the minimum clear spacing
shall not be less than 2 feet.
where:
fu 5 specified minimum tensile strength in pounds per
12.1.9 End Treatment
square inch;
fcr 5 critical buckling stress in pounds per square inch;
Protection of end slopes may require special consid-
k 5 soil stiffness factor 5 0.22;
eration where backwater conditions may occur, or where
S 5 diameter or span in inches;
erosion and uplift could be a problem. Culvert ends con-
r 5 radius of gyration of corrugation in inches;
stitute a major run-off-the-road hazard if not properly de-
Em 5 modulus of elasticity of metal in pounds per
signed. Safety treatment, such as structurally adequate
square inch.
grating that conforms to the embankment slope, exten-
sion of culvert length beyond the point of hazard, or pro-
vision of guardrail, are among the alternatives to be con- 12.2.3 Seam Strength
sidered. End walls on skewed alignment require a special
design. For pipe fabricated with longitudinal seams (riveted,
spot-welded, bolted), the seam strength shall be sufficient
to develop the thrust in the pipe wall.
12.1.10 Construction and Installation The required seam strength shall be
The construction and installation shall conform to Sec- SS 5 Ts(SF) (12-5)

tion 23—Division II.
where:
SS5 required seam strength in pounds per foot;
12.2 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN Ts 5 thrust in pipe wall in pounds per foot;
SF5 safety factor.
Service Load Design is a working stress method, as tra-
ditionally used for culvert design. 12.2.4 Handling and Installation Strength
12.2.1 Wall Area Handling and installation rigidity is measured by a

flexibility factor, FF, determined by the formula:
A 5 Ts/fa (12-2)
FF 5 s2/EmI (12-6)
where:
where:
A 5 required wall area in square inches per foot;
Ts 5 thrust, service load in pounds per foot; FF5 flexibility factor in inches per pound;
fa 5 allowable stress-specified minimum yield point, s 5 pipe diameter or maximum span in inches;
pounds per square inch, divided by safety factor, Em 5 modulus of elasticity of the pipe material in
fy/SF. pounds per square inch;
I 5 moment of inertia per unit length of cross section where:

of the pipe wall in inches to the 4th power per SS 5 required seam strength in pounds per foot;
inch. TL 5 thrust multiplied by applicable factor, in pounds
per linear foot;
12.3 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN f 5 capacity modification factor.
Load Factor Design is an alternative method of design 12.3.4 Handling and Installation Strength
based on ultimate strength principles.
Handling rigidity is measured by a flexibility factor,
12.3.1 Wall Area FF, determined by the formula:
A 5 TL/ffy (12-7) FF 5 s2/EmI (12-11)
where: where:
A 5 area of pipe wall in square inches per foot; FF 5 flexibility factor in inches per pound;
TL 5 thrust, load factor in pounds per foot; s 5 pipe diameter or maximum span in inches;
fy 5 specified minimum yield point in pounds per Em 5 modulus of elasticity of the pipe material in
square inch; pounds per square inch;
f 5 capacity modification factor. I 5 moment of inertia per unit length of cross section
of the pipe wall in inches to the 4th power per
inch.
12.3.2 Buckling
If fcr is less than fy, A must be recalculated using fcr in 12.4 CORRUGATED METAL PIPE
lieu of fy:
12.4.1 General
r 24 E m fu2
If s < then fcr = fu − ( ks / r )2 (12 - 8) 12.4.1.1 Corrugated metal pipe and pipe-arches
k fu 48E m may be of riveted, welded, or lock seam fabrication
with annular or helical corrugations. The specifications are:
r 24 E m 12 E m
If s > then fcr = (12 - 9)
k fu ( ks / r )2 Aluminum Steel
AASHTO M 36,
where: AASHTO M 190, M 196 M 190, M 245
fu 5 specified minimum metal strength in pounds per 12.4.1.2 Service Load Design—safety factor, SF
square inch;
fcr 5 critical buckling stress in pounds per square inch; Seam strength 5 3.0
k 5 soil stiffness factor 5 0.22; Wall area 5 2.0
s 5 pipe diameter or span in inches; Buckling 5 2.0
r 5 radius of gyration of corrugation in inches;
Em 5 modulus of elasticity of metal in pounds per
square inch. 12.4.1.3 Load Factor Design—capacity
modification factor, f
12.3.3 Seam Strength For Helical pipe with lock seam or fully welded seam:
For pipe fabricated with longitudinal seams (riveted, Wall area and buckling f 5 1.0
spot-welded, bolted), the seam strength shall be sufficient
to develop the thrust in the pipe wall. The required seam For Annular pipe with spot welded, riveted or bolted seam:
strength shall be:
Wall area and buckling f 5 1.0
SS 5 TL/f (12-10) Seam strength f 5 0.67
12.4.1.4 Flexibility Factor
(a) For steel conduits, FF should generally not exceed

the following values:
1
⁄ 4-in. and 1⁄ 2-in. depth corrugation,
FF 5 4.3 3 1022
1-in. depth corrugation, FF 5 3.3 3 1022
(b) For aluminum conduits, FF should generally not
exceed the following values:
1
⁄ 4-in. and 1⁄ 2-in. depth corrugations,
FF 5 3.1 3 1022 for 0.060 in. material thickness
FF 5 6.1 3 1022 for 0.075 in. material thickness
FF 5 9.2 3 1022 for all other material thicknesses
1-in. depth corrugation, FF 5 6 3 1022
12.4.1.5 Minimum Cover
The minimum cover for design loads shall be Span/8

but not less than 12 inches. (The minimum cover shall be
measured from the top of a rigid pavement or the bottom
of a flexible pavement.) For construction requirements,
see Article 26.6—Division II.
12.4.2 Seam Strength
12.4.3 Section Properties

12.4.3.1 Steel Conduits
12.4.3.2 Aluminum Conduits
12.4.4 Chemical and Mechanical Requirements 12.5.2 Soil Design
12.4.4.1 Aluminum-corrugated metal pipe and pipe- 12.5.2.1 Spiral Rib pipe and pipe-arches installed in
arch material requirements—AASHTO M 197 embankment conditions shall have a granular soil backfill
envelope extending to a minimum of one span on each
Mechanical Properties for Design side of the pipe and one foot above the pipe. This granu-
Minimum Minimum lar soil envelope shall meet the material and compaction
Material Tensile Yield Mod. of requirements of Article 12.1.6.1 (a).
Grade Strength Point Elast.
(psi) (psi) (psi)
3004-H34 31,000 24,000 10 3 106 12.5.2.2 Spiral Rib pipe and pipe-arches installed in
3004-H32 27,000 20,000 10 3 106 standard trench conditions shall have a backfill envelope
H34 temper must be used with riveted pipes to acheive seam strength. that
Both H32 and H34 temper material may be used with helical pipe.
(a) Meets the material and compaction requirements

of Article 12.1.6.1 (a).
(b) Extends a minimum of 2 feet each side of the pipe
12.4.4.2 Steel-corrugated metal pipe and pipe-arch to the trench wall. To account for variable conditions,
material requirements—AASHTO M 218 this recommendation shall be increased as required for
M 246: poor in situ soils. It may be decreased for trenches in
rock or high-bearing strength in situ soils to the limits
required for backfill compaction. In this condition, the
use of cementitious grouts allows the envelope to be
decreased to 2 inches, each side of the pipe.
(c) Extends a minimum of 1 foot above the crown of
the pipe.
12.5.2.3 Pipe-Arch Design
The design of the corner backfill shall meet the re-

12.4.5 Smooth-Lined Pipe
quirements of Article 12.1.6.2.
Corrugated metal pipe composed of a smooth liner and 12.5.2.4 Special Conditions
corrugated shell attached integrally at helical seams
spaced not more than 30 inches apart may be designed in Design and installation shall meet the requirements of
accordance with Article 12.1 on the same basis as a stan- Article 12.1.7 for abrasive or corrosive conditions; Arti-
dard corrugated metal pipe having the same corrugations cle 12.1.8 for minimum spacing of multiple runs; and Ar-
as the shell and a weight per foot equal to the sum of the ticle 12.1.9 for end treatment.
weights per foot of liner and helically corrugated shell.
The shell shall be limited to corrugations having a max- 12.5.2.5 Construction and Installation
imum pitch of 3 inches and a thickness of not less than
60% of the total thickness of the equivalent standard Construction and installation shall conform to Section
pipe. 23—Division II.
12.5.3 Design
12.5 SPIRAL RIB METAL PIPE
12.5.3.1 Service load design shall conform to the re-
quirements of Article 12.2—Safety Factor (SF) shall be:
12.5.1 General
Wall Area 5 2.0
12.5.1.1 Spiral Rib metal pipe and pipe-arches are Buckling 5 2.0
helically formed from a single thickness of steel or alu-
minum with outwardly projecting ribs and a lockseam. 12.5.3.1 Load factor design shall conform to the re-
The specifications are quirements of Article 12.3—Capacity modification factor,
f, shall be
Aluminum: AASHTO M 196, M 190
Steel: AASHTO M 36, M 245, M 190 f 5 1.00
12.5.3.2 Flexibility Factor 12.5.4 Section Properties
(a) For steel conduits, FF should generally not exceed 12.5.4.1 Steel Conduits
the following values
(1) For installation conforming to Article 12.5.2.1
FF 5 0.217 I0.33 for 3⁄ 4 3 3⁄ 4 3 71⁄ 2 configurations.

FF 5 0.140 I0.33 for 3⁄ 4 3 1 3 111⁄ 2 configurations.
(2) For installations conforming to Article
12.5.2.2
FF 5 0.263 I0.33 for 3/4 3 3/4 3 71⁄ 2 configurations

FF 5 0.163 I0.33 for 3/4 3 1 3 111⁄ 2 configurations.
Note: 1 is the applicable moment of inertia value from Ar-
ticle 12.5.4.1.
Note: Effective section properties at full yield stress.
exceed the following values
12.5.2.1
FF 5 0.340 I0.33 for 3/4 3 3/4 3 71⁄ 2 configurations.

FF 5 0.175 I0.33 for 3/4 3 1 3 111⁄ 2 configurations.

12.5.2.2
FF 5 0.420 I0.33 for 3/4 3 3/4 3 71⁄ 2 configurations.

FF 5 0.215 I0.33 for 3/4 3 1 3 111⁄ 2 configurations. Aluminum Conduits
Note: 1 is the applicable moment of inertia value from Ar-
ticle 12.5.4.2.
Note: Effective section properties at full yield stress.
12.5.5 Chemical and Mechanical Requirements
The minimum cover for design loads shall be mea-
12.5.5.1 Steel Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe-Arch
sured from the top of rigid pavement or the bottom of flex- Requirements—AASHTO M 218
ible pavement such that
(a) For steel conduits the minimum cover shall be

span/4, but not less than 12 inches;
(b) For aluminum conduits with spans of 48 inches or
less, the minimum cover shall be span/2, but not less
than 12 inches. For aluminum conduits with spans
greater than 48 inches, the minimum cover shall be 12.5.5.2 Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe-
span/2.75, but not less than 24 inches. Arch Requirements—AASHTO M 197
Mechanical Properties for Design
For construction requirements, see Article 26.6—
Minimum Minimum
Division II. Material Tensile Yield Mod. of
Grade Strength Point Elast.
(psi) (psi) (psi)
3004-H34 31,000 24,000 10 3 106
3004-H32 27,000 20,000 10 3 106
H34 temper must be used with riveted pipes to acheive seam strength.
Both H32 and H34 temper material may be used with helical pipe.
12.6 STRUCTURAL PLATE PIPE STRUCTURES 12.6.2 Seam Strength
12.6.1 General
12.6.1.1 Structural plate pipe, pipe-arches, and

arches shall be bolted with annular corrugations only.
The specifications are
Aluminum Steel
AASHTO M 219 AASHTO M 167
12.6.1.2 Service Load Design—safety factor, SF
Seam strength 5 3.0

Wall area 5 2.0
Buckling 5 2.0
12.6.1.3 Load Factor Design—Capacity

Modification Factor, f
Wall area and buckling f 5 1.0

Seam strength f 5 0.67
12.6.1.4 Flexibility Factor
(a) For steel conduits, FF should generally not exceed

the following values 12.6.3 Section Properties
6 in. 3 2 in. corrugation FF 5 2.0 3 1022 (pipe) 12.6.3.1 Steel Conduits

6 in. 3 2 in. corrugation FF 5 3.0 3 1022 (pipe-
arch) 12.6.3.1 Steel Conduits
6 in. 3 2 in. corrugation FF 5 3.0 3 1022 (arch)

exceed the following values
9 in. 3 21⁄ 2 in. corrugation FF 5 2.5 3 1022 (pipe)

9 in. 3 21⁄ 2 in. corrugation FF 5 3.6 3 1022 (pipe-
arch)
9 in. 3 21⁄ 2 in. corrugation FF 5 3.6 3 1022 (arch)

The minimum cover for design loads shall be Span/8
but not less than 12 inches. (The minimum cover shall be
see Article 26.6—Division II.
12.6.4 Chemical and Mechanical Properties construction and installation shall conform to Section
26—Division II.
12.6.4.1 Aluminum Structural Plate Pipe, Pipe-
Arch, and Arch Material 12.7.2 Structure Design
Requirements—AASHTO M 219, Alloy
5052 12.7.2.1 General
Long-span structures shall be designed in accordance

with Articles 12.1 and 12.6, and 12.2 or 12.3 except that
the requirements for buckling and flexibility factor shall
not apply. The span in the formulae for thrust shall be re-
placed by twice the top arc radius. Long-span structures
shall include acceptable special features. Minimum re-
quirements are detailed in Table 12.7.2A.
12.6.4.2 Steel Structural Plate Pipe, Pipe-Arch,

TABLE 12.7.2A Minimum Requirements for Long-Span
and Arch Material Requirements—
Structures with Acceptable Special Features
AASHTO M 167
12.6.5 Structural Plate Arches
The design of structural plate arches should be based

on ratios of a rise to span of 0.3 minimum.
12.7 LONG-SPAN STRUCTURAL PLATE

STRUCTURES
12.7.1 General
Long-span structural plate structures are short-span

bridges defined as follows:
12.7.1.1 Structural plate structures (pipe, pipe-arch,

and arch) that exceed the maximum sizes imposed by Ar-
ticle 12.6.
12.7.1.2 Special shapes of any size that involve a rel-

atively large radius of curvature in crown or side plates.
Vertical ellipses, horizontal ellipses, underpasses, low
profile arches, high profile arches, and inverted pear
shapes are the terms describing these special shapes.
12.7.1.3 Wall strength and chemical and mechanical

properties shall be in accordance with Article 12.6. The
FIGURE 12.7.1A Standard Terminology of Structural Plate Shapes Including Long-Span Structures
12.7.2.2 Acceptable Special Features properly supported, within the following limits and con-
siderations:
(a) Continuous longitudinal structural stiffeners con-
nected to the corrugated plates at each side of the top (1) Once the structure has been backfilled over the
arc. Stiffeners may be metal or reinforced concrete ei- crown, settlements of the supporting backfill relative to
ther singly or in combination. the structure must be limited to control dragdown
(b) Reinforcing ribs formed from structural shapes forces. If the sidefill will settle more than the structure,
curved to conform to the curvature of the plates, fas- a detailed analysis may be required.
tened to the structure as required to ensure integral ac- (2) Settlements along the longitudinal centerline of
tion with the corrugated plates, and spaced at such in- arch structures must be limited to maintain slope and
tervals as necessary to increase the moment of inertia preclude footing cracks (arches). Where the structure
of the section to that required by the design. will settle uniformly with the adjacent soils, long spans
with full inverts can be built on a camber to achieve a
12.7.3 Foundation Design proper final grade.
(3) Differential settlements across the structure (from
12.7.3.1 Settlement Limits springline to springline) shall not exceed 0.01 (Span)2/
rise in order to limit excessive rotation of the structure.
Foundation design requires a geotechnical survey of More restrictive settlement limits may be required to
the site to ensure that both the structure and the criti- protect pavements, or to limit longitudinal differential
cal backfill zone on each side of the structure will be deflections.
12.7.3.2 Footing Reactions (Arch Structures) The width of the envelope, on each side of the structure
shall be sized to limit shape change during construction
Footing reactions are calculated by simple statics to activities outside the envelope and to control deflections
support the vertical loads. Soil load footing reactions under service loads. (See Articles 12.7.4.2 and 12.7.4.3).
(VDL) are taken as the weight of the fill and pavement
above the springline of the structure. 12.7.4.1 Soil Requirements
Live loads, which provide relatively limited pressure
zones acting on the crown of the structure are distributed Granular type soils shall be used as structure backfill (the
to the footings. envelope next to the metal structure). The order of prefer-
Footing reactions may be taken as ence of acceptable structure backfill materials is as follows:
RV 5 (VDL 1 VLL) Cos D (12.7.3.2-1) (a) Well-graded sand and gravel; sharp, rough, or an-
gular if possible.
RH 5 (VDL 1 VLL) Sin D (12.7.3.2-2) (b) Uniform sand or gravel.
(c) Approved stabilized soil shall be used only under
where direct supervision of a competent, experienced soils
Engineer. Plastic soils shall not be used.
Rv 5 Vertical footing reaction component (K/ft)
RH 5 Horizontal reaction component (K/ft)
VDL 5 [H2(S) 2 AT] a/2 The structure backfill material shall conform to one of
VLL 5 n(AL)/(Lw 1 2H1) the following soil classifications from AASHTO M 145,
D 5 Return angle of the structure (degrees) Table 2: for height of fill less than 12 feet, A-1, A-3, A-2-4,
AL 5 Axle load (K) 2 50% of all axles that can be and A-2-5; for height of fill of 12 feet and more, A-1, A-3.
placed on the structure at one time Structure backfill shall be placed and compacted to not less
32K for H 20/HS 20 than 90% density per AASHTO T 180.
40K for H 25/HS 25
50K for Tandem Axle 12.7.4.2 Construction Requirements
160K for E80 Railroad Loading
AT 5 the area of the top portion of the structure To control shape change from construction activities
above the springline (ft.2) outside the envelope in trench conditions, the structural
H1 5 Height of cover above the footing to traffic sur- backfill envelope shall extend to the trench wall and be
face (ft.) compacted against it. Alternatively, the structural backfill
H2 5 Height of cover from the structure’s springline must extend an adequate distance to protect the shape of the
to traffic surface (ft.) structure from construction loads. The remaining trench
Lw 5 Lane width (ft.) width can be filled with suitable backfill material com-
pacted to meet the requirements of Article 12.7.4.3. In em-
3 4
2H1
n 5 integer }} 1 2 # number of traffic lanes bankment conditions, the minimum structural backfill
Lw width shall be 6 feet. Where dissimilar materials not meet-
a 5 Unit weight of soil (k/ft3) ing geotechnical filter criteria are used adjacent to each
other, a suitable geotextile must be used to avoid migration.
12.7.3.3 Footing Design
12.7.4.3 Service Requirements
Reinforced concrete footings shall be designed in ac-
cordance with Article 4.4 to limit settlements to the re- To limit defections under service loads, the width of
quirements of Article 12.7.3.1. the envelope on each side of the structure shall be ade-
Footings should be sized to provide bearing pressures quate to limit horizontal compression strain to 1% of the
equal to or greater than those exerted by the structural structure’s span on each side of the structure. This is a de-
backfill on the foundation. This helps to ensure that if set- sign limit—not a performance limit. Any span increase
tlements do occur the footings and backfill will settle in that occurs is principally due to the consolidation of the
approximately equal amounts avoiding excessive drag- side support materials as the structure is loaded during
down loads on the structure. backfilling. These are construction movements that atten-
uate when full cover is reached.
12.7.4 Soil Envelope Design Limiting horizontal compression strain requires an
evaluation of the width and quality of the structural back-
Structural backfill material in the envelope around the fill material selected as well as the in situ, embankment or
structure shall meet the requirements of Article 12.7.4.1. other fill materials within the zone, on each side of the
structure, that extends to a distance equal to the rise of the The structural backfill envelope shall continue above
structure plus its cover height (See Figure 12.7.4A). the crown to the minimum cover level for that structure or,
Forces acting radially off the small radius corner arc of if it is less, to the bottom of the pavement (or granular base
the structure at a distance d1 from the structure can be cal- course) or the bottom of any relief slab, etc.
culated as
12.7.5 End Treatment Design
T
P1 = (12.7.4.3-1) End treatment selection and design is an integral part
R c + d1
of the structural design. It ensures proper support of the
where ends of the structure while providing protection from
scour, hydraulic uplift and loss of backfill due to erosion
P1 5 the horizontal pressure from the structure at a forces.
distance d1 from it (psf)
d1 5 distance from the structure (ft) 12.7.5.1 Standard Shell End Types
T 5 Total dead load and live load thrust in the struc-
ture (Article 12.7.2.1-psf) The standard end types for the corrugated plate shell
Rc 5 Corner radius of the structure (ft) are provided in Figure 12.7.5A. Step bevel, full bevel and
skewed ends all involve cutting the plates within a ring.
The required envelope width beside the pipe, d, can be Each has its own structural considerations.
calculated for a known, allowable bearing pressure as Step bevels cut the corner (and side on pear and high
profile arch shapes) plates on a diagonal (bevel) to match
T the fill slope. The following limits apply:
d= − Rc (12.7.4.3-2)
PBrg
• The rise of the top step must be equal to or greater
where than the rise of the top arc; thus plates in the top arc
are left uncut.
d 5 required envelope width beside the structure (ft) • The bottom step
PBrg 5 Allowable bearing pressure to limit compres- —for structures with inverts, must meet the re-
sion (strain) in the trench wall or embankment quirements for a top step.
(psf) —for arches, must be a minimum of 6 inches.
FIGURE 12.7.4A Typical Structural Backfill Envelope and Zone of Structure Influence
FIGURE 12.7.4B Assumed Pressure Distribution
• The slope of the cut plates generally shall be no flat- cover heights of 10 feet or less, and to 15% for higher
ter than 3:1. covers.
• The upper edge of the cut plates must be bolted to Unbalanced soil support occurs whenever a structure is
and supported by a structural concrete slope collar, skewed to an embankment. When this occurs, the fill must
slope pavement, etc. be warped (shaped) to maintain balanced support and to
provide an adequate width of backfill and embankment
Full bevel ends are limited to special design only. soil to support the ends.
Structures with full inverts must have a bottom step con- In lieu of a special design, a flattened area running par-
forming to the requirements for step bevel ends. allel to the structure shall be provided to extend out a dis-
The bevel cut edge of all plates must be supported by tance of 1.5 (rise 1 cover) beyond the springline.
a suitable, rigid concrete slope collar.
12.7.5.3 Hydraulic Protection
• Skew cut ends must be fully connected to and sup-
ported by a reinforced concrete (or other rigid) head- In hydraulic applications, the structure, which includes
wall. The headwall must extend an adequate dis- the shell, footings, structural backfill envelope and other
tance above the crown of the structure to be capable fill materials within the zone influenced by the structure
of reaching the ring compression thrust forces from must be protected.
the cut plates. In addition to normal active earth and
live load pressures, the headwall will react to a com- 12.7.5.3.1 Backfill Protection
ponent of the radial pressure exerted by the structure
Loss of backfill integrity through piping action must be
(See Article 12.7.4.3).
considered. If materials prone to piping are used, the
structure and ends of the backfill envelope must be ade-
12.7.5.2 Balanced Support
quately sealed to control soil migration and/or infiltration.
Soil support must be relatively balanced from side
12.7.5.3.2 Cut-Off (Toe) Walls
to side, perpendicularly across the structure. In lieu of
a special design, slopes running perpendicularly across All hydraulic structures with full inverts require up-
the structure are limited to a maximum of 10%, for stream and downstream cut-off (toe) walls. Invert plates
FIGURE 12.7.5A Standard Structure End Types
shall be bolted to cut-off walls at a maximum 20 inch cen- shapes, soil requirements, and permissible product details
ter-to-center spacing using 3 /4 inch bolts. for box culverts in compliance with this specification are
The cut-off wall shall extend to an adequate depth to defined.
limit hydraulic percolation to control up-lift forces
(Article 12.7.5.3.3) and scour (Article 12.7.5.3.4). 12.8.2 Structural Standards
12.7.5.3.3 Hydraulic Uplift The design criteria presented in subsequent articles are
Hydraulic uplift is a design consideration for hydraulic applicable only to structures in compliance with the stan-
structures with full inverts where the design flow level in dards described in Article 12.8.
the pipe may drop quickly. Resulting hydraulic gradients,
with the water level higher in the backfill than in the pipe, 12.8.2.1 Structural plate box culverts shall be bolted.
must be limited to levels that will not buckle the invert or The box culvert materials specifications are
float the structure. Buckling may be evaluated using Arti-
Aluminum Steel
cle 12.7.2.3 assuming the span of the structure is twice the
invert radius. Where uplift can be a concern, design typi- AASHTO M 219 AASHTO M 167
cally employs adequate cut-off walls and other means to
seal off water flow into the structural backfill. 12.8.2.2 Reinforcing ribs shall be an aluminum or
steel structural section curved to fit the structural plates.
12.7.5.3.4 Scour Ribs shall be bolted to the plates so as to develop the plas-
tic moment capacity required. Spacing between ribs shall
Scour design shall meet the requirements of Article not exceed 2 feet on the crown and 4.5 feet on the haunch.
4.4.5.2. Where erodible soils are encountered, varying de- Rib splices shall develop the plastic moment capacity re-
grees of conventional means of scour protection may be quired at the location of the splice.
employed to meet requirements.
Deep foundations such as piles or caissons are not to 12.8.2.3 Plastic moment capacities of ribbed sections
be used without a special design that considers differen- may be computed using minimum yield strength values
tial settlement and provides a means to retain the struc- for both rib and corrugated shell. Such computed values
tural backfill if scour proceeds below the pile cap, etc. may be used for design only after they have been con-
firmed by representative flexural test data. (Reference Ar-
12.7.6 Multiple Structures ticle 10.48.1).
Care must be exercised on the design of multiple, 12.8.3 Structure Backfill

closely spaced structures to control unbalanced loading.
Fills should be kept level over the series of structures
12.8.3.1 Structure backfill material shall conform to
when possible. Significant roadway grades across a series
the requirements of Article 12.7.2.4, compacted to a min-
of structures require checking of the stability of the flexi-
imum 95% of standard density based on AASHTO T 99
ble structures under the resultant unbalanced loading.
or 90% of standard density based on AASHTO T 180.
12.8 STRUCTURAL PLATE BOX CULVERTS
12.8.3.2 Specified structure backfill material shall be
12.8.1 General 3 feet wide, minimum, at the footing and shall extend up-
ward to the road base elevation.
Structural plate box culverts (hereafter “box culverts”)
are composite reinforcing rib-plate structures of approxi-
TABLE 12.8.2A Geometric Requirements
mate rectangular shape. Box culverts are intended for for Box Culverts
shallow covers and low wide waterway openings. The
shallow covers and extreme shapes of box culverts require I. Span, (S), may vary from 8 ft-9 in. to 25 ft-5 in.
special design procedures. Requirements of Articles 12.1 II. Rise, (R), may vary from 2 ft-6 in. to 10 ft-6 in.
III. Radius of crown, (rc) 5 24 ft-91 ⁄ 2 in. maximum
through 12.7 are not applicable to box culvert designs un-
IV. Radius of haunch, (rh) 5 2 ft-6 in. minimum
less included in Article 12.8 by specific reference. V. D may vary from 50° to 70°
VI. Length of leg, (D), measured to the bottom of the plate, may
12.8.1.1 Scope vary from 0.4 ft to 5.9 ft.
VII. Minimum length of rib on leg, (t), is either 19 in.; the length of
Article 12.8 presents structural capacity requirements leg, (D), minus 3 in. or to within 3 in. of the top of a concrete
footing, whichever is less.
for box culverts based on the load factor method. Standard
factor (P). P represents the proportion of the total moment

that can be carried by the crown of the box culvert and
varies with the relative moment capacities of the crown
and haunch components. Limits for P are given in Table
12.8.4D.
12.8.4.3.1 The sum of the crown and haunch dead

load moments are
FIGURE 12.8.2A Standard Terminology of Structural
Plate Box Culvert Shapes MDL 5 g 3 1023 {S3[0.0053 2 0.00024(S 2 12)]
1 0.053 (H 2 1.4)S2} (12-12)
12.8.4 Design
where
12.8.4.1 Analytical Basis for Design
MDL 5 The sum of the nominal crown and haunch
dead load moments (kip-ft/ft)
Structural requirements for box culverts have been de-
S 5 Box culvert span in feet.
veloped from finite element analyses covering the range
g 5 Soil density (lbs/ft3)
of structures allowed by Article 12.8.2.
H 5 Height of cover from the box culvert rise to top
of pavement (ft)
12.8.4.1.1 Structural requirements are based on
analyses using two dimensional live loads equivalent to
12.8.4.3.2 The sum of the crown and haunch live
HS 20, 4-wheel, single-axle vehicles. Dead load of soil
load moments are
equals 120 pounds per cubic foot. Coefficients to adjust for
other load conditions are contained in Article 12.8.4.3.2.
MLL 5 C,,K1S/K2 (12-13)
12.8.4.1.2 Backfill required in Article 12.8.3 is dense
where
granular material. The analyses that provide the basis for
this specification were based on conservative soil proper- MLL 5 The sum of the nominal crown and haunch live
ties of low plasticity clay (CL) compacted to 90% of stan- load moments (kip-ft/ft)
dard AASHTO T 99. C,, 5 Live load adjustment coefficient for axle loads,
tandem axles, and axles with other than 4
12.8.4.2 Load Factor Method wheels;
The combined gamma and beta factors to be applied are C,, 5 C1C2AL (12-14)
Dead load, load factor 5 1.5
AL 5 Total axle load on single axle or tandem axles in
Live load, load factor 5 2.0
kips;
C1 5 Adjustment coefficient for number of axles;
The capacity modification factor f is 1.00.
C1 5 1.0, for single axle;
12.8.4.3 Plastic Moment Requirements C1 5 (0.5 1 S/50), for tandem axles, (C1 # 1.0);
S 5 Box culvert span in feet;
Analyses covering the range of box culvert shapes de- C2 5 Adjustment coefficient for number of wheels
scribed in Article 12.8.2 have shown moment require- per axle. (Values for C2 are given in Table
ments govern the design in all cases. Effects of thrust were 12.8.4A.)
found to be negligible when combined with moment. H 5 Height of cover from the box culvert rise to top
Metal box culverts act similar to rigid frames, distrib- of pavement (ft.)
uting moment between the crown and haunch on the basis
of their relative stiffness. Within limits, increasing the 0.08
K1 5 }} , for 8 # S , 20 (12-15)
stiffness of one component of the box (either crown or (H/S)0.2
haunch) reduces the portion of the total moment carried
by the other. 0.08 2 0.002(S 2 20)
Article 12.8 provides for this moment distribution K1 5 }}} , for 20 # S # 26
(H/S)0.2 (12-16)
within the allowable limits of the moment proportioning
K2 5 0.54H2 2 0.4H 1 5.05, for 1.4 # H , 3.0 TABLE 12.8.4C Rh, Haunch Moment Reduction Values
(12-17)
K2 5 1.90H 1 3, for 3.0 # H # 5.0 (12-18)
TABLE 12.8.4A C2, Adjustment Coefficient Values for

Number of Wheels Per Axle
If Equation (12-19) indicates a higher P factor than
permitted by the ranges of Table 12.8.4D, the actual crown
is over designed, which is acceptable. However, in this
case only the maximum value of P allowed by the table
shall be used to calculate the required haunch moment ca-
pacity from Equation (12-20).
12.8.4.4 Footing Reactions
12.8.4.3.3 Crown plastic moment capacity (Mpc f), The reaction at the box culvert footing may be com-
and haunch plastic moment capacity (Mph f), must be puted using the following equation
equal to or greater than the proportioned sum of load V 5 g(HS/2,000 1 S2/40,000)
adjusted dead and live load moments. 1 AL/[8 1 2(H 1 R)] (12-21)
Mpc $ P[(Cd1Md1) 1 (C11M11)] (12-19) where
Mph $ (1.0 2 P)[(Cd1Md1) 1 (RhC11M11)] (12-20) V 5 Reaction in kips per foot acting in the direction
of the box culvert straight side;
g 5 Backfill unit weight in pounds per cubic foot;
where
H 5 Height of cover over the crown in feet;
P 5 Proportion of total moment carried by the crown. S 5 Span of box culvert in feet;
Limits for P are given in Table 12.8.4D; AL 5 Axle load in kips;
Rh 5Haunch moment reduction factor from Table R 5 Rise of box culvert in feet.
12.8.4E.
12.8.5 Manufacturing and Installation
12.8.4.3.4 Article 12.8 can be used to check the
adequacy of manufactured products for compliance with 12.8.5.1 Manufacture and assembly of structural
the requirements of this specification. Using the actual plates shall be in accordance with Division II, Articles
crown moment capacity provided by the box culvert 26.3.2, 26.3.3, 26.3.4, and 26.4.1. Reinforcing ribs shall
under consideration and the loading requirements of the be attached as shown by the manufacturer. Bolts connect-
application, Equation (12-19) is solved for the factor P. ing plates, plates to ribs and rib splices shall be torqued to
This factor should fall within the allowable range of Table 150-foot pounds.
12.8.4D. Knowing the factor P, Equation (12-20) is then
solved for required haunch moment capacity, which
12.8.5.2 Sidefill and overfill per Article 12.8.3 shall
should be less than or equal to the actual haunch moment
be placed in uniform layers not exceeding 8 inches in
capacity provided.
compacted thickness at near optimum moisture with
equipment and methods which do not damage or distort
TABLE 12.8.4B P, Crown Moment Proportioning Values the box culvert.
12.8.5.3 Following completion of roadway paving,

crown deflection due to live load may be checked. After a
minimum of 10 loading cycles with the design live load,
the change in rise loaded with the design live load relative
to the rise unloaded, should not exceed 1⁄ 200 of the box
culvert span.
Section 13
WOOD STRUCTURES
13.1 GENERAL AND NOTATIONS CL 5 beam stability factor (Article 13.6.4.4)

CM 5 wet service factor (Article 13.5.5.1)
13.1.1 General CP 5 column stability factor (Article 13.7.3.3)
CV 5 volume factor for glued laminated timber with
The following information on wood design is generally loads applied perpendicular to the wide face of
based on the National Design Specification for Wood the laminations (Article 13.6.4.3)
Construction (NDSt), 1991 Edition. See the 1991 Edition Cb 5 bearing area factor (Article 13.6.6.3)
of the NDSt for additional information. Cf 5 form factor (Article 13.6.4.5)
Cfu 5 flat use factor for sawn lumber (footnotes to
13.1.2 Net Section Table 13.5.1A)
Cr 5 repetitive member factor for sawn lumber (foot-
In determining the capacity of wood members, the net notes to Table 13.5.1A)
section of the member shall be used. Unless otherwise d 5 depth of member (Article 13.6.4.2.2)
noted, the net section shall be determined by deducting from dmax 5 maximum column face dimension (Article
the gross section, the projected area of all material removed 13.7.3.4.2)
by boring, grooving, dapping, notching or other means. dmin 5 minimum column face dimension (Article
13.7.3.4.2)
13.1.3 Impact drep 5 representative dimension for a tapered column
face (Article 13.7.3.4.2)
In calculating live load stresses in wood, impact shall E 5 tabulated modulus of elasticity (Article 13.6.3)
be neglected unless otherwise noted. See Article 3.8.1. E9 5 allowable modulus of elasticity (Article
13.6.3)
13.1.4 Notations Fb 5 tabulated unit stress in bending (Article 13.6.4.1)
F b9 5 allowable unit stress in bending (Article 13.6.4.1)
a 5 coefficient based on support conditions for ta- F *b 5 adjusted tabulated bending stress for beam sta-
pered columns (Article 13.7.3.4.2) bility (Article 13.6.4.4.5)
b 5 width of bending member (Article 13.6.4.3) Fc 5 tabulated unit stress in compression parallel to
c 5 coefficient based on sawn lumber, round timber grain (Article 13.7.3.2)
piles, glued laminated timber or structural com- Fc9 5 allowable unit stress in compression parallel to
posite lumber (Article 13.7.3.3.5) grain (Article 13.7.3.2)
CD 5 load duration factor (Article 13.5.5.2) F*c 5 adjusted tabulated stress in compression par-
CF 5 bending size factor for sawn lumber, struc- allel to grain for column stability (Article
tural composite lumber, and for glued lami- 13.7.3.3.5)
nated timber with loads applied parallel to fc 5 actual unit stress in compression parallel to grain
the wide face of the laminations (Article (Article 13.7.3.1)
13.6.4.2) Fcù 5 tabulated unit stress in compression perpendicu-
CF 5 compression size factor for sawn lumber (foot- lar to grain (Article 13.6.6.2)
notes to Table 13.5.1A) 9
Fcù 5 allowable unit stress in compression perpendic-
CF 5 tension size factor for sawn lumber (footnotes ular to grain (Article 13.6.6.2)
to Table 13.5.1A) and structural composite Fg 5 tabulated unit stress in bearing parallel to grain
lumber (footnotes to Tables 13.5.4A and (Article 13.7.4.1)
13.5.4B) Fg9 5 allowable unit stress in bearing parallel to grain
CH 5 sheer stress factor (footnotes to Table 13.5.1A) (Article 13.7.4.1)
357
Ft 5 tabulated unit stress in tension parallel to grain 13.2.1.2 Dimensions

(Article 13.8.1)
F 9t 5 allowable unit stress in tension parallel to grain 13.2.1.2.1 Structural calculations for sawn lumber
(Article 13.8.1) shall be based on the net dimensions of the member for
Fv 5 tabulated unit stress in shear parallel to grain the anticipated use conditions. These net dimensions de-
(Article 13.6.5.3) pend on the type of surfacing, whether dressed, rough-
F v9 5 allowable unit stress in shear parallel to grain sawn or full-sawn.
(Article 13.6.5.3)
fv 5 actual unit stress in shear parallel to grain (Arti- 13.2.1.2.2 For dressed lumber, the net dry dimen-
cle 13.6.5.2) sions given in Table 13.2.1A shall be used for design, re-
Fu9 5 allowable unit stress for bearing on an inclined gardless of the moisture content at the time of manufac-
surface (Article 13.6.7) ture or in use.
K 5 column effective length factor (Article
13.7.3.3.3) 13.2.1.2.3 Where the design is based on rough, full-
KbE 5 material factor for beam stability (Article sawn or special sizes, the applicable moisture content and
13.6.4.4.5) dimensions used in design shall be noted in the plans and
KcE 5 material factor for column stability (Article specifications.
13.7.3.3.5)
L 5 length of bending member between points of
zero moment (Article 13.6.4.3.1)
TABLE 13.2.1A Net Dry Dimensions
l 5 actual column length between points of lateral
for Dressed Lumber
support (Article 13.7.3.3.3)
lb 5 length of bearing (Article 13.6.6.3)
le 5 effective bending member length (Article
13.6.4.4.3)
le 5 effective column length (Article 13.7.3.3.3)
lu 5 unsupported bending member length (Article
13.6.4.4.3)
m 5 parameter for the specific material determined
in accordance with the requirements of ASTM
D 5456 (Tables 13.5.4A and 13.5.4B)
RB 5 bending member slenderness ratio (Article
13.6.4.4.4)
V 5 vertical shear (Article 13.6.5.2)
VLD 5 maximum vertical shear at 3d or L/4 due to
wheel loads distributed laterally as specified for
moment (Article 13.6.5.2)
VLL 5 distributed live load vertical shear (Article
13.6.5.2)
VLU 5 maximum vertical shear at 3d or L/4 due
to undistributed wheel loads (Article 13.6.5.2)
13.2.2 Glued Laminated Timber
x 5 species variable for computing the volume fac-
tor (Article 13.6.4.3.1)
13.2.2.1 General
u 5 angle between the direction of load and the di-
rection of grain (Article 13.6.7)
Glued laminated timber shall comply with the require-
ments of AASHTO M 168 and shall be manufactured
13.2 MATERIALS
using wet-use adhesives.
13.2.1 Sawn Lumber
13.2.2.2 Dimensions
13.2.1.1 General
13.2.2.2.1 Structural calculations for glued lami-
Sawn lumber shall comply with the requirements of nated timber shall be based on the net finished dimen-
AASHTO M 168. sions.
13.2.2.2.2 For Western Species and Southern Pine, 13.3 PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT
the standard net finished widths shall be as given in Table
13.2.2A. Other, nonstandard finished widths may be used 13.3.1 Requirement for Treatment
subject to design requirements.
All wood used for structural purposes in exposed per-
manent applications shall be pressure impregnated with
TABLE 13.2.2A Standard Net Finished Widths of Glued
wood preservative in accordance with the requirements of
Laminated Timber Manufactured from
Western Species or Southern Pine AASHTO M 133.
13.3.2 Treatment Chemicals
All structural members that are not subject to direct

pedestrian contact shall preferably be treated with oil-type
preservatives. Members that are subject to direct pedes-
trian contact, such as rails and footpaths, shall be treated
with waterborne preservatives or oilborne preservatives in
light petroleum solvent. Direct pedestrian contact is con-
sidered to be contact which may be made while the pedes-
trian is situated anywhere in the access route provided for
13.2.3 Structural Composite Lumber pedestrian traffic.
13.2.3.1 General
13.3.3 Field Treating
Structural composite lumber, including laminated ve-
Insofar as is practicable, all wood members shall be de-
neer lumber and parallel strand lumber, shall comply with
the requirements of ASTM D 5456 and shall be manufac- signed to be cut, drilled, and otherwise fabricated prior to
tured using wet-use adhesives which comply with re- pressure treatment with wood preservatives. When cut-
quirements of ASTM D 2559. ting, boring, or other fabrication is necessary after preser-
vative treatment, exposed, untreated wood shall be speci-
13.2.3.2 Laminated Veneer Lumber fied to be field treated in accordance with the requirements
of AASHTO M 133.
Laminated veneer lumber shall consist of a composite
of wood veneer sheet elements with wood fibers oriented 13.3.4 Fire Retardant Treatments
primarily along the length of the member. Veneer thick-
ness shall not exceed 0.25 inches. Fire-retardant chemicals shall not be used unless it is
demonstrated that they are compatible with the preserva-
13.2.3.3 Parallel Strand Lumber tive treatment. When fire retardants are used, design val-
ues shall be reduced by the strength and stiffness reduc-
Parallel strand lumber shall consist of wood strand el-
tion factors specified by the fire retardant chemical
ements with wood fibers oriented primarily along the
manufacturer.
length of the member. The least dimension at the strands
shall not exceed 0.25 inches and the average length shall
be a minimum of 150 times the least dimension.
13.4 DEFLECTION
13.2.3.4 Dimensions
13.4.1 The term “deflection” as used herein shall be the
Structural calculations for structural composite lumber deflection computed in accordance with the assumptions
shall be based on the net finished dimensions. made for loading when computing stress in the members.
13.2.4 Piles 13.4.2 Flexural members of bridge structures shall be

designed to have adequate stiffness to limit deflections or
Wood piles shall comply with the requirements of any deformations that may adversely affect the strength or
AASHTO M 168. serviceability of the structure.
13.4.3 Members having simple or continuous spans are graded to Beam and Stringer grade requirements, the
preferably should be designed so that the deflection due to tabulated unit bending stress for the applicable Beam and
service live load does not exceed 1/500 of the span. Stringer grades may be used.
13.4.4 For timber deck structures with timber girders or 13.5.2.2.4 Beam and Stringer grades are normally
stringers of equal stiffness, and cross-bracing or di- graded for use as a single, simple span. When used as a
aphragms sufficient in depth and strength to ensure lateral continuous beam, the grading provisions customarily ap-
distribution of loads, the deflection may be computed by plied to the middle third of the simple span length shall be
considering all girders or stringers as acting together and applied to the middle two-thirds of the length for two-span
having equal deflection. When the cross-bracing or di- beams, and to the entire length for beams continuous over
aphragms are not sufficient to laterally distribute loads, three or more spans.
deflection shall be distributed as specified for moment.
13.5.3 Tabulated Values for Glued Laminated
13.4.5 For concrete decks on wood girders or stringers, Timber
the deflection shall be assumed to be resisted by all beams
or stringers equally. 13.5.3.1 Tabulated values for glued laminated tim-
ber of softwood species are given in Tables 13.5.3A and
13.5.3B. Values for bearing parallel to grain are given in
13.5 DESIGN VALUES
Table 13.5.2A. These values are taken from the 1993
Edition of the American Institute of Timber Construc-
13.5.1 General
tion, AITC 117-93 Design, “Standard Specifications for
Structural Glued Laminated Timber of Softwood
Stress and modulus of elasticity values used for design,
Species.” Refer to AITC 117-93 Design for a more com-
referred to as allowable design values, shall be the tabu-
plete listing.
lated values modified by all applicable adjustments re-
quired by this Section. The actual stress due to loading
13.5.3.2 Tabulated values for hardwood species shall
shall not exceed the allowable stress.
be as given in the 1985 Edition of American Institute of
Timber Construction, AITC 119, “Standard Specifications
13.5.2 Tabulated Values for Sawn Lumber for Hardwood Glued Laminated Timber.”
13.5.2.1 Tabulated values for sawn lumber are given 13.5.3.3 Species other than those specifically in-
in Table 13.5.1A for visually graded lumber and Table cluded or referenced in this Section may be used, pro-
13.5.1B for mechanically graded lumber. Values for bear- vided that tabulated values are established for each
ing parallel to grain are given in Table 13.5.2A. These val- species in accordance with AASHTO M 168.
ues are taken from the 1991 Edition of the NDSt and rep-
resent a partial listing of available species and grades. 13.5.4 Tabulated Values for Structural Composite
Refer to the 1991 Edition of the NDSt for a more com- Lumber
plete listing.
13.5.4.1 Representative tabulated design values for
13.5.2.2 Stress Grades in Flexure structural composite lumber are given in Table 13.5.4A
for laminated veneer lumber and Table 13.5.4B for paral-
13.5.2.2.1 The tabulated unit bending stress for Di- lel strand lumber.
mension (2 to 4 inches thick) and Post and Timber grades
applies to material with the load applied either to the nar- 13.5.5 Adjustments to Tabulated Design Values
row or wide face.
13.5.5.1 Wet Service Factor, CM
13.5.2.2.2 The tabulated unit bending stress for
Decking grades applies only when the load is applied to 13.5.5.1.1 Tabulated values for sawn lumber assume
the wide face. that the material is installed and used under continuously
dry conditions where the moisture content of the wood
13.5.2.2.3 The tabulated unit bending stress for does not exceed 19%. When the moisture content at in-
Beam and Stringer grades applies only when the load is stallation or in service is expected to exceed 19%, tab-
applied to the narrow face. When Post and Timber sizes ulated values shall be reduced by the wet service fac-
TABLE 13.5.1A Tabulated Design Values for Visually Graded Lumber and Timbers
13.5.5.1.1
DIVISION I—DESIGN
361
TABLE 13.5.1A Tabulated Design Values for Visually Graded Lumber and Timbers (Continued)
362
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
13.5.5.1.1
13.5.5.1.1
DIVISION I—DESIGN
363
364
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
13.5.5.1.1
13.5.5.1.1
DIVISION I—DESIGN
365
366
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
13.5.5.1.1
13.5.5.1.1
DIVISION I—DESIGN
367
TABLE 13.5.1B Tabulated Design Values for Mechanically Graded Dimension Lumber
tors, CM, given in footnotes to Tables 13.5.1A and and 13.5.4B for structural composite lumber.
13.5.1B.
13.5.5.1.3 The moisture content of wood used in
13.5.5.1.2 Tabulated values for glued laminated tim- exposed bridge applications will normally exceed 19%
ber and structural composite lumber assume that the ma- and tabulated values shall be reduced by the wet service
terial is used under continuously dry conditions where the factor unless an analysis of regional, geographic, and cli-
moisture content in service does not exceed 16%. When matological conditions that affect moisture content indi-
the moisture content in service is expected to exceed 16%, cate that the in-service moisture content will not exceed
tabulated values shall be reduced by the wet service fac- 19% for sawn lumber and 16% for glued laminated tim-
tors, CM, given in the footnotes to Tables 13.5.3A and ber and structural composite lumber over the life of the
13.5.3B for glued laminated timber and Tables 13.5.4A structure.
TABLE 13.5.2A Tabulated Design Values for Bearing Parallel to Grain
13.5.5.2 Load Duration Factor, CD the load duration factor for the shortest duration load in
a combination of loads shall apply for that load combi-
13.5.5.2.1 Wood can sustain substantially greater nation. The resulting structural members shall not be
maximum loads for short load durations than for long load smaller than required for a longer duration of loading
durations. Tabulated stresses for sawn lumber, glued lam- (refer to the 1991 Edition of the NDSt for additional
inated timber, and structural composite lumber are based commentary).
on a normal load duration which contemplates that the
member is stressed to the maximum stress level, either 13.5.5.2.5 Modification of design stresses for load
continuously or cumulatively, for a period of approxi- combinations, as specified in Section 3, are cumulative
mately 10 years, and/or stressed to 90% of the maximum with load duration adjustments.
design level continuously for the remainder of the mem-
ber life. 13.5.5.3 Adjustment for Preservative Treatment
13.5.5.2.2 When the full maximum load is applied Tabulated values apply to untreated wood and to wood
either cumulatively or continuously for periods other than that is preservatively treated in accordance with the re-
10 years, tabulated stresses shall be multiplied by the load quirements of AASHTO M 133. Unless otherwise noted,
duration factor, CD, given in Table 13.5.5A. no adjustment of tabulated values is required for preserv-
ative treatment.
13.5.5.2.3 The provisions of this article do not apply
to modulus of elasticity or to compression perpendicular
13.6 BENDING MEMBERS
to grain, but do apply to mechanical fastenings, except as
otherwise noted. The load duration factor for impact does
13.6.1 General
not apply to members pressure-impregnated with preser-
vative salts to the heavy retentions required for marine ex-
posure. 13.6.1.1 The provisions of this article are applicable
to straight members and to slightly curved bending mem-
13.5.5.2.4 Increases in tabulated stresses resulting bers where the radius of curvature exceeds the span in
from various load duration factors are not cumulative and inches divided by 800. Additional design requirements for
370
TABLE 13.5.3A Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood Timber
with Members Stressed Primarily in Bending1, 2, 3, 4, 12
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
13.6.1.1
13.6.1.1
with Members Stressed Primarily in Bending (Continued)
DIVISION I—DESIGN
371
372
with Members Stressed Primarily in Bending (Continued)
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
13.6.1.1
13.6.1.1
TABLE 13.5.3B Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood Timber
with Members Stressed Primarily in Axial Tension or Compression1, 2, 8, 10
DIVISION I—DESIGN
373
374
TABLE 13.5.3B Design Values for Structural Glued Laminated Softwood Timber
with Members Stressed Primarily in Axial Tension or Compression (Continued)
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
13.6.1.1
13.6.1.1
TABLE 13.5.4A Representative Tabulated Design Values for Laminated Veneer Lumber1
DIVISION I—DESIGN
375
376
TABLE 13.5.4B Representative Tabulated Design Values for Parallel Strand Lumber1
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
13.6.1.1
TABLE 13.5.5A Load Duration Factor, CD 13.6.3 Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity used for stiffness and stabil-

ity computations shall be the tabulated modulus of elas-
ticity adjusted by the applicable adjustment factor given
in the following equation:
E9 5 ECM (13-1)
curved glued laminated timber members shall be as spec- where:

ified in the 1991 Edition of the NDSt. E9 5 allowable modulus of elasticity in psi;
E 5 tabulated modulus of elasticity in psi;
13.6.1.2 For simple, continuous, and cantilevered CM 5 wet service factor from Article 13.5.5.1.
bending members, the span shall be taken as the clear dis-
tance between supports plus one-half the required bearing 13.6.4 Bending
length at each support.
13.6.4.1 Allowable Stress
13.6.1.3 Bending members shall be transversely
braced to prevent lateral displacement and rotation and The allowable unit stress in bending shall be the tabu-
transmit lateral forces to the bearings. Transverse bracing lated stress adjusted by the applicable adjustment factors
shall be provided at the supports for all span lengths and given in the following equation:
at intermediate locations as required for lateral stability
and load transfer (Article 13.6.4.4). The depth of trans- Fb9 5 FbCMCDCFCVCLCfCfuCr (13-2)
verse bracing shall not be less than 3⁄ 4 the depth of the
bending member. where:
F b9 5 allowable unit stress in bending in psi
13.6.1.4 Support attachments for bending members Fb 5 tabulated unit stress in bending in psi
shall be of sufficient size and strength to transmit vertical, CM 5 wet service factor from Article 13.5.5.1
longitudinal and transverse loads from the superstructure CD 5 load duration factor from Article 13.5.5.2
to the substructure in accordance with the requirements of CF 5 bending size factor for sawn lumber and struc-
Section 3. tural composite lumber, and for glued laminated
timber with loads applied parallel to the wide
face of the laminations, from Article 13.6.4.2
13.6.1.5 Glued laminated timber and structural com-
Cv 5 volume factor for glued laminated timber with
posite lumber girders shall preferably be cambered a min-
loads applied perpendicular to the wide face of
imum 3 times the computed dead load deflection, but not
the laminations, from Article 13.6.4.3
less than 1⁄ 2 inch.
CL 5 beam stability factor from Article 13.6.4.4.
Cf 5 form factor from Article 13.6.4.5
Cfu 5 flat use factor for sawn lumber from footnotes to
13.6.2 Notching
Tables 13.5.1A and 13.5.1B
Cr 5 repetitive member factor for sawn lumber from
Notching of bending members can severely reduce
footnotes to Table 13.5.1A.
member capacity and is not recommended. When notch-
ing is required for sawn lumber members, design limita- The volume factor, Cv, shall not be applied simultane-
tions and requirements shall be in accordance with the ously with the beam stability factor, CL, and the lesser of
NDSt, 1991 Edition. Design requirements and limitations the two factors shall apply in Equation (13-2).
for notching glued laminated timber members shall be as
given in the “Timber Construction Manual,” 1985 Edition 13.6.4.2 Size Factor, CF
by the American Institute of Timber Construction, pub-
lished by John Wiley & Sons, New York, New York. De- 13.6.4.2.1 The tabulated bending stress, for dimen-
sign requirements and limitations for notching structural sion lumber 2 inches to 4 inches thick shall be multiplied
composite lumber shall be as specified for glued lami- by the bending size factor, CF, given in the footnotes to
nated timber. Table 13.5.1A.
13.6.4.2.2 For rectangular sawn lumber bending 13.6.4.4 Beam Stability Factor, CL
members 5 inches or thicker and greater than 12 inches in
depth, and for glued laminated timber with loads applied 13.6.4.4.1 Tabulated bending values are applicable
parallel to the wide face of the laminations and greater to members which are adequately braced. When members
than 12 inches in depth, the tabulated bending stress shall are not adequately braced, the tabulated bending stress
be multiplied by the size factor, CF, determined from the shall be modified by the beam stability factor, CL.
following relationship:
13.6.4.4.2 When the depth of a bending member
does not exceed its width, or when lateral movement of
12 1 / 9
CF =   (13 - 3) the compression zone is prevented by continuous support
 d
and points of bearing have lateral support to prevent rota-
tion, there is no danger of lateral buckling and CL 5 1.0.
where d is the member depth in inches. For other conditions, the beam stability factor shall be de-
termined in accordance with the following provisions.
13.6.4.2.3 For structural composite lumber bending
members of any width, the tabulated bending stress shall 13.6.4.4.3 The bending member effective length, le,
be reduced by the size factor, CF, given by the following shall be determined from the following relationships for
equation: any loading condition:
CF 5 (21/L)1/m(12/d)1/m (13-4) le 5 2.06lu when lu/d , 7

le 5 1.63lu 1 3d when 7 # lu/d # 14.3
where: le 5 1.84lu when lu/d . 14.3
L 5 length of bending member between points of zero where:

moment in feet;
d 5 depth of bending member in inches; le 5 effective length in inches;
m 5 parameter for the specific material determined in lu 5 unsupported length in inches;
accordance with the requirements of ASTM D d 5 depth of bending member in inches.
5456.
If lateral support is provided to prevent rotation at the
points of bearing, but no other lateral support is provided
13.6.4.3 Volume Factor, Cv throughout the bending member length, the unsupported
length, lu, is the distance between points of bearing, or the
13.6.4.3.1 The tabulated bending stress for glued length of a cantilever.
laminated timber bending members with loads applied If lateral support is provided to prevent rotation and
perpendicular to the wide face of the laminations shall be lateral displacement at intermediate points as well as at
adjusted by the volume factor, Cv, as determined by the the bearings, the unsupported length, lu, is the distance be-
following relationship: tween such points of intermediate lateral support.
CV 5 (21/L)1/x (12/d)1/x (5.125/b)1/x # 1.0 (13-5) 13.6.4.4.4 The slenderness ratio for bending mem-
bers, RB, is determined from the following equation:
where:
L 5 length of bending member between points of zero le d
moment in feet; RB = ≤ 50 (13 - 6)
b2
d 5 depth of bending member in inches;
b 5 width of bending member in inches;
where:
x 5 20 for Southern pine;
x 5 10 for all other species. RB 5 bending member slenderness ratio;
13.6.4.3.2 When multiple piece width layups are b 5 width of bending member in inches.
used, the width of the bending member used in Equation
(13-4) shall be the width of the widest piece used in the 13.6.4.4.5 The beam stability factor, CL, shall be
layup. computed as follows:
where:
1 + ( FbE / Fb* ) (1 + FbE / Fb* )2 F / F*
CL = − − bE b fv 5 actual unit stress in shear parallel to grain in psi;
1.90 3.61 0.95
(13-7) b 5 width of bending member in inches;
K bE E ′ V 5 vertical shear in pounds, as determined in accor-
FbE = (13 - 8)
R 2B dance with the following provisions.
For uniformly distributed loads, such as dead load, the
where: magnitude of vertical shear used in Equation (13-9) shall
be the maximum shear occurring at a distance from the
F*b 5 tabulated bending stress adjusted by all ap-
support equal to the bending member depth, d. When
plicable adjustment factors given in Equation
members are supported by full bearing on one surface,
(13-2) except the volume factor, Cv, the beam
with loads applied to the opposite surface, all loads within
stability factor, CL, and the flat-use factor, Cfu;
a distance from the supports equal to the bending member
KbE 5 0.438 for visually graded sawn lumber 0.609 depth shall be neglected.
for glued laminated timber, structural com- For vehicle live loads, the loads shall be placed to pro-
posite lumber, and machine stress rated lum- duce the maximum vertical shear at a distance from the
ber; support equal to three times the bending member depth,
3d, or at the span quarter point, L/4, whichever is the
E9 5 allowable modulus of elasticity in psi as de-
lesser distance from the support. The distributed live load
termined by Article 13.6.3.
shear used in Equation (13-9) shall be determined by the
following expression:
13.6.4.5 Form Factor, Cf
VLL 5 0.50 [(0.60 VLU) 1 VLD] (13-10)
For bending members with circular cross sections
the tabulated bending stress shall be adjusted by the
where:
form factor, Cf 5 1.18. A tapered circular section shall
be considered as a bending member of variable cross VLL 5 distributed live load vertical shear in pounds;
section. VLU 5 maximum vertical shear, in pounds, at 3d or
L/4 due to undistributed wheel loads;
VLD 5 maximum vertical shear, in pounds, at 3d or
13.6.5 Shear Parallel to Grain
L/4 due to wheel loads distributed laterally as
specified for moment in Article 3.23.
13.6.5.1 General
For undistributed wheel loads, one line of wheels is as-
13.6.5.1.1 The provisions of this article apply to sumed to be carried by one bending member.
shear parallel to grain (horizontal shear) at or near the
points of vertical support of solid bending members. Refer
to the 1991 edition of the NDSt for additional design re- 13.6.5.3 Allowable Stress
quirements for other member types.
The allowable unit stress in shear parallel to grain shall
13.6.5.1.2 The critical shear in wood bending mem- be the tabulated stress adjusted by the applicable adjust-
bers is shear parallel to grain. It is unnecessary to verify ment factors given in the following equation:
the strength of bending members in shear perpendicular to
grain. F v9 5 FvCMCD (13-11)
13.6.5.2 Actual Stress where:
The actual unit stress in shear parallel to grain due to F v9 5 allowable unit stress in shear parallel to grain in
applied loading on rectangular members shall be deter- psi;
mined by the following equation: Fv 5 tabulated unit stress in shear parallel to grain in
psi;
3V CM 5 wet service factor from Article 13.5.5.1;
fv = (13 - 9) CD 5 load duration factor from Article 13.5.5.2.
2 bd
For sawn lumber beams, further adjustment by the TABLE 13.6.1A Values of the Bearing Area Factor, Cb,
shear stress factor may be applicable as described in the for Small Bearing Areas
footnotes to Table 13.5.1A.
For structural composite lumber, more restrictive ad-
justments to the tabulated shear stress parallel to grain
shall be as recommended by the material manufacturer.
13.6.6 Compression Perpendicular to Grain

13.6.7 Bearing on Inclined Surfaces
13.6.6.1 General
For bearing on an inclined surface, the allowable unit
When calculating the bearing stress in compression stress in bearing shall be as given by the following equa-
perpendicular to grain at beam ends, a uniform stress dis- tion:
tribution shall be assumed.
Fg′ Fc′⊥
13.6.6.2 Allowable Stress Fθ′ = (13 -14)
Fg′ sin θ + Fc′⊥ cos 2 θ
2
The allowable unit stress in compression perpen- where:

dicular to grain shall be the tabulated stress adjusted by
the applicable adjustment factors given in the following Fθ′ 5 allowable unit stress for bearing on an inclined
equation: surface, in psi;
Fg′ 5 allowable unit stress in bearing parallel to grain
Fcù9 5 FcùCMCb (13-12) from Article 13.7.4;
F′c⊥ 5 allowable unit stress in compression perpendic-
where: ular to the grain from Article 13.6.6;
u 5 angle in degrees between the direction of load
Fcù9 5 allowable unit stress in compression perpendic-
and the direction of grain.
ular to grain, in psi;
Fcù 5 tabulated unit stress in compression perpendic-
ular to grain, in psi;
CM 5 wet service factor from Article 13.5.5.1; 13.7 COMPRESSION MEMBERS
Cb 5 bearing area factor from Article 13.6.6.3.
13.7.1 General
13.6.6.3 Bearing Area Factor, Cb
13.7.1.1 The provisions of this article apply to
Tabulated values in compression perpendicular to simple solid columns consisting of a single piece of
grain apply to bearings of any length at beam ends, and to sawn lumber, piling, structural composite lumber, or
all bearings 6 inches or more in length at any other loca- glued laminated timber. Refer to the 1991 Edition of the
tion. For bearings less than 6 inches in length and not NDSt for design requirements for built-up columns,
nearer than 3 inches to the end of a member, the tabulated consisting of a number of solid members joined to-
value shall be adjusted by the bearing area factor, Cb, gether with mechanical fasteners, and for spaced
given by the following equation: columns consisting of two or more individual members
with their longitudinal axes parallel, separated and
fastened at the ends and at one or more interior points by
lb + 0.375
Cb = (13 -13) blocking.
lb
13.7.1.2 The term “column” refers to all types of

where lb is the length of bearing in inches, measured par-
compression members, including members forming part
allel to the wood grain. For round washers, or other round
of a truss or other structural components.
bearing areas, the length of bearing shall be the diameter
of the bearing area.
The multiplying factors for bearing lengths on small 13.7.1.3 Column bracing shall be provided where
areas such as plates and washers are given in Table necessary to provide lateral stability and resist wind or
13.6.1A. other lateral forces.
13.7.2 Eccentric Loading or Combined Stresses Actual column length, l, may be multiplied by an effective
length factor to determine the effective column length:
Members with eccentric loading or combined stresses
shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of the le 5 Kl (13-16)
NDSt, 1991 Edition.
where:
13.7.3 Compression le 5 effective column length in inches
K 5 effective length factor from Table C-1 of Appen-
13.7.3.1 Net Section dix C
l 5 actual column length between points of lateral
The actual unit stress in compression parallel to grain, support in inches.
fc, shall be based on the net section as described in Article
13.1, except that it may be based on the gross section when 13.7.3.3.4 For columns of rectangular cross section,
the reduced section does not occur in the critical part of the the column slenderness ratio, le/d, shall be taken as the
column length that is most subject to potential buckling. larger of the ratios, le1/d1 or le2/d2. (See Figure 13.7.1A.)
The slenderness ratio shall not exceed 50.
13.7.3.2 Allowable Stress
The allowable unit stress in compression parallel to

grain shall not exceed the tabulated stress adjusted by the
applicable adjustment factors given in the following equa-
tion:
Fc9 5 FcCMCDCFCP (13-15)
where:
F9c 5 allowable unit stress in compression parallel to
grain in psi;
Fc 5 tabulated unit stress in compression parallel to
grain in psi;
CM 5 wet service factor from Article 13.5.5.1;
CD 5 load duration factor from Article 13.5.5.2;
CF 5 compression size factor for sawn lumber from
footnotes to Table 13.5.1A;
CP 5 column stability factor from Article 13.7.3.3.
13.7.3.3 Column Stability Factor, CP
13.7.3.3.1 Tabulated values in compression parallel

to grain are applicable to members which are adequately
FIGURE 13.7.1A
braced. When members are not adequately braced, the
tabulated stress shall be modified by the column stability
13.7.3.3.5 The column stability factor, CP, shall be as
factor, CP.
given by the following expressions:
13.7.3.3.2 When a compression member is supported
throughout its length to prevent lateral displacement in all
Cp =
1 + FcE / Fc*
−
(1 + FcE / Fc* )2 − FcE / Fc*
directions, CP 5 1.0. For other conditions, the column sta- 2c ( 2 c) 2 c
bility factor shall be determined in accordance with the
following provisions. (13 -17)
13.7.3.3.3 The effective column length, le, shall be K cE E ′

FcE = (13 -18)
determined in accordance with good engineering practice. (le / d )2
TABLE 13.7.1A Support Condition Coefficients for 13.7.3.4.3 For support conditions other than those in
Tapered Columns Table 13.7.1A, the representative dimension of each ta-
Support pered face shall be as given by the following equation:
Condition drep 5 dmin 1 0.33(dmax 2 dmin) (13-20)
Support Condition Coefficient, a
Large end fixed, small end unsupported 0.70 13.7.3.4.4 For any tapered column, the actual stress
Small end fixed, large end unsupported 0.30 in compression parallel to grain, fc, shall not exceed the al-
Both ends simply supported lowable stress determined by Equation (13-14), assuming
Tapered toward one end 0.50 the column stability factor CP 5 1.0.
Tapered towards both ends 0.70
13.7.3.5 Round Columns
where: The design of a round column shall be based on the de-

F *c 5 tabulated stress in compression parallel to grain sign of a square column of the same cross-sectional area
adjusted by all applicable modification factors with the same degree of taper.
given in Equation (13-14) except CP;
KcE 5 0.300 for visually graded sawn lumber; 0.418 13.7.4 Bearing Parallel to Grain
for glued laminated timber, structural compos-
13.7.4.1 The actual stress in bearing parallel to grain
ite lumber, and machine stress-rated lumber;
shall be based on the net area and shall not exceed the tab-
c 5 0.80 for sawn lumber;
ulated stress for bearing parallel to grain adjusted by
0.85 for round piles;
the applicable adjustment factor given in the following
0.90 for glued laminated timber and structural
equation:
composite lumber.
For especially severe service conditions or extraordi- Fg9 5 FgCD (13-21)
nary hazardous conditions, the use of lower design values
than those obtained above may be necessary. Refer to the where:
1991 Edition of the NDSt. Fg9 5 allowable unit stress in bearing parallel to grain
in psi;
13.7.3.4 Tapered Columns Fg 5 tabulated unit stress in bearing parallel to grain
from Table 13.5.2A, in psi;
13.7.3.4.1 For rectangular columns tapered at one or CD 5 load duration factor from Article 13.5.5.2.
both ends, the cross-sectional area shall be based on the
representative dimension of each tapered face. The repre- 13.7.4.2 When the bearing load is at an angle to the
sentative dimension, drep, of each tapered face shall be grain, the allowable bearing stress shall be determined by
based on the support condition coefficient given in Table Equation (13-14), using the design values for end-grain
13.7.1A. bearing parallel to grain and design values in compression
perpendicular to grain.
13.7.3.4.2 For support conditions given in Table
13.7.1A, the representative dimension, drep, of each ta- 13.7.4.3 When bearing parallel to grain exceeds 75%
pered face shall be as given by the following equation: of the allowable value determined by Equation (13-21),
bearing shall be on a metal plate or on other durable, rigid,
homogeneous material of adequate strength and stiffness
  d  to distribute applied loads over the entire bearing area.
d rep = d min + (d max − d min ) a − 0.15 1 − min  
  d max  
13.8 TENSION MEMBERS
(13 -19)
where: 13.8.1 Tension Parallel to Grain
drep 5 representative dimension for a tapered column The allowable unit stress in tension parallel to grain
face, in inches; hall be the tabulated value adjusted by the applicable ad-
dmin 5 minimum column face dimension, in inches; justment factors given in the following equation:
dmax 5 maximum column face dimension, in inches;
a 5 coefficient based on support conditions. F 9t 5 FtCMCDCF (13-22)
where: 13.9.2.2 All steel components, timber connectors,

and castings, other than malleable iron, shall be galva-
F9t 5 allowable unit stress in tension parallel to grain
nized in accordance with AASHTO M 111.
in psi;
Ft 5 tabulated unit stress in tension parallel to grain
in psi; 13.9.2.3 Alternative corrosion protection coatings,
CM 5 wet service factor from Article 13.5.5.1; such as epoxies, may be used when the demonstrated per-
CD 5 load duration factor from Article 13.5.5.2; formance of the coating is sufficient to provide adequate
CF 5 tension size factor for sawn lumber from foot- protection for the intended exposure conduction.
notes to Table 13.5.1A and for structural com-
posite lumber from footnotes to Tables 13.5.4A 13.9.2.4 Heat-treated alloy components and fasten-
and 13.5.4B. ings shall be protected by an approved alternative protec-
tive treatment that does not adversely affect the mechani-
13.8.2 Tension Perpendicular to Grain cal properties of the material.
Designs which induce tension perpendicular to the 13.9.3 Fasteners

grain of wood members should not be used. When tension
perpendicular to grain cannot be avoided, mechanical re-
inforcement sufficient to resist all such forces should be 13.9.3.1 Fastener design values shall be adjusted by
used. Refer to the 1991 Edition of the NDSt for additional the applicable adjustment factors for the intended use con-
information. dition.
13.9 MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS 13.9.3.2 When determining fastener design values,

wood shall be assumed to be used under wet-use or ex-
13.9.1 General posed to weather conditions.
13.9.1.1 Except as otherwise required by this speci- 13.9.3.3 Glulam rivets shall not be used in perma-
fication, mechanical connections and their installation nent structures.
shall conform to the requirements of the NDSt, 1991 Edi-
tion. 13.9.4 Washers
13.9.1.2 Components at mechanical connections, in-

13.9.4.1 Washers shall be provided under bolt and
cluding the wood members, connecting elements, and fas-
lag screw heads and under nuts that are in contact with
teners, shall be proportioned so that the design strength
wood. Washers may be omitted under heads of special
equals or exceeds the required strength for the loads act-
timber bolts or dome-head bolts when the size and
ing on the structure. The strength of the connected wood
strength of the head is sufficient to develop connection
components shall be evaluated considering the net sec-
strength without excessive wood crushing.
tion, eccentricity, shear, tension perpendicular to grain
and other factors that may reduce component strength.
13.9.4.2 Washers shall be of sufficient size and
13.9.2 Corrosion Protection strength to prevent excessive wood crushing when the fas-
tener is tightened. For bolts or rods loaded in tension,
13.9.2.1 Except as permitted by this section, all steel washers shall be of sufficient size and strength to develop
hardware for wood structures shall be galvanized in ac- the tensile strength of the connection without excessive
cordance with AASHTO M 232 or cadmium plated in ac- bending or exceeding wood strength in compression per-
cordance with AASHTO M 299. pendicular to grain.
Section 14
BEARINGS
14.1 SCOPE Knuckle Bearing—A bearing in which a concave metal

surface rocks on a convex metal surface to provide ro-
This section contains requirements for the design and tation capability about any horizontal axis.
selection of structural bearings. Longitudinal—The direction associated with the axis of
The selection and layout of the bearings shall be con- the main structural trusses or girders in the bridge.
sistent with the proper functioning of the bridge, and shall Metal Rocker or Roller Bearing—A bearing which carries
allow for deformations due to temperature and other time vertical load by direct contact between two metal sur-
dependent causes. faces and which accommodates movement by rolling
of one surface with respect to the other.
The loads induced in the bearings and structural mem-
Movable Bearing—A bearing that facilitates differential
bers depend on the stiffnesses of the individual elements
horizontal translation of abutting structural elements in
and the tolerances achieved during fabrication and erec- a longitudinal and/or lateral direction. It may or may
tion. These influences shall be taken into account when not provide for rotation.
calculating design loads for the elements. Plain Elastomeric Pad (PEP)—A pad made exclusively of
Units used in this section shall be taken as KIP, IN, elastomer.
RAD, °F and Shore Hardness, unless noted. Pot Bearing—A bearing which carries vertical load by
compression on an elastomeric disc confined in a steel
cylinder and which accommodates rotations by defor-
14.2 DEFINITIONS mations of the disc.
PTFE Sliding Bearing—A bearing which carries vertical
Bearing—A structural device that transmits loads while load by contact stresses between a PTFE sheet or woven
facilitating translation and/or rotation. fabric and its mating surface, and which permits move-
Bronze Bearing—A bearing in which displacements or ro- ments by sliding of the PTFE over the mating surface.
tations take place by the slip of a bronze surface against Rotation about the Longitudinal Axis—Rotation about an
a mating surface. axis parallel to the longitudinal axis of the bridge.
Cotton Duck Reinforced Pad (CDP)—A pad made from Rotation about the Transverse Axis—Rotation about an
closely spaced layers of elastomer and cotton duck, axis parallel to the transverse axis of the bridge.
bonded together during vulcanization. RMS—Root mean square.
Sliding Bearing—A bearing which accommodates move-
Disc Bearing—A bearing which accommodates rotation
ment by slip of one surface over another.
by deformation of a single elastomeric disc, molded
Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing—A bearing made
from a urethane compound. It may contain a device for from alternate laminates of steel and elastomer, bonded
partially confining the disc against lateral expansion. together during vulcanization.
Double Cylindrical Bearing—A bearing made from two Translation—Horizontal movement of the bridge in the
cylindrical bearings placed on top of each other with longitudinal or transverse direction.
their axes at right angles to each other, in order to pro- Transverse—The horizontal direction normal to the lon-
vide rotation about any horizontal axis. gitudinal axis of the bridge.
Fiberglass Reinforced Pad (FGP)—A pad made from dis-
crete layers of elastomer and woven fiberglass, bonded 14.3 NOTATIONS
together during vulcanization.
Fixed Bearing—A bearing which prevents differential A 5 Plan area of elastomeric bearing (in2)
longitudinal translation of abutting structure elements. B 5 length of pad if rotation is about its transverse
It may or may not provide for differential lateral trans- axis, or width of pad if rotation is about its longi-
lation or rotation. tudinal axis (in)
385
c 5 Design clearance between piston and pot wall LW

(in) 5 }} for rectangular bearings without
2hrmax (L 1 W)
holes
D 5 Diameter of the projection of the loaded surface of
D
the bearing in the horizontal plane (in) 5 } for circular bearings without holes
Dd 5 Diameter of disc element (in) 4hrmax
Dp 5 Internal pot diameter in pot bearing (in) tw 5 Pot wall thickness (in)
D1 5 Diameter of curved surface of rocker or roller unit W 5 Width of the bearing in the transverse direction
(in) (in)
D2 5 Diameter of curved surface of mating unit w 5 Height of piston rim in pot bearing (in)
(D2 5 ` for a flat plate) (in) b 5 Effective angle of friction angle in PTFE bear-
dj 5 Diameter of the jth hole in an elastomeric bearing ings 5 tan21 (Hm/PD)
E 5 Young’s modulus (ksi) DO 5 Maximum service horizontal displacement of the
Ec 5 Effective modulus in compression of elastomeric bridge deck (in)
bearing (ksi) Ds 5 Maximum shear deformation of the elastomer
Es 5 Young’s modulus for steel (ksi) (in)
e 5 Eccentricity of loading on a bearing (in) d 5 Instantaneous compressive deflection of bearing
Fsr 5 Allowable fatigue stress range for over 2,000,000 (in)
cycles (ksi) dm 5 Maximum compressive deflection of bearing (in)
Fy 5 Yield strength of the least strong steel at the con- e 5 Instantaneous compressive strain of a plain elas-
tact surface (ksi) tomeric pad
G 5 Shear modulus of the elastomer (ksi) ei 5 Instantaneous compressive strain in ith elastomer
Hm 5 Maximum horizontal load on the bearing or re- layer of a laminated elastomeric bearing
straint considering all appropriate load combina- u 5 Component of maximum service rotation in di-
tions (kip) rection of interest on an elastomeric bearing under
load for Article 14.6.5.3
hri 5 Thickness of ith elastomeric layer in elastomeric
uD 5 Maximum rotation due to dead load (rad)
bearing (in)
uL 5 Maximum rotation due to live load (rad)
hrmax 5 Thickness of thickest elastomeric layer in elas-
um,x 5 Maximum rotation considering all appropriate
tomeric bearing (in)
load and deformation combinations about trans-
hrt 5 Total elastomer thickness in an elastomeric bear-
verse axis (rad)
ing (in) um,z 5 Maximum rotation considering all appropriate
hs 5 Thickness of steel laminate in steel-laminated load and deformation combinations about longi-
elastomeric bearing (in) tudinal axis (rad)
I 5 Moment of inertia (in4) um 5 Maximum design rotation considering all appro-
L 5 Length of a rectangular elastomeric bearing (par- priate load and deformation combinations includ-
allel to longitudinal bridge axis) (in) ing live and dead load, bridge movements, and
Mm 5 Maximum bending moment (K-in) construction tolerances (rad)
n 5 Number of interior layers of elastomer m 5 Coefficient of friction
PD 5 Compressive load due to dead load (kip) sD 5 Average compressive stress due to dead load
PTL 5 Compressive load due to live plus dead load (kip) (ksi)
PL 5 Compressive load due to live load (kip) sL 5 Average compressive stress due to live load (ksi)
Pm 5 Maximum compressive load considering all ap- sTL 5 Average compressive stress due to total dead plus
propriate load combinations (kip) live load (ksi)
R 5 Radius of a curved sliding surface (in) sm 5 Maximum average compressive stress (ksi)
R0 5 Radial distance from center of bearing to object,
such as an anchor bolt, for which clearance must 14.4 MOVEMENTS AND LOADS
be provided (in)
S 5 Shape factor of one layer of an elastomeric Bearings shall be designed to resist loads and accom-
bearing modate movements. No damage due to joint or bearing
Plan Area movement shall be permitted under any appropriate load
5 }}}}
Area of Perimeter Free to Bulge and movement combination.
Translational and rotational movements of the bridge ings shall have lateral strength adequate to resist all ap-
shall be considered in the design of bearings. The se- plied loads and restrain unwanted translation.
quence of construction shall be considered and all critical Combinations of different types of fixed or moveable
combinations of load and movement shall be considered bearings should not be used at the same expansion joint,
in the design. Rotations about two horizontal axes and the bent or pier unless the effects of differing deflection and
vertical axis shall be considered. The movements shall in- rotational characteristics on the bearings and structure are
clude those caused by the loads, deformations and dis- accounted for in the design.
placements caused by creep, shrinkage and thermal ef-
fects, and inaccuracies in installation. In all cases, both 14.5.1 Load and Movement Capabilities
instantaneous and long-term effects shall be considered,
but the influence of impact need not be included. The most The movements and loads to be used in the design
adverse combination of movements shall be used for de- of the bearing shall be clearly defined on the contract
sign. All design requirements shall be tabulated in a ratio- drawings.
nal form such as shown in Figure 14.4.
14.5.2 Characteristics
14.4.1 Design Requirements
The bearing chosen for a particular application must
The minimum thermal movements shall be computed have appropriate load and movement capabilities. Those
from the extreme temperature defined in Article 3.16 of listed in Table 14.5.2-1 may be used as a guide. Figure
Division I and the estimated setting temperature. Design 14.5.2-1 may be used as a guide in defining the different
loads shall be based on the load combinations and load bearing systems.
factors specified in Section 3 of Division I. The following terminology shall apply to Table 14.5.2-1:
The design rotation, um, for bearings such as elasto-
meric pads or steel reinforced elastomeric bearings which S 5 Suitable
do not achieve hard contact between metal components U 5 Unsuitable
shall be taken as the sum of: L 5 Suitable for limited applications
R 5 May be suitable but requires special considera-
—the dead and live load rotations. tions or additional elements such as sliders or
—an allowance for uncertainties, which is normally guideways.
taken as less than 0.005 rad. Long. 5 Longitudinal axis
Trans. 5 Transverse axis
The design rotation, um, for bearings such as pot bearings,
Vert. 5 Vertical axis
disc bearings and curved sliding surfaces which may de-
velop hard contact between metal components shall be
14.5.3 Forces in the Structure Caused by Restraint
taken as the sum of:
of Movement at the Bearing
—the greater of either the rotations due to all applicable
Horizontal forces and moments induced in the bridge
factored loads or the rotation at the service limit state.
by restraint of movement at the bearing shall be taken
—the maximum rotation caused by fabrication and in-
into account in the design of the bridge and the bear-
stallation tolerances, which shall be taken as 0.01 rad
ings. They shall be determined using the calculated
unless an approved quality control plan justifies a
movements and the bearing characteristics given in
smaller value.
Article 14.6.
—an allowance for uncertainties, which shall be taken
as 0.01 rad unless an approved quality control plan jus-
14.5.3.1 Horizontal Force
tifies a smaller value.
Horizontal forces may be induced by sliding friction,
14.5 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR rolling friction or deformation of a flexible element in the
BEARINGS bearing. The force used for design shall be the largest one
applicable.
Bearings may be fixed or movable as required for the Sliding friction force shall be computed as
bridge design. Movable bearings may include guides to
control the direction of translation. Fixed and guided bear- Hm 5 mPm (14.5.3.1-1)
FIGURE 14.4
Table 14.5.2-1 Bearing Suitability

Rotation about bridge
Movement axis indicated Resistance to Loads
Type of Bearing Long Trans Trans Long Vert Vert Long Trans
Plain Elastomeric Pad S S S S L L L L
Fiberglass Reinforced Pad S S S S L L L L
Cotton Duck Reinforced Pad U U U U U S L L
Steel-reinforced Elastomeric Bearing S S S S L S L L
Plane Sliding Bearing S S U U S S R R
Curved Sliding Spherical Bearing R R S S S S R R
Curved Sliding Cylindrical Bearing R R S U U S R R
Disc Bearing R R S S L S S R
Double Cylindrical Bearing R R S S U S R R
Pot Bearing R R S S L S S S
Rocker Bearing S U S U U S R R
Knuckle Bearing U U S U U S S R
Single Roller Bearing S U S U U S U R
Multiple Roller Bearing S U U U U S U U
FIGURE 14.5.2-1 Typical Bearing Components
where: 14.6 SPECIAL DESIGN PROVISIONS FOR

BEARINGS
Hm 5 maximum horizontal load (kip)
m 5 coefficient of friction
Pm 5 maximum compressive load (kip) The stress increases permitted for certain load combi-
nations by Table 3.22.1A of this specification shall not
The force required to deform an elastomeric element shall apply in the design of bearings.
be computed as:
14.6.1 Metal Rocker and Roller Bearings
Hm 5 GADs /hrt (14.5.3.1-2)
where: 14.6.1.1 General Design Considerations
G 5 shear modulus of the elastomer (ksi)
The rotation axis of the bearing shall be aligned with
A 5 plan area of elastomeric element or bearing (in2)
the axis about which the largest rotations of the supported
Ds 5 maximum shear deformation of the elastomer (in)
member occur. Provision shall be made to ensure that the
hrt 5 total elastomer thickness (in)
bearing alignment does not change during the life of the
Rolling forces shall be determined by test. bridge. Multiple roller bearings shall be connected by
gearing to ensure that individual rollers remain parallel to
14.5.3.2 Bending Moment each other and at their original spacing.
Metal rocker and roller bearings shall be detailed so
The bridge substructure and superstructure shall be de- that they can be easily inspected and maintained.
signed for the largest moment, Mm, which can be trans-
ferred by the bearing. 14.6.1.2 Materials
For curved sliding bearings without a companion flat
sliding surface, Mm shall be estimated by: Rocker and roller bearings shall be made of stainless
steel conforming to ASTM A 240, or of structural steel
Mm 5 mPmR (14.5.3.2-1A)
conforming to AASHTO M 169 (ASTM A 108), M 102
and for curved sliding bearings with a companion flat (ASTM A 668), or M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 36,
sliding surface, Mm shall be estimated by: 50 or 50W. Material properties of M 169 (ASTM A 108),
M 102 (ASTM A 668), and M 270 (ASTM A 709) steel
Mm 5 2mPmR (14.5.3.2-1B) are given in Tables 10.2A and 10.2B.
where:
14.6.1.3 Geometric Requirements
Mm 5 maximum bending moment (K-in)
R 5 radius of curved sliding surface (in) The dimensions of the bearing shall be chosen taking
For unconfined elastomeric bearings and pads, Mm into account both the contact stresses and the movement
shall be estimated by: of the contact point due to rolling.
Each individual curved contact surface shall have a
Mm 5 (0.5 EcI)um/hrt (14.5.3.2-2) constant radius. Bearings with more than one curved sur-
face shall be symmetric about a line joining the centers of
where: their two curved surfaces.
I 5 moment of inertia of plan shape of bearing (in4) Bearings shall be designed to be stable. If the bearing
um 5 maximum design rotation (rad) has two separate cylindrical faces, each of which rolls on
Ec 5 effective modulus of elastomeric bearing in com- a flat plate, stability may be achieved by making the dis-
pression (ksi) tance between the two contact lines no greater than the
sum of the radii of the two cylindrical surfaces.
The load deflection curve of an elastomeric bearing is
nonlinear, so Ec is load-dependent. However, an accept- 14.6.1.4 Contact Stresses
able constant approximation is:
The maximum compressive load, Pm, shall satisfy:
Ec 5 6GS2 (14.5.3.2-3)
• for cylindrical surfaces:
where:
2
G 5 shear modulus of elastomer (ksi)  WD1  Fy
Pm ≤ 8   (14.6.1.4-1)
S 5 shape factorn  1 − D1 D 2  E s
• for spherical surfaces: Curved metallic surfaces shall not exceed 16 micro in RMS.
2 3 Other surface finishes may be employed if the coefficient of
 D1  Fy
Pm ≤ 40  (14.6.1.4-2) friction is substantiated by test results. The mating surface
 1 − D1 D 2  E s 2 shall be large enough to cover the PTFE at all times.
where:
14.6.2.3 Minimum Thickness Requirements
D1 5 the diameter of rocker or roller surface (in), and
D2 5 the diameter of the mating surface (in). D2 shall 14.6.2.3.1 PTFE
be taken as: For all applications, the thickness of the PTFE shall be
• positive if the curvatures have the same sign
at least 1 ⁄ 16 inch after compression. Recessed sheet PTFE
• infinite if the mating surface is flat
shall be at least 3 ⁄ 16 inch thick when the maximum dimen-
Fy 5 specified minimum yield strength of the least
sion of the PTFE is less than or equal to 24 inches, and
strong steel at the contact surface (ksi) 1 ⁄ 4 inch when the maximum dimension of the PTFE is
Es 5 Young’s modulus for steel (ksi)
greater than 24 inches. Woven fabric PTFE which is me-
W 5 Width of the bearing (in)
chanically interlocked over a metallic substrate shall have
14.6.2 PTFE Sliding Surfaces a minimum thickness of 1 ⁄ 16 inch and a maximum thick-
ness of 1 ⁄ 8 inch over the highest point of the substrate.
PTFE, polytetrafluorethylene, may be used in sliding
14.6.2.3.2 Stainless Steel Mating Surfaces
surfaces of bridge bearings to accommodate translation or
rotation. All PTFE surfaces other than guides shall satisfy The thickness of the stainless steel mating surface shall
the requirements of this section. Curved PTFE surfaces be at least 1 ⁄ 16 inch when the maximum dimension of the
shall also satisfy Article 14.6.3. surface is less than or equal to 12 inches and 1 ⁄ 8 inch when
the maximum dimension is larger than 12 inches.
14.6.2.1 PTFE Surface Backing plate requirements are specified in Article
14.6.2.6.2.
The PTFE surface shall be made from pure virgin
PTFE resin satisfying the requirements of ASTM D 4894 14.6.2.4 Contact Pressure
or D 4895. It shall be fabricated as unfilled sheet, filled
sheet or fabric woven from PTFE and other fibers. The maximum contact stress, sm, between the PTFE
Unfilled sheets shall be made from PTFE resin alone. and the mating surface shall be determined with the max-
Filled sheets shall be made from PTFE resin uniformly imum compressive load, Pm, using the nominal area.
blended with glass fibers or other chemically inert filler. The average contact stress shall be computed by divid-
The maximum filler content shall be 15%. ing the load by the projection of the contact area onto a
Sheet PTFE may contain dimples to act as reservoirs plane perpendicular to the direction of the load. The contact
for lubricant. Their diameter shall not exceed 0.32-in at stress at the edge shall be computed by taking into account
the maximum moment, Mm, transferred by the bearing as-
the surface of the PTFE and their depth shall be not less
suming a linear distribution of stress across the PTFE.
than .08-inch and not more than half the thickness of the
Stresses shall not exceed those given in Table 14.6.2.4-1.
PTFE. The reservoirs shall be uniformly distributed over
Permissible stresses for intermediate filler contents
the surface area and shall cover more than 20% but less
shall be obtained by linear interpolation within Table
than 30% of it. Lubricant shall be silicone grease which 14.6.2.4-1.
satisfies military specification MIL-S-8660.
Woven fiber PTFE shall be made from pure PTFE 14.6.2.5 Coefficient of Friction
fibers. Reinforced woven fiber PTFE shall be made by
interweaving high strength fibers, such as glass, with the The design coefficient of friction of the PTFE sliding
PTFE in such a way that the reinforcing fibers do not ap- surface shall be determined from Table 14.6.2.5-1. Inter-
pear on the sliding face of the finished fabric. mediate values may be determined by interpolation. The
coefficient of friction shall be determined by using the
14.6.2.2 Mating Surface stress level associated with the maximum compressive
load, Pm. Lesser values of the coefficient of friction may
The PTFE shall be used in conjunction with a mating sur- be used if verified by tests.
face. Flat mating surfaces shall be stainless steel and curved Where friction is required to resist applied loads, the
mating surfaces shall be stainless steel or anodized aluminium. design coefficient of friction under dynamic loading may
Flat surfaces shall be a minimum #8 mirror finish Type 304 be taken as not more than 10% of the value listed in Table
stainless steel and shall conform to ASTM A 167/A 264. 14.6.2.5-1 for the bearing stress and PTFE type.
TABLE 14.6.2.4-1 Limits on Contact Stress for PTFE

Ave. Contact Stress (KSI) Edge Contact Stress (KSI)
Material Dead Load All Loads Dead Load All Loads
Unconfined PTFE:
Unfilled sheets 1.5 2.5 2.0 3.0
Filled sheets—These figures 3.0 4.5 3.5 5.5
are for maximum filler content
Confined sheet PTFE 3.0 4.5 3.5 5.5
Woven PTFE over a metallic 3.0 4.5 3.5 5.5
substrate
Reinforced woven PTFE over 4.0 5.5 4.5 7.0
a metallic substrate
TABLE 14.6.2.5-1 Design Coefficients of Friction

Coefficient of Friction
Type of PTFE Pressure (psi) 500 1000 2000 >3000

Temperature (°F)
Dimpled Lubricated 268 0.04 0.03 0.025 0.02
213 0.06 0.045 0.04 0.03
249 0.10 0.075 0.06 0.05
Unfilled or Dimpled 268 0.08 0.07 0.05 0.03
Unlubricated 213 0.20 0.18 0.13 0.10
249 0.20 0.18 0.13 0.10
Filled 268 0.24 0.17 0.09 0.06
213 0.44 0.32 0.25 0.20
249 0.65 0.55 0.45 0.35
Woven 268 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.045
213 0.20 0.18 0.13 0.10
249 0.20 0.18 0.13 0.10
The coefficients of friction in Table 14.6.2.5-1 are mating surface so that interface corrosion cannot occur.
based on a #8 mirror finish mating surface. Coefficients of The attachment shall be capable of resisting the maximum
friction for rougher surface finishes must be established friction force which can be developed by the bearing
by test results in accordance with Division II, Section 18. under service loads. The welds used for the attachment
shall be clear of the contact and sliding area of the PTFE
14.6.2.6 Attachment surface.
14.6.2.6.1 PTFE 14.6.3 Bearings with Curved Sliding Surfaces

Sheet PTFE confined in a recess in a rigid metal backing
plate for one half its thickness may be bonded or unbonded. Bearings with curved sliding surfaces shall consist of
Sheet PTFE which is not confined shall be bonded by two metal parts with matching curved surfaces and a low
an approved method to a metal surface or an elastomeric friction sliding interface. The curved surfaces shall be
layer with a Shore A durometer hardness of at least 90. either cylindrical or spherical. The material properties,
Woven PTFE on a metallic substrate shall be attached to characteristics, and frictional properties of the sliding
interface shall satisfy the requirements of either Article
the metallic substrate by mechanical interlocking which
14.6.2 or Article 14.6.7.
can resist a shear force no less than 0.10 times the applied
compressive force.
14.6.3.1 Geometric Requirements
14.6.2.6.2 Mating Surface
The radius of the curved surface shall be large enough
The mating surface for flat sliding shall be attached to to assure that the maximum average bearing stress, sm, on
a backing plate by welding in such a way that it remains the horizontal projected area of the bearing at the maxi-
flat and in full contact with its backing plate throughout mum load, Pm, shall satisfy the average stress require-
its service life. The weld shall be detailed to form an ef- ments of Article 14.6.2.4 or Article 14.6.7.3. The maxi-
fective moisture seal around the entire perimeter of the mum average bearing stress shall be taken as
• For cylindrical bearings and

L 
Pm Ψ = sin −1  (14.6.3.2-4)
σm = (14.6.3.1-1)  2R 
DW
and:
• For spherical bearings
Hm 5 maximum horizontal load.
4 Pm L 5 projected length of the sliding surface perpen-
σm = (14.6.3.1-2) dicular to the rotation axis.
πD 2
PD 5 compressive load due to permanent loads.
where R 5 radius of the curved sliding surface.
w 5 length of the cylindrical surface.
D 5 diameter of the projection of the loaded surface b 5 angle between the vertical and applied loads.
of the bearing in the horizontal plane (in) um 5 maximum design rotation angle. See Article
W 5 length of the cylinder (in) 14.4.1.
sPTFE 5 maximum average contact stress permitted on
The two surfaces of a sliding interface shall have equal radii. the PTFE by Table 14.6.2.4-1.
Ψ 5 subtended semi-angle of the curved surface.
14.6.3.2 Resistance to Lateral Load
14.6.4 Pot Bearings
In bearings which are required to resist horizontal
loads, either an external restraint system shall be pro- 14.6.4.1 General
vided, or for a cylindrical sliding surface the horizontal
load shall be limited to Where pot bearings are provided with a PTFE slider to
provide for both rotation and horizontal movement, such
Hm # 2RW sPTFE sin(Ψ 2 b 2 um) sin b (14.6.3.2-1) sliding surfaces and any guidance systems shall be designed
in accordance with the appropriate Articles 14.6.2 and 14.6.9.
and for a spherical surface the horizontal load shall satisfy The rotational elements of pot bearing shall satisfy the
requirements of this section. They shall consist of at least
Hm # pR2 sPTFE sin2(Ψ 2 b 2 um) sin b (14.6.3.2-2) a pot, a piston, an elastomeric disc, and sealing rings.
For the purpose of establishing the forces and defor-
Where
mations imposed on a pot bearing, the axis of rotation
H  shall be taken as lying in the horizontal plane at mid-
β = tan −1  m  (14.6.3.2-3)
 PD  height of the elastomeric disc.
FIGURE 14.6.3.2-1
The minimum vertical load on a pot bearing should not under compressive load and simultaneously applied
be less than 20% of the vertical design load. cyclic rotations. The seals shall also be adequate to pre-
vent escape of elastomer under compressive load and si-
14.6.4.2 Materials multaneously applied static rotation.
Brass rings satisfying the requirements of either Arti-
The elastomeric disc shall be made from a compound cle 14.6.4.5.1 or 14.6.4.5.2 may be used to satisfy the
based on virgin natural rubber or virgin neoprene. Its above requirements. The Engineer may approve other
nominal hardness shall lie between 50 and 60 on the Shore sealing systems on the basis of experimental evidence.
‘A’ scale.
The pot and piston shall be made from structural 14.6.4.5.1 Rings with rectangular cross-sections
steel conforming to AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709)
Three rings shall be used. Each ring shall be circular in
Grades 36, 50 or 50W, or from stainless steel conform-
plan, but shall be cut at one point around its circumfer-
ing to ASTM A 240. The finish of surfaces in contact
ence. The faces of the cut shall be on a plane at 45° to the
with the elastomeric pad shall be smoother than 63
vertical and to the tangent of the circumference. The rings
micro-in rms. shall be oriented so that the cuts on each of the three rings
Sealing rings satisfying Articles 14.6.4.5.1 and are equally spaced around the circumference of the pot.
14.6.4.5.2 shall be made from brass conforming to ASTM The width of each ring shall be equal to or greater than
B 36 (half hard) for rings of rectangular cross-section, the larger of 0.02 Dp or 1 ⁄ 4 inch, but it shall not exceed 3 ⁄ 4
and Federal Specification QQB626, Composition 2, for inch. The depth of each shall be equal to or greater than
rings of circular cross-section. 0.2 times the width.
14.6.4.3 Geometric Requirements 14.6.4.5.2 Rings with circular cross-sections
The depth of the elastomeric disc, hr, shall satisfy One circular closed ring shall be used with an outside
diameter of Dp. It shall have a cross-sectional diameter not
hr $ 3.33Dpum (14.6.4.3-1) less than the larger of 0.0175 Dp or 5 ⁄ 16 inch.
where 14.6.4.6 Pot

Dp 5 internal diameter of the pot (in)
The pot shall consist at least of a wall and base. All com-
um 5 maximum design rotation specified in Article
ponents shall be designed to act as a single structural unit.
14.4.1 (rad)
The minimum thickness of the base shall exceed 0.06
The dimensions of the components shall satisfy the fol- Dp and 3 ⁄ 4 inch when bearing directly against concrete or
lowing requirements under the least favorable combina- grout, and shall exceed 0.04 Dp and 1 ⁄ 2 inch when bearing
tion of maximum displacements and rotations: directly on steel girders or load distribution plates.
The pot walls shall be thick enough to resist all the
• the pot shall be deep enough to permit the seal and forces induced in them. In lieu of a more precise analysis,
piston rim to remain in full contact with the vertical this requirement may be satisfied for unguided sliding pot
face of the pot wall. bearings by using a minimum wall thickness such that
• contact or binding between metal components will
not prevent further displacement or rotation. Dp
tw ≥ σm (14.6.4.6-1)
1.25Fy
14.6.4.4 Elastomeric Disc
and tw $ 3 /40
The maximum average stress on the elastomer shall
not exceed 3.5 ksi. To facilitate rotation, the top and bot- where
tom surfaces of the elastomer shall be treated with a lu-
bricant which is not detrimental to the elastomer, or thin tw 5 pot wall thickness (in)
PTFE discs may be used on the top and bottom of the elas- sm 5 maximum average compressive stress (ksi)
tomer. Fy 5 yield strength of the steel (ksi)
14.6.4.5 Sealing Rings 14.6.4.7 Piston
A seal shall be used between the pot and the piston. The The piston shall have the same plan shape as the inside
seals shall be adequate to prevent escape of elastomer of the pot. Its thickness shall be adequate to resist the
loads imposed on it, but shall not be less than 6.0% of the 14.6.5.2 Material Properties
inside diameter of the pot, Dp, except at the rim.
The diameter of the piston rim shall be the inside di- The elastomer shall have a shear modulus between
ameter of the pot less a clearance, c. The clearance, c, shall 0.08 and 0.175 ksi and a nominal hardness between 50
be as small as possible in order to prevent escape of the and 60 on the Shore A scale.
elastomer, but not less than 0.02 inch. If the surface of the The shear modulus of the elastomer at 73°F shall be
piston rim is cylindrical, the clearance shall satisfy used as the basis for design. If the elastomer is specified
explicitly by its shear modulus, then that value shall be
 D pθ m  used in design and the other properties shall be obtained
c ≥ θm  w −  (14.6.4.7-1) from Table 14.6.5.2-1. If the material is specified by its
 2 
hardness, the shear modulus shall be taken as the least
favorable value from the range for that hardness given in
where
Table 14.6.5.2-1. Intermediate values shall in all cases be
Dp 5 internal diameter of pot (in) obtained by interpolation.
w 5 height of piston rim (in) For the purposes of bearing design, all bridge sites
um 5 design rotation specified in Article 14.4.1 (rad) shall be classified as being in temperature Zones A, B, C,
D or E. Characteristics for each zone are given in Table
14.6.5.2-2. In the absence of more precise information,
14.6.4.8 Lateral Loads Figure 14.6.5.2-2 may be used as a guide in selecting the
zone required for a given region.
Pot bearings which are subjected to lateral loads shall Bearings shall be made from AASHTO low tempera-
be proportioned so that the thickness, t, of the pot wall and ture grades of elastomer as defined in Section 18 of Divi-
the pot base shall satisfy sion II. The minimum grade of elastomer required for
each low temperature zone is specified in Table
40 H m θ m 14.6.5.2-2.
t> (14.6.4.8-1) Any of the three design options listed below may be
Fy
used:
For pot bearings which transfer lateral load through the
piston • specify the elastomer with the minimum low tem-
perature grade indicated in Table 14.6.5.2-2 and de-
termine the shear force transmitted by the bearing as
2.5H m
w≥ (14.6.4.8-2) specified in Article 14.5.3.1.
D p Fy • specify the elastomer with the minimum low tem-
perature grade for use when special force provisions
and w $ 1 /80 are incorporated in the design and provide a low fric-
tion sliding surface, in which case the special force
where w is the rim thickness of the piston which is in con- provision is that the bridge components shall be de-
tact with the pot wall. signed to withstand twice the design shear force
specified in Article 14.5.3.1, or
• specify the elastomer with the minimum low tem-
14.6.5 Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings— perature grade for use when special force provisions
Method B are incorporated in the design, but do not provide a
low friction sliding surface, in which case the com-
14.6.5.1 General ponents of the bridge shall be designed to resist four
times the design shear force as specified in Article
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings shall consist of 14.5.3.1.
alternate layers of steel reinforcement and elastomer,
bonded together. Tapered elastomer layers shall not be Table 14.6.5.2-1 Elastomer Properties At Different
used. All internal layers of elastomer shall be of the same Hardnesses
thickness. The top and bottom cover layers shall be no
Hardness (Shore ‘A’) 50 60 70
thicker than 70% of the internal layers. In addition to any
internal reinforcement, bearings may have external steel Shear modulus at 73°F (psi) 95–130 130–200 200–300
Creep deflection at 25 yrs
load plates bonded to the upper or lower elastomer layers 25% 35% 45%
Instantaneous deflection
or both.
Table 14.6.5.2-2 Low Temperature Zones and Elastomer Grades

Low Temperature Zone A B C D E
50 year low temperature (°F) 0 220 230 245 all others
Max. no. of days below 32°F 3 227 214 N/A N/A
Low temp. elastomer grade 0 222 223 224 5
without special provisions
Low temp. elastomer grade 0 220 222 223 5
with special provisions
FIGURE 14.6.5.2-1 Map of Low Temperature Zones
14.6.5.3 Design Requirements 14.6.5.3.2 Compressive Stress

In any bearing layer, the average compressive stress
14.6.5.3.1 Scope
(ksi) shall satisfy the following:
Bearings designed by the provisions of this section
shall be subsequently tested in accordance with the re- • for bearings subject to shear deformation
quirements for steel reinforced elastomeric bearings of
Article 18.7 of Division II of this Specification. Steel re- sTL # 1.6 ksi
inforced elastomeric bearings may also be designed under sTL # 1.66 GS (14.6.5.3.2-1)
the provisions of Article 14.6.6. sL # 0.66 GS
1600 1600
Shape factor 12 9 Shape factor 12 9
1400 6 1400
6
60 durometer 50 durometer
Compressive stress (psi)
Compressive stress (psi)
1200 5 1200
reinforced reinforced
bearings bearings 5
1000 1000
4
800 800 4
600 3 600
3
400 400
200 200
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Compressive strain (%) Compressive strain (%)
FIGURE 14.6.5.3.3-1 Load Deflection Behavior of Elastomeric Bearings
• for bearings fixed against shear deformation hrt 5 total elastomeric thickness (in)
Ds 5 maximum service shear deformation of the
sTL # 1.75 ksi elastomer (in)
sTL # 2.00 GS (14.6.5.3.2-2)
sL # 1.00 GS
14.6.5.3.5 Combined Compression and Rotation
where
Rotations shall be taken as the maximum possible dif-
sL 5 average compressive stress due to the live load ference in slope between the top and bottom surfaces of
(ksi) the bearing. They shall include the effects of initial lack-
sTL 5 Average compressive stress due to total dead of-parallelism and subsequent girder end rotation due to
plus live load (ksi) imposed loads and movements. Bearings shall be de-
G 5 shear modulus of elastomer (ksi) signed so that uplift does not occur under any combina-
S 5 shape factor of the thickest layer of the bearing tion of loads and corresponding rotation.
All rectangular bearings shall satisfy
14.6.5.3.3 Compressive Deflection
2
θ  B
≥ 1.0GS m   
Deflections due to total load and to live load alone shall
σ TL (14.6.5.3.5-1)
be considered separately. A maximum relative deflection  n  h 
ri
of 1⁄8 inch across a joint is preferred.
Instantaneous deflection shall be calculated as follows: A rectangular bearing subject to shear deformation shall
also satisfy Equation (14.6.5.3.5-2); those fixed against
d 5 Seihri (14.6.5.3.3-1)
shear deformation shall also satisfy Equation (14.6.5.3.5-3).
where:  2
θ  B 
σ TL ≤ 1.875GS1 − 0.200 m     (14.6.5.3.5-2)
ei 5 instantaneous compressive strain in the i elas-
th
  n  h  
ri
tomer layer of a laminated elastomeric bearing
hri 5 thickness of ith elastomeric layer in elastomeric  2
θm   B  
σ TL ≤ 2.250GS1 − 0.167
bearing (in)
  n   h   (14.6.5.3.5-3)
ri
Values for ei shall be determined from test results or by

where
rational analysis. The effects of creep of the elastomer
shall be added to the instantaneous deflection when con- B 5 length of pad if rotation is about its transverse
sidering long-term deflections. They should be computed axis, or width of pad if rotation is about its lon-
from information relevant to the elastomeric compound gitudinal axis (in)
used. In the absence of material-specific data, the values G 5 shear modulus of elastomer (ksi)
given in Article 14.6.5.2 shall be used. In the absence of hri 5 thickness of the ith layer of elastomer (in)
information specific to the particular bearing to be used, n 5 number of interior layers of elastomer, where in-
Figure 14.6.5.3.3-1 may be used. terior layers are defined as those layers which
are bonded on each face. Exterior layers are de-
14.6.5.3.4 Shear
fined as those layers which are bonded only on
The horizontal movement of the bridge superstructure, one face. When the thickness of an exterior layer
D0, shall be taken as the maximum possible displacement of elastomer is more than one-half the thickness
caused by creep, shrinkage, post-tensioning, combined of an interior layer, the parameter, n, may be in-
with thermal effects computed in accordance with this creased by one-half for each such exterior layer.
Specification. The maximum shear deformation of the S 5 shape factor of the thickest layer of the bearing
bearing, Ds, shall be taken as D0, modified to account for um 5 component of maximum service rotation in di-
the pier flexibility and construction procedures. If a low rection of interest (rad)
friction sliding surface is installed, Ds need not be taken
sTL 5 average compressive stress due to the total
larger than the deformation corresponding to first slip.
dead plus live load (ksi)
The bearing shall be designed so that
All circular bearings shall satisfy
hrt $ 2Ds (14.6.5.3.4-1) 2
θ  D
σ TL > 0.75GS m    (14.6.5.3.5-4)
where  n  h 
ri
A circular bearing subject to shear deformation shall also and

satisfy Equation (14.6.5.3.5-5); those fixed against shear
deformation shall also satisfy Equation (14.6.5.3.5-6). 2.0 h r max σ L
hs > (14.6.5.3.7-2)
2
Fsr
 θ  D 
σ TL < 2.5GS1 − 0.15 m     (14.6.5.3.5-5)
  n  h   where
ri
2 hs 5 thickness of steel laminate (in)

 θ  D 
σ TL < 3.0GS1 − 0.125 m     (14.6.5.3.5-6) Fsr 5 allowable fatigue stress range for over 2,000,000
  n  h   cycles (ksi)
ri
where If holes exist in the reinforcement, the minimum thick-

ness shall be increased by a factor of 2(gross width)/(net
D 5 diameter of pad (in) width).
14.6.5.3.6 Stability 14.6.6 Elastomeric Pads and Steel Reinforced
Bearings shall be proportioned to avoid instability. If Elastomeric Bearings—Method A
14.6.6.1 General
3.84 ( h rt /L ) 2.67
≤ (14.6.5.3.6-1)
S 1 + 2 L/w S(S + 2)(1 + L 4 w) This section of the specification covers the design of
plain elastomeric pads, PEP, pads reinforced with discrete
the bearing is stable for all allowable loads in this speci-
layers of fiberglass, FGP, and pads reinforced with closely
fication and no further consideration of stability is required.
spaced layers of cotton duck, CDP and steel reinforced
For rectangular bearings not satisfying Equation
elastomeric bearings. Layer thicknesses in FGP may be
(14.6.5.3.6-1), an additional check involving σTL shall be
different from one another. For steel reinforced elas-
made in accordance with Equation (14.6.5.3.6-2) or 3. A
tomeric bearings designed in accordance with the provi-
negative or infinite limit from Equation (14.6.5.3.6-3) indi-
sions of this section, internal layers shall be of the same
cates that the bearing is stable and is not dependent on σTL.
thickness and cover layers shall be no more than 70% of
the thickness of internal layers.
• if the bridge deck is free to translate horizontally
G 14.6.6.2 Material Properties
σ TL ≤
 3.84( h rt L ) 2.67 
 −  The materials shall satisfy the requirements of Article
 S 1 + 2 L W S(S + 2)(1 + L 4 W ) 
14.6.5.2, except that the shear modulus shall lie between
(14.6.5.3.6-2) 0.080 and 0.250 ksi and the nominal hardness shall lie be-
• if the bridge deck is not free to translate horizontally tween 50 and 70 on the Shore ‘A’ scale. This excep-
tion shall not apply to steel reinforced elastomeric bear-
G ings designed in accordance with the provisions of this
σ TL ≤
 1.92( h rt L ) 2.67  article.
 − 
 S 1 + 2 L W S(S + 2)(1 + L 4 W ) 
14.6.6.3 Design Requirements
(14.6.5.3.6-3)
If L is greater than W for a rectangular bearing, stabil- 14.6.6.3.1 Scope
ity shall be checked by the above formulas with L and W Plain elastomeric pads, fiberglass reinforced pads and
interchanged. cotton duck reinforced pads shall be designed in accor-
For circular bearings, stability may be evaluated by using dance with the provisions of this article. Steel reinforced
the equations for a square bearing with W 5 L 5 0.8 D. elastomeric bearings designed in accordance with the
provisions of this article shall qualify for the test require-
14.6.5.3.7 Reinforcement
ments appropriate for elastomeric pads.
The thickness of the reinforcement, hs, shall satisfy the The provisions for FGP apply only to pads where the
requirements fiberglass is placed in double layers 1 ⁄ 8 inch apart.
The physical properties of neoprene and natural rubber
3.0 h r max σ TL used in these bearings shall conform to the following
hs > (14.6.5.3.7-1)
Fy ASTM requirements, with modifications as noted:
Neoprene: D4014 hrt $ 10Ds for CDP (14.6.6.3.4-1)

Natural Rubber: D4014
14.6.6.3.5 Rotation
Modifications:
The rotation about each axis shall be taken as the max-
(1) The Shore A Durometer hardness shall lie within imum possible rotation between the top and bottom of the
the limits specified in Article 14.6.6.2. pad caused by initial lack of parallelism and girder end ro-
(2) Samples for compression set tests shall be pre- tation.
pared using a Type 2 die.
14.6.6.3.5a PEP and CDP
14.6.6.3.2 Compressive Stress The shape factor of CDP shall be defined as 100 for use
The average compressive stress, sTL, in any layer shall in Equations (14.6.6.3.5a-1) and (14.6.6.3.5a-2). They
satisfy shall satisfy:
• for PEP, sTL # 0.80 ksi, and sTL # 0.55GS • for rectangular pads
• for FGP, sTL # 0.80 ksi, and sTL # 1.00GS
2
• for CDP, sTL # 1.50 ksi  L
σ TL ≥ 0.5GS  θ m , x or
 h rt 
In FGP, the value of S used shall be that for the great-
est distance between the mid-point of double reinforce- 2
 W
ment layers at the top and bottom of the elastomer layer. σ TL ≥ 0.5GS  θ m , z (14.6.6.3.5a-1)
 h rt 
For steel reinforced elastomeric bearings designed in
accordance with the provisions of this article sTL # 1.00
• for circular pads
ksi, and sTL # 1.0 GS where the value of S used shall be
that for the thickest layer of the bearing. These stress lim- 2
 D
its may be increased by 10% where shear deformation is σ TL ≥ 0.375GS  θ m
 h rt  (14.6.6.3.5a-2)
prevented.
14.6.6.3.3 Compressive Deflection 14.6.6.3.5b FGP and Steel Reinforced Elastomeric

Bearings
The provisions of Article 14.6.5.3.3 shall apply. Ap-
propriate data for PEP, FGP and CDP may be used to es- They shall satisfy:
timate their deflections. In the absence of such data, the
compressive deflection of PEP and FGP may be estimated • for rectangular pads or bearings
at 3 and 1.5 times the deflection estimated for steel rein-
2
forced bearings of the same shape factor in Article  L  θ ,x
14.6.5.3.3, respectively. σ TL ≥ 0.5GS  m or
 h ri  n
CDP are typically very stiff in compression and the
provisions of this article may be considered as satisfied on 2
 W  θ ,z
the basis of past experience, and no calculations need be σ TL ≥ 0.5GS  m (14.6.6.3.5b-1)
done, provided the provisions of Article 14.6.6.3.2 are met.  h ri  n
14.6.6.3.4 Shear • for circular pads or bearings

2
The horizontal bridge movement shall be computed in  D θ
accordance with Article 14.4. The maximum shear defor- σ TL ≥ 0.375GS  m
 h ri  n (14.6.6.3.5b-2)
mation of the pad, Ds, shall be taken as the horizontal
bridge movement, reduced to account for the pier flexi- where
bility and modified for construction procedures. If a low
friction sliding surface is used, Ds need not be taken larger n 5 number of interior layers of elastomer, where in-
than the deformation corresponding to first slip. terior layers are defined as those layers which
The pad shall be designed as follows: are bonded on each face. Exterior layers are de-
fined as those layers which are bonded only on
hrt $ 2Ds for PEP, FGP and steel reinforced elastomeric one face. When the thickness of an exterior layer
bearings of elastomer is more than one-half the thickness
400 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 14.6.6.3.5b
of an interior layer, the parameter, n, may be in- Rockwell hardness value at least 100 points greater than
creased by one-half for each such exterior layer. that of the bronze.
hri 5 thickness of the ith layer of elastomer (in) Copper alloy 913 or 911 or copper alloy plates,
AASHTO M 108 (ASTM B100), shall be used unless oth-
14.6.6.3.6 Stability erwise specified.
To ensure stability, the total thickness of pad shall not 14.6.7.2 Coefficient of Friction
exceed the least of L/3, W/3, or D/4.
The design coefficient of friction shall be determined
14.6.6.3.7 Reinforcement by applying an appropriate safety factor to the measured
coefficient of friction obtained using a rational test proce-
The reinforcement in FGP shall be fiberglass with a
dure. In lieu of such test data, the design coefficient of
failure strength in each direction of at least 2.2 hri K/in of
friction may be taken as 0.1 for self-lubricating bronze
width. For the purpose of this article, if the layers of elas-
components and 0.4 for other types.
tomer are of different thickness, hri shall be taken as the
mean thickness of the two layers of the elastomer bonded
14.6.7.3 Limits on Load and Geometry
to the reinforcement. If the fiberglass reinforcement con-
tains holes, its strength shall be increased over the mini- The nominal bearing stress due to combined dead and
mum value specified above by two times the gross width live load shall be no greater than 2.0 ksi.
divided by net width.
Reinforcement for steel reinforced elastomeric bear- 14.6.7.4 Clearances and Mating Surface
ings designed in accordance with the provisions of
this article shall conform to the requirements of Article The mating surface shall be steel which is accurately
14.6.5.3.7. machined to match the geometry of the bronze surface and
provide uniform bearing and contact.
14.6.6.4 Resistance to Deformation
14.6.8 Disc Bearings
The shear force on the structure induced by deforma-
tion of the elastomer shall be based on a G value not less 14.6.8.1 General
than that of the elastomer at 73°F. Effects of relaxation
shall be ignored. For the purposes of establishing the forces and defor-
If the design shear force, Hm, due to pad deformation mations imposed on a disc bearing, the axis of rotation
exceeds one-fifth of the minimum vertical force, the pad may be taken as lying in the horizontal plane at mid-
shall be secured against horizontal movement. height of the disc. The urethane disc shall be held in place
The pad shall not be permitted to sustain uplift forces. by a positive location device.
The disc bearing shall be designed for the design rota-
14.6.7 Bronze or Copper Alloy Sliding Surfaces tion, um, defined in Article 14.4.1.
Bronze or Copper Alloy may be used in 14.6.8.2 Materials
• flat sliding surfaces to accommodate translational The elastomeric disc shall be made from a compound
movements, based on polyether urethane, using only virgin materials.
• curved sliding surfaces to accommodate translation The hardness shall lie between 45 and 65 on the Shore D
and limited rotation, scale.
• pins or cylinders for shaft bushings of rocker bear- The metal components of the bearing shall be made
ings or other bearings with large rotations. from structural steel conforming to AASHTO M 270
(ASTM A 709) Grades 36, 50, or 50W, or from stainless
14.6.7.1 Materials steel conforming to ASTM A 240.
Bronze sliding surfaces or castings shall conform to 14.6.8.3 Overall Geometric Requirements
AASHTO M 107 (ASTM B 22) and shall be made of Alloy
C90500, C91100 or C86300 unless otherwise specified. The dimensions of the components shall be such that
The mating surface shall be structural steel which has a hard contact between metal components which prevents
further displacement or rotation will not occur under the 14.6.9.2 Design Loads
least favorable combination of design displacements and
rotations. The guide or restraint shall be designed using the max-
imum load combinations for the larger of
14.6.8.4 Elastomeric Disc
• the horizontal design load, or
The elastomeric disc shall be held in location by a pos- • 10% of the maximum vertical load acting on all the
itive locator device. The disc shall be designed so that bearings at the bent divided by the number of guided
bearings at the bent.
• its instantaneous deflection under total load does not
exceed 10% of the thickness of the unstressed disc, 14.6.9.3 Materials
and the additional deflection due to creep does not
exceed 8% of the thickness of the unstressed disc; For steel bearings, the guide or restraint shall be made
• the average compressive stress due to the maximum from steel conforming to AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709)
load, Pm, on the disc does not exceed 5.0 ksi. If the Grades 36, 50 or 50W, or stainless steel conforming to
outer surface of the disc is not vertical, the stress shall ASTM A 240. The guide for aluminum bearings may also
be computed using the smallest plan area of the disc. be aluminum.
The low-friction interface material shall be approved
If a PTFE slider is used by the Engineer.
• the stresses on the PTFE slider do not exceed 75% 14.6.9.4 Geometric Requirements
of the allowable values for average and edge stresses
Guides shall be parallel, long enough to accommodate
given in Article 14.6.2. The effect of moments in-
the full design displacement of the bearing in the sliding
duced by the urethane disc shall be included in the
direction, and shall permit a minimum of 1 ⁄ 32-inch and a
stress analysis.
maximum of 1 ⁄ 16-inch free slip in the restrained direction.
Guides shall be designed to avoid binding under all design
14.6.8.5 Shear Resisting Mechanism
loads and displacements, including rotations.
In fixed and guided bearings, a shear-resisting mecha- 14.6.9.5 Design Basis
nism shall be provided to transmit horizontal forces between
the upper and lower steel plates. It shall be capable of re- 14.6.9.5.1 Load Location
sisting a horizontal force in any direction equal to the larger
of the design shear force and 10% of the design vertical load. The horizontal load acting on the guide or restraint
The horizontal design clearance between the upper and shall be assumed to act at the centroid of the low-friction
lower components of the shear-restricting mechanism shall interface material. Design of the connection between the
not exceed the value for guide bars given in Article 14.6.9. guide or restraint and the body of the bearing system shall
take into account both shear and overturning moment.
14.6.8.6 Steel Plates
14.6.9.5.2 Contact Stress
The thickness of the upper and lower steel plates shall The contact stress on the low-friction material shall not
not be less than 0.045 Dd if the plate is in direct contact exceed that recommended by the manufacturer. For PTFE,
with a steel girder or distribution plate, or 0.06 Dd if it the stresses due to the maximum loads, Pm and Hm, shall
bears directly on grout or concrete. not exceed those given in Table 14.6.2.4.1 under sustained
loading or 1.25 times those stresses for short-term loading.
14.6.9 Guides and Restraints
14.6.9.6 Attachment of Low-Friction Material
14.6.9.1 General
The low-friction material shall be attached by at least
Guides may be used to prevent movement in one di- two of the following three methods:
rection. Restraints may be used to permit only limited
movement in one or more directions. Guides and restraints • mechanical fastening
shall have a low-friction material at their sliding contact • bonding
surfaces. • mechanical interlocking with a metal substrate.
14.6.10 Other Bearing Systems Computations of the strength of steel components and
beam stiffener requirements of steel girders shall be made
Bearing systems made from components not described in conformance with Section 10 of Division I of these
in Articles 14.6.1 through 14.6.8 may also be used, subject specifications.
to the approval of the Engineer. Such bearings shall be ad- In lieu of a more precise analysis, the load from a bear-
equate to resist the forces and deformations imposed on ing fully supported by a grout bed may be assumed to
them without material distress and without inducing defor- spread out at a slope of 1.5:1, horizontal to vertical, from
mations large enough to threaten their proper functioning. the edge of the smallest element of the bearing which car-
The dimensions of the bearing shall be chosen to pro- ries the compressive load.
vide for adequate movements at all times. The materials
used shall have sufficient strength, stiffness, and resis- 14.7.2 Tapered Plates
tance to creep and decay to ensure the proper functioning
of the bearing throughout the design life of the bridge.
If, under full dead load at the mean annual temperature
The Engineer shall determine the tests which the bearing
for the bridge site, the inclination of the underside of the
must satisfy. The tests shall be designed to demonstrate any
girder to the horizontal exceeds 0.01 rad, a tapered plate
potential weakness in the system under individual compres-
shall be used in order to provide a level load surface to be
sion, shear or rotational loading or combinations thereof.
Testing under sustained or cyclic loading shall be required. placed on the bearing.
14.7 LOAD PLATES AND ANCHORAGE FOR 14.7.3 Anchorage

BEARINGS
All load distribution plates and all bearings with exter-
14.7.1 Plates for Load Distribution nal steel plates shall be positively secured to their supports
by bolting or welding.
The bearing, together with any additional plates, shall All girders shall be positively located on their support-
be designed so that ing bearings by a connection which can resist the horizon-
tal forces which may be imposed on it. Separation of bear-
• the combined system is stiff enough to prevent dis- ing components shall not be permitted. A connection,
tortions of the bearing which would impair its proper adequate to resist the least favorable combination of loads,
functioning; shall be installed wherever necessary to prevent separation.
• the stresses imposed on the supporting structure sat-
isfy the limits specified by the Engineer. Allowable
stresses on concrete and grout beds shall be assumed 14.8 CORROSION PROTECTION
to be based on the maximum compressive load, Pm,
on the bearing; All exposed steel parts of bearings not made from stain-
• the bearing can be replaced within the jacking height less steel shall be protected against corrosion by zinc me-
limits specified by the Engineer without damage to the tallization, hot-dip galvanizing or a paint system approved
bearing, distribution plates or supporting structure. If by the Engineer. A combination of zinc metallization or
no limit is given, a height of 3 ⁄ 8 inch shall be used. hot-dip galvanizing and a paint system may be used.
Section 15
STEEL TUNNEL LINER PLATES
15.1 GENERAL AND NOTATIONS Dc 5 critical pipe diameter (Article 15.3.4)

E 5 modulus of elasticity (Article 15.3.3)
15.1.1 General FS 5 factor of safety for buckling (Article 15.3.4)
fc 5 buckling stress (Article 15.3.4)
15.1.1.1 These criteria cover the design of cold- fu 5 minimum specified tensile strength (Article
formed panel steel tunnel liner plates. The minimum 15.3.4)
thickness shall be as determined by design in accordance H 5 height of soil over the top of the tunnel (Article
with Articles 15.2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 and the construction shall 15.2.4)
conform to Section 26—Division II. The supporting ca- I 5 moment of inertia (Article 15.3.3)
pacity of a nonrigid tunnel lining such as a steel liner plate k 5 parameter dependent on the value of the friction
results from its ability to deflect under load, so that side angle (Article 15.3.4)
restraint developed by the lateral resistance of the soil P 5 external load on tunnel liner (Article 15.2.1)
constrains further deflection. Deflection thus tends to Pd 5 vertical load at the level of the top of the tunnel
equalize radial pressures and to load the tunnel liner as a liner due to dead load (Article 15.2.1)
compression ring. P1 5 vertical load at the level of the top of the tunnel
liner due to live load (Article 15.2.1)
15.1.1.2 The load to be carried by the tunnel liner is r 5 radius of gyration (Article 15.3.4)
a function of the type of soil. In a granular soil, with little T 5 thrust per unit length (Article 15.3.4)
or no cohesion, the load is a function of the angle of in- W 5 total (moist) unit weight of soil (Article
ternal friction of the soil and the diameter of the tunnel 15.2.4)
being constructed. In cohesive soils such as clays and silty ø 5 friction angle of soil (Article 15.3.4.1)
clays the load to be carried by the tunnel liner is depen-
dent on the shearing strength of the soil above the roof of 15.2 LOADS
the tunnel.
15.2.1 External load on a circular tunnel liner made up
15.1.1.3 A subsurface exploration program and ap- of tunnel liner plates may be predicted by various meth-
propriate soil tests should be performed at each installa- ods including actual tests. In cases where more precise
tion before undertaking a design. methods of analysis are not employed, the external load P
can be predicted by the following:
15.1.1.4 Nothing included in this section shall be in-
terpreted as prohibiting the use of new developments (a) If the grouting pressure is greater than the com-
where usefulness can be substantiated. puted external load, the external load P on the tunnel
liner shall be the grouting pressure.
15.1.2 Notations (b) In general the external load can be computed by
the formula:
A 5 cross-sectional area of liner plates (Article P 5 Pl 1 Pd (15-1)

15.3.4)
Cd 5 coefficient for tunnel liner, used in Marston’s where:
formula (Article 15.2.4)
D 5 horizontal diameter or span of the tunnel (Arti- P 5 the external load on the tunnel liner;
cle 15.2.4) Pl 5 the vertical load at the level of the top of the
D 5 pipe diameter (Article 15.3.3) tunnel liner due to live loads;
403
Pd 5 the vertical load at the level of the top of the 15.3 DESIGN
tunnel liner due to dead load.
15.3.1 Criteria
15.2.2 For an H 20 load, values of Pl are approximately
the following: The following criteria must be considered in the design
of liner plates:
H(ft) 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
P1 (lb per sq ft) 375 260 190 140 110 90 75 (a) Joint strength.
(b) Minimum stiffness for installation.
15.2.3 Values of Pd may be calculated using Marston’s (c) Critical buckling of liner plate wall.
formula for load or any other suitable method. (d) Deflection or flattening of tunnel section.
15.2.4 In the absence of adequate borings and soil tests,

the full overburden height should be the basis for Pd in the 15.3.2 Joint Strength
tunnel liner plate design.
The following is one form of Marston’s formula: 15.3.2.1 The seam strength of liner plates must be
sufficient to withstand the thrust developed from the total
Pd 5 CdWD (15-2) load supported by the liner plate. This thrust, T, in pounds
per linear foot is:
where:
Cd 5 coefficient for tunnel liner, Figure 15.2.3A; T 5 PD/2 (15-3)
W 5 total (moist) unit weight of soil;
D 5 horizontal diameter or span of the tunnel; where P 5 load as defined in Article 15.2, and D 5
H 5 height of soil over the top of the tunnel. diameter or span in feet.
FIGURE 15.2.3A Diagram for Coefficient Cd for Tunnels in Soil (f 5 Friction Angle)
15.3.2.2 The ultimate design longitudinal seam For diameters less than Dc, the ring compression stress
strengths are: at which buckling becomes critical is:
 f2 kD  2 
fc = f u −  u × 
TABLE 15.3.2.2
 in psi (15 - 5)
 48E  r  
For diameters greater than Dc:

12E
fc 5 }2 in psi (15-6)
(kD/r)
where:
Dc 5 (r/k)Ï2w4wE
w/f
wuw 5 critical pipe (15-7)
diameters in inches;
fu 5 minimum specified tensile strength in pounds per
square inch;
fc 5 buckling stress in pounds per square inch, not to
exceed minimum specified yield strength;
D 5 pipe diameter in inches;
15.3.2.3 The thrust, T, multiplied by the safety fac- r 5 radius of gyration of section in inches per foot;
tor, should not exceed the ultimate seam strength. E 5 modulus of elasticity in pounds per square
inch.
15.3.3 Minimum Stiffness for Installation
k will vary from 0.22 for soils with f . 15 to 0.44 for
15.3.3.1 The liner plate ring shall have enough rigid- soils f , 15.
ity to resist the unbalanced loads of normal construction:
grouting pressure, local slough-ins, and miscellaneous 15.3.4.2 Design for buckling is accomplished by lim-
concentrated loads. iting the ring compression thrust T to the buckling stress
The minimum stiffness required for these loads can be multiplied by the effective cross-sectional area of the liner
expressed for convenience by the formula below. It must plate divided by the factor of safety.
be recognized, however, that the limiting values given here fcA
are only recommended minima. Actual job conditions may T5 } (15-8)
FS
require higher values (greater effective stiffness). Final de-
termination on this factor should be based on intimate where:
knowledge of the project and practical experience. T 5 thrust per linear foot from Article 15.3.2;
A 5 effective cross-sectional area of liner plate in
15.3.3.2 The minimum stiffness for installation is de- square inches per foot;
termined by the formula: FS 5 factor of safety for buckling.
Minimum stiffness 5 EI/D2 (15-4)

15.3.5 Deflection or Flattening
where:
15.3.5.1 Deflection of a tunnel depends significantly
D 5 diameter in inches;
on the amount of over-excavation of the bore and is af-
E 5 modulus of elasticity, psi (29 3 106);
fected by delay in backpacking or inadequate backpack-
I 5 moment of inertia, inches to the fourth power per
ing. The magnitude of deflection is not primarily a func-
inch;
tion of soil modulus or the liner plate properties, so it
For 2-Flange (EI/D2) 5 50 minimum;
cannot be computed with usual deflection formulae.
For 4-Flange (EI/D2) 5 111 minimum;
15.3.5.2 Where the tunnel clearances are important,
15.3.4 Critical Buckling of Liner Plate Wall the designer should oversize the structure to provide for a
normal deflection. Good construction methods should
15.3.4.1 Wall buckling stresses are determined from result in deflections of not more than 3% of the normal
the following formulae: diameter.
15.4 CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL TABLE 15.5B Section Properties for Two-Flange
REQUIREMENTS Liner Plate
15.4.1 Chemical Composition
Base metal shall conform to ASTM A 569.
15.4.2 Minimum Mechanical Properties of Flat

Plate Before Cold Forming
Tensile strength 5 42,000 psi

Yield strength 5 28,000 psi
15.6 COATINGS
Elongation, 2 inches 5 30 percent
Steel tunnel liner plates shall be of heavier gage or
15.4.3 Dimensions and Tolerances
thickness or protected by coatings or other means when
required for resistance to abrasion or corrosion.
Nominal plate dimensions shall provide the section
properties shown in Article 15.5. Thickness tolerances
15.7 BOLTS
shall conform to Paragraph 14 of AASHTO M 167.
15.7.1 Bolts and nuts used with lapped seams shall be
15.5 SECTION PROPERTIES not less than 5⁄ 8 inch in diameter. The bolts shall conform
to the specifications of ASTM A 449 for plate thickness
The section properties per inch of plate width, based on equal to or greater than 0.209 inches and A 307 for plate
the average of one ring of linear plates, shall conform to thickness less than 0.209 inches. The nut shall conform to
the following: ASTM A 307, Grade A.
TABLE 15.5A Section Properties for Four-Flange
Liner Plate 15.7.2 Circumferential seam bolts shall be A 307 or bet-
ter for all plate thicknesses.
15.7.3 Bolts and nuts used with four flanged plates shall
be not less than 1⁄ 2 inch in diameter for plate thicknesses
to and including 0.179 inches and not less than 5⁄ 8 inch in
diameter for plates of greater thickness. The bolts and nuts
shall be quick acting coarse thread and shall conform to
ASTM A 307, Grade A.
15.8 SAFETY FACTORS
Longitudinal test seam strength 53

Pipe wall buckling 52
Section 16
SOIL-REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE
INTERACTION SYSTEMS
16.1 GENERAL b 5 width of section which resists M, N, V—Usually

b 5 12 inches (Article 16.4.6)
16.1.1 Scope Bc 5 out-to-out horizontal span of pipe or box, ft (Ar-
ticles 16.4.4, 16.4.5, 16.6.4, and 16.7.4.)
Specifications in this Section govern the design of Bd 5 horizontal width of trench at top of pipe or box, ft
buried reinforced concrete structures. A buried reinforced (Articles 16.4.4, 16.6.4, and 16.7.4.)
concrete element becomes part of a composite system Bf 5 bedding factor (Article 16.4.5)
comprising the reinforced concrete section and the soil Bfe 5 earth load bedding factor
envelope, both of which contribute to the structural be- BfLL 5 live load bedding factor
havior of the system. Bl 5 crack control coefficient for effect of cover and
spacing of reinforcement (Article 16.4.6)
16.1.2 Notations Bc9 5 out-to-out vertical rise of pipe, ft (Figure 16.4C)
Cc 5 load coefficient for embankment installations
A 5 effective tension area of concrete surrounding the (Article 16.4.5)
flexural tension reinforcement and hav-ing the Cd 5 load coefficient for trench installations (Article
same centroid as that reinforcement, divided by 16.4.4)
the number of bars or wires, sq in.; when the flex- CA 5 constant corresponding to the shape of pipe (Ar-
ural reinforcement consists of several bar sizes or ticle 16.4.5)
wire the number of bars or wires shall be com- CN 5 parameter which is a function of the distribution
puted as the total area of reinforcement divided of the vertical load and the vertical reaction (Ar-
by the area of the largest bar or wire used (Arti- ticle 16.4.5)
cles 16.6.4 and 16.7.4) Cl 5 crack control coefficient for type of reinforce-
Ap 5 total active lateral pressure acting on pipe, lbs/ft ment (Article 16.4.6)
(Article 16.4.5 and Figure 16.4C) d 5 distance from compression face to centroid of
As 5 tension reinforcement area on width b, in.2/ft tension reinforcement, in. (Articles 16.4.6.6,
(Articles 16.4.6.6, 16.6.4.7, 16.7.4.7, and 16.8.5.7) 16.6.4.7, 16.7.4.7, and 16.8.5.7)
Asi 5 area of total inner cage reinforcement required in dc 5 thickness of concrete cover measured from ex-
length b, in2/ft (Article 16.4.6.6) treme tension fiber to center of bar or wire located
Aso 5 area of total outer cage reinforcement required in closest thereto (Articles 16.6.4.7, 16.7.4.7, and
length b, in2/ft (Article 16.4.6.6) 16.8.5.7)
Avr 5 stirrup reinforcement area to resist radial ten- D 5 D-load of pipe, three-edge bearing test load ex-
sion forces on width b, in.2/ft in each line of pressed in pounds per linear foot per foot of span
stirrups at circumferential spacing s (Article to produce a 0.01-inch crack (Article 16.4.5)
16.4.6) Dt 5 inside diameter of pipe, in.
Avs 5 required area of stirrups for shear reinforcement, fs 5 service load stress in reinforcing steel for crack
in.2 (Article 16.4.6.6.6.2) control (Articles 16.6.4.7, 16.7.4.7, and 16.8.5.7)
Awr 5 steel area required for an individual circumferen- fv 5 maximum allowable strength of stirrup material,
tial wire for flexure at a splice or at the point of lbs/in.2 (Article 16.4.6.6.6)
maximum moment for quadrant mat reinforce- fy 5 specified yield strength of reinforcement, lbs/in.2
ment, in2 (Article 16.4.7) (Article 16.4.6)
407
Fc 5 factor for effect of curvature on diagonal tension Ns 5 axial thrust acting on cross section of width b,
(shear) strength in curved components (Article service load condition (1 when compressive, 2
16.4.6.6.5) when tensile), lbs/ft (Articles 16.4.6.6.4, 16.6.4.7,
Fcr 5 factor for adjusting crack control relative to aver- 16.7.4.7, and 16.8.5.7)
age maximum crack width of 0.01 inch when Fcr Nu 5 factored axial thrust acting on cross section of
5 1.0 (Article 16.4.6.6.4) width b, lbs/ft (Article 16.4.6)
Fd 5 factor for crack depth effect resulting in increase p 5 projection ratio (Article 16.4.5.2.1)
in diagonal tension (shear) strength with decreas- p9 5 negative projection ratio (Figure 16.4A and Table
ing d (Article 16.4.6.6.5) 16.4A)
Fe 5 soil-structure interaction factor (Articles 16.4.4, PL 5 PL denotes the prism load (weight of the column
16.6.4, and 16.7.4) of earth) over the pipe’s outside diameter, lbs/ft
Fe1 5 soil structure interaction factor for embankment (Figure 16.4.A)
installations (Articles 16.4.4, 16.6.4, and 16.7.4) q 5 ratio of the total lateral pressure to the total verti-
Fe2 5 soil-structure interaction factor for trench cal load (Article 16.4.5)
installations (Articles 16.4.4, 16.6.4, and rs 5 radius of the inside reinforcement, in. (Article
16.7.4) 16.4.6.6.3.1)
Frp 5 factor for process and local materials that af- rsd 5 settlement ratio (Article 16.4.5.2.1)
fect the radial tension strength of pipe (Article s 5 spacing of reinforcement wire or bar, in. (Article
16.4.6) 16.4.6.6.4)
Frt 5 factor for pipe size effect on radial tension sv 5 circumferential spacing of stirrups, in. (Article
strength (Article 16.4.6.6.3.1) 16.4.6.6.6)
Fvp 5 factor for process and local materials that affect s, 5 spacing of circumferential reinforcement, in. (Ar-
the shear strength of pipe (Article 16.4.6.6.5) ticle 16.4.6.6.4)
FN 5 coefficient for effect of thrust on shear strength Si 5 internal horizontal span of pipe, in. (Articles
(Article 16.4.6.6.5) 16.4.6.6 and 16.4.5.1)
fc9 5 design compressive strength of concrete, lbs/in.2 tb 5 clear cover over reinforcement, in. (Article
(Articles 16.4.6, 16.6.2, and 16.7.2) 16.4.6.6.4)
h 5 overall thickness of member (wall thickness), in. Vb 5 basic shear strength of critical section, lbs/ft
(Articles 16.4.6.6, 16.6.4.7, 16.7.4.7, and 16.8.5.7) where Mnu /(Vud) 5 3.0 (Article 16.4.6.6.5)
H 5 height of fill above top of pipe or box, ft (Articles Vc 5 nominal shear strength provided by width b of
16.4.4, 16.4.5, 16.6.4, and 16.7.4) concrete cross section, lbs/ft (Article 16.4.6.6.6)
HAF 5 horizontal arching factor (Figure 16.4A) Vu 5 factored shear force acting on cross section of
i 5 coefficient for effect of axial force at service load width b, lbs/ft (Article 16.4.6.6.5)
stress, fs (Articles 16.4.6.6.4, 16.6.4.7, 16.7.4.7, Vuc 5 factored shear force at critical section, lbs/ft
and 16.8.5.7) where Mnu /(Vud) 5 3.0 (Article 16.4.6.6.5)
j 5 coefficient for moment arm at service load stress, VAF 5 vertical arching factor (Article 16.4.4.2.1.1)
fs (Articles 16.4.6.6.4, 16.6.4.7, 16.7.4.7, and w 5 unit weight of soil, lbs/ft3 (Article 16.4.4)
16.8.5.7) WE 5 total earth load on pipe or box, lbs/ft (Articles
K 5 ratio of the active unit lateral soil pressure to unit 16.4.4, 16.4.5, 16.6.4, and 16.7.4)
vertical soil pressure-Rankine’s coefficient of Wf 5 fluid load in the pipe as determined according to
active earth pressure (Figures 16.4B-D) Article 16.4.4.2.2, lbs/ft
Ld 5 development length of reinforcing wire or bar, in WL 5 total live load on pipe or box, lbs/ft (Articles
(Article 16.4.7) 16.4.4 and 16.4.5)
Mnu 5 factored moment acting on length b as modified WT 5 total load, earth and live, on pipe or box, lbs/ft
for effects of compressive or tensile thrust, in- (Articles 16.4.4 and 16.4.5)
lbs/ft (Article 16.4.6.6.5) x 5 parameter which is a function of the area of the
Ms 5 moment acting on cross section of width, b, ser- vertical projection of the pipe over which lateral
vice load conditions, in-lbs/ft (Taken as absolute pressure is effective (Article 16.4.5)
value in design equations, always +) (Articles µ 5 coefficient of internal friction of the soil (Fig-
16.4.6.6.4, 16.6.4.7, 16.7.4.7, and 16.8.5.7) ure 16.4B)
Mu 5 factored moment acting on cross section of width µ9 5 coefficient of friction between backfill and trench
b, in.-lbs/ft (Article 16.4.6.6.6.1) walls (Figure 16.4B)
n 5 number of layers of reinforcement in a cage—1 c 5 central angle of pipe subtended by assumed dis-
or 2 (Article 16.4.6.6.4) tribution of external reactive force (Figure 16.4F)
r 5 ratio of reinforcement area to concrete area (Ar- 16.2 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN
ticle 16.4.6)
ff 5 strength reduction factor for flexure (Article 16.2.1 For soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction
16.4.6.6.1) systems designed with reference to service loads and al-
fr 5 strength reduction factor for radial tension (Arti- lowable stresses, the service load stresses shall not exceed
cle 16.4.6.6.3.1) the values shown in Article 8.15 except as modified herein.
fv 5 strength reduction factors for shear (Article
16.4.6.6.5) 16.2.2 For precast reinforced concrete circular pipe,
elliptical pipe, and arch pipe, the results of three edge-
16.1.3 Loads bearing tests made in accordance with AASHTO mate-
rials specifications may be used in lieu of service load
Design loads shall be determined by the forces acting design.
on the structure. For earth loads, see Article 3.20. For live
loads see Articles 3.4 through 3.8 and Articles 3.11 and 16.3 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
3.12. For loading combinations see Article 3.22.
16.3.1 Soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction
16.1.4 Design systems shall be designed to have design strengths of all
sections at least equal to the required strengths calculated
Design may be based on working stress or ultimate for the factored loads as stipulated in Article 3.22, except
strength principles. The design criteria shall include as modified herein.
structural aspects (e.g. flexure, thrust, shear), handling
and installation, and crack control. Footing design for 16.3.2 For precast reinforced concrete circular pipe, el-
cast-in-place boxes and arches shall be in conformity liptical pipe, and arch pipe, the results of three edge-bear-
with Article 4.4. ing tests made in accordance with AASHTO materials
specifications may be used in lieu of load factor design.
16.1.5 Materials
The materials shall conform to the AASHTO materials 16.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPE
specifications referenced herein.
16.4.1 Application
16.1.6 Soil
This Specification is intended for use in design for pre-
Structural performance is dependent on soil structure cast reinforced concrete circular pipe, elliptical pipe, and
interaction. The type and anticipated behavior of the ma- arch pipe. Standard dimensions are shown in AASHTO
terial beneath the structure, adjacent to the structure, and material specifications M 170, M 206, M 207, and M 242.
over the structure must be considered. Design wall thicknesses other than the standard wall di-
mensions may be used, provided the design complies with
16.1.7 Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions all applicable requirements of Section 16.
Where abrasive or corrosive conditions exist, suitable 16.4.2 Materials

protective measures shall be considered.
16.4.2.1 Concrete
16.1.8 End Structures
Concrete shall conform to Article 8.2 except that eval-
Structures may require special consideration where uation of fc9 may be based on cores.
erosion may occur. Skewed alignment may require special
end wall designs. 16.4.2.2 Reinforcement
16.1.9 Construction and Installation Reinforcement shall meet the requirements of Articles
8.3.1 through 8.3.3 only, and shall conform to one of the
The construction and installation shall conform to Sec- following AASHTO material specifications M 31, M 32,
tion 27, Division II. M 55, M 221, or M 255. For smooth wire and smooth
TABLE 16.4A Standard Embankment Installation Soils and Minimum Compaction Requirements
Haunch and
Installation Type Bedding Thickness Outer Bedding Lower Side
Type 1 Bc /240 (600 mm) minimum, not less than 95% SW 90% SW, 95% ML,
30 (75 mm). If rock foundation, use Bc /120 or
(300 mm) minimum, not less than 60 100% CL
(150 mm).
(See Note 3.) 30 (75 mm). If rock foundation, use Bc /120 or or
(300 mm) minimum, not less than 60 95% ML 95% CL
(150 mm).
Type 3 Bc /240 (600 mm) minimum, not less than 85% SW, 90% ML, or 85% SW, 90% ML,
(See Note 3.) 30 (75 mm). If rock foundation, use Bc /120 95% CL or
(300 mm) minimum, not less than 60 95% CL
(150 mm).
Type 4 No bedding required, except if rock No compaction required, No compaction required,
foundation, use Bc /120 (300 mm) minimum, except if CL, use except if CL, use
not less than 60 (150 mm). 85% CL 85% CL
NOTES:
1. Compaction and soil symbols -i.e. “95% SW” refer to SW soil material with a minimum standard proctor compaction of 95%.
See Table 16.4C for equivalent modified proctor values.
2. Soil in the outer bedding, haunch, and lower side zones, except within Bc /3 from the pipe springline, shall be compacted to at least the same
compaction as the majority of soil in the overfill zone.
3. Only Type 2 and 3 installations are available for horizontal elliptical, vertical elliptical and arch pipe.
4. SUBTRENCHES
4.1 A subtrench is defined as a trench with its top below finished grade by more than 0.1H or, for roadways, its top is at an elevation lower than
19 (0.3 m) below the bottom of the pavement base material.
4.2 The minimum width of a subtrench shall be 1.33 Bc, or wider if required for adequate space to attain the specified compaction in the haunch
and bedding zones.
4.3 For subtrenches with walls of natural soil, any portion of the lower side zone in the subtrench wall shall be at least as firm as an equivalent
soil placed to the compaction requirements specified for the lower side zone and as firm as the majority of soil in the overfill zone, or shall be
removed and replaced with soil compacted to the specified level.
welded wire fabric, a yield stress of 65,000 psi and for de- 16.4.3.2 Soils
formed welded wire fabric, a yield stress of 70,000 psi
may be used. The AASHTO Soil Classifications and the USCS
Soil Classifications equivalent to the generic soil types
16.4.2.3 Concrete Cover for Reinforcement in the Standard Installations are presented in Table
16.4C.
The minimum concrete cover for the reinforcement in
precast concrete pipe shall be 1 inch in pipe having a wall 16.4.4 Design
thickness of 21⁄ 2 inches or greater and 3⁄ 4 inch in pipe hav-
ing a wall thickness of less than 21⁄ 2 inches. 16.4.4.1 General Requirements
16.4.3 Installations Design shall conform to applicable sections of these

specifications except as provided otherwise in this arti-
16.4.3.1 Standard Installations cle. For design loads, see Article 16.1.3; for standard in-
stallation, see Article 16.4.3.1; and for bedding condi-
Standard Embankment Installations are presented in tions, see Section 27, Division II—Construction and the
Figure 16.4B and Standard Trench Installations are pre- Soil-Structure Interaction Modifications that follow.
sented in Figure 16.4C; these figures define soil areas and Live loads, WL, shall be included as part of the total load,
critical dimensions. Generic soil types, minimum com- WT, and shall be distributed through the earth cover as
paction requirements, and minimum bedding thicknesses specified in Article 6.4, except that the 2-foot minimum
are listed in Table 16.4A for four Standard Embankment in the first paragraph of Article 6.4 does not apply. Other
Installation Types and in Table 16.4B for four Standard methods for determining total load and pressure distrib-
Trench Installation Types. ution may be used, if they are based on successful design
TABLE 16.4B Standard Trench Installation Soils and Minimum Compaction Requirements
Haunch and
Installation Type Bedding Thickness Outer Bedding Lower Side
30 (75 mm). If rock foundation, use Bc /120 100% CL, or
(300 mm) minimum, not less than 60 natural soils of
(150 mm). equal firmness
(See Note 3.) 30 (75 mm). If rock foundation, use Bc /120 or 95% CL, or natural
(300 mm) minimum, not less than 60 95% ML soils of equal
(150 mm). firmness
Type 3 Bc /240 (600 mm) minimum, not less than 85% SW, 90% ML, or 85% SW, 90% ML,
(See Note 3.) 30 (75 mm). If rock foundation, use Bc /120 95% CL 95% CL, or natural
(300 mm) minimum, not less than 60 soils of equal
(150 mm). firmness
Type 4 No bedding required, except if rock No compaction required, 85% SW, 90% ML
foundation, use Bc /120 (300 mm) minimum, except if CL, use 95% CL, or natural
not less than 60 (150 mm). 85% CL soils of equal
firmness
NOTES:
1. Compaction and soil symbols -i.e. “95% SW”-refers to SW soil material with minimum standard Proctor compaction of 95%.
See Table 16.4C for equivalent modified Proctor values.
2. The trench top elevation shall be no lower than 0.1H below finished grade or, for roadways, its top shall be no lower than an elevation of
19 (0.3 m) below the bottom of the pavement base material.
4. Soil in bedding and haunch zones shall be compacted to at least the same compaction as specified for the majority of soil in the backfill zone.
5. The trench width shall be wider than shown if required for adequate space to attain the specified compaction in the haunch and bedding
zones.
6. For trench walls that are within 10 degrees of vertical, the compaction or firmness of the soil in the trench walls and lower side zone need
not be considered.
7. For trench walls with greater than 10-degree slopes that consist of embankment, the lower side shall be compacted to at least the same
compaction as specified for the soil in the backfill zone.
practice or tests that reflect the appropriate design con- loading conditions where Fe 5 VAF given, in Figure
ditions. 16.4A for each Type of Standard Installation.
For Standard Installations the earth pressure distribu-
16.4.4.2 Loads tion shall be the Heger pressure distribution shown in Fig-
ure 16.4A for each type of Standard Installation.
16.4.4.2.1 Earth Loads and Pressure Distribution The unit weight of soil used to calculate earth load shall
The effects of soil-structure interaction shall be taken be the estimated unit weight for the soils specified for the
into account and shall be based on the design earth cover, pipe-soil installation and shall not be less than 110 lbs/cu ft.
sidefill compaction, and bedding characteristics of the
pipe-soil installations. 16.4.4.2.1.2 Nonstandard Installations
When nonstandard installations are used, the earth load
16.4.4.2.1.1 Standard Installations
and pressure distribution shall be determined by an ap-
For the Standard Installations given in Article 16.4.3.1, propriate soil-structure interaction analysis.
the earth load, WE, may be determined by multiplying the
prism load (weight of the column of earth) over the pipes 16.4.4.2.2 Pipe Fluid Weight
outside diameter by the soil-structure interaction factor,
The weight of fluid, Wf, in the pipe shall be considered
Fe, for the specified installation type.
in design based on a fluid weight of 62.4 lbs/ft3, unless
otherwise specified. For Standard Installations, the fluid
WE 5 FewBcH (16-1)
weight shall be supported by vertical earth pressure that
Standard Installations for both embankments and trenches is assumed to have the same distribution over the lower
shall be designed for positive projection, embankment part of the pipe as given in Figure 16.4A for earth load.
TABLE 16.4C Equivalent USCS and AASHTO Soil Classifications For SIDD Soil Designations
Representative Soil Types Percent Compaction
SIDD Soil USCS AASHTO Standard Proctor Modified Proctor
Gravelly Sand SW, SP A1, A3 100 95
(SW) GW, GP 95 90
90 85
85 80
80 75
61 59
Sandy Silt (ML) GM, SM, ML A2, A4 100 95
Also GC, SC 95 90
with less than 20% 90 85
passing No. 200 sieve 85 80
80 75
49 46
Silty Clay (CL) GL, MH, GC, SC A5, A6 100 90
95 85
90 80
85 75
80 70
45 40
CH A7 100 90
95 85
90 80
45 40
16.4.4.2.3 Live Loads 16.4.5 Indirect Design Method Based on Pipe

Strength and Load-Carrying Capacity
Live loads shall be either the AASHTO HS-Series or
the AASHTO Interstate Design truck loads. Live loads
16.4.5.1 Loads
shall be distributed through the earth cover as specified in
Article 6.4, except that the 2-foot minimum in the first
The design load-carrying capacity of a reinforced con-
paragraph of Article 6.4 does not apply. For Standard In-
crete pipe must equal the design load determined for the
stallations the live load on the pipe shall be assumed to
pipe as installed, or
have a uniform vertical distribution across the top of the
pipe and the same distribution across the bottom of the
pipe as given in Figure 16.4A for earth load. 12   W + WF WL 
D=  E + (16 - 2)
 Sl   Bfe BfLL 
16.4.4.3 Minimum Fill
where
For unpaved areas and under flexible pavements,
the minimum fill over precast reinforced concrete pipe D 5 D-load of the pipe (three edge-bearing test load
shall be 1 foot or 1⁄ 8 of the diameter or rise, whichever is expressed in pounds per linear foot per foot of
greater. Under rigid pavements, the distance between the diameter) to produce a 0.01-inch crack. For
top of the pipe and the bottom of the pavement slab shall Type 1 installations, D-load as calculated
be a minimum of 9 inches of compacted granular fill. above shall be modified by multiplying by an
installation factor of 1.10;
16.4.4.4 Design Methods Si 5 internal diameter or horizontal span of the pipe
in inches;
The structural design requirements of installed precast Bf 5 bedding factor, see Article 16.4.5.2;
reinforced concrete pipe may be determined by either the BFc 5 earth load bedding factor;
Indirect or Direct Method. BFLL 5 live load bedding factor;
NOTES:
1. VAF and HAF are vertical and horizontal arching factors. These coefficients represent nondimensional total vertical and horizontal loads on the pipe,
respectively. The actual total vertical and horizontal loads are (VAF) 3 (PL) and (HAF) 3 (PL), respectively, where PL is the prism load.
2. Coefficients A1 through A6 represent the integration of nondimensional vertical and horizontal components of soil pressure under the indicated
portions of the component pressure diagrams (i.e., the area under the component pressure diagrams). The pressures are assumed to vary either para-
bolically or linearly, as shown, with the nondimensional magnitudes at governing points represented by h1, h2, uh1, vh1, a and b. Nondimensional hor-
izontal and vertical dimensions of component pressure regions are defined by c, d, e, uc, vd, and f coefficients.
3. d is calculated as (0.5 c-e)

h1 is calculated as (1.5A1) / (c) (I 1 u)
h2 is calculated as (1.5 A2) / [(d) (1 1 v) 1 (2e)].
FIGURE 16.4A Heger Pressure Distribution and Arching Factors
FIGURE 16.4B
FIGURE 16.4C
WT 5 WE 1 WL; q 5 the ratio of the total lateral pressure to the total

WT 5 total load on the pipe as determined according vertical fill load.
to Article 16.4.4;
WE 5 earth load on the pipe as determined according 16.4.5.2.3 Live Load Bedding Factor
to Article 16.4.4;
The bedding factors for live load, WL, for both circular
Wp 5 fluid load in the pipe as determined according
to Article 16.4.4.2.2; pipe and arch and elliptical pipe are given in Table 16.5F.
WL 5 live load on the pipe as determined according If Bfe is less than BFLL, use Bfe instead of BFLL for the live
to Article 16.4.4. load bedding factor.
Design values for CA, CN, and x are found in Table
16.4.5.1.1 Ultimate D-load 16.4D. The value of q is determined by the following
The required D-load at which the pipe develops its ul- equations:
timate strength in a three-edge-bearing test is the design Arch and Horizontal Elliptical Pipe
D-load (at 0.01-inch crack) multiplied by a strength fac-
tor that is specified in AASHTO materials specifications p  B
q = .23 1 + .35p e  (16 - 4)
M 170 or M 242 (ASTM C 76 or C 655) for circular pipe, Fe  H
M 206 (ASTM C 506) for arch pipe and M 207 (ASTM C
507) for elliptical pipe. Vertical Elliptical Pipe
16.4.5.2 Bedding Factor p  B

q = .48 1 + .73p e  (16 - 5)
Fe  H
The bedding factor, Bf, is the ratio of the supporting
strength of buried pipe to the strength of the pipe deter- where
mined in the three-edge-bearing test. The supporting p 5 projection ratio, ratio of the vertical distance
strength of buried pipe depends on the type of Standard between the outside top of the pipe and the
Installation. See Figures 16.4B and 16.4C for circular pipe ground or bedding surface to the outside ver-
and Figures 16.4D and 16.4E for other arch and elliptical tical height of the pipe.
shapes. The Tables 16.4A and 16.4B apply to circular,
arch and elliptical shapes. 16.4.5.2.4 Intermediate Trench Widths
16.4.5.2.1 Earth Load Bedding Factor for Circular For intermediate trench widths, the bedding factor may
Pipe be estimated by interpolation between the narrow trench
Earth load bedding factors, Bfe, for circular pipe are and transition width bedding factors.
presented in Table 16.4E.
16.4.6 Direct Design Method for Precast Reinforced
16.4.5.2.2 Earth Load Bedding Factor for Arch and Concrete Circular Pipe
Elliptical Pipe
16.4.6.1 Application
The bedding factor for installations of arch and ellip-
tical pipe, Figures 16.4D and 16.4E, is This Specification is intended for use in direct design
of precast reinforced concrete circular pipe, and is based
CA on design of pipe wall for effects of loads and pressure
Bfe = (16 - 3)
C N − xq distribution for installed conditions. Standard dimensions
are shown in AASHTO M 170. Design wall thicknesses
Values for CA and CN are listed in Table 16.4D. other than the standard wall dimension may be used pro-
vided the design complies with all applicable require-
CA 5 a constant corresponding to the shape of the
ments of Section 16.
pipe;
CN 5 a parameter which is a function of the distribu-
tion of the vertical load and vertical reaction; 16.4.6.2 General
x 5 a parameter which is a function of the area of the
vertical projection of the pipe over which lateral Design shall conform to applicable sections of these
pressure is effective; specifications, except as provided otherwise in this article.
FIGURE 16.4D Trench Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes
The total load on the pipe shall be determined accord- For use with the Heger Pressure Distribution, four
ing to Article 16.4.4 and Table 3.22.1A. Types of Standard Embankment Installations, soil types,
The pressure distribution on the pipe from applied and compaction requirements are depicted in Figures
loads and bedding reaction shall be determined from a 16.4B and 16.4E and Tables 16.4A and 16.4B.
soil-structure analysis or shall be a rational approxima- Table 16.4C relates to the Standard Installation desig-
tion. Acceptable pressure distribution diagrams are the nated soils to the AASHTO and Unified Soil Classifica-
Heger Pressure Distribution (see Figure 16.4A) for use tion System categories.
with the Standard Installations: the Olander/Modified For other bedding conditions, see Section 27, Division
Olander Radial Pressure Distribution (see Figure 16.4F); II—Construction.
or the Paris/Manual Uniform Pressure Distribution (see Other methods for determining total load and pres-
Figure 16.4F). sure distribution may be used, if based on successful de-
FIGURE 16.4E Embankment Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes
sign practice or tests that reflect the appropriate design 16.4.6.4 Process and Material Factors
condition.
Process and material factors, Frp for radial tension and
Fvp for shear strength for load factor design of plant made
16.4.6.3 Strength-Reduction Factors reinforced concrete pipe are conservatively taken as 1.0.
Higher values may be used if substantiated by appropriate
Strength-reduction factors for load factor design test data approved by the Engineer.
of plant made reinforced concrete pipe may be taken
as 1.0 for flexure and 0.9 for shear and radial tension. 16.4.6.5 Orientation Angle
For Type 1 installations, the strength-reduction factor
shall be 0.9 for flexure and 0.82 for shear and radial When quadrant mats, stirrups and/or elliptical cages
tension. are used, the pipe installation requires a specific orienta-
TABLE 16.4D Design Values of Parameters in where b 5 12 in.

Bedding Factor Equation
where
Values Type of Values Projection Values
Pipe Shape of CA Bedding of CN Ratio of x h 5 wall thickness in inches;
Horizontal Si 5 internal diameter or horizontal span of pipe in
Ellipti- inches.
cal and In no case shall the minimum reinforcement be less
Arch 1.337 Type 2 0.630 0.9 0.421 than 0.07 square inches per linear foot.
0.7 0.369
Type 3 0.763 0.5 0.268 16.4.6.6.3 Maximum Flexural Reinforcement
0.3 0.148 Without Stirrups
Vertical
Elliptical Type 2 0.516 0.9 0.718 16.4.6.6.3.1 Limited by Radial Tension
0.7 0.639
b   φr  
1.021 Type 3 0.615 0.5
0.3
0.457
0.238
Inside A s max =  16 rs Frp fc′   Frt 
12    φf  
( fy )
(16 -10)
tion. Designs shall be based on the possibility of a rotation
misorientation during installation by an Orientation Angle where
of 10º in either direction.
As max 5 maximum flexural reinforcement area without
stirrups in in.2/ft
b 5 12 in.
16.4.6.6.1 Reinforcement for Flexural Strength Frt 5 1 1 0.00833 (72 2 Si)
For 12 in. # Si # 72 in.
A s = (gφ f d − N u Frp 5 1.0 unless a higher value substantiated by test
− g[g(φ f d )2 − N u (2φ f d − h ) − 2 M u ] ) (f )
y
data is approved by the Engineer;
(144 − Si )2
(16 - 6) Frt 5 + 0.80
26, 000
where g 5 0.85 bfc9
For 72 in. , Si # 144 in.
b 5 12 in.
Frt 5 0.8 for Si . 144 in.
16.4.6.6.2 Minimum Reinforcement rs 5 radius of the inside reinforcement in inches.
For inside face of pipe 16.4.6.6.3.2 Limited by Concrete Compression
  5.5 × 10 4 g ′φ f d  
b
A si = (Si ÷ h )2 (fy ) (16-7) A s max =  
 (87 , 000 + f )
 − 0.75N u 

( fy ) (16 -11)
12 y 
where b 5 12 in. where

 (f ′ − 4, 000) 
For outside face of pipe g ′ = bfc′ 0.85 − 0.05 c
 1, 000 
g ′max = 0.85bfc′ and g ′min = 0.65 bfc′
b
A so = 0.60  (Si ÷ h )2
12
( fy ) (16-8)
where b 5 12 in. 16.4.6.6.4 Crack Width Control (Service Load

Design)
For elliptical reinforcement in circular pipe and for
pipe 33-inch diameter and smaller with a single cage of
3 4
h
reinforcement in the middle third of the pipe wall, rein- Bl M s + N s  d − 
forcement shall not be less than A, where: Fcr 5 2 2 C bh2 Ïf9
wc
1
30, 000φ f dA s ij
b
A s = 2  (Si ÷ h )2
12
( fy ) (16-9) (16-12)
TABLE 16.4E Bedding Factors For Circular Pipe

Standard Installations
Pipe Diameter, in. Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4
12 4.4 3.2 2.5 1.7

24 4.2 3.0 2.4 1.7
36 4.0 2.9 2.3 1.7
72 3.8 2.8 2.2 1.7
144 3.6 2.8 2.2 1.7
NOTE:
1. For pipe diameters other than listed, embankment condition bedding factors, Bfc can be obtained by interpolation.
2. Bedding factors are based on soils being placed with the minimum compaction specified in Tables 16.4A and 16.4B for each Standard
Installation.
Fcr 5 crack control factor, see Note c; If the service load thrust, Ns is tensile rather than com-
Ms 5 bending moment, service load; pressive (this may occur in pipes subject to intermittent
Ns 5 thrust (positive when compressive), service load. hydrostatic pressure), use the quantity (1.1Ms20.6Nsd)
(with tensile Ns taken negative) in place of the quantity
Crack control is assumed to be 1 inch from the ([Ms 1 Ns(d 2 h/2)]/ji) in Equation (16-12).
closest tension reinforcement, even if the cover over the
reinforcement is greater or less than 1 in. The crack j > 0.74 1 0.1 e/d;
control factor Fcr in Equation (16-12) indicates the prob- jmax 5 0.9;
ability that a crack of a specified maximum width will 1
occur. i 5} jd
1 2 }}
When Fcr 5 1.0, the reinforcement area, As, will pro- e
duce an average crack maximum width of 0.01 inch. For Ms h
Fcr values less than 1.0, the probability of a 0.01 inch crack e 5 } 1 d 2 } , in.
Ns 2
is reduced. For Fcr values greater than 1.0, the probability
of a crack greater than 0.01 inch is increased. if e/d , 1.15 crack control will not govern
TABLE 16.4F Bedding Factors, BLL, For HS 20 Live Loadings

Pipe Diameter, in.
Fill Height, Ft 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 144
0.5 2.2 1.7 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1
1.0 2.2 2.2 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.1 1.1 1.1
1.5 2.2 2.2 2.1 1.8 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.1
2.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3
2.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.3
3.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.5 1.4
3.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.5 1.4
4.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.1 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.5
4.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.7
5.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.9 1.8
5.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.0 1.9
6.0 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.0
6.5 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2
NOTE: For pipe diameters other than listed, BLL values can be obtained by interpolation.
FIGURE 16.4F Suggested Design Pressure Distribution

Around a Buried Concrete Pipe for Analysis by Direct Design
FIGURE 16.4G Essential Features of Types of Installation
FIGURE 16.4H General Relationship of Vertical Earth Load and Lateral Pressure
tb 5 clear cover over reinforcement in inches (1) tension on the inside of the pipe
h 5 wall thickness of pipe in inches; (2) tension on the outside of the pipe;
For compressive thrust (1Nu)
Bl = 3 t b s,l 2 n
Nu
where FN 511 }
2,000bh
s, 5 spacing of circumferential reinforcement, in.
n 5 1, when tension reinforcement is a single layer. where b 5 12 in.
n 5 2, when tension reinforcement is made of multi- For tensile thrust (2Nu)
ple layers.
Nu
FN 511 }
C1 5 Crack Control Coefficient 500bh
Type of Reinforcement C1 where b 5 12 in.
1. Smooth wire or plain bars
2. Welded smooth wire fabric, 8 in. (200 mm)
1.0 Mnu 5 Mu 2 Nu } 3
(4h 2 d)
8
4
maximum spacing of longitudinals 1.5
If Vb is less than Vuc, radial stirrups must be provided.
3. Welded deformed wire fabric, deformed wire,
See Article 16.4.6.6.6.
deformed bars, or any reinforcement with stirrups
anchored thereto 1.9
16.4.6.6.6 Radial Stirrups
Notes: Higher values for C1 may be used if substantiated
16.4.6.6.6.1 Radial Tension Stirrups
by test data and approved by the Engineer.
16.4.6.6.5 Shear Strength 1.1sv(Mu 2 0.45 Nufrd)

Avr 5 }}} (16-14)
fvrsfrd
The area of reinforcement, As, determined in Article
where
16.4.6.6.1 or 16.4.6.6.4 must be checked for shear
strength adequacy, so that the basic shear strength, Vb, is Avr 5 required area of stirrup reinforcement for
greater than the factored shear force, Vuc, at the critical radial tension;
section located where Mnu/Vud 5 3.0.
sv 5 circumferential spacing of stirrups (sv max 5
3 4 (16-13)
FdFN
Vb 5 bfvdFvp Ïf9
wc(1.1 1 63r) } 0.75frd);
Fc
where fv 5 maximum allowable strength of stirrup ma-
terial (fmax 5 fy, or anchorage strength,
Vb 5 shear strength of section where Mnu/Vud 5 3.0; whichever is less).
Fvp 5 1.0 unless a higher value substantiated by
test data is approved by the Engineer; 16.4.6.6.6.2 Shear Stirrups
A
r 5 }s ; 1.1s v
bd A vs = [Vu Fc − Vc ] + A vr (16 - 15)
fvs φ v d
rmax 5 0.02;
fc9 max 5 7,000 psi; where
1.6 Avs 5 required area of stirrups for shear reinforcement;
Fd 5 0.8 2 } Vu 5 factored shear force at section;
d
max Fd 5 1.3 for pipe with two cages, or a single el- 4Vb
Vc 5}
Mnu
liptical cage }} 1 1
max Fd 5 1.4 for pipe through 36-inch diameter with a Vud
single circular cage
Vc max 5 2fvbd Ïw fc9
d sv max 5 0.75fvd
Fc 516 }
2r fv max 5 fy or anchorage strength, whichever is less
16.4.6.6.6.3 Stirrup Reinforcement Anchorage The mat shall contain no less than 2 longitudinals at a
distance 1 in greater than that determined by the orienta-
16.4.6.6.6.3.1 Radial Tension Stirrup Anchorage tion angle from either side of the point requiring the max-
imum flexural reinforcement.
When stirrups are used to resist radial tension, they
The point of embedment of the outermost longitudinals
shall be anchored around each circumferential of the in-
of the mat shall be at least a distance determined by the
side cage to develop the design strength of the stirrup, and orientation angle past the point where the continuing re-
they shall also be anchored around the outside cage, or inforcement is no less than double the area required for
embedded sufficiently in the compression side to develop flexure.
the design strength of the stirrup.
16.4.7.2.2 For quadrant mat reinforcement consist-
16.4.6.6.6.3.2 Shear Stirrup Anchorage ing of deformed bars, deformed wire, or welded wire fab-
When stirrups are not required for radial tension but re- ric: (a) circumferentials shall extend past the point where
quired for shear, their longitudinal spacing shall be such they are no longer required by the orientation angle plus
that they are anchored around each or every other tension the greater of 12 wire diameters or 3 ⁄ 4 of the wall thickness
circumferential. Such spacings shall not exceed 6 inches of the pipe. (b) circumferentials shall extend on either side
of the point of maximum flexural stress not less than the
(150 mm).
orientation angle plus the development length. Ld required
by Equation (16-19), and (c) circumferentials shall extend
16.4.6.6.6.3.3 Stirrup Embedment
at least a distance determined by the orientation angle past
Stirrups intended to resist forces in the invert and the point where the continuing reinforcement is no less
crown regions shall be anchored sufficiently in the oppo- than double the area required by flexure.
site side of the pipe wall to develop the design strength of
the stirrup. 16.5 REINFORCED CONCRETE ARCH, CAST-
IN-PLACE
16.4.6.6.6.3.4 Other Provisions
16.5.1 Application
Article 8.27, Development of Shear Reinforcement,
does not apply to pipe designed according to provisions of This specification is intended for use in the design of
Article 16.4.5. cast-in-place reinforced concrete arches with the arch bar-
rel monolithic with each footing. A separate reinforced
16.4.7 Development of Quadrant Mat concrete invert may be required where the structure is
Reinforcement subject to scour.
16.4.7.1 When quadrant mat reinforcement is used, 16.5.2 Materials

the area of the main cage shall be no less than 25% of the
area required at the point of maximum moment.
16.5.2.1 Concrete
16.4.7.2 In lieu of Article 16.4.7.1, a more detailed
Concrete shall conform to Article 8.2.
analysis may be made.
16.4.7.2.1 For quadrant mat reinforcement consist- 16.5.2.2 Reinforcement

ing of welded smooth wire fabric, the outermost longi-
Reinforcement shall meet the requirements of Article
tudinals on each end of the circumferentials shall be
8.3.
embedded: (a) past the point where the quadrant rein-
forcement is no longer required by the orientation angle
16.5.3 Design
plus the greater of 12 circumferential wire diameters or
3 ⁄ 4 of the wall thickness of the pipe, and (b) past the point
of maximum flexural stress by the orientation angle plus
the development length, Ld.
Design shall conform to these specifications except as
provided otherwise in this Section. For design loads and
A wr fy loading conditions, see Article 3.2. For reinforced con-
L d = 0.27 . (16-19)
s fc′ crete design requirements see Section 8.
16.5.3.2 Minimum Cover 16.6.2 Materials
The minimum fill over reinforced concrete arches shall 16.6.2.1 Concrete
be 12 inches or Span/8.
16.5.3.3 Strength-Reduction Factors uation of fc9 may be based on test beams.
Strength-reduction factors for load factor design of

cast-in-place arches may be taken as 0.90 for flexure and 16.6.2.2 Reinforcement
0.85 for shear.
Reinforcement shall meet the requirements of Article
8.3 except that for welded wire fabric a yield strength of
16.5.3.4 Splices of Reinforcement 65,000 psi may be used. For wire fabric, the spacing of
longitudinal wires shall be a maximum of 8 inches.
Reinforcement shall be in conformity with Art-
icle 8.32.1.1. If lap splicing is used, laps shall be stag-
gered with a minimum of 1 foot measured along the cir- 16.6.3 Concrete Cover for Reinforcement
cumference of the arch. Ties shall be provided connect-
ing the intrados and extrados reinforcement. Ties shall The minimum concrete cover for reinforcement shall
be at 12-inch maximum spacing, in both longitudinal conform to Article 8.22. The top slab shall be considered
and circumferential directions, except as modified by a bridge slab for concrete cover considerations.
shear.
16.5.3.5 Footing Design 16.6.4 Design
Design shall include consideration of differential hor-

izontal and vertical movements and footing rotations.
Footing design shall conform to Article 4.4.
Designs shall conform to applicable sections of these
specifications except as provided otherwise in this article.
For design loads and loading conditions see Section 3. For
16.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX, distribution of concentrated loads through earth for cul-
CAST-IN-PLACE verts with less than 2 feet of cover, see Article 3.24.3,
Case B, and for requirements for bottom distribution re-
16.6.1 Application inforcement in top slabs of such culverts see Article
3.24.10. For distribution of wheel loads to culverts with 2
This specification is intended for use in the design of feet or more of cover see Article 6.4. For reinforced con-
cast-in-place reinforced concrete box culverts. crete design requirements, see Section 8.
FIGURE 16.6A
16.6.4.2 Modification of Earth Loads for Soil 16.6.4.5 Span Length

Structure Interaction
For span length, see Article 8.8, except when mono-
The effects of soil structure interaction shall be taken lithic haunches included at 45º are considered in the de-
into account and shall be based on the design earth cover, sign, negative moment reinforcement in walls and slabs
sidefill compaction, and bedding characteristics. These may be proportioned based on the bending moment at the
parameters may be determined by a soil-structure interac- intersection of haunch and the uniform depth member.
tion analysis of the system. The loads given in Article 6.2
may be used, if they are multiplied by a soil-structure in-
teraction factor, Fe, that accounts for the type and condi-
16.6.4.6 Strength-Reduction Factors
tions of installation as defined in Figure 16.6A, so that the
total earth load, WE on the box section is
Strength-reduction factors for load factor design may
be taken at 0.9 for combined flexure and thrust and as 0.85
WE 5 FewBcH (16-16)
for shear.
Fe may be determined by the Marston-Spangler Theory of
earth loads, as follows
16.6.4.7 Crack Control
16.6.4.2.1 Embankment Installations
The maximum service load stress in the reinforcing
H
Fe1 5 1 1 0.20 } (16-17) steel for crack control shall be
Bc
Fe1 need not be greater than 1.15 for installations with 155
fs = ≤ 0.6 fy ksi (16-19)
compacted fill at the sides of the box section, and need not β3 d c A
be greater than 1.4 for installations with uncompacted fill
at the sides of the box section. d
β = 1 + c 
 0.7d 
16.6.4.2.2 Trench Installations
b 5 approximate ratio of distance from neutral axis
CdB2d to location of crack width at the concrete surface
Fe2 5 } (16-18)
HBc divided by distance from neutral axis to centroid
of tensile reinforcing
Values of Cd can be obtained from Figure 16.4B for nor- dc 5 distance measured from extreme tension fiber to
mally encountered soils. The maximum value of Fe2 need center of the closest bar or wire in inches. For
not exceed Fe1. calculation purposes, the thickness of clear con-
The soil-structure interaction factor, Fe, is not applica- crete cover used to compute dc shall not be taken
ble if the Service Load Design Method is used. greater than 2 inches.
16.6.4.3 Distribution of Concentrated Load The service load stress should be computed considering
Effects to Bottom Slab the effects of both bending moment and thrust using:
The width of top slab strip used for distribution of con-

M s + N s (d − h 2)
centrated wheel loads may be increased by twice the box fs = (16-20)
height and used for the distribution of loads to the bottom (A s jid)
slab.
where
16.6.4.4 Distribution of Concentrated Loads in fs 5 stress in reinforcement under service load

Skewed Culverts conditions, psi
e 5 Ms/Ns + d−h/2
Wheel loads on skewed culverts shall be distributed e/d min. 5 1.15
using the same provisions as given for culverts with main i 5 1/(1−(jd/e)
reinforcement parallel to traffic. j 5 0.74 + 0.1(e/d) # 0.9
16.6.4.8 Minimum Reinforcement 2 feet of cover see Article 3.24.3, Case B, and for require-
ments for bottom reinforcement in top slabs of such cul-
Minimum reinforcement shall be provided in accor- verts see Article 3.24.10. For distribution of wheel loads to
dance with Article 8.17.1 at all cross sections subject to culvert slabs with 2 feet or more of cover, see Article 6.4.
flexural tension, including the inside face of walls. For reinforced concrete design requirements see Sec-
Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall be pro- tion 8. For span length see Article 8.8, except as noted in
vided near the inside surfaces of walls and slabs in accor- Article 16.7.4.6.
dance with Article 8.20.
16.7.4.2 Modification of Earth Loads for
Soil-Structure Interaction
16.7 REINFORCED CONCRETE BOX,
PRECAST The effects of soil-structure interaction shall be taken
into account and shall be based on the design earth cover,
16.7.1 Application sidefill compaction, and bedding characteristics. These
parameters may be determined by a soil-structure interac-
This specification is intended for use in design for pre- tion analysis of the system. The loads given in Article 6.2
cast reinforced concrete box sections. Boxes may be man- may be used, if they are multiplied by a soil-structure in-
ufactured using conventional structural concrete and teraction factor, Fe, that accounts for the type and condi-
forms (formed) or with dry concrete and vibrating form tions of installation as defined in Figure 16.6A, so that the
pipe-making methods (machine made). Standard dimen- total earth load, WE, on the box section is:
sions are shown in AASHTO materials specifications M
259 and M 273. WE 5 FewBcH (16-21)
Fe may be determined by the Marston-Spangler Theory of
16.7.2 Materials earth loads as follows:
16.7.2.1 Concrete
16.7.4.2.1 Embankment Installations:
uation of fc9 may be based on cores. H
Fe1 5 1 1 0.20 } (16-22)
Bc
Fe1 need not be greater than 1.15 for installations with
Reinforcement shall meet the requirements of Article compacted fill at the sides of the box section, and need not
8.3 except that for welded wire fabric a yield strength of be greater than 1.4 for installations with uncompacted fill
65,000 psi may be used. For wire fabric, the spacing of at the sides of the box section.
longitudinal wires shall be a maximum of 8 inches.
16.7.4.2.2 Trench Installations:
16.7.3 Concrete Cover for Reinforcement
CdB2d
The minimum concrete cover for reinforcement Fe2 5 } (16-23)
HBc
in boxes reinforced with wire fabric shall be three times
the wire diameter but not less than 1 inch. For boxes Values of Cd can be obtained from Figure 16.4B for nor-
covered by less than 2 feet of fill, the minimum cover mally encountered soils. The maximum value of Fe2 need
for reinforcement in the top of the slab shall be 2 not exceed Fe1.
inches. The soil-structure interaction factor Fe, is not applica-
ble if the Service Load Design Method is used.
16.7.4 Design
16.7.4.3 Distribution of Concentrated Load
16.7.4.1 General Requirements Effects in Sides and Bottoms
Design shall conform to applicable sections of these The width of the top slab strip used for distribution of
specifications except as provided otherwise in this article. concentrated wheel loads shall also be used for determi-
For design loads and loading conditions see Section 3. For nation of bending moments, shears, and thrusts in the
distribution of wheel loads to culvert slabs under less than sides and bottoms.
16.7.4.4 Distribution of Concentrated Loads in cle 8.20 do not apply to precast concrete box sections,
Skewed Culverts except if units of unusual length (over 16 ft) are fabri-
cated, the minimum longitudinal reinforcement for
Wheel loads on skewed culverts shall be distributed shrinkage and temperature should be as provided in Ar-
using the same provisions as given for culverts with main ticle 8.20.
reinforcement parallel to traffic.
16.8 PRECAST REINFORCED CONCRETE

16.7.4.5 Span Length THREE-SIDED STRUCTURES
When monolithic haunches inclined at 45º are taken 16.8.1 Application

into account, negative reinforcement in walls and slabs
may be proportioned based on the bending moment at This specification is intended for use in design for pre-
the intersection of haunch and uniform depth member. cast reinforced concrete three-sided structures supported
on a concrete footing foundation. Units may be manufac-
16.7.4.6 Strength-Reduction Factors tured using conventional structural concrete and forms
(formed) or machine made using low slump concrete and
Strength-reduction factors for load factor design of ma- vibrating forms.
chine-made boxes may be taken as 1.0 for moment and 0.9
16.8.2 Materials
for shear.
16.8.2.1 Concrete
The maximum service load stress in the reinforcing uation of f9c may also be based on cores.
steel for crack control shall be:
98
fs 5 } 3 ksi (16-24)
Ïwdw cA Reinforcement shall meet the requirements of Art-
icle 8.3 except that for welded wire fabric a yield
The service load stress should be computed considering strength of 65,000 psi may be used. For wire fabric, the
the effects of both bending moment and thrust using: spacing of longitudinal wires shall be a maximum of
8 inches. Circumferential welded wire fabric spacing
M s + N s (d − h 2) shall not exceed a 4-inch maximum and 2-inch mini-
fs = (16-25)
(A s jid) mum. Prestressing if used, shall be in accordance with
Section 9.
where
16.8.3 Concrete Cover for Reinforcement
fs 5 stress in reinforcement under service load
conditions, psi
The minimum concrete cover for reinforcement
e 5 Ms/Ns + d−h/2
in precast three-sided structures reinforced with welded
e/d min. 5 1.15
wire fabric shall be three times the wire diameter but
i 5 1/(1−(jd/e)
not less than 1 inch. For precast three-sided structures cov-
j 5 0.74 + 0.1(e/d) # 0.9
ered by less than 2 feet of fill, the minimum cover for the
reinforcement in the top of the top slab shall be 2 inches.
16.7.4.8 Minimum Reinforcement
16.8.4 Geometric Properties
The primary flexural reinforcement in the direction of
the span shall provide a ratio of reinforcement area to The shape of the precast three-sided structures may
gross concrete area at least equal to 0.002. Such mini- vary in span, rise, wall thickness, haunch dimensions and
mum reinforcement shall be provided at all cross sec- curvature. Specific geometric properties shall be specified
tions subject to flexural tension, at the inside face of by the manufacturer. Wall thicknesses, however, shall be
walls, and in each direction at the top of slabs of box sec- a minimum of 8 inches for spans under 24 feet and 10
tions with less than 2 feet of fill. The provisions of Arti- inches for 24-foot spans and larger.
16.8.5 Design intersection of the haunch and uniform depth

member.
16.8.5.6 Strength-Reduction Factor
Designs shall conform to applicable sections of these
specifications except as provided otherwise in this article. These structures shall be designed by load factor
For design loads and loading conditions see Section 3. For design and the maximum strength-reduction factors
distribution of wheel loads to culvert surfaces under less shall be 0.95 for combined flexure and thrust and 0.9
than 2 feet of cover see Article 3.24.3, Case B. For re- for shear. See Section 8 and Section 9 for factors used
quirements for bottom reinforcement in top slabs of such for cast-in-place and prestressed components, respectively.
culverts see Article 3.24.10. For distribution of wheel
loads to culvert surfaces with 2 feet or more of cover, see
Article 6.4.
For reinforced concrete design requirements see Sec-
The maximum service load stress in the reinforcing
tion 8 and for prestress concrete design requirements see
steel for crack control shall be:
Section 9. For span length see Article 8.8, except as noted
in Article 16.8.5.5. Design analysis shall be based on a 98 ksi
pinned (hinged) connection at the footing and take into ac- fs 5 }3 (16-26)
count footing movement, see Article 16.8.5.10. ÏwdwcA
16.8.5.2 Distribution of Concentrated Load The service load stress should be computed considering
Effects in Sides the effects of both bending moment and thrust using:
The width of the top slab strip used for distribution of M s + N s (d − h 2)

fs = (16-27)
concentrated wheel loads shall also be used for determina- (A s jid)
tion of bending moments, shears, and thrusts in the sides.
where
16.8.5.3 Distribution of Concentrated Loads in fs 5 stress in reinforcement under service load
Skewed Culverts conditions, psi
e 5 Ms/Ns + d−h/2
Wheel loads on skewed culverts shall be distributed e/d min. 5 1.15
using the same provisions as given for culverts with main i 5 1/(1−(jd/e)
reinforcement parallel to traffic. For culvert elements with j 5 0.74 + 0.1(e/d) # 0.9
skews greater than 15°, the effect of the skew shall be con-
sidered in analysis.
16.8.5.8 Minimum Reinforcement
16.8.5.4 Shear Transfer in Transverse Joints
The primary flexural reinforcement in the direction of
Between Culvert Sections
the span shall provide a ratio of reinforcement area to
Each precast three-sided structure is analyzed indepen- gross concrete area at least equal to 0.002. Such minimum
dently with no shear or stress transfer assumed between reinforcement shall be provided at all cross sections sub-
sections. As no shear transfer is assumed between sections, ject to flexural tension, at the inside face of walls, and in
distribution width for a wheel load must be limited to the each direction at the top of slabs of three-sided sections
unit width. Flat top structures with shallow cover may ex- with less than 2 feet of fill. The provisions of Article 8.20
perience differential deflection of adjacent units which can do not apply to precast three-sided structures.
cause pavement cracking if a shear key is not utilized.
16.8.5.9 Deflection Control
16.8.5.5 Span Length
Live load deflection of the top section in three-sided
When monolithic haunches inclined at 45˚ are taken structures shall not exceed 1⁄ 800 of the span, except for sec-
into account, negative reinforcement in walls and slabs tions in urban areas used in part by pedestrians, the ratio
may be proportioned based on the bending moment at the shall not exceed 1⁄ 1000.
16.8.5.10 Footing Design paction requirement of 90% standard proctor density

should be achieved to prevent roadway settlement adja-
Design shall include consideration of differential hor- cent to the structure. A higher backfill compaction density
izontal and vertical movements and footing rotations. may be required on structures utilizing a soil-structure in-
Footing design shall conform to Article 4.4. teraction system.
16.8.5.11 Structure Backfill 16.8.5.12 Scour Protection
Different backfill may be required depending on de- Consideration should be given to scour susceptibility.
sign assumptions. However, a minimum backfill com- Footing protection should be designed accordingly.
Section 17
SOIL-THERMOPLASTIC PIPE INTERACTION SYSTEMS
17.1 GENERAL 17.1.3 Loads
17.1.1 Scope Design load, P, shall be the pressure acting on the struc-
ture. For earth pressures see Article 3.20. For live load see
The specifications of this section are intended for the Articles 3.4 to 3.7, 3.11, 3.12, and 6.4, except that the
structural design of plastic pipes. It must be recognized words “When the depth of fill is 2 feet or more” in Article
that a buried plastic pipe is a composite structure made up 6.4.1 need not be considered. For loading combinations
of the plastic ring and the soil envelope, and that both ma- see Article 3.22.
terials play a vital part in the structural design of plastic
pipe. 17.1.4 Design
17.1.2 Notations 17.1.4.1 The thrust in the wall shall be checked by

two criteria. Each considers the mutual function of the
A 5 area of pipe wall in square inches/foot (Articles plastic wall and the soil envelope surrounding it. The cri-
17.2.1 and 17.3.1) teria are:
B 5 water buoyancy factor (Articles 17.2.2 and
17.3.2) (a) Wall area
c 5 distance from inside surface to neutral axis (Arti- (b) Buckling stress
cles 17.2.2, 17.3.2, and 17.4.2)
De 5 effective diameter 5 ID 1 2c 17.1.4.2 The thrust in the wall is:
E 5 modulus of elasticity of pipe material (Articles D
17.2.2 and 17.3.2) T5P3 } (17-1)
2
FF 5 flexibility factor (Articles 17.2.3 and 17.3.3)
where:
fa 5 allowable stress-specified minimum tensile
strength divided by safety factor (Article P 5 design load, in pounds per square foot;
17.2.1) D 5 diameter in feet;
fcr 5 critical buckling stress (Articles 17.2.2 and T 5 thrust, in pounds per foot.
17.3.2)
fu 5 specified minimum tensile strength (Articles 17.1.4.3 Handling and installation strength shall be
17.2.1, 17.3.1, and 17.3.2) sufficient to withstand impact forces when shipping and
I 5 average moment of inertia, per unit length, of placing the pipe.
cross section of the pipe wall (Articles 17.2.2,
17.2.3, and 17.3.3) 17.1.5 Materials
ID 5 inside diameter (Articles 17.2.2, 17.3.2, and
17.4.2) The materials shall conform to the AASHTO and
Ms 5 soil modulus (Articles 17.2.2, 17.3.2) ASTM specifications referenced herein.
OD 5 outside diameter (Article 17.4.2)
P 5 design load (Article 17.1.4) 17.1.6 Soil Design
SF 5 safety factor (Article 17.2.1)
T 5 thrust (Article 17.1.4) 17.1.6.1 Soil Parameters
TL 5 thrust, load factor (Article 17.3.1)
Ts 5 thrust, service load (Article 17.2.1) The performance of a flexible culvert is dependent on
ø 5 capacity modification factor (Article 17.3.1) soil structure interaction and soil stiffness.
431
The following must be considered: 17.1.9 End Treatment

(a) Soils:
(1) The type and anticipated behavior of the founda- Protection of end slopes may require special consider-
tion soil must be considered; i.e., stability for bedding ation where backwater conditions may occur, or where
and settlement under load. erosion and uplift could be a problem. Culvert ends con-
(2) The type, compacted density, and strength proper- stitute a major run-off-the road hazard if not properly de-
ties of the envelope immediately adjacent to the pipe signed. Safety treatment, such as structurally adequate
must be established. grating that conforms to the embankment slope, extension
Good side fill is obtained from a granular material of culvert length beyond the point of hazard, or provision
with little or no plasticity and free of organic material, of guardrails, is among the alternatives to be considered.
i.e., AASHTO classification groups A-1, A-2, and A-3, End walls on skewed alignment require a special design.
compacted to a minimum 90% of standard density
based on AASHTO T 99 (ASTM D 698). 17.1.10 Construction and Installation
(3) The density of the embankment material above the
pipe must be determined. See Article 6.2. The construction and installation shall conform to Sec-
(b) Dimensions of envelope tion 26, Division II.
The general recommended criteria for lateral limits of
the culvert envelope are as follows:
(1) Trench installations—the minimum trench width 17.2 SERVICE LOAD DESIGN
shall provide sufficient space between the pipe and the
trench wall to ensure sufficient working room to prop- Service Load Design is a working stress method, as tra-
erly and safely place and compact backfill material. As ditionally used for culvert design.
a guide, the minimum trench width should not be less
than the greater of the pipe diameter plus 16.0 inches, 17.2.1 Wall Area
or the pipe diameter times 1.5 plus 12.0 inches. The use
of specially designed equipment may enable satisfac- A 5 Ts/fa
tory installation and embedment even in narrower where:
trenches.
(2) Embankment installations—the minimum width A 5 required wall area in square inches per foot;
of the soil envelope shall be sufficient to ensure lateral Ts 5 thrust, service load in pounds per foot;
restraint for the buried structure. The combined width fa 5 allowable stress, specified minimum tensile
of the soil envelope and embankment beyond shall be strength, pounds per square inch, divided by
adequate to support all the loads on the pipe. As a safety factor, fu/SF. (For, SF, see Article
guide, the width of the soil envelope on each side of the 17.4.1.2.)
pipe should be the pipe diameter or 2.0 feet, whichever
is less. 17.2.2 Buckling
(3) The minimum upper limit of the soil envelope is 1
foot above the culvert. Walls within the required wall area, A, shall be checked
for possible buckling. If the allowable buckling stress,
17.1.7 Abrasive or Corrosive Conditions fcr/SF, is less than fa, the required area must be recalculated
using fcr/SF in lieu of fa. The formula for buckling is:
Extra thickness may be required for resistance to abra-
sion. For highly abrasive conditions, a special design may fcr 5 9.24 (R/A) Ïw
BMww w0w.1
s EI/ w4w9wR
w3w
be required.
where:
17.1.8 Minimum Spacing B 5 water buoyancy factor or
5 120.33hw/h;
When multiple lines of pipes greater than 48 inches hw 5 height of water surface above top of pipe;
in diameter are used, they shall be spaced so that the sides h 5 height of ground surface above top of pipe;
of the pipe shall be no closer than one-half diameter or E 5 Long term (50-year) modulus of elasticity of the
3 feet, whichever is less, to permit adequate compaction plastic in pounds per square inch;
of backfill material. For diameters up to and including Ms 5 soil modulus in pounds per square inch;
48 inches, the minimum clear spacing shall not be less 5 1700 for side fills meeting Article 17.1.6;
than 2 feet. fcr 5 critical buckling stress in pounds per square inch;
R 5 effective radius in inches 5 1,700 for side fills meeting Article 12.1.6;
5 c 1 ID/2; fcr 5 critical buckling stress in pounds per square
A 5 actual area of pipe wall in square inches/foot. inch;
R 5 effective radius in inches
17.2.3 Handling and Installation Strength 5 c 1 ID/2;
A 5 actual area of pipe wall in square inches/foot.
Handling and installation rigidity is measured by a
flexibility factor, FF, determined by the formula: 17.3.3 Handling and Installation Strength
FF 5 D 2e /EI Handling rigidity is measured by a flexibility factor,

FF, determined by the formula:
where:
FF 5 flexibility factor in inches per pound; FF 5 D e2/EI
De 5 effective diameter in inches;
where:
E 5 initial modulus of elasticity of the pipe material
in pounds per square inch; FF 5 flexibility factor in inches per pound;
I 5 average moment of inertia per unit length of De 5 effective diameter in inches;
cross section of the pipe wall in inches to the 4th E 5 initial modulus of elasticity of the pipe material
power per inch. in pounds per square inch;
I 5 average moment of inertia per unit length of
cross section of the pipe wall in inches to the 4th
17.3 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
power per inch.
Load Factor Design is an alternative method of design
based on ultimate strength principles. 17.4 PLASTIC PIPE
17.3.1 Wall Area 17.4.1 General
A 5 TL/ffu 17.4.1.1 Plastic pipe may be smooth wall, corrugated

where: or externally ribbed and may be manufactured of poly-
ethylene (PE) or poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC). The mater-
A 5 required area of pipe wall in square inches per ial specifications are:
foot;
TL 5 thrust, load factor in pounds per foot; Polyethylene (PE)
fu 5 specified minimum tensile strength in pounds Smooth Wall —ASTM F 714 Polyethylene (PE)
per square inch; Plastic Pipe (SDR-PR) Based on
f 5 capacity modification factor. Outside Diameter
Corrugated —AASHTO M 294 Corrugated
17.3.2 Buckling Polyethylene Pipe, 12 to 36 in.
Diameter
If fcr is less than fu, A must be recalculated using fcr in Ribbed —ASTM F 894 Polyethylene (PE)
lieu of fu. The formula for buckling is: Large-Diameter Profile Wall
Sewer and Drain Pipe
fcr 5 9.24 (R/A) Ïwww
BM w0w.1
s EI/ w4w9wR
w3w Poly (Vinyl Chloride)(PVC)
Smooth Wall —AASHTO M 278 Class PS 46
where:
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
B 5 water buoyancy factor or Pipe, ASTM F 679 Poly (Vinyl
5 1 2 0.33hw/h; Chloride) (PVC) Large-Diame-
hw 5 height of water surface above top of pipe; ter Plastic Gravity Sewer Pipe
h 5 height of ground surface above top of pipe; and Fittings
E 5 Long term (50-year) modulus of elasticity of the Ribbed —AASHTO M 304 Poly (Vinyl
plastic in pounds per square inch; Chloride) (PVC) Ribbed Drain
Ms 5 soil modulus in pounds per square inch Pipe and Fittings and Based on
Controlled Inside Diameter 17.4.2 Section Properties

ASTM F 794 Poly (Vinyl Chlo-
ride) (PVC) Large-Diameter The values given in the following tables are limiting
Ribbed Gravity Sewer Pipe and values and do not describe actual PE or PVC pipe products.
Fittings Based on Controlled In- Section properties for specific PE or PVC pipe products are
side Diameter available from individual pipe manufacturers and can be
compared against the following values for compliance.
17.4.1.2 Service Load Design—safety factor, SF:
17.4.2.1 PE Corrugated Pipes (AASHTO M 294, MPG-95)
Wall area 5 2.0
Buckling 5 2.0
17.4.1.3 Load Factor Design—capacity modifica-

tion factor, f:
PE, f 5 1.0
PVC, f 5 1.0
17.4.1.4 Flexibility Factor:
PE, FF 5 9.5 3 1022 For 42˝ and 48˝ pipe, the wall thickness should be designed using the
PVC, FF 5 9.5 3 1022 long term tensile strength provision (900 psi) until new design cri-
teria are established.
Note: PE and PVC are thermoplastics and, therefore,

17.4.2.2 PE Ribbed Pipes (ASTM F 894)
subject to reduction in stiffness as temperature is in-
creased.
The minimum cover for design loads shall be ID/8 but

not less than 12 inches. (The minimum cover shall be
see Article 26.5, Division II.
17.4.1.6 Maximum Strain
The allowable deflection of installed plastic pipe may

be limited by the extreme fiber tensile strain of the pipe
wall. Calculation of the tension strain in a pipe signifi- 17.4.2.3 Profile Wall PVC Pipes (AASHTO M 304)
cantly deflected after installment can be checked against
the allowable long-term strain for the material in Article
17.4.3. Compression thrust is deducted from deflection
bending stress to obtain net tension action. The allowable
long-term strains shown in Article 17.4.3 should not be
reached in pipes designed and constructed in accordance
with this specification.
17.4.1.7 Local Buckling
The manufacturers of corrugated and ribbed pipe

should demonstrate the adequacy of their pipes against
local buckling when designed and constructed in accor-
dance with this specification.
17.4.3 Chemical and Mechanical Requirements 17.4.3.1.3 Ribbed PE pipe requirements—ASTM

F 894
The polyethylene (PE) and poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC)
materials described herein have stress/strain relationships
that are nonlinear and time dependent. Minimum 50-year
tensile strengths are derived from hydrostatic design bases
and indicate a minimum 50-year life expectancy under
continuous application of that tensile stress. Minimum 50-
year moduli do not indicate a softening of the pipe mater-
ial but is an expression of the time dependent relation be-
tween stress and strain. For each short-term increment of
deflection, whenever it occurs, the response will reflect the Minimum cell class, ASTM D 3350, 334433C
initial modulus. Both short- and long-term properties are Allowable long-term strain 5 5%
shown. Except for buckling for which long-term properties
are required, the judgment of the Engineer shall determine
which is appropriate for the application. Initial and long
term relate to conditions of loading, not age of the instal-
lation. Response to live loads will reflect the initial modu-
lus, regardless of the age of the installation.
17.4.3.1 Polyethylene
17.4.3.1.1 Smooth wall PE pipe requirements—

ASTM F 714
Minimum cell class, ASTM D 3350, 335434C
Mechanical Properties for Design Allowable long-term strain 5 5%
17.4.3.2 Poly (Vinyl Chloride) (PVC)
17.4.3.2.1 Smooth wall PVC pipe requirements—
AASHTO M 278, ASTM F 679:

Allowable long-term strain 5 5%
17.4.3.1.2 Corrugated PE pipe requirements—

AASHTO M 294:
Mechanical Properties for Design Minimum cell class, ASTM D 1784, 12454C
Minimum cell class, ASTM D 3350, 335400C, with

additional environmental stress crack resistance evalua-
tion according to SP-NCTL test as per recommendations
in NCHRP Report 429. Minimum cell class, ASTM D 1784, 12364C
Allowable long-term strain 5 5% Allowable long-term strain 5 3.5%
Minimum Properties for Design

Allowable long-term strain 5 3.5%

Division I-A
SEISMIC DESIGN
Section 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE AND PHILOSOPHY Coefficient greater than 0.29 essential bridges must meet
additional requirements. A bridge is designated essential
These Specifications establish design and construction on the basis of Social/Survival and Security/Defense clas-
provisions for bridges to minimize their susceptibility to sifications presented in the Commentary.
damage from earthquakes.
The design earthquake motions and forces specified in
these provisions are based on a low probability of their 1.2 BACKGROUND
being exceeded during the normal life expectancy of a
bridge.1 Bridges and their components that are designed The 1971 San Fernando earthquake was a major turn-
to resist these forces and that are constructed in accor- ing point in the development of seismic design criteria for
dance with the design details contained in the provisions bridges in the United States. Prior to 1971, the American
may suffer damage, but should have low probability of Association of State Highway and Transportation Offi-
collapse due to seismically induced ground shaking. cials (AASHTO) specifications for the seismic design of
The principles used for the development of the provi- bridges were based in part on the lateral forces require-
sions are: ments for buildings developed by the Structural Engineers
Association of California. In 1973, the California Depart-
1. Small to moderate earthquakes should be resisted ment of Transportation (CalTrans) introduced new seis-
within the elastic range of the structural components mic design criteria for bridges, which included the rela-
without significant damage. tionship of the site to active faults, the seismic response of
2. Realistic seismic ground motion intensities and the soils at the site and the dynamic response characteris-
forces are used in the design procedures. tics of the bridge. In 1975, AASHTO adopted Interim
3. Exposure to shaking from large earthquakes should Specifications which were a slightly modified version of
not cause collapse of all or part of the bridge. Where the 1973 CalTrans provisions, and made them applicable
possible, damage that does occur should be readily de- to all regions of the United States. In addition to these
tectable and accessible for inspection and repair. code changes, the 1971 San Fernando earthquake stimu-
lated research activity on seismic problems related to
A basic premise in developing these seismic design
bridges. In the light of these research findings, the Federal
guidelines was that they are applicable to all parts of the
Highway Administration awarded a contract in 1978 to
United States. The seismic hazard varies from very small
the Applied Technology Council (ATC) to:
to high across the country. Therefore, for purposes of de-
sign, four Seismic Performance Categories (SPC) are de-
fined on the basis of an Acceleration Coefficient (A) for the • Evaluate current criteria used for seismic design of
site, determined from the map provided, and the Impor- highway bridges.
tance Classification (IC). Different degrees of complexity • Review recent seismic research findings for design
and sophistication of seismic analysis and design are spec- applicability and use in new specifications.
ified for each of the four Seismic Performance Categories. • Develop new and improved seismic design guide-
An essential bridge must be designed to function dur- lines for highway bridges applicable to all regions of
ing and after an earthquake. In areas with an Acceleration the United States.
• Evaluate the impact of these guidelines and modify
1The probability of the elastic design force levels not being exceeded them as appropriate.
in 50 years is the range of 80 to 95%. However, the design earthquake
force level by itself does not determine risk; the risk is also affected by
the design rules and analysis procedures used in connection with the de- The guidelines from this ATC project (known as
sign ground motion. ATC-6) were first adopted by AASHTO as a set of Guide
439
Specifications in 1983. They were later adopted as seis- zien, University of California, Berkeley; Dr. Walter
mic provisions within the Standard Specifications in Podolny, Federal Highway Administration; and Dr.
1990. After damaging earthquakes occurred in California Robert Scanlan, Princeton University, New Jersey.
(1989), Costa Rica (1991) and the Philippines (1991),
AASHTO requested the Transportation Research Board The ATC project manager and technical director were
to review these criteria and prepare revised specifications Mr. Roland Sharpe and Dr. Ronald Mayes, respectively.
as appropriate. Funded through the National Cooperative In a similar manner, the NCHRP project was also
Highway Research Program under NCHRP Project 20- guided by a Project Panel. The members were:
7/45, the National Center for Earthquake Engineering Re-
search (NCEER) prepared this current set of seismic de- • Mr. James D. Cooper, Federal Highway Administra-
sign provisions. They closely follow the previous criteria tion; Mr. James H. Gates, California Department of
but remove ambiguities and technical errors, correct tech- Transportation; Mr. Veldo Goins, Oklahoma Depart-
nical omissions and introduce new material which is ment of Transportation; Mr. Ayaz Malik, New York
based in part on recent field experience and partly on new Department of Transportation; Mr. Charles Ruth,
research findings. In addition, a new format is introduced Washington Department of Transportation; and Mr.
so as to assist the application of these specifications to Edward Wasserman, Tennessee Department of
bridges in different seismic zones. Transportation.
• Liaison members were Dr. John Kulicki, Modjeski
and Masters (NCHRP 12-33 Liaison) and Dr. Walter
1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS Podolny (Federal Highway Administration Liaison).
• The principal investigator for NCEER was Dr. Ian
The development of these specifications was predi- Buckle; subcontractors included Computech Engi-
cated on the following basic concepts. neering Services, Berkeley, CA, and Imbsen and As-
sociates, Sacramento, CA.
• Hazard to life to be minimized. • NCHRP Project Officers were Mr. Ian Friedland and
• Bridges may suffer damage but have low probabil- Mr. Scott Sabol.
ity of collapse due to earthquake motions.
• Function of essential bridges to be maintained. The work was conducted in several stages:
• Ground motions used in design should have low
probability of being exceeded during normal life- • Review of 1992 Standard Specifications (Division
time of bridge. I-A); survey of designer experience with the ap-
• Provisions to be applicable to all of the United plication of Division I-A and evaluation of design
States. philosophy.
• Ingenuity of design not to be restricted. • Review of bridge performance in recent earth-
quakes.
• Review of revised CalTrans seismic design criteria
1.4 PROJECT ORGANIZATION (ATC-32 project).
• Review of seismic criteria in the proposed LRFD
The ATC-6 project was advised by a Project Engineer- Bridge Specification (NCHRP 12-33).
ing Panel comprising the following members: • Conduct of certain special studies.
• Development of draft revisions in various formats of
• Mr. James Cooper, Federal Highway Administra- increasing complexity.
tion; Mr. Gerard Fox, HNTB, New York; Mr. James • Evaluation of proposed revisions.
H. Gates, California Department of Transportation; • Modification and preparation of final standards, as
Mr. Veldo Goins, Oklahoma Department of Trans- appropriate.
portation; Dr. William Hall, University of Illinois,
Urbana; Mr. Edward Hourigan, New York Depart- 1.5 QUALITY ASSURANCE REQUIREMENTS
ment of Transportation; Mr. Robert Jarvis, Idaho De-
partment of Transportation; Mr. Robert Kealey, There are numerous instances of structural failures
Modjeski and Masters, Harrisburg; Mr. James which have occurred during earthquakes that are directly
Libby, Libby Engineers, San Diego; Dr. Geoffrey traceable to poor quality control during construction. The
Martin, Fugro Inc., Long Beach; Mr. Joseph Nico- literature is replete with reports noting that collapse may
letti, URS Blume, San Francisco; Dr. Joseph Pen- have been prevented had proper inspection been exer-
1.5 DIVISION IA—SEISMIC DESIGN 441
cised. To provide adequate seismic quality assurance re- Panel (PEP) for the ATC-6 project examined the respon-
quirements the engineer specifies the quality assurance re- sibility of each party in the current AASHTO (Division I)
quirements, the contractor exercises the control to achieve specifications. This PEP found the quality assurance re-
the desired quality and the owner monitors the construc- quirements of the Division I specifications adequate to
tion process through special inspection. It is essential that cover seismic as well as other design requirements. There-
each party recognizes its responsibilities, understands the fore, no special quality assurance requirements are in-
procedures and has the capability to carry them out. Be- cluded in Division I-A.
cause the contractor does the work and exercises quality
control it is essential that the inspection be performed by 1.6 FLOW CHARTS
someone approved by the owner and not the contractor’s
direct employee. Flow charts outlining the steps in the seismic design
In recognition of the fact that responsibility must be procedures implicit in these specifications are given in
coordinated during construction, the Project Engineering Figures 1.6A and 1.6B.
FIGURE 1.6A Design Procedure Flow Chart
FIGURE 1.6B Sub Flow Chart for Seismic Performance

Categories B, C, and D
Section 2
SYMBOLS AND DEFINITIONS
2.1 NOTATIONS
The following symbols and definitions apply to these Specifications:
a 5 Vertical spacing of transverse reinforcement (hoops or stirrups) in rectangular reinforced concrete

columns (in. or mm)
A 5 Acceleration coefficient determined in Article 3.2 (dimensionless)
Ac 5 Area of reinforced concrete column core (in.2 or mm2)
Ag 5 Gross area of reinforced concrete column (in.2 or mm2)
As 5 Area of longitudinal reinforcement in a concrete pile (in.2 or mm2)
Ash 5 Total cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement (hoops or stirrups) used in rectangular rein-
forced concrete columns (in.2 or mm2) and defined by Equations (6–6), (6–7), (7–6), and (7–7)
Avf 5 Total amount of reinforcement normal to a construction joint (in.2 or mm2)
B 5 Loads resulting from buoyancy forces and used in the group load combinations of Equations (6–1),
(6–2), (7–1), and (7–2)
Cm 5 Coefficient used in steel design to account for boundary conditions (dimensionless)
Cs 5 Elastic seismic response coefficient defined in Article 3.6.1 (dimensionless)
Csm 5 Elastic seismic response coefficient for mode “m” defined in Article 3.6.2 (dimensionless)
d 5 Diameter of a reinforced concrete column (in. or mm)
D 5 Loads resulting from dead load and used in the group load combinations of Equations (6–1), (6–2),
(7–1), and (7–2)
E 5 Loads resulting from earth pressure and used in the group load combinations of Equations (6–1),
(6–2), (7–1), and (7–2)
EQF 5 Modified foundation seismic forces used in the group load combination of Equations (6–2) and (7–2),
and defined in Articles 6.2.2 and 7.2.1
EQM 5 Modified seismic forces used in the group load combination of Equations (6–1) and (7–1), and de-
fined in Articles 6.2.1 and 7.2.1
fc9 5 Specified compressive strength of reinforced concrete (psi or MPa)
fy 5 Yield strength of reinforcement in reinforced concrete members (psi or MPa)
fyh 5 Yield strength of transverse reinforcement (psi or MPa)
Fa 5 Axial stress in steel design that would be permitted if axial force alone existed (psi or MPa)
Fcr 5 Buckling stress for load factor steel design (psi or MPa)
Fe 5 Euler buckling stress in the plane of bending (psi or MPa)
Fe9 5 Euler buckling stress for service load steel design (psi or MPa)
Fy 5 Yield strength of structural steel (psi or MPa)
g 5 Acceleration of gravity (in./sec2 or cm/sec2)
hc 5 Core dimension of a rectangular reinforced concrete column (in. or mm)
H 5 Height of a column or pier defined in Articles 5.3, 6.3, and 7.3 (ft or m)
IC 5 Importance Classification given in Article 3.3 (dimensionless)
K 5 Total lateral stiffness of bridge as defined in Article 4.3 (lb/in. or kN/m)
K 5 Effective length factor used in steel design and given in Articles 6.5 and 7.5 (dimensionless)
kh 5 Seismic coefficient used to calculate lateral earth pressures and defined in Articles 6.4.3 and 7.4.3
(dimensionless)
445
L 5 Length of bridge deck defined in Articles 4.3, 5.3, 6.3, and 7.3 (ft or m)
N 5 Minimum support length for girders specified in Articles 3.10, 5.3, 6.3, and 7.3 (in. or mm)
pe(x) 5 Intensity of the equivalent static seismic loading applied to represent the primary mode of vibration
in Articles 4.3 and 4.4 (force/unit length)
Pn 5 Minimum axial load specified in Article 7.2.3 for columns and 7.2.4 for piers (lb or N)
po 5 Assumed uniform loading used to calculate the period in Articles 4.3 and 4.4 (force/unit length)
Q 5 Vertical force at a support due to longitudinal horizontal seismic loads (lb or N)
R 5 Response modification factor specified in Article 3.7 (dimensionless)
S 5 Site coefficient specified in Article 3.5.1 (dimensionless)
S 5 Angle of skew of girder support as defined in Articles 5.3 and 6.3 (degrees)
SF 5 Loads resulting from stream flow forces and used in the group load combinations of Equations (6–1),
(6–2), (7–1), and (7–2)
SPC 5 Seismic Performance Category specified in Article 3.4 (dimensionless)
T 5 Fundamental period of the bridge determined in Articles 4.3 and 4.4 (sec.)
Tm 5 Period of the mth mode of vibration of a bridge (sec.)
Vc 5 Nominal shear strength provided by concrete as specified in Article 7.6.2(C)
Vj 5 Limiting shear force across a construction joint (lb or N)
vu 5 Shear stress (psi or MPa)
Vu 5 Shear force (lb or N)
vs(x), ve(x) 5 Static displacement profiles resulting from applied loads po and pe, respectively, and used in Articles
4.3 and 4.4 (in. or mm)
w(x) 5 Dead weight of the bridge superstructure and tributary substructure per unit length (force/unit length)
W 5 Total dead weight of bridge superstructure and tributary substructure (lb or kN)
rh 5 The ratio of horizontal shear reinforcement area to gross concrete area of a vertical section—Article
7.6.3 (dimensionless)
rn 5 The ratio of vertical shear reinforcement area to the gross concrete area of a horizontal section—
Article 7.6.3 (dimensionless)
rs 5 Volumetric ratio of spiral reinforcement for a circular column (dimensionless)
f 5 Strength reduction factor (dimensionless)
a 5 Coefficient used to calculate the period of the bridge in Article 4.4 (length2)
b 5 Coefficient used to calculate the period of the bridge in Article 4.4 (force ? length)
g 5 Coefficient used to calculate the period of the bridge in Article 4.4 (force ? length2)
Section 3
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
3.1 APPLICABILITY OF SPECIFICATIONS No detailed seismic analysis is required for any single
span bridge or for any bridge in Seismic Performance Cat-
These Specifications are for the design and construction egory A. For single span bridges (Article 3.11) and
of new bridges to resist the effect of earthquake motions. bridges classified as SPC A (Section 5) the connections
The provisions apply to bridges of conventional steel and must be designed for specified forces and must also meet
concrete girder and box girder construction with spans not minimum support length requirements.
exceeding 500 feet (150 meters). Suspension bridges,
cable-stayed bridges, arch type and movable bridges are 3.2 ACCELERATION COEFFICIENT
not covered by these Specifications. Seismic design is usu-
ally not required for buried type (culvert) bridges. The Acceleration Coefficient (A) to be used in the ap-
The provisions contained in these Specifications are plication of these provisions shall be determined from the
minimum requirements. contour maps of Figures 3.2A and 3.2B. (Note: An en-
FIGURE 3.2A Acceleration Coefficient—Continental United States

(An enlarged version of this map, including counties, is given at the end of Division—I-A.)
447
FIGURE 3.2B Acceleration Coefficient—Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico
larged version of Figure 3.2A is given at the end of Divi- TABLE 3.4 Seismic Performance Category (SPC)
sion I-A.) Values given in Figures 3.2A and 3.2B are ex-
pressed in percent. Numerical values for the coefficient A
are obtained by dividing contour values by 100.0. Local
maxima (and minima) are given inside the highest (and
lowest) contour for a particular region. Linear interpola-
tion shall be used for sites located between contour lines
and between a contour line and local maximum (or mini-
mum). The seismic loads represented by the acceleration
coefficients in Figures 3.2A and 3.2B have a 10% proba-
bility of exceedance in 50 years (which is approximately SOIL PROFILE TYPE I is a profile with either—
equivalent to a 15% probability of exceedance in 75
years). This corresponds to a return period of approxi- 1. Rock of any characteristic, either shale-like or
mately 475 years. Special studies to determine site- and crystalline in nature (such material may be character-
structure-specific acceleration coefficients shall be per- ized by a shear wave velocity greater than 2,500
formed by a qualified professional if any one of the fol- feet/seconds (760 meters/seconds), or by other appro-
lowing conditions exist: priate means of classification); or
(a) The site is located close to an active fault. 2. Stiff soil conditions where the soil depth is less than
(b) Long duration earthquakes are expected in the 200 feet (60 meters) and the soil types overlying rock
region. are stable deposits of sands, gravels, or stiff clays.
(c) The importance of the bridge is such that a longer
exposure period (and therefore return period) should SOIL PROFILE TYPE II is a profile with stiff clay or
be considered. deep cohesionless conditions where the soil depth exceeds
200 feet (60 meters) and the soil types overlying rock are
The effect of soil conditions at the site are considered stable deposits of sands, gravels, or stiff clays.
in Article 3.5. SOIL PROFILE TYPE III is a profile with soft
to medium-stiff clays and sands, characterized by 30 feet
3.3 IMPORTANCE CLASSIFICATION (9 meters) or more of soft to medium-stiff clays with or
without intervening layers of sand or other cohesionless
An Importance Classification (IC) shall be assigned for soils.
all bridges with an Acceleration Coefficient greater than SOIL PROFILE TYPE IV is a profile with soft clays or
0.29 for the purpose of determining the Seismic Perfor- silts greater than 40 feet (12 meters) in depth. These mate-
mance Category (SPC) in Article 3.4 as follows: rials may be characterized by a shear wave velocity less
1. Essential bridges 2 IC 5 I than 500 feet/seconds (150 meters/seconds) and might in-
2. Other bridges 2 IC 5 II clude loose natural deposits or synthetic, nonengineered fill.
In locations where the soil properties are not known in
Bridges shall be classified on the basis of Social/Sur- sufficient detail to determine the soil profile type with
vival and Security/Defense requirements, guidelines for confidence, the Engineer’s judgement shall be used to se-
which are given in the Commentary. lect a site coefficient from Table 3.5.1 that conservatively
represents the amplification effects of the site. The soil
3.4 SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES profile coefficients apply to all foundation types including
pile supported and spread footings.
Each bridge shall be assigned to one of four Seismic A site coefficient need not be explicitly identified if a
Performance Categories (SPC), A through D, based on the site-specific seismic response coefficient is developed by
Acceleration Coefficient (A) and the Importance Classifi- a qualified professional (Article 3.6).
cation (IC), as shown in Table 3.4. Minimum analysis and
design requirements are governed by the SPC.
3.5 SITE EFFECTS 3.5.1 Site Coefficient
The effects of site conditions on bridge response shall The Site Coefficient (S) approximates the effects of the
be determined from a Site Coefficient (S) based on soil site conditions on the elastic response coefficient or spec-
profile types defined as follows: trum of Article 3.6 and is given in Table 3.5.1.
TABLE 3.5.1 Site Coefficient (S) The value of Csm need not exceed 2.5A. For Type III or
Type IV soils in areas where the coefficient A $ 0.30, Csm
need not exceed 2.0A.
EXCEPTIONS:
3.6 ELASTIC SEISMIC RESPONSE 1. For Soil Profile Type III or Type IV soils, Csm for
COEFFICIENT modes other than the fundamental mode which have
periods less than 0.3 seconds may be determined in ac-
A seismic response coefficient is specified in this Arti- cordance with the following formula:
cle which defines the earthquake load to be used in the
elastic analysis for seismic effects. Csm 5 A(0.8 1 4.0Tm) (3-3)
These requirements may be superseded by a 5%
damped, site-specific, response spectrum developed by 2. For structures in which any Tm exceeds 4.0 seconds,
a qualified professional. Such a spectrum shall include the value of Csm for that mode may be determined in
the effects of both the local seismology and the site soil accordance with the following formula:
conditions.
3AS
3.6.1 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient for Cs 5 } (3-4)
Tm4/3
Single Mode Analysis
The elastic seismic response coefficient Cs used to de- 3.7 RESPONSE MODIFICATION FACTORS
termine the design forces is given by the dimensionless
formula: Seismic design forces for individual members and con-
1.2AS nections of bridges classified as SPC B, C, or D are deter-
Cs 5 } (3-1) mined by dividing the elastic forces by the appropriate
T2/3 Response Modification Factor (R) as specified in Article
where, 6.2 or 7.2. The Response Modification Factors for various
bridge components are given in Table 3.7. These factors
A 5 the Acceleration Coefficient from Article 3.2, shall only be used when all of the design requirements of
S 5 the dimensionless coefficient for the soil Sections 6 and 7 are satisfied. If these requirements are not
profile characteristics of the site as given in satisfied, the maximum value of R for substructures and
Article 3.5, connections shall be 1.0 and 0.8, respectively.
T 5 the period of the bridge as determined in

Articles 4.3 and 4.4 or by other acceptable 3.8 DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC FORCES
methods. AND DISPLACEMENTS
The value of Cs need not exceed 2.5A. For Soil Profile For bridges classified as SPC B, C, or D the elastic
Type III or Type IV soils in areas where A $ 0.30, Cs need forces and displacements shall be determined indepen-
not exceed 2.0A. dently along two perpendicular axes by use of the analy-
sis procedure specified in Article 4.2. The resulting forces
3.6.2 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient for shall then be combined as specified in Article 3.9. Typi-
Multimodal Analysis cally, the perpendicular axes are the longitudinal and
transverse axes of the bridge but the choice is open to the
The elastic seismic response coefficient for mode “m,” designer. The longitudinal axis of a curved bridge may be
Csm, shall be determined in accordance with the following a chord connecting the two abutments.
formula:
1.2AS 3.9 COMBINATION OF ORTHOGONAL

Cs 5 } (3-2) SEISMIC FORCES
Tm2/3
A combination of orthogonal seismic forces is used
where Tm 5 the period of the mth mode of vibration. to account for the directional uncertainty of earthquake
TABLE 3.7 Response Modifications Factor (R)
motions and the simultaneous occurrences of earthquake designed as a column per Article 7.2.4 this exception
forces in two perpendicular horizontal directions. The only applies for the weak direction of the pier when
elastic seismic forces and moments resulting from analy- forces resulting from plastic hinging are used. The
ses in the two perpendicular directions of Article 3.8 shall combination specified must be used for the strong di-
be combined to form two load cases as follows: rection of the pier.
LOAD CASE 1: Seismic forces and moments on each
of the principal axes of a member shall be obtained by
3.10 MINIMUM SEAT-WIDTH REQUIREMENTS
adding 100% of the absolute value of the member elastic
seismic forces and moments resulting from the analysis in
All bridges, regardless of Seismic Performance Cate-
one of the perpendicular (longitudinal) directions to 30%
gory (SPC) and number of spans, shall satisfy minimum
of the absolute value of the corresponding member elas-
support length requirements at the expansion ends of all
tic seismic forces and moments resulting from the analy-
girders. These support lengths are defined in Figure 3.10
sis in the second perpendicular direction (transverse).
as dimension N. The minimum value for N is given for
(NOTE: The absolute values are used because a seismic
SPC A in Article 5.3; for SPC B in Article 6.3; and for SPC
force can be positive or negative.)
C and D in Article 7.3.
LOAD CASE 2: Seismic forces and moments on each of
the principal axes of a member shall be obtained by adding
100% of the absolute value of the member elastic seismic 3.11 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SINGLE
forces and moments resulting from the analysis in the sec- SPAN BRIDGES
ond perpendicular direction (transverse) to 30% of the ab-
solute value of the corresponding member elastic seismic The detailed analysis and design requirements of Sec-
forces and moments resulting from the analysis in the first tions 4, 5, 6, and 7 are not required for single span bridges.
perpendicular direction (longitudinal). In lieu of rigorous analysis, the connections between the
bridge span and the abutments shall be designed to resist
EXCEPTION: the tributary weight at the abutment multiplied by the Ac-
For SPC C and D when foundation and/or column con- celeration Coefficient and the Site Coefficient for the site.
nection forces are determined from plastic hinging of This force must be considered to act in each horizontally
the columns (Article 7.2.2) the resulting forces need restrained direction. The minimum support lengths shall
not be combined as specified in this section. If a pier is be as specified in Article 3.10.
FIGURE 3.10 Dimensions for Minimum Support Length Requirements
3.12 REQUIREMENTS FOR TEMPORARY that Acceleration Coefficients for construction sites that
BRIDGES AND STAGED CONSTRUCTION are close to active faults shall be the subject of special
study. Further, the Response Modification Factors given
The requirement that an earthquake shall not cause col- in Article 3.7 may be increased by a factor of not more
lapse of all or part of a bridge as stated in Article 1.1, ap- than 1.5 in order to calculate the design forces. This
plies to temporary bridges which are expected to carry factor shall not be applied to connections as defined in
traffic and/or pass over routes that carry traffic. It also ap- Table 3.7.
plies to those bridges that are constructed in stages and ex- The minimum seat-width provisions of Article 3.10 shall
pected to carry traffic and/or pass over routes that carry apply to all temporary bridges and staged construction.
traffic. However, in view of the limited exposure period, Any bridge or partially constructed bridge that is ex-
the Acceleration Coefficient given in Article 3.2 may be pected to be temporary for more than 5 years shall be de-
reduced by a factor of not more than 2 in order to calcu- signed using the requirements for permanent structures
late the component elastic forces and displacements. Note and shall not use the provisions of this article.
Section 4
ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS
4.1 GENERAL is considered to be “not regular.” A more rigorous, gener-

ally accepted analysis procedure may be used in lieu of the
The requirements of this section shall control the se- recommended minimum such as the Time History
lection and method of seismic analysis of bridges. Four Method (Procedure 4).
analysis procedures are presented. Curved bridges comprised of multiple simple spans
shall be considered to be “not regular” bridges if the sub-
Procedure 1. Uniform Load Method tended angle in plan is greater than 20º; such bridges shall
Procedure 2. Single-Mode Spectral Method be analyzed by either Procedure 3 or 4.
Procedure 3. Multimode Spectral Method
Procedure 4. Time History Method 4.2.1 Special Requirements for Single-Span Bridges
and Bridges in SPC A
In each method, all fixed column, pier, or abutment
supports are assumed to have the same ground motion at Notwithstanding the above requirements, detailed seis-
the same instant in time. At movable supports, displace- mic analysis is not required for a single-span bridge or for
ments determined from the analysis prescribed in this bridges classified as SPC A.
chapter, which exceed the minimum seat width require-
ments as specified in Article 6.3 or 7.3, shall be used in 4.2.2 Special Requirements for Curved Bridges
design without reduction by the Response Modification
Factor (Article 3.7). A curved continuous-girder bridge may be analyzed as
if it were straight provided all of the following require-
4.2 SELECTION OF ANALYSIS METHOD ments are satisfied:
Minimum requirements for the selection of an analysis (a) the bridge is regular as defined in Table 4.2B ex-
method for a particular bridge type are given in Table cept that for a two-span bridge the maximum span
4.2A. Applicability is determined by the “regularity” of a length ratio from span-to-span must not exceed 2;
bridge which is a function of the number of spans and the (b) the subtended angle in plan is not greater than 30°;
distribution of weight and stiffness. Regular bridges have and
less than seven spans, no abrupt or unusual changes in
weight, stiffness, or geometry and no large changes in
TABLE 4.2B Regular Bridge Requirements
these parameters from span-to-span or support-to-support
(abutments excluded). They are defined in Table 4.2B.
Any bridge not satisfying the requirements of Table 4.2B
TABLE 4.2A Minimum Analysis Requirements
453
(c) the span lengths of the equivalent straight bridge vs, MAX 5 maximum value of vs(x)
are equal to the arc lengths of the curved bridge.
and w(x) 5 weight per unit length of the dead
If these requirements are not satisfied, then curved con- load of the bridge superstructure and
tinuous-girder bridges must be analyzed using the actual tributary substructure
curved geometry.
The weight should take into account structural ele-
4.2.3 Special Requirements for Critical Bridges ments and other relevant loads including, but not limited
to, pier caps, abutments, columns and footings. Other
More rigorous methods of analysis are required for cer- loads such as live loads may be included. (Generally, the
tain classes of important bridges which are considered to inertia effects of live loads are not included in the analy-
be critical structures (e.g., those that are major structures sis; however, the probability of a large live load being on
in size and cost or perform a critical function), and/or for the bridge during an earthquake should be considered
those that are geometrically complex and close to active when designing bridges with high live-to-dead load ratios
earthquake faults. Time history methods of analysis are which are located in metropolitan areas where traffic con-
recommended for this purpose, provided care is taken gestion is likely to occur.)
with both the modeling of the structure and the selection
of the input time histories of ground acceleration. Time Step 3. Calculate the period of the bridge, T, using
history methods of analysis are described in Article 4.6. the expression:
W
4.3 UNIFORM LOAD METHOD— T = 2π ( 4 - 3)
gK
PROCEDURE 1
The uniform load method, described in the following where g 5 acceleration of gravity (length/time2)
steps, may be used for both transverse and longitudinal
earthquake motions. It is essentially an equivalent static Step 4. Calculate the equivalent static earthquake
method of analysis which uses a uniform lateral load to loading pe from the expression:
approximate the effect of seismic loads. The method is
suitable for regular bridges that respond principally in Cs W
pe = ( 4 - 4)
their fundamental mode of vibration. Whereas all dis- L
placements and most member forces are calculated with
good accuracy, the method is known to overestimate the where Cs 5 the dimensionless elastic seismic response
transverse shears at the abutments by up to 100%. If such coefficient given by Equation (3-1)
conservatism is undesirable then the single mode spectral pe 5 equivalent uniform static seismic loading
analysis method (Procedure 2) is recommended. per unit length of bridge applied to repre-
sent the primary mode of vibration.
Step 1. Calculate the static displacements vs(x) due to
an assumed uniform load po as shown in Figure 4.4A and Step 5. Calculate the displacements and member
Figure 4.4B. The uniform loading po is applied over the forces for use in design either by applying pe to the struc-
length of the bridge; it has units of force/unit length and ture and performing a second static analysis or by scaling
may be arbitrarily set equal to 1.0. The static displacement the results of Step 1 by the ratio pe/po.
vs(x) has units of length.
4.4 SINGLE MODE SPECTRAL ANALYSIS
Step 2. Calculate the bridge lateral stiffness, K, and
METHOD—PROCEDURE 2
total weight, W, from the following expressions:
The single mode spectral analysis method described in
po L
K= ( 4 - 1) the following steps may be used for both transverse and
v s, MAX longitudinal earthquake motions. Examples illustrating its
application are given in the Commentary.
∫
W = w( x)dx ( 4 - 2)
Step 1. Calculate the static displacements vs(x) due to
where L 5 total length of the bridge an assumed uniform loading po as shown in Figure 4.4A.
4.2.2 DIVISION IA—SEISMIC DESIGN 455
FIGURE 4.4A Bridge Deck Subjected to Assumed FIGURE 4.4B Bridge Deck Subjected to Equivalent
Transverse and Longitudinal Loading Transverse and Longitudinal Seismic Loading
The uniform loading po is applied over the length of the where,

bridge; it has units of force/unit length and is arbitrarily
Cs 5 the dimensionless elastic seismic response co-
set equal to 1. The static displacement vs(x) has units of
length. efficient given by Equation (3-1),
pe(x) 5 the intensity of the equivalent static seismic
Step 2. Calculate factors a, b, and g: loading applied to represent the primary mode
of vibration (force/unit length).
∫
α = v s ( x)dx ( 4 - 5) Step 5. Apply loading pe(x) to the structure as shown
in Figure 4.4B and determine the resulting member forces
β = ∫ w( x)v ( x)dx
s ( 4 - 6) and displacements for design.
γ = ∫ w( x)v ( x) dx
s
2
( 4 - 7)
4.5 MULTIMODE SPECTRAL ANALYSIS
where w(x) is the weight of the dead load of the bridge su- METHOD—PROCEDURE 3
perstructure and tributary substructure (force/unit length).
The computed factors, a, b, g, have units of (length2), The multimode response spectrum analysis should be
(force 3 length), and (force 3 length2), respectively.
performed with a suitable space frame linear dynamic
The weight should take into account structural ele-
analysis computer program.
ments and other relevant loads including, but not limited
to, pier caps, abutments, columns and footings. Other
loads such as live loads may be included. (Generally, the 4.5.1 General
inertia effects of live loads are not included in the analy-
sis; however, the probability of a large live load being on The multimode spectral analysis method applies to
the bridge during an earthquake should be considered bridges with irregular geometry which induces coupling
when designing bridges with high live-to-dead load ratios in the three coordinate directions within each mode of
which are located in metropolitan areas where traffic con- vibration. These coupling effects make it difficult to cat-
gestion is likely to occur.) egorize the modes into simple longitudinal or transverse
modes of vibration and, in addition, several modes of vi-
Step 3. Calculate the period of the bridge, T, using bration will in general contribute to the total response of
the expression: the structure. A computer program with space frame dy-
namic analysis capabilities should be used to determine
γ
T = 2π ( 4 - 8) coupling effects and multimodal contributions to the
p o gα final response. Motions applied at the supports in any
one of the two horizontal directions will produce forces
where g 5 acceleration of gravity (length/time2). along both principal axes of the individual members be-
cause of the coupling effects. For curved structures, the
Step 4. Calculate the equivalent static earthquake longitudinal motion shall be directed along a chord con-
loading pe(x) from the expression: necting the abutments and the transverse motion shall be
applied normal to the chord. Forces due to longitudinal
βC s and transverse motions shall be combined as specified in
p e (x) = w( x ) v s ( x ) ( 4 - 9)
γ Article 3.9.
4.5.2 Mathematical Model established methods for the fixed base condition using the
mass and elastic stiffness of the entire seismic resisting
The bridge should be modeled as a three-dimensional system.
space frame with joints and nodes selected to realistically
model the stiffness and inertia effects of the structure. 4.5.4 Multimode Spectral Analysis
Each joint or node should have six degrees of freedom,
three translational and three rotational. The structural
The response should, as a minimum, include the effects
mass should be lumped with a minimum of three transla-
of a number of modes equivalent to three times the num-
tional inertia terms.
ber of spans up to a maximum of 25 modes.
The mass should take into account structural elements
and other relevant loads including, but not limited to, pier
caps, abutments, columns and footings. Other loads such 4.5.5 Combination of Mode Forces and
as live loads may be included. (Generally, the inertia ef- Displacements
fects of live loads are not included in the analysis; how-
ever, the probability of a large live load being on the The member forces and displacements can be esti-
bridge during an earthquake should be considered when mated by combining the respective response quantities
designing bridges with high live-to-dead load ratios which (e.g., force, displacement, or relative displacement)
are located in metropolitan areas where traffic congestion from the individual modes by the Complete Quadratic
is likely to occur.) Combination (CQC) method. The member forces and
displacements obtained using the CQC method of com-
4.5.2(A) Superstructure bining modes is generally adequate for most bridge
The superstructure should, as a minimum, be modeled systems.
as a series of space frame members with nodes at such
points as the span quarter points in addition to joints at the
ends of each span. Discontinuities should be included in 4.6 TIME HISTORY METHOD—PROCEDURE 4
the superstructure at the expansion joints and abutments.
Care should be taken to distribute properly the lumped Any step-by-step, time history method of dynamic
mass inertia effects at these locations. The effect of earth- analysis, that has been validated by experiment and/
quake restrainers at expansion joints may be approxi- or comparative performance with similar methods, may
mated by superimposing one or more linearly elastic be used provided the following requirements are also
members having the stiffness properties of the engaged re- satisfied:
strainer units.
(a) The time histories of input acceleration used to de-
4.5.2(B) Substructure scribe the earthquake loads shall be selected in consul-
tation with the Owner or Owner’s representative. Un-
The intermediate columns or piers should also be mod-
less otherwise directed, five spectrum-compatible time
eled as space frame members. Generally, for short, stiff
histories shall be used when site-specific time histories
columns having lengths less than one-third of either of the
are not available. The spectrum used to generate these
adjacent span lengths, intermediate nodes are not neces-
sary. Long, flexible columns should be modeled with in- five time histories shall preferably be a site-specific
termediate nodes at the third points in addition to the spectrum. In the absence of such a spectrum, the re-
joints at the ends of the columns. The model should con- sponse coefficient given by Equation (3-1), for the ap-
sider the eccentricity of the columns with respect to the propriate soil type, may be used to generate a spectrum.
superstructure. Foundation conditions at the base of the (b) The sensitivity of the numerical solution to the size
columns and at the abutments may be modeled using of the time step used for the analysis shall be deter-
equivalent linear spring coefficients. mined. A sensitivity study shall also be carried out to
investigate the effects of variations in assumed mate-
4.5.3 Mode Shapes and Periods rial properties.
(c) If an in-elastic time history method of analysis is
The required periods and mode shapes of the bridge in used, the R-factors permitted by Article 3.7 shall be
the direction under consideration shall be calculated by taken as 1.0 for all substructures and connections.
Section 5
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES
IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A
5.1 GENERAL or,
Bridges classified as SPC A in accordance with Table N5 (203 1 1.67L 1 6.66H)

3.4 of Article 3.4 shall conform to all the requirements of
(1 1 0.000125S2) (mm) (5-1B)
this Section.
where,
5.2 DESIGN FORCES FOR SEISMIC
L 5 length, in feet for Equation (5-1A) or meters for
PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A
Equation (5-1B), of the bridge deck to the adja-
cent expansion joint, or to the end of the bridge
If a mechanical device is used to connect the super-
deck. For hinges within a span, L shall be the sum
structure to the substructure it shall be designed to resist a
of L1 and L2, the distances to either side of the
horizontal seismic force in each restrained direction equal
hinge. For single span bridges L equals the length
to 0.20 times the tributary weight.
of the bridge deck. These lengths are shown in
For each segment of a superstructure, the tributary
Figure 3.10.
weight at the line of fixed bearings, used to determine the
S 5 angle of skew of support in degrees, measured
longitudinal connection design force, is defined as the
from a line normal to the span.
total weight of the segment.
If each bearing supporting a segment or simply sup-
and H is given by one of the following:
ported span is restrained in the transverse direction, the
tributary weight used to determine the transverse connec-
for abutments, H is the average height, in feet for
tion design force is defined as the dead load reaction at
Equation (5-1A) or meters for Equation (5-1B), of
that bearing.
columns supporting the bridge deck to the next ex-
pansion joint. H 5 0 for single span bridges.
for columns and/or piers, H is the column or pier
5.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FOR SEISMIC
height in feet for Equation (5-1A) or meters for
Equation (5-1B).
for hinges within a span, H is the average height
Minimum bearing support lengths as determined in
of the adjacent two columns or piers in feet for
this article shall be provided for the expansion ends of all
Equation (5-1A) or meters for Equation (5-1B).
girders.
Bridges classified as SPC A shall meet the following
5.4 FOUNDATION AND ABUTMENT DESIGN
requirement: Bearing seats supporting the expansion ends
REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC
of girders, as shown in Figure 3.10, shall be designed to
provide a minimum support length N (in. or mm), mea-
sured normal to the face of an abutment or pier, not less
There are no special seismic design requirements
than that specified below.
for the foundations and abutments of bridges in this
category.
N 5 (8 1 0.02L 1 0.08H)
Nevertheless, compliance is assumed with all require-
(1 1 0.000125S2) (in) (5-1A) ments that are necessary to provide support for vertical
457
and lateral loads other than those due to earthquake mo- used the allowable stresses are permitted to increase by
tions. These include, but are not limited to, provisions for 50%.
the extent of foundation investigation, fills, slope stabil-
ity, bearing and lateral soil pressures, drainage, settlement
5.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
control, and pile requirements and capacities.
5.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN
REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC No consideration of seismic forces is required for
PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A the design of structural components for bridges in this
category except for the design of the connection of
No consideration of seismic forces is required for the the superstructure to the substructure as specified in Ar-
design of structural components for bridges in this cate- ticle 5.2.
gory except for the design of the connection of the super- Nevertheless, design and construction of cast-in-place
structure to the substructure as specified in Article 5.2. monolithic reinforced concrete columns, pier footings and
Nevertheless, design and construction of structural connections shall conform to the requirements of Division
steel columns and connections shall conform to the re- I. Either Service Load or Load Factor design may be used.
quirements of Division I. Either Service Load or Load If Service Load design is used the allowable stresses are
Factor design may be used. If Service Load design is permitted to increase by 331⁄ 3%.
Section 6
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES
IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B
6.1 GENERAL SF 5 stream-flow pressure

E 5 earth pressure
Bridges classified as SPC B in accordance with Table EQM 5 elastic seismic force for either Load Case 1 or
3.4 of Article 3.4 shall conform to all the requirements of Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 modified by di-
this section. viding by the appropriate R-Factor.
6.2 DESIGN FORCES FOR SEISMIC Each component of the structure shall be designed to
PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B withstand the forces resulting from each load combination
according to Division I, and the additional requirements
6.2.1 Design Forces for Structural Members and of this section. Note that Equation (6-1) shall be used in
Connections lieu of the Division I, Group VII group loading combina-
tion and that the g and b factors equal 1. For Service Load
Seismic design forces specified in this subsection shall design, a 50% increase is permitted in the allowable
apply to: stresses for structural steel and a 331⁄ 3% increase for rein-
forced concrete.
(a) The superstructure, its expansion joints and the
connections between the superstructure and the sup-
porting substructure. 6.2.2 Design Forces for Foundations
(b) The supporting substructure down to the base of
the columns and piers but not including the footing, Seismic design forces for foundations, including foot-
pile cap, or piles. ings, pile caps, and piles shall be the elastic seismic forces
(c) Components connecting the superstructure to the obtained from Load Case 1 and Load Case 2 of Article 3.9
abutment. divided by the Response Modification Factor (R) from Ar-
ticle 3.7 and modified as specified below. These modified
Seismic design forces for the above components shall seismic forces shall then be combined independently with
be determined by dividing the elastic seismic forces ob- forces from other loads as specified in the following group
tained from Load Case 1 and Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 loading combination to determine two alternate load
by the appropriate Response Modification Factor of Arti- combinations for the foundations.
cle 3.7. The modified seismic forces resulting from the
two load cases shall then be combined independently with Group Load 5 1.0(D 1 B 1 SF 1 E 1 EQF) (6-2)
forces from other loads as specified in the following group
loading combination for the components. Note that the where D, B, E, and SF are as defined in Article 6.2.1, and
seismic forces are reversible (positive and negative) and
EQF 5 the elastic seismic force for either Load Case
the maximum loading for each component shall be calcu-
1 or Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 divided by
lated as follows:
one-half of the Response Modification Factor
Group Load 5 1.0(D 1 B 1 SF 1 E 1 EQM) (6-1) for the substructure (column or pier) to which
the foundation is attached.
where,
EXCEPTION:
D 5 dead load For pile bents, the Response Modification Factor shall
B 5 buoyancy not be reduced by one-half.
459
If a Group Load other than Equation (6-1) governs the S 5 angle of skew of support in degrees, measured
design of the columns, seismic forces transferred to the from a line normal to the span.
foundations may be larger than those calculated using
Equation (6-2), due to possible overstrength of columns. and H is given by one of the following:
Each component of the foundation shall be designed to
resist the forces resulting from each load combination ac- for abutments, H is the average height, in feet for
cording to the requirements of Division I and to the addi- Equation (6-3A) or meters for Equation (6-3B), of
tional requirements of Article 6.4. columns supporting the bridge deck to the next ex-
pansion joint. H 5 0 for single span bridges.
6.2.3 Design Forces for Abutments and Retaining for columns and/or piers, H is the column or pier
Walls height in feet for Equation (6-3A) or meters for
Equation (6-3B).
The components connecting the superstructure to an for hinges within a span, H is the average height of
abutment (e.g., bearings and shear keys) shall be designed the adjacent two columns or piers in feet for Equa-
to resist the forces specified in Article 6.2.1. tion (6-3A) or meters for Equation (6-3B).
Design requirements for abutments are given in Arti-
cle 6.4.3.
6.4 FOUNDATION AND ABUTMENT DESIGN
6.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FOR SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B
PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B
6.4.1 General
The seismic design displacements shall be the maxi-
mum of those determined in accordance with Article 3.8 This section includes only those foundation and abut-
or those specified in Article 6.3.1. ment requirements that are specifically related to seismic
resistant construction in SPC B. It assumes compliance
6.3.1 Minimum Support Length Requirements for with all requirements that are necessary to provide sup-
Seismic Performance Category B port for vertical and lateral loads other than those due to
earthquake motions. These include, but are not limited to,
Bridges classified as SPC B shall meet the following provisions for the extent of foundation investigation,
requirement: Bearing seats supporting the expansion ends fills, slope stability, bearing and lateral soil pressures,
of girders, as shown in Figure 3.10, shall be designed to drainage, settlement control, and pile requirements and
provide a minimum support length N (in. or mm) mea- capacities.
sured normal to the face of an abutment or pier, not less Foundation and abutment seismic design requirements
than that specified below. for SPC B are given in the following subarticles.
N5 (8 1 0.02L 1 0.08H) 6.4.2 Foundations

2
(1 1 0.000125S ) (in.) (6-3A)
6.4.2(A) Investigation
or, In addition to the normal site investigation report, the
Engineer may require the submission of a report which
N5 (203 1 1.67L 1 6.66H) describes the results of an investigation to determine po-
(1 1 0.000125S2) (mm) (6-3B) tential hazards and seismic design requirements related to
(1) slope instability, (2) liquefaction, (3) fill settlement,
where, and (4) increases in lateral earth pressure, all as a result of
earthquake motions. Seismically induced slope instability
L 5 length, in feet for Equation (6-3A) or meters for in approach fills or cuts may displace abutments and lead
Equation (6-3B), of the bridge deck to the adja- to significant differential settlement and structural dam-
cent expansion joint, or to the end of the bridge age. Fill settlement and abutment displacements due to
deck. For hinges within a span, L shall be the sum lateral pressure increases may lead to bridge access prob-
of L1 and L2, the distances to either side of the lems and structural damage. Liquefaction of saturated co-
hinge. For single span bridges L equals the length hesionless fills or foundation soils may contribute to slope
of the bridge deck. These lengths are shown in and abutment instability, and could lead to a loss of foun-
Figure 3.10. dation-bearing capacity and lateral pile support. Lique-
6.4.2(A) DIVISION IA—SEISMIC DESIGN 461
faction failures of the above type have led to bridge fail- 1. Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles. Longitudinal rein-
ures during past earthquakes. forcing steel shall be provided for cast-in-place concrete
piles in the upper one-third (8 feet or 2.4 meters
6.4.2(B) Foundation Design minimum) of the pile length with a minimum steel ratio
of 0.005 provided by at least four bars. Spiral reinforce-
For the load combinations specified in Article 6.2.2,
ment or equivalent ties of 1⁄4 inches (6 millimeters)
the soil strength capable of being mobilized by the foun-
diameter or larger shall be provided at 9 inches (225 mil-
dations shall be established in the site investigation report.
limeters) maximum pitch, except for the top 2 feet (610
Because of the dynamic cyclic nature of seismic loading,
millimeters) below the pile cap reinforcement where the
the ultimate capacity of the foundation supporting
pitch shall be 3 inches (75 millimeters) maximum.
medium should be used in conjunction with these load
2. Precast Piles. Longitudinal reinforcing steel shall
combinations. Due consideration shall be given to the
be provided for each precast concrete pile with a min-
magnitude of the seismically induced foundation settle-
imum steel ratio of 0.01 provided by at least four bars.
ment that the bridge can withstand.
Spiral reinforcement or equivalent ties of No. 3 bars or
Transient foundation uplift or rocking involving sepa-
larger shall be provided at 9 inches (225 millimeters)
ration from the subsoil of up to one-half of an end bearing
maximum pitch, except for the top 2 feet (610 mil-
foundation pile group or up to one-half of the contact area
limeters) below the pile cap reinforcement where the
of foundation footings is permitted under seismic loading,
pitch shall be 3 inches (75 millimeters) maximum.
provided that foundation soils are not susceptible to loss
3. Precast-Prestressed Piles. Ties in precast-pre-
of strength under the imposed cyclic loading.
stressed piles shall conform to the requirements of pre-
General comments on soil strength and stiffness mobi-
cast piles.
lized during earthquakes, foundation uplift, lateral load-
ing of piles, soil-structure interaction and foundation de- 6.4.3 Abutments
sign in environments susceptible to liquefaction are
provided in the Commentary. 6.4.3(A) Free-Standing Abutments
For free-standing abutments or retaining walls which
6.4.2(C) Special Pile Requirements
may displace horizontally without significant restraint
The following special pile requirements are in addition (e.g., superstructure supported by sliding bearings), the
to the requirements for piles in other applicable specifica- pseudostatic Mononobe-Okabe method of analysis is
tions. recommended for computing lateral active soil pressures
Piles may be used to resist both axial and lateral loads. during seismic loading. A seismic coefficient equal to
The minimum depth of embedment, together with the one-half the acceleration coefficient (kh 5 0.5A) is
axial and lateral pile capacities, required to resist seismic recommended. The effects of vertical acceleration may be
loads shall be determined by means of the design criteria omitted. Abutments should be proportioned to slide rather
established in the site investigation report. Note that the than tilt, and provisions should be made to accommodate
ultimate capacity of the piles should be used in designing small horizontal seismically induced abutment displace-
for seismic loads. ments when minimal damage is desired at abutment sup-
All piles shall be adequately anchored to the pile foot- ports. Abutment displacements of up to 10A inches (250A
ing or cap. Concrete piles shall be anchored by embed- millimeters) may be expected.
ment of sufficient length of pile reinforcement (unless The seismic design of free-standing abutments should
special anchorage is provided) to develop uplift forces but take into account forces arising from seismically induced
in no case shall this length be less than the development lateral earth pressures, additional forces arising from wall
length required for the reinforcement. Each concrete- inertia effects and the transfer of seismic forces from the
filled pipe pile shall be anchored by at least four reinforc- bridge deck through bearing supports which do not slide
ing steel dowels with a minimum steel ratio of 0.01 em- freely (e.g., elastomeric bearings).
bedded sufficiently as required for concrete piles. Timber For free-standing abutments which are restrained
and steel piles, including unfilled pipe piles, shall be pro- from horizontal displacement by anchors or batter piles,
vided with anchoring devices to develop all uplift forces the magnitudes of seismically induced lateral earth pres-
adequately but in no case shall these forces be less than sures are higher than those given by the Mononobe-
10% of the allowable pile load. Okabe method of analysis. As a first approximation,
All concrete piles shall be reinforced to resist the de- it is recommended that the maximum lateral earth pressure
sign moments, shears, and axial loads. Minimum rein- be computed by using a seismic coefficient kh 5 1.5A in
forcement shall be not less than the following: conjunction with the Mononobe-Okabe analysis method.
462 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 6.4.3(B)
6.4.3(B) Monolithic Abutments 6.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

For monolithic abutments where the abutment forms
an integral part of the bridge superstructure, maximum
earth pressures acting on the abutment may be assumed
equal to the maximum longitudinal earthquake force 6.6.1 General
transferred from the superstructure to the abutment. To
minimize abutment damage, the abutment should be de-
Design and construction of cast-in-place monolithic
signed to resist the passive pressure capable of being mo-
reinforced concrete columns, pier footings and connec-
bilized by the abutment backfill, which should be greater
tions shall conform to the requirements of Division I and
than the maximum estimated longitudinal earthquake
to the additional requirements of this section. Either Ser-
force transferred to the abutment. It may be assumed that
vice Load or Load Factor design may be used. If Service
the lateral active earth pressure during seismic loading is
Load design is used the allowable stresses are permitted
less than the superstructure earthquake load.
to increase by 331⁄ 3%.
When longitudinal seismic forces are also resisted
by piers or columns, it is necessary to estimate abut-
ment stiffness in the longitudinal direction in order to
6.6.2 Minimum Transverse Reinforcement
compute the proportion of earthquake load transferred to
Requirements for Seismic Performance
the abutment.
Category B
6.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN For bridges classified as SPC B, the minimum trans-
REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC verse reinforcement requirements at the top and bottom of
PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B a column shall be as required in Article 6.6.2(A). The
spacing of the transverse reinforcement shall be as re-
quired in Article 6.6.2(B).
6.5.1 General
Design and construction of structural steel columns 6.6.2(A) Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement
and connections shall conform to the requirements of Di-
The cores of columns, pile bents, and drilled shafts shall
vision I and to the additional requirements of this section.
be confined by transverse reinforcement in the expected
Either Service Load or Load Factor design may be used.
plastic hinge regions, generally located at the top and bot-
If Service Load design is used the allowable stresses are
tom of columns and pile bents, as specified in this sub-
permitted to increase by 50%.
section. The transverse reinforcement for confinement
shall have a yield strength not more than that of the lon-
6.5.2 P-delta Effects gitudinal reinforcement and the spacing shall be as speci-
fied in Article 6.6.2(B).
Where axial and flexural stresses are determined by The volumetric ratio of spiral reinforcement (rs) for a
considering secondary bending resulting from the design circular column shall be either that required in Division I,
P-delta effects (moments induced by the eccentricity re- Article 8.18 or,
sulting from the seismic displacements and the column
 A g  fc′
axial force), all axially loaded members may be propor- ρs = 0.45 − 1 (6 − 4 )
tioned in accordance with Division I, Article 10.36 or  Ac  fyh
10.54.
or,
EXCEPTIONS: fc′
ρs = 0.12 (6 - 5)
fyh
1. The effective length factor, K, in the plane of bend-
ing may be assumed to be unity in the calculation of Fa, whichever is greater.
Fe9, Fcr, or Fe. The total gross sectional area (Ash) of rectangular hoop
2. The coefficient Cm is computed as for the cases (stirrup) reinforcement for a rectangular column shall be
where joint translation is prevented. either,
fc′  A g  peripheral longitudinal bars. The 90° hooks of two suc-

A sh = 0.30ah c − 1 (6 - 6)
fyh  A c
cessive crossties engaging the same longitudinal bars
 shall be alternated end for end.
A hoop is a closed tie or continuously wound tie. A
or,
closed tie may be made up of several reinforcing elements
with 135° hooks having a six-diameter, but not less than
fc′
A sh = 0.12ah c (6 - 7) 3 inches (76 millimeters), extension at each end. A con-
fyh tinuously wound tie shall have at each end a 135° hook
with a six-diameter, but not less than 3 inches (76 milli-
whichever is greater, where: meters), extension that engages the longitudinal rein-
a 5 vertical spacing of hoops (stirrups) in inches forcement.
(millimeters) with a maximum of 6 inches (150
millimeters)
Ac 5 area of column core measured to the outside of
6.6.2(B) Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement
the transverse spiral reinforcement
for Confinement
Ag 5 gross area of column
Ash 5 total cross-sectional area in square inches 1. Transverse reinforcement for confinement shall
(square millimeters) of hoop (stirrup) reinforce- be provided at the top and bottom of the column
ment including supplementary cross ties having over a length equal to the maximum cross-sectional
a vertical spacing of an inch (millimeter) and column dimension or one-sixth of the clear height
crossing a section having a core dimension of hc of the column whichever is the larger but not less than
inches (millimeters). Note that this should be 18 inches (450 millimeters). Transverse reinforcement
calculated for both principal axes of a rectangu- shall be extended into the top and bottom connections
lar column. for a distance equal to one-half the maximum column
fc9 5 specified compressive strength of concrete in dimension but not less than 15 inches (375 millime-
psi (MPa) ters) from the face of the column connection into the
fyh 5 yield strength of hoop or spiral reinforcement in adjoining member.
psi (MPa) 2. Transverse reinforcement for confinement shall be
hc 5 core dimension of tied column in inches (mil- provided at the top of piles in pile bents over the same
limeters) in the direction under consideration length as specified for columns. At the bottom of piles
rs 5 ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to total in pile bents, transverse reinforcement for confinement
volume of concrete core (out-to-out of spirals). shall be provided over a length extending from three
pile diameters below the calculated point of moment
Transverse hoop reinforcement may be provided by fixity to one pile diameter but not less than 18 inches
single or overlapping hoops. Cross-ties having the same (450 millimeters) above the mud line.
bar size as the hoop may be used. Each end of the cross- 3. The maximum spacing for reinforcement shall not
tie shall engage a peripheral longitudinal reinforcing bar. exceed the smaller of one-quarter of the minimum
A crosstie is a continuous bar having a hook of not less member dimension or 6 inches (150 millimeters).
than 135° with an extension of not less than six-diameter, 4. Lapping of spiral reinforcement in the transverse
but not less than 3 inches (76 millimeters), at one end and confinement regions specified in 1 and 2 shall not be
a hook of not less than 90° with an extension of not less permitted. Connections of spiral reinforcement in this
than six-diameter at the other end. The hooks shall engage region must be full strength lap welds.
Section 7
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES IN SEISMIC
7.1 GENERAL cle 3.7. The modified seismic forces resulting from the
two load cases shall then be combined independently with
Bridges classified as either SPC C or SPC D in accor- forces from other loads as specified in the following group
dance with Table 1 of Article 3.4 shall conform to all the loading combination for the components. Note that the
requirements of this Section. seismic forces are reversible (positive and negative) and
the maximum loading for each component shall be calcu-
7.2 DESIGN FORCES FOR SEISMIC lated as follows:
Group Load 5 1.0(D 1 B 1 SF 1 E 1 EQM) (7-1)
Two sets of design forces are specified in Articles 7.2.1
and 7.2.2 for bridges classified as Category C or D. The where,
design forces for the various components are specified in
Articles 7.2.3 through 7.2.7. D 5 dead load
B 5 buoyancy
SF 5 stream-flow pressure
7.2.1 Modified Design Forces
E 5 earth pressure
EQM 5 elastic seismic force for either Load Case 1
Design forces shall be determined as in Articles
or Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 modified by
7.2.1(A) and 7.2.1(B). Note that for columns a maximum
and minimum axial force shall be calculated for each dividing by the appropriate R-Factor.
load case by taking the seismic axial force as positive and
negative. Each component of the structure shall be designed to
withstand the forces resulting from each load combination
according to Division I, and the additional requirements
7.2.1(A) Modified Design Forces for Structural
of this chapter. Note that Equation (7-1) shall be used in
Members and Connections
lieu of the Division I, Group VII group loading combina-
Seismic design forces specified in this Article shall tion and that the g and b factors equal 1. For Service Load
apply to: Design, a 50% increase is permitted in the allowable
stresses for structural steel and a 331⁄ 3% increase for rein-
(a) The superstructure, its expansion joints and the forced concrete.
connections between the superstructure and the sup-
porting substructure. 7.2.1(B) Modified Design Forces for Foundations
(b) The supporting substructure down to the base of
the columns and piers but not including the footing, Seismic design forces for foundations, including foot-
pile cap, or piles. ings, pile caps, and piles shall be the elastic seismic forces
(c) Components connecting the superstructure to the obtained from Load Case 1 and Load Case 2 of Article 3.9
abutment. divided by the Response Modification Factor (R) speci-
fied below. These modified seismic forces shall then be
Seismic design forces for the above components shall combined independently with forces from other loads
be determined by dividing the elastic seismic forces ob- as specified in the following group loading combination
tained from Load Case 1 and Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 to determine two alternate load combinations for the
by the appropriate Response Modification Factor of Arti- foundations.
465
Group Load 5 1.0(D 1 B 1 SF 1 E 1 EQF) (7-2) The forces corresponding to a single column hinging
are:
where D, B, E, and SF are as defined in Article 7.2.1 and
(a) Axial Forces—unreduced maximum and mini-
EQF 5 the elastic seismic force for either Load Case 1
mum seismic axial load of Article 3.9 plus the dead
or Load Case 2 of Article 3.9 divided by an R-
load.
Factor equal to 1.0.
(b) Moments—as calculated in Step 1.
(c) Shear Force—as calculated in Step 2.
Each component of the foundation shall be designed
to resist the forces resulting from each load combination
7.2.2(B) Bents with Two or More Columns
according to the requirements of Division I and to the
additional requirements of Article 7.2.6. The forces for bents with two or more columns shall be
calculated both in the plane of the bent and perpendicular
7.2.2 Forces Resulting from Plastic Hinging in the to the plane of the bent. Perpendicular to the plane of the
Columns, Piers, or Bents bent the forces shall be calculated as for single columns in
accordance with Article 7.2.2(A). In the plane of the bent
The force resulting from plastic hinging at the top the forces shall be calculated as follows:
and/or bottom of the column shall be calculated after the
preliminary design of the columns is complete. The forces Step 1. Determine the column overstrength plastic
resulting from plastic hinging are recommended for de- moment capacities. For reinforced concrete use a strength
termining design forces for most components as specified reduction factor (f) of 1.3 and for structural steel use 1.25
in Articles 7.2.3 through 7.2.6. Alternate conservative de- times the nominal yield strength. (Note: This corresponds
sign forces are specified if forces resulting from plastic to the normal use of a strength reduction factor for rein-
hinging are not calculated. The procedures for calculating forced concrete. In this case it provides an increase in the
these forces for single column and pier supports and bents ultimate strength.) For both materials use the axial load
with two or more columns are given in the following corresponding to the dead load.
subsections.
Step 2. Using the column overstrength plastic mo-
7.2.2(A) Single Columns and Piers ments calculate the corresponding column shear forces.
The forces shall be calculated for the two principal Sum the column shears of the bent to determine the max-
axes of a column and in the weak direction of a pier or imum shear force for the bent. Note that, if a partial-height
bent as follows: wall exists between the columns, the effective column
height is taken from the top of the wall. For flared columns
Step 1. Determine the column overstrength plastic and foundations below ground level, see Article 7.2.2(A)
moment capacities. For reinforced concrete columns, use Step 2. For pile bents the length of pile above the mud line
a strength reduction factor (f) of 1.3 and for structural shall be used to calculate the shear force.
steel columns use 1.25 times the nominal yield strength.
(Note: This corresponds to the normal use of a strength Step 3. Apply the bent shear force to the top of the
reduction factor for reinforced concrete. In this case it pro- bent (center of mass of the superstructure above the bent)
vides an increase in the ultimate strength.) For both mate- and determine the axial forces in the columns due to over-
rials use the maximum elastic column axial load from turning when the column overstrength plastic moments
Article 3.9 added to the column dead load. are developed.
Step 2. Using the column overstrength plastic mo- Step 4. Using these column axial forces combined
ments, calculate the corresponding column shear force. with the dead load axial forces, determine revised column
For flared columns this calculation shall be performed overstrength plastic moments. With the revised over-
using the overstrength plastic moments at both the top and strength plastic moments calculate the column shear
bottom of the flare with the appropriate column height. If forces and the maximum shear force for the bent. If the
the foundation of a column is significantly below ground maximum shear force for the bent is not within 10% of the
level, consideration should be given to the possibility of value previously determined, use this maximum bent
the plastic hinge forming above the foundation. If this can shear force and return to Step 3.
occur the column length between plastic hinges shall be The forces in the individual columns in the plane of a
used to calculate the column shear force. bent corresponding to column hinging, are:
7.2.2(B) DIVISION IA—SEISMIC DESIGN 467
(a) Axial Forces—the maximum and minimum axial 7.2.5(A) Longitudinal Linkage Forces
load is the dead load plus, or minus, the axial load de-
Positive horizontal linkage shall be provided between
termined from the final iteration of Step 3.
adjacent sections of the superstructure at supports and ex-
(b) Moments—the column overstrength plastic mo-
pansion joints within a span. The linkage shall be de-
ments corresponding to the maximum compressive
signed for a minimum force of the Acceleration Coeffi-
axial load specified in (a) above, with a strength re-
cient times the weight of the lighter of the two adjoining
duction factor of 1.3 for reinforced concrete and 1.25
spans or parts of the structure. If the linkage is at a point
times the nominal yield strength for structural steel.
where relative displacement of the sections of super-
(c) Shear Force—the shear force corresponding to the
structure is designed to occur during seismic motions, suf-
column overstrength moments in (b) above, noting the
ficient slack must be allowed in the linkage so that the
provisions in Step 2 above.
linkage force does not start to act until the design dis-
placement is exceeded. Where linkage is to be provided at
7.2.3 Column and Pile Bent Design Forces columns or piers, the linkage of each span may be at-
tached to the column or pier rather than between adjacent
Design forces for columns and pile bents shall be the spans. Positive linkage shall be provided by ties, cables,
following: dampers, or an equivalent mechanism. Friction shall not
(a) Axial Forces—the minimum and maximum design be considered a positive linkage.
force shall either be the elastic design values deter-
mined in Article 3.9 added to the dead load, or the val- 7.2.5(B) Hold-Down Devices
ues corresponding to plastic hinging of the column and
Hold-down devices shall be provided at all supports or
determined in Article 7.2.2. Generally, the values cor-
hinges in continuous structures, where the vertical seismic
responding to column hinging will be smaller.
force due to the longitudinal horizontal seismic load op-
(b) Moments—the modified design moments deter-
poses and exceeds 50% but is less than 100% of the dead
mined in Article 7.2.1.
load reaction. In this case, the minimum net upward force
(c) Shear Force—either the elastic design value deter-
for the hold-down device shall be 10% of the dead load
mined from Article 7.2.1 using an R-Factor of 1 for the
downward force that would be exerted if the span were
column or the value corresponding to plastic hinging
simply supported.
of the column as determined in Article 7.2.2. Gener-
If the vertical seismic force (Q) due to the longitudinal
ally, the value corresponding to column hinging will be
horizontal seismic load opposes and exceeds 100 percent
significantly smaller.
of the dead load reaction (DR), the net upwards force for
the hold-down device shall be 1.2(Q 2 DR) but it shall
7.2.4 Pier Design Forces not be less than that specified in the previous paragraph.
The design forces shall be those determined in Arti- 7.2.5(C) Column and Pier Connections to Cap
cle 7.2.1 except if the pier is designed as a column in its Beams and Footings
weak direction. If the pier is designed as a column the
The recommended connection design forces between
design forces in the weak direction shall be as specified
the superstructure and columns, columns and cap beams,
in Article 7.2.3 and all the design requirements for
and columns and spread footings or pile caps are the
columns of Article 7.6 shall apply. (Note: When the
forces developed at the top and bottom of the columns due
forces due to plastic hinging are used in the weak direc-
to column hinging and determined in Article 7.2.2. The
tion the combination of forces specified in Article 3.9 is
smaller of these or the values specified in Article 7.2.1
not applicable.)
may be used. Note that these forces should be calculated
after the column design is complete and the overstrength
7.2.5 Connection Design Forces moment capacities have been obtained.
The design forces shall be those determined in Article 7.2.6 Foundation Design Forces
7.2.1 except that for superstructure connections to
columns and column connections to cap beams or foot- The design forces for foundations including footings,
ings, the alternate forces specified in 7.2.5(C) below are pile caps, and piles may be either those forces determined
recommended. Additional design forces at connections in Article 7.2.1(B) or the forces at the bottom of the
are as follows: columns corresponding to column plastic hinging as
determined in Article 7.2.2. Generally, the values corre- S 5 angle of skew of support in degrees measured
sponding to column hinging will be significantly smaller. from a line normal to the span.
When the columns of a bent have a common footing
the final force distribution at the base of the columns from and H is given by one of the following:
Step 4 of Article 7.2.2(B) may be used for the design of
the footing in the plane of the bent. This force distribution for abutments, H is the average height, in feet for
produces lower shear forces and moments on the footing Equation (7-3A) or meters for Equation (7-3B), of
because one exterior column may be in tension and the columns supporting the bridge deck to the next ex-
other in compression due to the seismic overturning mo- pansion joint. H 5 0 for single span bridges.
ment. This effectively increases the ultimate moments and for columns and/or piers, H is the column or pier
shear forces on one column and reduces them on the other. height in feet for Equation (7-3A) or meters for
Equation (7-3B).
7.2.7 Abutment and Retaining Wall Design Forces for hinges within a span, H is the average height of
the adjacent two columns or piers in feet for Equa-
The components connecting the superstructure to an tion (7-3A) or meters for Equation (7-3B).
abutment (e.g., bearings and shear keys) shall be designed
to resist the forces specified in Article 7.2.1. Positive horizontal linkages shall be provided at all su-
Design requirements for abutments are given in Arti- perstructure expansion joints, including those joints
cle 7.4.3 for SPC C and Article 7.4.5 for SPC D. within a span, as specified in Article 7.2.5.
Relative displacements between different segments of
7.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENT FOR SEISMIC the bridge should be carefully considered in the evalua-
PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D tion of the results determined in accordance with Article
3.8. Relative displacements arise from effects that are not
The seismic design displacements shall be the maxi- easily included in the analysis procedure but should be
mum of those determined in accordance with Article 3.8 considered in determining the design displacements. They
or those specified in Article 7.3.1. include the following:
7.3.1 Minimum Support Length Requirements for (a) Torsional displacements of bridge decks on
Seismic Performance Categories C and D skewed supports.
(b) Rotation and/or lateral displacements of the foun-
Bridges classified as SPC C or D shall meet the fol- dations.
lowing requirement: Bearing seats supporting the expan- (c) Out-of-phase displacements of different segments
sion ends of girders, as shown in Figure 5, shall be de- of the bridge. This is especially important in determin-
ing seat widths at expansion joints.
signed to provide a minimum support length N (in. or
(d) Out-of-phase rotation of abutments and columns
mm), measured normal to the face of an abutment or pier,
induced by traveling seismic waves.
not less than that specified below.
N 5 (12 1 0.03L 1 0.12H) 7.4 FOUNDATION AND ABUTMENT DESIGN

(1 1 0.000125S2) (in.) (7-3A) REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC
or,
7.4.1 General
N 5 (305 1 2.5L 1 10H)
(1 1 0.000125S2) (mm) (7-3B)
This section includes only those foundation and abut-
where, ment requirements that are specifically related to seismic
resistant construction in SPC C and D. It assumes com-
L 5 length, in feet for Equation (7-3A) or meters for pliance with all requirements that are necessary to provide
Equation (7-3B), of the bridge deck to the adjacent support for vertical and lateral loads other than those due
expansion joint, or to the end of the bridge deck. to earthquake motions. These include, but are not limited
For hinges within a span, L shall be the sum of L1 to, provisions for the extent of foundation investigation,
and L2, the distances to either side of the hinge. For fills, slope stability, bearing and lateral soil pressures,
single span bridges L equals the length of the bridge drainage, settlement control, and pile requirements and
deck. These lengths are shown in Figure 3.10. capacities.
7.4.1 DIVISION IA—SEISMIC DESIGN 469
Foundation and abutment seismic design requirements For saturated sand and soft clay foundation soils, due
for SPC C are given in Articles 7.4.2 and 7.4.3. Require- consideration shall be given to the potential for soil
ments for bridges in SPC D are given in Articles 7.4.4 strength loss under the imposed cyclic loading in assess-
and 7.4.5. ing the ultimate capacity of foundations.
General comments on soil strength and stiffness mobi-
7.4.2 Foundation Requirements for Seismic lized during earthquakes, foundation uplift, lateral load-
Performance Category C ing of piles, soil-structure interaction and foundation de-
sign in environments susceptible to liquefaction are
Foundation and abutment seismic design requirements provided in the Commentary.
for SPC C are given in the following subsections.
7.4.2(C) Special Pile Requirements
7.4.2(A) Investigation The following special pile requirements are in addition

In addition to the normal site investigation report, the to the requirements for piles in other applicable specifica-
Engineer may require the submission of a report which tions.
describes the results of an investigation to determine po- Piles may be used to resist both axial and lateral loads.
tential hazards and seismic design requirements related to The minimum depth of embedment, together with the
(1) slope instability, (2) liquefaction, (3) fill settlement, axial and lateral pile capacities, required to resist seismic
and (4) increases in lateral earth pressure, all as a result of loads shall be determined by means of the design criteria
earthquake motions. Seismically induced slope instability established in the site investigation report. Note that the
in approach fills or cuts may displace abutments and lead ultimate capacity of the piles should be used in designing
to significant differential settlement and structural dam- for seismic loads.
age. Fill settlement and abutment displacements due to All piles shall be adequately anchored to the pile foot-
lateral pressure increases may lead to bridge access prob- ing or cap. Concrete piles shall be anchored by embed-
lems and structural damage. Liquefaction of saturated co- ment of sufficient length of pile reinforcement (unless
hesionless fills or foundation soils may contribute to slope special anchorage is provided) to develop uplift forces but
and abutment instability, and could lead to a loss of foun- in no case shall this length be less than the development
dation bearing capacity and lateral pile support. Lique- length required for the reinforcement. Each concrete-
faction failures of the above type have led to bridge fail- filled pipe pile shall be anchored by at least four reinforc-
ures during past earthquakes. ing steel dowels with a minimum steel ratio of 0.01 em-
Further, the above report should include a determina- bedded sufficiently as required for concrete piles. Timber
tion of the potential for surface rupture due to faulting or and steel piles, including unfilled pipe piles, shall be pro-
differential ground displacement (lurching), as a result of vided with anchoring devices to develop all uplift forces
earthquake motions. adequately but in no case shall these forces be less than
10% of the allowable pile load.
All concrete piles shall be reinforced to resist the de-
7.4.2(B) Foundation Design
sign moments, shears, and axial loads.
The design forces for the foundations shall be those The following special requirements for concrete piles
specified in Article 7.2.6. shall apply:
The soil strength capable of being mobilized by the
foundations shall be established in the site investigation 1. Anchorage. The longitudinal reinforcement of all
report. Because of the dynamic cyclic nature of seismic concrete piles shall be anchored to the pile footing or
loading, the ultimate capacity of the foundation support- cap to develop a force of at least 1.25Asfy where As is
ing medium should be used in conjunction with these load the area of longitudinal reinforcement in the concrete
combinations. Due consideration shall be given to the pile and fy is its nominal yield strength.
magnitude of the seismically induced foundation settle- 2. Confinement Length. The upper end of every pile
ment that the bridge can withstand. shall be reinforced as a potential plastic hinge region,
Transient foundation uplift or rocking involving sepa- except where it can be established that there is no pos-
ration from the subsoil of up to one-half of an end bearing sibility of any significant lateral deflections in the pile
foundation pile group or up to one-half of the contact area resulting from deformation. The potential plastic hinge
of foundation footings is permitted under seismic loading, region shall, as a minimum, be considered to extend
provided that foundation soils are not susceptible to loss from the underside of the pile cap over a length of not
of strength under the imposed cyclic loading. less than two pile diameters or 24 inches (610 mil-
470 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 7.4.2(C)
limeters). If an analysis of the bridge and pile system than tilt, and provisions should be made to accommodate
indicates that a plastic hinge can form at a lower level, small horizontal seismically induced abutment displace-
the transverse reinforcement requirements of (3) shall ments when minimal damage is desired at abutment sup-
extend to that level. Note the special requirements for ports. Abutment displacements of up to 10A inches (250A
pile bents given in Article 7.6.2(C), (D), and (E). millimeters) may be expected.
3. Volumetric Ratio for Confinement. The volumetric The seismic design of free-standing abutments should
ratio of transverse reinforcement to the distance speci- take into account forces arising from seismically induced
fied in (2) shall be as required for columns in Article lateral earth pressures, additional forces arising from wall
7.6.2(D). inertia effects and the transfer of seismic forces from the
4. Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles. Longitudinal steel bridge deck through bearing supports which do not slide
shall be provided for cast-in-place concrete piles for freely (e.g., elastomeric bearings).
the full length of the pile. The upper two-thirds of the For free-standing abutments which are restrained from
pile shall have a minimum longitudinal steel ratio of horizontal displacement by anchors or batter piles, the
0.0075 provided by at least four bars. Spiral reinforce- magnitudes of seismically induced lateral earth pressures
ment or equivalent ties of 1⁄ 4 inch (6 millimeters) di- are higher than those given by the Mononobe-Okabe
ameter or larger shall be provided at 9 inches (225 mil- method of analysis. As a first approximation, it is recom-
limeters) maximum pitch, except for the top 4 feet (1.2 mended that the maximum lateral earth pressure be com-
meters) where the pitch shall be 3 inches (75 millime- puted by using a seismic coefficient kh 5 1.5A in con-
ters maximum, and where the volumetric ratio shall junction with the Mononobe-Okabe analysis method.
conform to Article 7.6.2(D).
5. Precast Concrete Piles. Longitudinal reinforcing 7.4.3(B) Monolithic Abutments
steel shall be provided for each precast concrete pile
For monolithic abutments where the abutment forms
with a minimum steel ratio of 0.01 provided by at least
an integral part of the bridge superstructure, maximum
four bars. Spiral reinforcement ties in precast, includ-
earth pressures acting on the abutment may be assumed
ing prestressed, concrete piles shall be No. 3 bars or
equal to the maximum longitudinal earthquake force
larger and shall be provided at 9 inches (225 millime-
transferred from the superstructure to the abutment. To
ters) maximum pitch except for the top 4 feet (1.2 me-
minimize abutment damage, the abutment should be de-
ters) where the pitch shall be 3 inches (75 millimeters)
signed to resist the passive pressure capable of being mo-
and the volumetric ratio shall conform to 7.6.2(D).
bilized by the abutment backfill, which should be greater
6. Precast-Prestressed Piles. Ties in precast-prestressed
than the maximum estimated longitudinal earthquake
piles shall conform to the requirements of precast piles.
force transferred to the abutment. It may be assumed that
the lateral active earth pressure during seismic loading is
7.4.3 Abutment Requirements for Seismic
less than the superstructure earthquake load.
Performance Category C
When longitudinal seismic forces are also resisted by
piers or columns, it is necessary to estimate abutment stiff-
In addition to the provisions outlined in this section,
ness in the longitudinal direction in order to compute the
consideration should be given to the mechanism of trans-
proportion of earthquake load transferred to the abutment.
fer of superstructure transverse inertial forces to the
bridge abutments. Adequate resistance to lateral pressure
7.4.4 Additional Requirements for Foundations
should be provided by wing walls or abutment keys to
for Seismic Performance Category D
minimize lateral abutment displacements.
Foundation design requirements for bridges classified
7.4.3(A) Free-Standing Abutments
as SPC D shall meet the requirements of Article 7.4.2 plus
the additional requirements of this section.
For free-standing abutments or retaining walls which
may displace horizontally without significant restraint
7.4.4(A) Investigation
(e.g., superstructure supported by sliding bearings), the
pseudo-static Mononobe-Okabe method of analysis is The Engineer may require the submission of a written
recommended for computing lateral active soil pressures report which includes, in addition to the requirements of
during seismic loading. A seismic coefficient equal to Article 7.4.2, a site-specific study to investigate the influ-
one-half the acceleration coefficient (kh 5 0.5A) is rec- ence of cyclic loading on the deformation and strength
ommended. The effects of vertical acceleration may be characteristics of foundation soils. Potential progressive
omitted. Abutments should be proportioned to slide rather degradation in the stiffness and strength characteristics of
saturated sands and soft clays should be given particular EXCEPTIONS:

attention. More detailed analyses of slope and/or abut-
ment settlement during earthquake loading should be 1. The effective length factor, K, in the plane of bend-
undertaken. ing may be assumed to be unity in the calculation of Fa,
Fe9, Fcr, or Fe.
7.4.4(B) Foundation Design 2. The coefficient Cm is computed as for the cases
where joint translation is prevented.
The design forces for foundations shall be those spec-
ified in Article 7.2.6.
7.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
7.4.5 Additional Requirements for Abutments for
Seismic Performance Category D
7.6.1 General
In addition to the requirements outlined in Article 7.4.3
consideration should be given to the mechanism of trans-
Design and construction of cast-in-place monolithic
fer of superstructure longitudinal and transverse inertia
reinforced concrete columns, pier footings and connec-
forces to the abutments, and also to abutment-soil inter-
tions shall conform to the requirements of Division I and
action. To minimize potential loss of bridge access arising
to the additional requirements of this section. Either Ser-
from abutment damage, monolithic or end diaphragm
vice Load or Load Factor design may be used. If Service
construction is strongly recommended for short span
Load design is used the allowable stresses are permitted
bridges.
to increase by 331⁄ 3%. It should be noted that when Ser-
Settlement or approach slabs providing structural sup-
vice Load design is used for SPC C and D a conservative
port between approach fills and abutments are recom-
design may result because elastic design forces will be re-
mended for all bridges classified as SPC D. Slabs shall be
quired for the design of most components unless the
adequately linked to abutments using flexible ties.
forces resulting from plastic hinging of the columns are
used per Article 7.2.2.
7.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN
REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC 7.6.2 Column Requirements
For the purpose of these provisions, a vertical support
7.5.1 General is considered to be a column if the ratio of the clear height
to the maximum plan dimensions of the support is equal
Design and construction of structural steel columns to or greater than 2.5. Note that the maximum plan di-
and connections shall conform to the requirements of Di- mension is taken at the minimum section of the flare for a
vision I and to the additional requirements of this section. flared column. For supports with a ratio less than 2.5, the
Either Service Load or Load Factor design may be used. provisions for piers of Article 7.6.3 shall apply. For
If Service Load design is used the allowable stresses are columns the provisions of this section are applicable. Note
permitted to increase by 50%. It should be noted that that a pier may be designed as a pier in its strong direction
when Service Load design is used for SPC C and D a con- and a column in its weak direction.
servative design may result because elastic design forces
will be required for the design of most components unless 7.6.2(A) Vertical Reinforcement
the forces resulting from plastic hinging of the columns
The area of longitudinal reinforcement shall not be less
are used per Article 7.2.2.
than 0.01 or more than 0.06 times the gross cross-section
area Ag.
7.5.2 P-delta Effects
EXCEPTION:
Where axial and flexural stresses are determined by
Division I, Article 8.18.2.1 applies to columns where a
considering secondary bending resulting from the design
larger cross-section is used for architectural reasons.
P-delta effects (moments induced by the eccentricity re-
sulting from the seismic displacements and the column
7.6.2(B) Flexural Strength
axial force), all axially loaded members may be propor-
tioned in accordance with Division I, Article 10.36 or The biaxial strength of columns shall not be less than
10.54. that required for the bending moments determined in
Article 7.2.3. The design of the column shall be checked pected plastic hinge regions, generally located at the top
for both the minimum and maximum axial loads specified and bottom of columns and pile bents, as specified in this
in Article 7.2.3. The strength reduction factors of Division subsection. The largest of these requirements or those of
I, Article 8.16 shall be replaced for both spirally and tied Article 7.6.2(C) shall govern; these requirements are not
reinforced columns by the value of 0.50 when the stress in addition to those of Article 7.6.2(C). The transverse re-
due to the maximum axial load for the column exceeds inforcement for confinement shall have a yield strength
0.20fc9. The value of f may be increased linearly from not more than that of the longitudinal reinforcement and
0.50 to the value for flexure (0.90) when the stress due to the spacing shall be as specified in Article 7.6.2(E).
the maximum axial load is between 0.20fc9 and 0. The volumetric ratio of spiral reinforcement (rs) for a
Moment magnification for slenderness effects (Divi- circular column shall be either that required in Division I,
sion I, Article 8.16.5) shall be considered in the design of Article 8.18 or,
the column.
 A g  fc′
7.6.2(C) Column Shear and Transverse ρs = 0.45 − 1 (7 - 4)
Reinforcement  Ac  fyh
The factored design shear force Vu of Division I, Equa- or,

tion (8-46) on each principal axis of each column and pile
bent shall be the value determined in Article 7.2.3. fc′
ρs = 0.12 (7 - 5)
The factored shear stress vu shall be computed using Vu fyh
specified above and the strength reduction factor for shear
of Division I, Article 8.16.1.2. whichever is greater.
The amount of transverse reinforcement shall be at The total cross-sectional area (Ash) of rectangular hoop
least that specified by Division I, Article 8.16.6. In the end (stirrup) reinforcement for a rectangular column shall be
regions of the top and bottom of the column and pile bents, either,
the following provisions shall apply in addition to those
of Division I: fc′  Ag 
A sh = 0.30ah c  A − 1 (7 - 6)
fyh  c 
1. The shear strength of the concrete, Vc, shall be in
accordance with Division I, Article 8.16.6.2 when the or,
axial load associated with the shear produces an aver-
age compression stress in excess of 0.1fc9 over the core
fc′
concrete area of the support members. As the average A sh = 0.12ah c (7 - 7)
fyh
compression stress increases from 0 to 0.1fc9 the
strength Vc increases linearly from 0 to the value given
by Division I, Article 8.16.6.2. whichever is greater, where:
2. The end region shall be assumed to extend from a 5 vertical spacing of hoops (stirrups) in inches
the soffit of girders or cap beams at the top of columns, (millimeters) with a maximum of 4 inches (100
or the top of foundations at the bottom of columns, millimeters).
a distance not less than the minimum of (a) the maxi- Ac 5 area of column core measured to the outside of
mum cross-sectional dimension of the column, the transverse spiral reinforcement.
(b) one-sixth of the clear height of the column, or (c) Ag 5 gross area of column.
18 inches (450 millimeters). Ash 5 total cross-sectional area in square inches
3. The end region of a pile bent shall be the same as (square millimeters) of hoop (stirrup) reinforce-
specified for columns at the top of the pile bent, and ment including supplementary cross-ties having
three pile diameters below the calculated point of mo- a vertical spacing of an inches (millimeters) and
ment fixity to one pile diameter, but not less than 18 in- crossing a section having a core dimension of hc
ches (450 millimeters) above the mud line at the bot- inches (millimeters). Note that this should be
tom of the pile bent. calculated for both principal axes of a rectangu-
lar column.
7.6.2(D) Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement
fc9 5 specified compressive strength of concrete in
at Plastic Hinges
psi (MPa).
The cores of columns, pile bents, and drilled shafts fyh 5 yield strength of hoop or spiral reinforcement in
shall be confined by transverse reinforcement in the ex- psi (MPa).
7.6.2(D) DIVISION IA—SEISMIC DESIGN 473
hc 5 core dimension of tied column in inches (mil- this Article. Lap splices shall be permitted only within the
limeters) in the direction under consideration. center half of column height, and the splice length shall
rs 5 ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to total not be less than 16 inches (400 millimeters) or 60 bar di-
volume of concrete core (out-to-out of spirals). ameters, whichever is greater.
The maximum spacing of the transverse reinforcement
Transverse hoop reinforcement may be provided by over the length of the splice shall not exceed the smaller
single or overlapping hoops. Cross-ties having the same of 4 inches (100 millimeters) or one-quarter of the mini-
bar size as the hoop may be used. Each end of the cross- mum member dimension.
tie shall engage a peripheral longitudinal reinforcing bar. Welded splices and approved mechanical splices that
A crosstie is a continuous bar having a hook of not less conform to the current provisions of ACI 318 may be used
than 135° with an extension of not less than six-diameter, for splicing provided that splices shall not be used on any
but not less than 3 inches (76 millimeters), at one end and two adjacent bars in the same layer of longitudinal rein-
a hook of not less than 90° with an extension of not less forcement at the same section and that the distance
than six-diameter at the other end. The hooks shall engage between splices of adjacent bars is greater than 24 inches
peripheral longitudinal bars. The 90° hooks of two suc- (600 millimeters) as measured along the longitudinal axis
cessive crossties engaging the same longitudinal bars of the column.
shall be alternated end for end.
A hoop is a closed tie or continuously wound tie. A
closed tie may be made up of several reinforcing elements 7.6.3 Pier Requirements
with 135° hooks having a six-diameter, but not less than 3
inches (76 millimeters), extension at each end. A continu- The provisions of this article are applicable to the de-
ously wound tie shall have at each end a 135° hook with a sign for the strong direction of a pier. The weak direction
six-diameter, but not less than 3 inches (76 millimeters), of a pier may be designed as a column and the provisions
extension that engages the longitudinal reinforcement. of Article 7.6.2 are then applicable. In this case, the Re-
sponse Modification Factor for columns may be used to
7.6.2(E) Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement determine the design forces in Article 7.2.1. If the pier is
for Confinement not designed as a column in its weak direction, the limita-
1. Transverse reinforcement for confinement shall be tions for shear stress in this article are applicable.
provided at the top and bottom of the column over a The minimum reinforcement ratio both horizontally,
length equal to the maximum cross-sectional column rh, and vertically rn, in any pier shall not be less than
dimension or one-sixth of the clear height of the col- 0.0025. Reinforcement spacing either horizontally or ver-
umn, whichever is the larger, but not less than 18 tically shall not exceed 18 inches (457 millimeters). The
inches (450 millimeters). Transverse reinforcement reinforcement required for shear shall be continuous and
shall be extended into the top and bottom connections shall be distributed uniformly.
as specified in Article 7.6.4.
2. Transverse reinforcement for confinement shall be rh 5 the ratio of horizontal shear reinforcement area
provided at the top of piles in pile bents over the same to gross concrete area of a vertical section.
length as specified for columns. At the bottom of piles rn 5 the ratio of vertical shear reinforcement area to
in pile bents, transverse reinforcement for confinement the gross concrete area of a horizontal section.
shall be provided over a length extending from three
pile diameters below the calculated point of moment The allowable shear stress, vu, in the pier shall be de-
fixity to one pile diameter but not less than 18 inches termined in accordance with the following equation:
(450 millimeters) above the mud line.
3. The maximum spacing for reinforcement shall not v u = 2 fc′ + ρ h fy (7 - 8)
exceed the smaller of one-quarter of the minimum
member dimension or 4 inches (100 millimeters). The allowable shear stress shall not exceed 8Ïfw. c9 For
4. Lapping of spiral reinforcement in the transverse lightweight aggregate concrete, the limiting shear stress,
confinement regions specified in 1 and 2 shall not be vu, calculated from Equation (7-8), shall be multiplied by
permitted. Connections of spiral reinforcement in this 0.75. Two curtains of reinforcement shall be used and the
region must be full strength lap welds. reinforcement ratios rn and rh shall be equal. The rein-
forcement required by shear shall be uniformly distrib-
7.6.2(F) Splices uted. Splices in horizontal pier reinforcement shall be
Splices shall be in accordance with those specified in staggered and splices in the two curtains shall not occur at
Division I, Article 8.32 and the additional requirements of the same location.
7.6.4 Column Connections 7.6.5 Construction Joints in Piers and Columns
A column connection as referred to in this section is the Construction joints in piers and columns resisting seis-
vertical extension of the column area into the adjoining mic forces shall be designed and constructed to resist the
member. design forces at the joint.
The design force for the connection between the col- Where shear is resisted at a construction joint solely by
umn and the cap beam superstructure, pile cap, or spread dowel action and friction on a roughened concrete sur-
footing shall be that specified in Article 7.2.5(C). The de- face, the total shear force across the joint shall not exceed
velopment length for all longitudinal steel shall be that re- Vj determined from the following formula:
quired for a steel stress of 1.25fy as given in Division I, Ar-
ticles 8.24 through 8.32. Vj 5 f(Avffy 1 0.75Pn) (7-9)
Column transverse reinforcement required by Article
7.6.2(D) shall be continued for a distance equal to one- where Avf is the total area of reinforcement (including
half the maximum column dimension but not less than 15 flexural reinforcement), Pn is the minimum axial load
inches (375 millimeters) from the face of the column con- specified in Article 7.2.3 for columns and Article 7.2.4 for
nection into the adjoining member. piers, and f is the strength reduction factor for shear of
The shear stress in the joint of a frame or bent, in the Division I, Article 8.16.
direction under consideration, shall not exceed 12Ïfwc9 for
normal-weight aggregate concrete or 9Ïfwc9 for light-
weight aggregate concrete.
Division II
CONSTRUCTION
INTRODUCTION
This Division of the Standard Specifications for High- used items of work required for the construction of major
way Bridges includes the basic technical construction spec- transportation structures. Note that these specifications do
ifications needed for the construction of bridges and other not identify the date of specifications, which are included
major transportation structures. They generally represent by reference, such as the AASHTO Standard Specifica-
current practices in the United States and are consistent tions for Transportation Materials and Methods of Testing
with the AASHTO Design Specifications for Bridges and Sampling. As required by the AASHTO Guide Spec-
which are contained in Division I. They are provided to be ification, the edition of such specifications incorporated
used either as part of the specifications for projects or as by reference will be the edition in effect on the date of ad-
a guide for agencies in developing their own standards. vertisement for proposals for the project.
When so used, uniformity and the efficiencies associated Sufficient detail may not be included in these specifi-
therewith may be realized. cations to suit local or unusual conditions or unique de-
These technical specifications do not include the signs. The many differences in climate, geology, customs,
clauses needed for the administration of a contract and statutes and regulations prevent the writing of a more de-
were written to be used in conjunction with general pro- tailed national construction specification. Therefore, the
visions such as those in the AASHTO Guide Specifica- user is expected to supplement or alter the requirements
tions for Highway Construction. Other comparable sets of of these specifications, as needed, in the project special
general provision clauses currently in use by many States provisions. A Commentary is provided to assist the user in
can also be used to cover the administration requirements developing such special provisions.
for construction contracts. The Guide Specifications and These specifications were extensively revised under
these Standard Specifications are intended to be comple- NCHRP 12-34 in 1989 and approved by AASHTO High-
mentary and to provide for the principal and most widely way Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures in 1990.
476
Section 1
STRUCTURE EXCAVATION AND BACKFILL
1.1 GENERAL 1.2 WORKING DRAWINGS
Structure excavation shall consist of the removal of all Whenever specified, the Contractor shall provide
material, of whatever nature, necessary for the construc- working drawings, accompanied by calculations where
tion of foundations for bridges, retaining walls, and other appropriate, of excavation procedures, embankment con-
major structures in accordance with the plans or as di- struction and backfilling operations. This plan shall show
rected by the Engineer. the details of shoring, bracing, slope treatment or other
If not otherwise provided for in the contract, struc- protective system proposed for use and shall be accompa-
ture excavation shall include the furnishing of all neces- nied by design calculations and supporting data in suffi-
sary equipment and the construction and subsequent cient detail to permit an engineering review of the pro-
removal of all cofferdams, shoring, and water control posed design.
systems which may be necessary for the execution of The working drawings and plans for protection from
the work. caving shall be submitted sufficiently in advance of pro-
It shall also include, if not otherwise specified, the posed use to allow for their review, revision, if needed,
placement of all necessary backfill, including any neces- and approval without delay to the work.
sary stockpiling of excavated material which is to be used Working drawings must be approved by the Engineer
in backfill, and the disposing of excavated material, which prior to performance of the work involved and such ap-
is not required for backfill, in roadway embankments or proval shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibil-
as provided for excess and unsuitable material in Subsec- ity under the contract for the successful completion of the
tion 203.02, AASHTO Guide Specifications for Highway work.
Construction.
If the contract does not include a separate pay item
1.3 MATERIALS
or items for such work, structure excavation shall
include all necessary clearing and grubbing and the re-
moval of existing structures within the area to be exca- Material used for backfill shall be free of frozen lumps,
vated. wood or other degradable matter and shall be of a grading
Classification, if any, of excavation will be indicated such that the required compaction can be consistently ob-
on the plans and set forth in the proposal. tained using the compaction methods selected by the Con-
The removal and disposal of buried natural or tractor.
manmade objects are included in the class of excavation Permeable material for underdrains shall conform to
in which they are located, unless such removal and AASHTO Guide Specifications for Highway Construc-
disposal are included in other items of work. However, in tion, Subsection 704.01.
the case of a buried manmade object, if (1) its removal
requires the use of methods or equipment not used for
other excavation on the project, (2) its presence was 1.4 CONSTRUCTION
not indicated on the plans or in the special provisions,
(3) its presence could not have been ascertained by site 1.4.1 Depth of Footings
investigation, including contact with identified utilities
within the area, and (4) the Contractor so requests in The elevation of the bottoms of footings, as shown on
writing prior to its removal, the removal and disposal the plans, shall be considered as approximate only and the
of such object will be paid for as extra work, and its Engineer may order, in writing, such changes in dimen-
volume will not be included in the measured quantity of sions or elevation of footings as may be necessary to se-
excavation. cure a satisfactory foundation.
477
1.4.2 Foundation Preparation and Control of Water foundation material to grade shall not be made until just
before the footing is to be placed.
1.4.2.1 General Where the material below the bottom of footings not
supported by piles has been disturbed, it shall be removed
All substructures, where practical, shall be constructed and the entire space filled with concrete or other approved
in open excavation and, where necessary, the excavation material at the Contractor’s expense. Under footings sup-
shall be shored, braced, or protected by cofferdams con- ported on piles, the over-excavation or disturbed volumes
structed in accordance with the requirements contained in shall be replaced and compacted as directed by the Engi-
Article 3.3, “Cofferdams and Shoring.” When footings neer.
can be placed in the dry without the use of cofferdams,
backforms may be omitted with the approval of the Engi- 1.4.2.5 Approval of Foundation
neer, and the entire excavation filled with concrete to the
required elevation of the top of the footing. The additional After each excavation is completed, the Contractor
concrete required shall be furnished and placed at the ex- shall notify the Engineer, and no concrete or other footing
pense of the Contractor. Temporary water control systems material shall be placed until the Engineer has approved
shall conform to the requirements contained in Article 3.4, the depth of the excavation and the character of the foun-
“Temporary Water Control Systems.” dation material.
1.4.2.2 Excavations Within Channels 1.4.3 Backfill
When excavation encroaches upon a live stream bed or Backfill material shall conform to the provisions of Ar-
channel, unless otherwise permitted, no excavation shall ticle 1.3. If sufficient material of suitable quality is not
be made outside of caissons, cribs, cofferdams, steel pil- available from excavation within the project limits, the
ing, or sheeting, and the natural stream bed adjacent to the Contractor shall import such material as directed by the
structure shall not be disturbed without permission from Engineer.
the Engineer. If any excavation or dredging is made at the All spaces excavated and not occupied by abutments,
site of the structure before caissons, cribs, or cofferdams piers, or other permanent work shall be refilled with earth
are sunk or are in place, the Contractor shall, without extra up to the surface of the surrounding ground, with a suffi-
charge, after the foundation base is in place, backfill all cient allowance for settlement. Except as otherwise pro-
such excavation to the original ground surface or river bed vided, all backfill shall be thoroughly compacted to the
with material satisfactory to the Engineer. Material tem- density of the surrounding ground, and its top surface
porarily deposited within the flow area of streams from shall be neatly graded. Fill placed around piers shall be
foundation or other excavation shall be removed and the deposited on both sides to approximately the same eleva-
stream flow area freed from obstruction thereby. tion at the same time. Rocks larger than 3 inches maxi-
mum dimension shall not be placed against the concrete
1.4.2.3 Foundations on Rock surfaces.
Embankment construction shall conform to the re-
When a foundation is to rest on rock, the rock shall be quirements of Subsection 203.02, AASHTO Guide Spec-
freed from all loose material, cleaned and cut to a firm sur- ifications for Highway Construction. The fill at retaining
face, either level, stepped, or roughened, as may be di- walls, abutments, wingwalls, and all bridge bents in em-
rected by the Engineer. All seams shall be cleaned out and bankment shall be deposited in well-compacted, horizon-
filled with concrete, mortar, or grout before the footing is tal layers not to exceed 6 inches in thickness and shall be
placed. brought up uniformly on all sides of the structure or facil-
Where blasting is required to reach footing level, any ity. Backfill within or beneath embankments, within the
loose, fractured rock caused by overbreak below bearing roadway in excavated areas, or in front of abutments and
level shall be removed and replaced with concrete or retaining walls or wingwalls shall be compacted to the
grouted at the Contractor’s expense. same density as required for embankments.
No backfill shall be placed against any concrete struc-
1.4.2.4 Other Foundations ture until permission has been given by the Engineer. The
placing of such backfill shall also conform to the require-
When a foundation is to rest on an excavated surface ments of Article 8.15.2, “Earth Loads.” The backfill in
other than rock, special care shall be taken not to disturb front of abutments and wingwalls shall be placed first to
the bottom of the excavation, and the final removal of the prevent the possibility of forward movement. Jetting of
1.4.3 DIVISION II—CONSTRUCTION 479
the fill behind abutments and wingwalls will not be per- will be included in the quantity for which payment will be
mitted. made under this item. Excavation below this additional
Adequate provision shall be made for the thorough depth will be paid for as extra work, unless the Contrac-
drainage of all backfill. French drains, consisting of at tor states in writing that payment at contract prices is ac-
least 2 cubic feet of permeable material wrapped in filter ceptable.
fabric to prevent clogging and transmission of fines from
the backfill, shall be placed at weep holes.
1.5.2 Payment
Backfilling of metal and concrete culverts shall be
done in accordance with the requirements of Sections 26,
Unless otherwise provided, structure excavation, mea-
“Metal Culverts,” and 27, “Concrete Culverts.”
sured as provided in Article 1.5.1, will be paid for by the
cubic yard for the kind and class specified.
1.5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT Payment for structure excavation shall include full
compensation for all labor, material, equipment, and other
1.5.1 Measurement items that may be necessary or convenient to the success-
ful completion of the excavation to the elevation of the
The quantity to be paid for as structure excavation shall bottom of footings or base of structure.
be measured by the cubic yard. The quantities for payment Full compensation for controlling and removing water
will be determined from limits shown on the plans, in- from excavations and for furnishing and installing or con-
cluded in the specifications, or ordered by the Engineer. structing all cofferdams, shoring, and all other facilities
No deduction in structure excavation pay quantities will necessary to the operations, except concrete seal courses
be made where the Contractor does not excavate material which are shown on the plans, and their subsequent re-
which is outside the limits of the actual structure but moval, shall be considered as included in the contract
within the limits of payment for structure excavation. price for structure excavation, unless the contract pro-
In the absence of plans or special provisions indicating vides for their separate payment.
pay limits for structure excavation, the horizontal limits The contract price for structure excavation shall in-
will be vertical planes 18 inches outside of the neat lines clude full payment for all handling and storage of exca-
of footings or structures without footings; the top limits vated materials which are to be used as backfill, including
shall be the original ground or the top of the required grad- any necessary drying, and the disposal of all surplus or un-
ing cross section, whichever is lower; and the lower lim- suitable excavated materials, unless otherwise provided
its shall be the bottom of the footing or base of structure, for in the contract. Any clearing, grubbing, or structure re-
or the lower limit of excavation ordered by the Engineer. moval which is required, but not paid for under other
When foundations are located within embankments and items of the contract, will be considered to be included in
the specifications require the embankment to be con- the price paid for structure excavation.
structed to a specified elevation which is above the bottom Unless the contract provides for its separate payment,
of the footing or base of structure prior to construction of the contract price for structure excavation shall include
the foundation, then such specified elevation will be con- full compensation for the placing and compacting of
sidered to be the original ground. structure backfill. The furnishing of backfill material from
When it is necessary, in the opinion of the Engineer, to sources other than excavation will be paid for at the con-
carry the foundations below the elevations shown on the tract unit price for the material being used, or as extra
plans, the excavation for the first 3 feet of additional depth work if no unit price has been established.
Section 2
REMOVAL OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
2.1 DESCRIPTION filled to the level of the surrounding ground and, if within
the area of roadway construction, shall be compacted to
This work shall consist of the removal, wholly or in meet the requirements of the contract for embankment.
part, and satisfactory disposal, or salvage, of all bridges, Explosives shall not be used except at locations and
retaining walls and other major structures which are des- under conditions cited by the project specifications. All
ignated on the plans or in the special provisions to be re- blasting shall be completed before the placement of new
moved. The work also includes, unless otherwise speci- work.
fied, any necessary excavation and the backfilling of
trenches, holes or pits that result from such removal. 2.3.2 Salvage
2.2 WORKING DRAWINGS Materials which are designated to be salvaged under

the contract, for reuse in the project or for future use by
Working drawings showing methods and sequence of the Department, shall remain the property of the Depart-
removal shall be prepared: (1) when structures or portions ment and shall be carefully removed in transportable sec-
of structure are specified to be removed and salvaged, (2) tions and stockpiled near the site at a location designated
when removal operations will be performed over or adja- by the Engineer. The Contractor shall restore or replace
cent to public traffic or railroad property, or (3) when damaged or destroyed material without additional com-
called for by the plans or special provisions. At least 10 pensation.
days prior to the proposed start of removal operations, the Rivets and bolts that must be removed from steel struc-
working drawings shall be submitted to the Engineer for tures to be salvaged shall be removed by cutting the heads
approval. Removal work shall not begin until the draw- with a chisel, then punched or drilled from the hole, or by
ings have been approved. Such approval shall not relieve a method that will not injure the members for reuse and
the Contractor of any responsibility under the contract for will meet the approval of the Engineer. All members or
the successful completion of the work. sections of steel structures shall be match-marked with
When salvage is required, the drawings shall clearly paint in accordance with the diagram or plan approved by
indicate the markings proposed to designate individual the Engineer prior to dismantling.
segments of the structure. All bolts and nails shall be removed from lumber
deemed salvageable by the Engineer as part of the salvage
2.3 CONSTRUCTION of timber structures.
2.3.1 General 2.3.3 Partial Removal of Structures
Except for utilities and other items that the Engineer When structures are to be widened or modified and
may direct the Contractor to leave intact, the Contractor only portions of the existing structure are to be removed,
shall raze, remove and dispose of each structure, or por- these portions shall be removed in such a manner as to
tion of structure, designated to be removed. All concrete leave the remaining structure undamaged and in proper
and other foundations shall be removed to a depth of at condition for the use contemplated. Methods involving
least 2 feet below ground elevation or 3 feet below sub- the use of blasting or wrecking balls shall not be used
grade elevation, whichever is lower. Unless otherwise within any span or pier unless the entire span or pier is to
specified, the Contractor has the option to either pull piles be removed. Any damage to the portions remaining in ser-
or cut them off at a point not less than 2 feet below ground vice shall be repaired by the Contractor at his or her ex-
line. Cavities left from structure removal shall be back- pense.
481
Before beginning concrete removal operations involv- property owner and shall furnish a copy of each agree-
ing the removal of a portion of a monolithic concrete ment to the Engineer. Waste materials may be disposed of
element, a saw cut approximately 1-inch deep shall be in Department-owned sites when such sites are described
made to a true line along the limits of removal on all faces in the special provisions.
of the element which will be visible in the completed Unless otherwise provided in the special provisions,
work. removed concrete may be buried in adjacent embank-
Old concrete shall be carefully removed to the lines ments, provided it is broken into pieces which can be
designated by drilling, chipping, or other methods ap- readily handled and incorporated into embankments and
proved by the Engineer. The surfaces presented as a re- is placed at a depth of not less than 3 feet below finished
sult of this removal shall be reasonably true and even, grade and slope lines. The removed concrete shall not be
with sharp straight corners that will permit a neat and buried in areas where piling is to be placed or within 10
workmanlike joint with the new construction or be satis- feet of trees, pipelines, poles, buildings, or other perma-
factory for the purpose intended. Where existing rein- nent objects or structures, unless permitted by the Engi-
forcing bars are to extend from the existing structure into neer. Removed concrete may also be disposed of outside
new construction, the concrete shall be removed so as to the right-of-way as provided above.
leave the projecting bars clean and undamaged. Where
projecting bars are not to extend into the new construc-
tion, they shall be cut off flush with the surface of the old 2.4 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
concrete.
During full depth removal of deck concrete over steel The work as prescribed for by this item shall be mea-
beams or girders which are to remain in place, the Con- sured as each individual structure, or portion of a struc-
tractor shall exercise care so as not to notch, gouge, or dis- ture, to be removed. Payment will be made on the basis of
tort the top flanges with jackhammers or other tools. Any the lump sum bid price for the removal of each structure,
damage shall be repaired at the Contractor’s expense. Re- or portion of structure, as specified.
pairs will be done as directed by the Engineer and may in- The above prices and payments shall be full compen-
clude grinding, welding, heat straightening, or member sation for all work, labor, tools, equipment, excavation,
replacement, depending on the location and severity of the backfilling, materials, and incidentals necessary to com-
damage. plete the work, including salvaging materials not to be
reused in the project when such salvaging is specified and
2.3.4 Disposal not otherwise paid for.
Full compensation for removing and salvaging materi-
Any material not designated for salvage will belong to als that are to be reused in the project shall be considered
the Contractor. Except as provided herein, the Contractor as included in the contract prices paid for reconstructing,
shall store or dispose of such material outside of the right relocating or resetting the items involved, or in such other
of way. If the material is disposed of on private property, contract pay items that may be designated in the contract,
the Contractor shall secure written permission from the and no additional compensation will be allowed therefore.
Section 3
TEMPORARY WORKS
3.1 GENERAL drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in advance of

proposed use to allow for their review, revision, if needed,
3.1.1 Description and approval without delay to the work.
The Contractor shall not start the construction of any
This work shall consist of the construction and re- temporary work for which working drawings are required
moval of temporary facilities which are generally de- until the drawings have been approved by the Engineer.
signed by the Contractor and employed by the Contractor Such approval will not relieve the Contractor of responsi-
in the execution of the work and whose failure to perform bility for results obtained by use of these drawings or any
properly could adversely affect the character of the of his other responsibilities under the contract.
contract work or endanger the safety of adjacent facil-
3.1.3 Design
ities, property, or the public. Appropriate reductions in
allowable stresses or loads shall be used for design
The design of temporary works shall conform to the
when other than new or undamaged materials are to be
AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges
used. Such facilities include, but are not limited to, false- or the Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary
work, forms and form travelers, cofferdams, shoring, Works; or to other established and generally accepted de-
water control systems, and temporary bridges. sign code or specification for such work.
The following publications are useful reference docu- When manufactured devices are to be employed, the
ments in the preparation of specifications for the design, design shall not result in loads on such devices in excess
review and inspection of temporary works: of the load ratings recommended by their manufacturer.
For equipment where the rated capacity is determined by
Synthesis of Falsework, Formwork, and Scaffolding load testing, the design load shall be as stated in the Guide
for Highway Bridge Structures, November 1991, Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works.
(FHWA-RD-91-062) The load rating used for special equipment, such as ac-
Guide Standard Specifications for Bridge Temporary cess scaffolding, may be under the jurisdiction of OSHA
Works, November 1993, (FHWA-RD-93-031) and/or other State/local regulations. However, in no case
Guide Design Specification for Bridge Temporary shall the rating exceed 80% of the maximum load sus-
Works, November 1993, (FHWA-RD-93-032) tained during load testing of the equipment.
Certification Program for Bridge Temporary Works, When required by statute or specified in the contract
November 1993, (FHWA-RD-93-033) documents, the design shall be prepared and the drawings
Construction Handbook for Bridge Temporary signed by a Registered Professional Engineer.
Works, November 1993, (FHWA-RD-93-034)
3.1.4 Construction
3.1.2 Working Drawings Temporary works shall be constructed in conformance

with the approved working drawings. The Contractor shall
Whenever specified or requested by the Engineer, the verify that the quality of the materials and workmanship
Contractor shall provide working drawings with design employed are consistent with that assumed in the design.
calculations and supporting data in sufficient detail to per-
mit a structural review of the proposed design of a tem- 3.1.5 Removal
porary work. When concrete is involved, such data shall
include the sequence and rate of placement. Sufficient Unless otherwise permitted, all temporary works shall
copies shall be furnished to meet the needs of the Engi- be removed and shall remain the property of the Contrac-
neer and other entities with review authority. The working tor upon completion of their use. The area shall be re-
483
stored to its original or planned condition and cleaned of for wind. However, in no case shall the horizontal load to
all debris. be resisted in any direction be less than 2% of the total
dead load.
For post-tensioned structures, the falsework shall also
3.2 FALSEWORK AND FORMS
be designed to support any increased or redistribution of
loads caused by prestressing of the structure.
3.2.1 General
Loads imposed by falsework onto existing, new or par-
tially completed structures shall not exceed those permit-
Falsework is considered to be any temporary structure
which supports structural elements of concrete, steel, mated in Article 8.15, “Application of Loads.”
sonry, or other materials during their construction or erec-
tion. Forms are considered to be the enclosures or panels 3.2.2.2 Foundations
which contain the fluid concrete and withstand the forces
due to its placement and consolidation. Forms may in turn Falsework shall be founded on a solid footing safe
be supported on falsework. Form travelers, as used in seg- against undermining, protected from softening, and capa-
mental cantilever construction, are considered to be a ble of supporting the loads imposed on it. When requested
combination of falsework and forms. by the Engineer, the Contractor shall demonstrate by suit-
Whenever the height of falsework exceeds 14 feet or able load tests that the soil bearing values assumed for the
whenever traffic, other than workmen involved in con- design of the falsework footings do not exceed the sup-
structing the bridge, will travel under the bridge, the porting capacity of the soil.
working drawings for the falsework shall be prepared and Falsework which cannot be founded on a satisfactory
sealed by a Registered Engineer. footing shall be supported on piling which shall be
Falsework and forms shall be of sufficient rigidity and spaced, driven, and removed in an approved manner.
strength to safely support all loads imposed, and produce
in the finished structure the lines and grades indicated on 3.2.2.3 Deflections
the plans. Forms shall also impart the required surface
texture and rustication, and shall not detract from the uni- For cast-in-place concrete structures, the calculated de-
formity of color of formed surfaces. flection of falsework flexural members shall not exceed
1/240 of their span irrespective of the fact that the deflec-
3.2.2 Falsework Design and Construction tion may be compensated for by camber strips.
3.2.2.1 Loads 3.2.2.4 Clearances
The design load for falsework shall consist of the Unless otherwise provided, the minimum dimensions
sum of dead and live vertical loads, and any horizontal of clear openings to be provided through falsework for
loads. roadways which are to remain open to traffic during con-
As a minimum, dead loads shall include the weight of struction shall be at least 5 feet greater than the width of
the falsework and all construction material to be sup- the approach traveled way, measured between barriers
ported. The combined weight of concrete, reinforcing and when used, and 14 feet high, except that the minimum
prestressing steel and forms shall be assumed to be not vertical clearance over interstate routes and freeways shall
less than 160 pounds per cubic foot of normal weight con- be 14.5 feet.
crete or 130 pounds per cubic foot of lightweight concrete
that is supported. 3.2.2.5 Construction
Live loads shall consist of the actual weight of any
equipment to be supported applied as concentrated loads Falsework shall be constructed and set to grades which
at the points of contact and a uniform load of not less than allow for its anticipated settlement and deflection, and for
20 pounds per square foot applied over the area supported, the vertical alignment and camber indicated on the plans
plus 75 pounds per linear foot applied at the outside edge or ordered by the Engineer for the permanent structure.
of deck overhangs. Variable depth camber strips shall be used between false-
The horizontal load used for the design of the work beams and soffit forms to accomplish this when di-
falsework bracing system shall be the sum of the horizon- rected by the Engineer.
tal loads due to equipment, construction sequence, in- Suitable screw jacks, pairs of wedges or other devices
cluding unbalanced hydrostatic forces from fluid shall be used at each post to adjust falsework to grade, to
concrete, stream flow when applicable, and an allowance permit minor adjustments during the placement of con-
3.2.2.5 DIVISION II—CONSTRUCTION 485
crete or structural steel should observed settlements de- standard. In selecting the hydrostatic pressure to be used
viate from those anticipated, and to allow for the gradual in the design of forms, consideration shall be given to the
release of the falsework. Telltales attached to the forms maximum rate of concrete placement to be used, the ef-
and extending to the ground, or other means, shall be fects of vibration, the temperature of the concrete and any
provided by the Contractor for accurate measurement of expected use of set-retarding admixtures or pozzolanic
falsework settlement during the placing and curing of the materials in the concrete mix.
concrete.
Falsework or formwork for deck slabs on girder 3.2.3.3 Construction
bridges shall be supported directly on the girders so that
there will be no appreciable differential settlement during Forms shall be set and held true to the dimensions,
placing of the concrete. Girders shall be braced and tied lines and grades of the structure prior to and during the
to resist any forces that would cause rotation or torsion in placement of concrete. Forms may be given a bevel or
the girders caused by the placing of concrete for di- draft at projections, such as copings, to ensure easy re-
aphragms or deck. Welding of falsework support brackets moval. Prior to reuse, forms shall be cleaned, inspected
or braces to structural steel members or reinforcing steel for damage and, if necessary, repaired. When forms ap-
will not be allowed unless specifically permitted. pear to be defective in any manner, either before or dur-
ing the placement of concrete, the Engineer may order the
3.2.3 Formwork Design and Construction work stopped until defects have been corrected.
Forms shall be treated with form oil or other approved
3.2.3.1 General release agent before the reinforcing steel is placed. Mate-
rial which will adhere to or discolor the concrete shall not
Forms shall be of wood, steel, or other approved mate- be used.
rial and shall be mortar tight and of sufficient rigidity to Except as provided herein, metal ties or anchorages
prevent objectional distortion of the formed concrete sur- within the forms shall be so constructed as to permit their
face due to pressure of the concrete and other loads inci- removal to a depth of at least 1 inch from the face without
dental to the construction operations. injury to the concrete. Ordinary wire ties may be used
Forms for concrete surfaces exposed to view shall pro- only when the concrete will not be exposed to view and
duce a smooth surface of uniform texture and color sub- where the concrete will not come in contact with salts or
stantially equal to that which would be obtained with the sulfates. Such wire ties, upon removal of the forms, shall
use of plywood conforming to the National Institute of be cut back at least 1 ⁄ 4 inch from the face of the concrete
Standards and Technology Product Standard PSI for Ex- with chisels or nippers; for green concrete, nippers shall
terior B-B Class I Plywood. Panels lining such forms shall be used. Fittings for metal ties shall be of such design that,
be arranged so that the joint lines form a symmetrical pat- upon their removal, the cavities that are left will be of the
tern conforming to the general lines of the structure. The smallest possible size. The cavities shall be filled with ce-
same type of form lining material shall be used through- ment mortar and the surface left sound, smooth, even, and
out each element of a structure. Such forms shall be suf- uniform in color.
ficiently rigid so that the undulation of the concrete sur- When epoxy-coated reinforcing steel is required, all
face shall not exceed 1 ⁄ 8 inch when checked with a metal ties, anchorages or spreaders which will remain in
5-foot-long straightedge or template. All sharp corners the concrete shall be of corrosion resistant material or
shall be filleted with approximately 3 ⁄ 4-inch chamfer coated with a dielectric material.
strips. For narrow walls and columns, where the bottom of the
Concrete shall not be deposited in the forms until all form is inaccessible, an access opening shall be provided
work connected with constructing the forms has been in the forms for cleaning out extraneous material imme-
completed, all debris has been removed, all materials to diately before placing the concrete.
be embedded in the concrete have been placed for the unit
to be cast, and the Engineer has inspected the forms and 3.2.3.4 Tube Forms
materials.
Tubes used as forms to produce voids in concrete slabs
3.2.3.2 Design shall be properly designed and fabricated or otherwise
treated to make the outside surface waterproof. Prior to
The structural design of formwork shall conform to concrete placement such tubes shall be protected from the
ACI Standard, “Recommended Practice for Concrete weather and stored and installed by methods that prevent
Formwork,” (ACI 347) or some other generally accepted distortion or damage. The ends of tube forms shall be cov-
ered with caps that shall be made mortar tight and water- Falsework for:
proof. If wood or other material that expands when moist Spans over 14 feet 14 days
is used for capping tubes, a premolded rubber joint filler Spans of 14 feet or less 10 days
1 ⁄ 4 inch in thickness shall be used around the perimeter of Bent caps not yet supporting girders 10 days
the caps to permit expansion. A PVC vent tube shall be
provided near each end of each tube. These vents shall be Forms:
constructed to provide positive venting of the voids. After Not supporting the dead 24 hours
exterior form removal, the vent tube shall be trimmed to weight of the concrete
within 1 ⁄ 2 inch of the bottom surface of the finished con- For interior cells of box 12 hours
crete. girders and for railings
Anchors and ties for tube forms shall be adequate to
prevent displacement of the tubes during concrete place- If high early strength is obtained with Type III cement
ment. or by the use of additional cement, these periods may be
reduced as directed.
3.2.3.5 Stay-in-Place Forms When field operations are controlled by cylinder tests,
the removal of supporting forms or falsework shall not
Stay-in-place deck soffit forms, such as corrugated begin until the concrete is found to have the specified
metal or precast concrete panels, may be used if compressive strength, provided further that in no case
shown on the plans or approved by the Engineer. Prior to shall supports be removed in less than 7 days after plac-
the use of such forms the Contractor shall provide a coming the concrete.
plete set of details to the Engineer for review and In addition to the above time requirements:
approval. The detailed plans for structures, unless other-
wise noted, are dimensioned for the use of removable Forms shall not be removed until the concrete has
forms and any changes necessary to accommodate sufficient strength to prevent damage to the surface.
stay-in-place forms, if approved, shall be at the expense Falsework for post-tensioned portions of structures
of the Contractor. shall not be released until the prestressing steel has
been tensioned.
Falsework supporting any span of a continuous or
3.2.4 Removal of Falsework and Forms
rigid frame bridge shall not be released until the
aforementioned requirements have been satisfied
3.2.4.1 General
for all of the structural concrete in that span and in
the adjacent portions of each adjoining span for a
Falsework or forms shall not be removed without ap-
length equal to at least one-half the length of the
proval of the Engineer. In the determination of the time for
span where falsework is to be released.
the removal of falsework and forms, consideration shall
be given to the location and character of the structure, the
Unless otherwise specified or approved, falsework
weather, the materials used in the mix, and other condi- shall be released before the railings, copings or barriers
tions influencing the early strength of the concrete. are placed for all types of bridges. For arch bridges, the
Methods of removal likely to cause overstressing of the time of falsework release relative to the construction of el-
concrete or damage to its surface shall not be used. Sup- ements of the bridge above the arch shall be as shown on
ports shall be removed in such a manner as to permit the the plans or directed by the Engineer.
structure to uniformly and gradually take the stresses due
to its own weight. For arch structures of two or more
spans, the sequence of falsework release shall be as spec- 3.2.4.3 Extent of Removal
ified or approved.
All falsework and forms shall be removed except:
3.2.4.2 Time of Removal Portions of driven falsework piles more than 1 foot
below subgrade within roadbeds, or 2 feet below
If field operations are not controlled by beam or cylin- the original ground or finished grade outside of
der tests, the following minimum periods of time, exclu- roadbeds, or 2 feet below the established limits of
sive of days when the temperature is below 40F, shall any navigation channel.
have elapsed after placement of concrete before falsework Footing forms where their removal would endanger
is released or forms are removed: the safety of cofferdams or other work.
Forms from enclosed cells where access is not 3.3.2 Protection of Concrete
provided.
Deck forms in the cells of box girder bridges that do Cofferdams shall be constructed so as to protect green
not interfere with the future installation of utilities concrete against damage from a sudden rising of the
shown on the plans. stream and to prevent damage to the foundation by ero-
sion. No struts or braces shall be used in cofferdams or
3.3 COFFERDAMS AND SHORING shoring systems in such a way as to extend into or through
the permanent work, without written permission from the
3.3.1 General Engineer.
Cofferdams and shoring consist of those structures 3.3.3 Removal

used to temporarily hold the surrounding earth and water
out of excavations and to protect adjacent property and fa- Unless otherwise provided or approved, cofferdams,
cilities during construction of the permanent work. and shoring with all sheeting and bracing shall be removed
Cofferdams shall be constructed to adequate depths, after the completion of the substructure, with care being
generally well below the bottom of the excavation, and to taken not to disturb or otherwise injure the finished work.
adequate heights to seal off all water. They shall be safely
designed and constructed, and be made as watertight as is
necessary for the proper performance of the work which 3.4 TEMPORARY WATER CONTROL SYSTEMS
must be done inside them. In general, the interior dimen-
sions of cofferdams shall be such as to give sufficient 3.4.1 General
clearance for the construction of forms and the inspection
of their exteriors, and to permit pumping from outside the Temporary water control systems consist of dikes, by-
forms. Cofferdams which are tilted or moved laterally pass channels, flumes and other surface water diversion
during the process of sinking shall be righted, reset, or en- works, cut-off walls and pumping systems, including
larged so as to provide the necessary clearance. This shall wellpoint and deep well systems, used to prevent water
be solely at the expense of the Contractor. from entering excavations for structures.
When water cannot be controlled so that footing con-
crete can be placed in the dry, a cofferdam shall be em- 3.4.2 Drawings
ployed, and a concrete seal conforming to the require-
ments of Section 8, “Concrete Structures” placed Working drawings for temporary water control sys-
underwater below the elevation of the footing. When such tems, when required, shall include details of the design
a seal is shown on the plans, the Engineer will determine and the equipment, operating procedures to be employed,
if a cofferdam and seal is required, the depth of the seal to and location of point or points of discharge. The design
be used, and the required cure time. Such determination and operation shall conform to all applicable water pollu-
will be based on conditions existing at the time of con- tion control requirements.
struction. When a concrete seal is not shown on the plans,
the Contractor shall make these determinations, and shall 3.4.3 Operations
be fully responsible for the performance of the seal. After
the seal has cured, the cofferdam shall then be pumped out Pumping from the interior of any foundation enclosure
and the balance of the masonry placed in the dry. When shall be done in such manner as to preclude the possibil-
weighted cofferdams are employed and the weight is uti- ity of the movement of water through any fresh concrete.
lized to partially overcome the hydrostatic pressure acting No pumping will be permitted during the placing of con-
against the bottom of the foundation seal, special anchor- crete or for a period of at least 24 hours thereafter, unless
age such as dowels or keys shall be provided to transfer it be done from a suitable sump separated from the con-
the entire weight of the cofferdam into the foundation crete work by a watertight wall or other effective means
seal. During the placing and curing of a foundation seal, subject to approval of the Engineer.
the elevation of the water inside the cofferdam shall be Pumping to unwater a sealed cofferdam shall not com-
controlled to prevent any flow through the seal, and if the mence until the seal has set sufficiently to withstand the
cofferdam is to remain in place, it shall be vented or hydrostatic pressure.
ported at or below low water level. Pumping from wellpoints or deep wells shall be regu-
Shoring shall be adequate to support all loads imposed lated so as to avoid damage by subsidence to adjacent
and shall comply with any applicable safety regulations. property.
3.5 TEMPORARY BRIDGES tails, including the maximum loads to be carried, shall be
submitted to the Engineer for approval. Such drawings
3.5.1 General shall be signed by a Registered Professional Engineer.
The design shall conform to AASHTO design standards
Temporary bridges include detour bridges for use by when applicable or to other appropriate standards.
the public, haul road bridges and other structures, such as
conveyor bridges, used by the Contractor. Temporary 3.5.4 Maintenance
bridges shall be constructed, maintained and removed in
The maintenance of temporary bridges for which
a manner that will not endanger the work or the public.
working drawings are required shall include their re-
placement in case of partial or complete failure. The De-
3.5.2 Detour Bridges
partment reserves the right, in case of the Contractor’s
delay or inadequate progress in making repairs and re-
When a design is furnished by the Department, detour
placement, to furnish such labor, materials, and supervi-
bridges shall be constructed and maintained to conform to
sion of the work as may be necessary to restore the struc-
such design or an approved alternative design. When per-
ture for proper movement of traffic. The entire expense of
mitted by the specifications, the Contractor may submit a
such restoration and repairs shall be considered a part of
proposed alternative design. Any alternative design must
the cost of the temporary structure and where such ex-
be equivalent in all respects to the design and details fur-
penditures are incurred by the Department, they shall be
nished by the Department and is subject to approval by the
charged to the Contractor.
Engineer. The working drawings and design calculations
for any alternative design must be signed by a Registered
3.6 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
Professional Engineer.
When a design is not furnished by the Department, the
Unless otherwise provided, payment for temporary
Contractor shall prepare the design and furnish working
works shall be considered to be included in the payment
drawings to the Engineer for approval. The design shall
for the various items of work for which they are used and
provide the clearances, alignment, load capacity and other
no separate payment will be made therefore.
design parameters specified or approved. The design shall
When an item for concrete seals for cofferdams is in-
conform to the Standard Specifications for Highway
cluded in the bid schedule, such concrete will be mea-
Bridges adopted by AASHTO. If design live loads are not
sured and paid for as provided in Section 8, “Concrete
otherwise specified, an HS II 15-44 loading shall be used.
Structures.”
The working drawings and design calculations shall be
When an item or items for temporary bridges, coffer-
signed by a Registered Professional Engineer.
dams, shoring systems or water control systems is in-
cluded in the bid schedule, payment will be the lump sum
3.5.3 Haul Bridges bid for each such structure or system which is listed on the
bid schedule and which is constructed and removed in ac-
When haul road bridges or other bridges which are not cordance with the contract requirements. Such payment
for public use are proposed for construction over any includes full compensation for all costs involved with the
right-of-way which is open to the public or over any rail- furnishing of all materials and the construction, mainte-
road, working drawings showing complete design and de- nance, and removal of such temporary works.
Section 4
DRIVEN FOUNDATION PILES
4.1 DESCRIPTION face they shall be protected by the paint system specified
for painting new steel in a high pollution or coastal envi-
This work shall consist of furnishing and driving foun- ronment as described in Section 13, “Painting.” This pro-
dation piles of the type and dimensions designated on the tection shall extend from an elevation 2 feet below the
plans or in the special provisions including cutting off or water or ground surface to the top of the exposed steel.
building up foundation piles when required. This specifi-
cation also covers providing test piles and performing 4.2.2 Timber Piles
loading tests. Piling shall conform to and be installed in
accordance with these specifications, and at the location, Timber piles shall conform to the requirements of the
and to the elevation, penetration, and bearing capacity Specification for Wood Products, AASHTO M 168. Tim-
shown on the plans or as directed by the Engineer. ber piles shall be treated or untreated as indicated on the
Any improperly driven, broken, or otherwise defective plans or in the special provisions. Preservative treatment
pile shall be corrected to the satisfaction of the Engineer shall conform to the requirements of Section 17, “Preserv-
by removal and replacement, or the driving of an addi- ative Treatment of Wood.”
tional pile, at no extra cost. The method of storing and handling shall be such as to
Except when test piles are required, the Contractor avoid injury to the piles. Special care shall be taken to
shall furnish the piles in accordance with the dimensions avoid breaking the surface of treated piles. Canthooks,
shown on the plans or special provisions. When test piles dogs, or pike-poles shall not be used. Cuts or breaks in the
are required, the pile lengths shown on the plans are for surface of treated piling and bolt holes shall be treated as
estimating purposes only and the actual lengths to be fur- specified in Article 16.3.3, “Treated Timber.”
nished for production piles will be determined by the En-
gineer after the test piles have been driven. The lengths
4.2.3 Concrete Piles
given in the Engineer’s order list will include only the
lengths anticipated for use in the completed structure. The
Concrete piles shall consist of either precast concrete
Contractor shall, without added compensation, increase
piles or cast-in-place concrete piles cast in steel shells.
the lengths shown or ordered to provide for fresh heading
Portland cement concrete shall conform to the require-
and for such additional length as may be necessary to suit
ments in Section 8, “Concrete Structures,” and unless an-
the method of operation.
other class is shown on the plans or specified, concrete
4.2 MATERIALS shall be Class A. Reinforcing steel shall conform to the re-
quirements of Section 9, “Reinforcing Steel,” and pre-
4.2.1 Steel Piles stressing shall conform to the requirements of Section 10,
“Prestressing.”
The structural steel used for foundation piling shall Steel shells for cast-in-place concrete piles shall be of
conform to the Specification for Structural Steel for not less than the thickness shown on the plans. The Con-
Bridges, AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 36, 50, tractor shall furnish shells of greater thickness if necessary
or 50W, or to the Specification for Piling for Use in Ma- to provide sufficient strength and rigidity to permit dri-
rine Environment, ASTM A 690. ving with the equipment selected for use without damage,
and to prevent distortion caused by soil pressures or the
4.2.1.1 Painting driving of adjacent piles. The shells shall also be water-
tight to exclude water during the placing of concrete. The
Unless otherwise provided, when steel piles or steel shells may be cylindrical or tapered, step-tapered, or a
pile shells extend above the ground surface or water sur- combination of either, with cylindrical sections.
489
4.3 MANUFACTURE OF PILES 4.3.1.5.1 Working Drawings

The Contractor shall submit two sets of working
4.3.1 Precast Concrete Piles
drawings to the Engineer at the job site for prestressed
concrete piles. Said drawings shall show the pile dimen-
4.3.1.1 Forms
sions, materials, prestressing methods, tendon arrange-
ment and prestressing forces proposed for use and, any
Forms for precast concrete piles shall conform to the
addition or rearrangement of reinforcing steel from that
general requirements for concrete form work as provided
shown on the plans. Construction of the piles shall not
in Section 3, “Temporary Works.” Forms shall provide ac-
begin until the drawings have been approved by the
cess for vibration and consolidation of the concrete.
Engineer.
4.3.1.2 Casting
4.3.1.6 Storage and Handling
Handling and placing of concrete shall conform to the
requirements of Section 8, “Concrete Structures,” and Removal of forms, curing, storing, transporting, and
these specifications. Special care shall be taken to place handling of precast concrete piles shall be done in such a
the concrete so as to produce satisfactory bond with the manner as to avoid excessive bending stresses, cracking,
reinforcement and avoid the formation of “stone pockets,” spalling, or other injurious results.
honeycomb, or other such defects. Piles to be used in sea water or in sulfate soils shall be
To secure uniformity, the concrete in each pile shall be handled so as to avoid surface abrasions or other injuries
placed continuously and shall be compacted by vibrating exposing the interior concrete.
or by other means acceptable to the Engineer. The forms
shall be overfilled, the surplus concrete screeded off, and
4.3.2 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles
the top surfaces finished to a uniform, even texture simi-
lar to that produced by the forms.
4.3.2.1 Inspection of Metal Shells
4.3.1.3 Finish
At all times prior to the placing of concrete in the driv-
en shells, the Contractor shall have available a suitable
Portions of piling exposed to view shall be finished in
light for the inspection of each shell throughout its entire
accordance with the provisions governing the finishing of
length.
concrete columns. Other piling shall not be finished ex-
cept as set forth above.
4.3.2.2 Placing Concrete
4.3.1.4 Curing and Protection
No concrete shall be placed until all driving within
Concrete piles shall be cured as provided in Section a radius of 15 feet of the pile has been completed, or
8, “Concrete Structures,” and these Specifications. As all driving within the above limits shall be discontinued
soon as the piles have set sufficiently to avoid damage, until the concrete in the last pile cast has set at least
they shall be removed from the forms and stacked in a 5 days.
curing pile separated from each other by wood-spacing Concrete for cast-in-place piles shall be dense and
blocks. homogeneous. In lieu of the provisions concerning
No pile shall be driven until at least 21 days after vibration of concrete as specified in Article 8.7.4, vibra-
casting and, in cold weather, for a longer period as tion or rodding of concrete for cast-in-place piles will
determined by the Engineer. Concrete piles for use in sea only be required to a depth of 5 feet below the ground
water or sulfate soils shall be cured for not less than surface.
30 days before being used. Concrete shall be protected Concrete shall be placed for each pile in a single
from freezing until the compressive strength reaches at continuous operation with the flow of concrete directed
least 0.8 f9.
c down the center of the pile so as to consolidate the
concrete by impact. Accumulations of water in shells shall
4.3.1.5 Prestressing be removed before the concrete is placed. After the
concrete has hardened, the top surface shall be cut back to
Prestressing of concrete piles shall conform to the pro- remove laitance and to expose the aggregate as specified
visions of Section 10, “Prestressing.” in Article 8.8.
4.4 DIVISION II—CONSTRUCTION 491
4.4 DRIVING PILES During pile driving operations, the Contractor shall use
the approved system. Any change in the driving system
4.4.1 Pile Driving Equipment will only be considered after the Contractor has submitted
revised pile driving equipment data and calculations. The
Driving equipment that damages the piling shall not be Contractor will be notified of the acceptance or rejection
used. of the driving system changes within 7 calendar days of
All pile driving equipment, including the pile driving the Engineer’s receipt of the requested change. The time
hammer, hammer cushion, drive head, pile cushion and required for submission, review, and approval of a revised
other appurtenances to be furnished by the Contractor driving system shall not constitute the basis for a contract
shall be approved in advance by the Engineer before any time extension to the Contractor.
driving can take place. Pursuant to obtaining this ap- Approval of pile driving equipment shall not relieve
proval, the Contractor shall submit, at least 2 weeks be- the Contractor of his responsibility to drive piles, free of
fore pile driving is to begin, a description of pile driving damage, to the bearing and tip elevation shown on the
equipment to the Engineer. plans or specified in the special provisions.
Whenever the bearing capacity of piles is specified to
be determined by Method B, “Wave Equation Analysis,” 4.4.1.1 Hammers
the Contractor shall also submit calculations, based on a
wave equation analysis, demonstrating that the piles can 4.4.1.1.1 General
be driven with reasonable effort to the ordered lengths
Piles may be driven with a drop hammer, an air/steam
without damage.
hammer, or diesel hammer conforming to these specifica-
The following hammer efficiencies shall be used in a
tions.
wave equation analysis:
Pile driving hammers, other than drop hammers, shall
Hammer Type Efficiency in Percent be of the size needed to develop the energy required to
drive piles at a penetration rate of not less than 0.10 inch
Single acting air/steam 67 per blow at the required bearing value.
Double acting air/steam 50
Diesel 72 4.4.1.1.2 Drop Hammers
In addition to the other requirements of these specifi- Drop (gravity) hammers shall not be used for concrete
cations, the criteria which the Engineer will use to evalu- piles or for piles whose design load capacity exceeds 30
ate the driving equipment consists of both the required tons. When gravity hammers are permitted, the ram shall
number of hammer blows per inch and the pile stresses at weigh not less than 2,000 pounds and the height of drop
the required ultimate pile capacity. The required number shall not exceed 15 feet. In no case shall the ram weight
of hammer blows indicated by calculations at the required of gravity hammers be less than the combined weight of
bearing capacity shall be between 3 and 10 per inch for the drive cap and pile. All gravity hammers shall be
the driving equipment to be acceptable. equipped with hammer guides to insure concentric impact
In addition, for the driving equipment to be acceptable, on the drive head or pile cushion.
the pile stresses, which are indicated by the calculations,
to be generated by the driving equipment shall not exceed 4.4.1.1.3 Air Steam Hammers
the values where pile damage impends. The point of im-
The weight of the striking part of air/steam hammers
pending damage in steel piles is defined herein as a com-
used shall not be less than 1 ⁄ 3 the weight of pile and drive
pressive driving stress of 90% of the yield point of the pile
cap, and in no case shall the striking part weigh less than
material. For concrete piles, tensile stresses shall not ex-
2,750 pounds. The plant and equipment furnished for
ceed 3 multiplied by the square root of the concrete com-
air/steam hammers shall have sufficient capacity to main-
pressive strength, fc9, plus the effective prestress value,
tain, under working conditions, the pressure at the ham-
i.e., (3Ïfwc9 1 prestress), and compressive stresses shall
mer specified by the manufacturer.
not exceed 85% of the compressive strength minus the ef-
fective prestress value, i.e. (0.85 fc9 2 prestress). For tim-
4.4.1.1.4 Diesel Hammers
ber piles, the compressive driving stress shall not exceed
three times the allowable static design strength listed on Open-end (single acting) diesel hammers shall be
the plans. These criteria will be used in evaluating calcu- equipped with a device to permit the Engineer to deter-
lated results to determine acceptability of the Contractor’s mine hammer stroke at all times during pile driving oper-
proposed driving system. ations. Closed-end (double acting) diesel hammers shall
be equipped with a bounce chamber pressure gauge, in For steel and timber piling, the pile heads shall be cut
good working order, mounted near ground level so as to squarely and a drive head provided to hold the longitudi-
be easily read by the Engineer. A correlation chart of nal axis of the pile in line with the axis of the hammer.
bounce chamber pressure and delivered hammer energy For precast concrete and prestressed concrete piles, the
shall be provided by the Contractor. pile head shall be plane and perpendicular to the longitu-
dinal axis of the pile to prevent eccentric impacts from the
4.4.1.1.5 Vibratory Hammers drive head.
For special types of piles, appropriate driving heads,
Vibratory or other pile driving methods may be used
mandrels or other devices shall be provided so that the
only when specifically allowed by the Special Provisions or
piles may be driven without damage.
in writing by the Engineer. Except when pile lengths have
been determined from load test piles, the bearing capacity
4.4.1.2.3 Pile Cushion
of piles driven with vibratory hammers shall be verified by
redriving the first pile driven in each group of 10 piles with The heads of concrete piles shall be protected by a pile
an impact hammer of suitable energy to measure the pile cushion when the nature of the driving is such as to un-
capacity before driving the remaining piles in the group. duly injure them. When plywood is used, the minimum
thickness placed on the pile head prior to driving shall not
4.4.1.1.6 Additional Equipment or Methods be less than 4 inches. A new pile cushion shall be provided
if, during driving, the cushion is either compressed more
In case the required penetration is not obtained by the than one-half the original thickness or begins to burn.
use of a hammer complying with the above minimum re- The pile cushion dimensions shall be such as to distribute
quirements, the Contractor may be required to provide a the blow of the hammer throughout the cross section of
hammer of greater energy or, when permitted, resort to the pile.
supplemental methods such as jetting or preboring.
4.4.1.2 Driving Appurtenances 4.4.1.2.4 Leads

Pile driving leads which support the pile and the ham-
4.4.1.2.1 Hammer Cushion mer in proper positions throughout the driving operation
All impact pile driving equipment except gravity ham- shall be used. Leads shall be constructed in a manner that
mers shall be equipped with a suitable thickness of ham- affords freedom of movement of the hammer while main-
mer cushion material to prevent damage to the hammer or taining alignment of the hammer and the pile to insure
pile and to insure uniform driving behavior. Hammer cush- concentric impact for each blow. The leads shall be of suf-
ions shall be made of durable, manufactured materials, ficient length to make the use of a follower unnecessary
which will retain uniform properties during driving. Wood, and shall be so designed as to permit proper alignment of
wire rope, and asbestos hammer cushions shall not be battered piles.
used. A striker plate shall be placed on the hammer cush-
ion to insure uniform compression of the cushion material. 4.4.1.2.5 Followers
The hammer cushion shall be inspected in the presence of
Followers shall only be used when approved in writing
the Engineer when beginning pile driving and after each
by the Engineer, or when specifically allowed in the spe-
100 hours of pile driving. The hammer cushion shall be re-
cial provisions. When a follower is permitted, in order to
placed by the Contractor before driving is permitted to
verify that adequate pile penetration is being attained to
continue whenever there is a reduction of hammer cushion
develop the desired pile capacity, the first pile in each bent
thickness exceeding 25% of the original thickness.
and every 10th pile driven thereafter shall be furnished
sufficiently long and shall be driven full length without a
4.4.1.2.2 Pile Drive Head
follower. The follower and pile shall be held and main-
Piles driven with impact hammers shall be fitted with tained in equal and proper alignment during driving. The
an adequate drive head to distribute the hammer blow to follower shall be of such material and dimensions to per-
the pile head. The drive head shall be axially aligned with mit the piles to be driven to the length determined neces-
the hammer and the pile. The drive head shall be guided sary from the driving of the full length piles. The final po-
by the leads and not be free-swinging. The drive head sition and alignment of the first two piles installed with
shall fit around the pile head in such a manner as to pre- followers in each substructure unit shall be verified to be
vent transfer of torsional forces during driving while in accordance with the location tolerances specified in Ar-
maintaining proper alignment of hammer and pile. ticle 4.4.3 before additional piles are installed.
4.4.1.2.6 DIVISION II—CONSTRUCTION 493
4.4.1.2.6 Jets the embankment when the depth of the new embankment
is in excess of 5 feet. The hole shall have a diameter of not
Jetting shall only be permitted if approved in writing by
less than the greatest dimension of the pile cross section
the Engineer or when specifically allowed in the special
plus 6 inches. After driving the pile, the space around the
provisions. When jetting is not required, but approved after
pile shall be filled to ground surface with dry sand or pea
the Contractor’s request, the Contractor shall determine
gravel. Material resulting from drilling holes shall be dis-
the number of jets and the volume and pressure of water at
posed of as approved by the Engineer.
the jet nozzles necessary to freely erode the material adja-
cent to the pile without affecting the lateral stability of the
4.4.2.2 Preparation of Piling
final in-place pile. The Contractor shall be responsible for
all damage to the site caused by jetting operations. When
In addition to squaring up pile heads prior to driving,
jetting is specifically required in the special provisions, the
piles shall be further prepared for driving as described
jetting plant shall have sufficient capacity to deliver at all
below.
times a pressure equivalent to at least 100 pounds per
square inch at two 3 ⁄ 4-inch jet nozzles. In either case unless 4.4.2.2.1 Collars
otherwise indicated by the Engineer, jet pipes shall be re-
moved when the pile tip is a minimum of 5 feet above pre- When timber piles are required to be driven to more
scribed tip elevation and the pile shall be driven to the re- than 35 tons bearing or when driving conditions otherwise
quired bearing capacity with an impact hammer. Also, the require it, collars, bands, or other devices shall be pro-
Contractor shall control, treat if necessary, and dispose of vided to protect piles against splitting and brooming.
all jet water in a manner satisfactory to the Engineer.
4.4.2.2.2 Pointing
4.4.2 Preparation for Driving Timber piles shall be pointed where soil conditions re-
quire it. When necessary, the piles shall be shod with
4.4.2.1 Site Work metal shoes of a design satisfactory to the Engineer, the
points of the piles being carefully shaped to secure an
4.4.2.1.1 Excavation even and uniform bearing on the shoes.
In general, piles shall not be driven until after the ex-
cavation is complete. Any material forced up between the 4.4.2.2.3 Pile Shoes and Lugs
piles shall be removed to the correct elevation before con- Pile shoes used to protect all types of piles when hard
crete for the foundation is placed. driving is expected and pile lugs used to increase the bear-
ing capacity of steel piles shall be of the types shown on
4.4.2.1.2 Preboring to Facilitate Driving the plans and shall be used at the locations specified or or-
When required by the special provisions, the Contrac- dered by the Engineer. Steel pile shoes shall be fabricated
tor shall prebore holes at pile locations to the depths shown from cast steel conforming to ASTM A 27.
on the plans, specified in the special provisions, or allowed Such pile shoes or lugs used at the option of the Con-
by the Engineer. Prebored holes shall be smaller than the tractor shall be of a type approved by the Engineer.
diameter or diagonal of the pile cross section and sufficient
to allow penetration of the pile to the specified depth. If 4.4.3 Driving
subsurface obstructions, such as boulders or rock layers
are encountered, the hole diameter may be increased to the Piles shall be driven to the minimum tip elevations and
least dimension which is adequate for pile installation. Any bearing capacity shown on the plans, specified in the spe-
void space remaining around the pile after completion of cial provisions or approved by the Engineer. Piles that
driving shall be filled with sand or other approved mater- heave more than 1 ⁄ 4 inch upward during the driving of ad-
ial. The use of spuds (a short strong driven member which jacent piles shall be redriven.
is removed to make a hole for inserting a pile), shall not be
4.4.3.1 Driving of Test Piles
permitted in lieu of preboring, unless specifically allowed
by the special provisions or in writing by the Engineer.
Test piles and piles for static load tests, when shown on
the plans, shall be furnished to the lengths ordered and driv-
4.4.2.1.3 Predrilled Holes in Embankments
en at the locations and to the elevations directed by the
Piles to be driven through newly constructed embank- Engineer before other piles in the area represented by the
ments shall be driven in holes drilled or spudded through test are ordered or driven. All test piles shall be driven
with impact hammers unless specifically stated otherwise 4.4.4.2 Method A—Empirical Pile Formulas
in the special provisions or on the plans. In general, the or-
dered length of test piles will be greater than the estimated When not driven to practical refusal, the design
length of production piles in order to provide for variation bearing capacities of piles will be determined by an
in soil conditions. The driving equipment used for driving empirical pile formula. Unless otherwise provided in the
test piles shall be identical to that which the Contractor special provisions, the following formulas (ENR) will be
proposes to use on the production piling. Approval of used.
driving equipment shall conform with the requirements of
2 WH
these Specifications. Unless otherwise permitted by the P= for drop (gravity) hammers (4 -1)
Engineer, the Contractor shall excavate the ground at each S + 1.0
test pile to the elevation of the bottom of the footing be- 2E
P= for all other hammers (4 - 2)
fore the pile is driven. S + 0.1
Test piles shall be driven to a hammer blow count es-
tablished by the Engineer at the estimated tip elevation. where:
Test piles which do not attain the hammer blow count
P 5 bearing capacity in pounds
specified above at a depth of 1 foot above the estimated
W 5 weight, in pounds, of striking parts of the ham-
tip elevation shown on the plans shall be allowed to “set
mer
up” for a period of from 12 to 24 hours, as determined by
H 5 height of fall in feet
the Engineer, before being redriven. When possible, the
E 5 energy produced by the hammer per blow in foot/
hammer shall be warmed up before redriving begins by
pounds. Value based on actual hammer stroke or
applying at least 20 blows to another pile. If the specified
bounce chamber pressure observed (double act-
hammer blow count is not attained on redriving, the En-
ing diesel hammer)
gineer may direct the Contractor to drive a portion or all
S 5 the average penetration in inches per blow for
of the remaining test pile length and repeat the “set up”—
the last 5 to 10 blows for gravity hammers
redrive procedure. When ordered by the Engineer, test
and the last 10 to 20 blows for all other ham-
piles driven to plan grade and not having the hammer
mers.
blow count required shall be spliced and driven until the
required bearing is obtained.
The above formulas are applicable only when:
4.4.3.2 Accuracy of Driving
The hammer has a free fall (gravity and single-acting
hammers only).
Piles shall be driven with a variation of not more than
The head of the pile is not broomed, crushed, or other-
⁄ inch per foot from the vertical or from the batter shown
1 4
wise damaged.
on the plans, except that piles for trestle bents shall be so
The penetration is reasonably quick and uniform.
driven that the cap may be placed in its proper location
There is no appreciable rebound of the hammer.
without inducing excessive stresses in the piles. Founda-
A follower is not used.
tion piles shall not be out of the position shown on the plan
by more than 1 ⁄ 4 of their diameter or 6 inches, whichever
The penetration per blow may be measured either dur-
is greater, after driving. Any increase in footing dimen-
ing initial driving or by redriving with a warm hammer
sions or reinforcing due to out-of-position piles shall be at
operated at full energy after a pile set period, as deter-
the Contractor’s expense.
mined by the Engineer.
In case water jets are used in connection with the driv-
4.4.4 Determination of Bearing Capacity
ing, the bearing capacity shall be determined by the above
formulas from the results of driving after the jets have
4.4.4.1 General
been withdrawn.
Piles shall be driven to the bearing capacity shown on
the plans or specified in the special provisions. The bear- 4.4.4.3 Method B—Wave Equation Analysis
ing capacity of piles will be determined by the Engineer
as provided in the special provisions using one or a com- When specified, ultimate bearing capacity of a pile will
bination of the following methods. Method A, Empirical be determined by using a wave equation analysis. Soil,
Pile Formula, will be used in the absence of special pro- pile, and driving equipment properties to be used in this
visions to the contrary. analysis will be as shown on the plans, as specified in the
special provisions or as determined by the Engineer using ing energy transmitted to the pile by using additional
data obtained from the Contractor, test borings and, when cushions or reducing the energy output of the hammer in
used, dynamic pile tests (Method C). order to maintain acceptable stresses in the piles. If non-
The design bearing capacity of a pile shall be 0.364 of axial driving is indicated by dynamic test equipment mea-
the calculated ultimate bearing capacity as determined surements, the Contractor shall immediately realign the
from a wave equation analysis alone. When the ultimate driving system.
bearing capacity is determined from a wave equation When directed by the Engineer, the Contractor shall
analysis that has been calibrated to the results of a dy- wait up to 24 hours and, after the instruments are reat-
namic pile test, the design bearing capacity shall be 0.444 tached, redrive the dynamic load test pile. The hammer
of the calculated ultimate bearing capacity. shall be warmed up before redrive begins by applying at
least 20 blows to another pile. The maximum amount of
4.4.4.4 Method C—Dynamic Load Tests penetration required during redrive shall be 6 inches or the
maximum total number of hammer blows required will be
Dynamic measurements will be taken by the Engineer 50, whichever occurs first. After redriving, the Engineer
during the driving of piles designated as dynamic load test will either provide the cut-off elevation or specify addi-
piles. The ultimate capacity of the pile will be determined tional pile penetration and testing.
with the use of pile analyzer instruments.
Prior to placement in the leads, the Contractor shall
4.4.4.5 Method D—Static Load Tests
make each designated concrete and/or timber pile avail-
able for taking of wave speed measurements and shall
Load tests shall be performed by procedures set
predrill the required instrument attachment holes. Predriv-
forth in ASTM D 1143 using the quick load compression
ing wave speed measurements will not be required for
test method except that the test shall be taken to plunging
steel piles. When wave speed measurements are made, the
failure or three times design load or 1,000 tons which-
piling shall be supported off the ground in a horizontal po-
ever occurs first. Testing equipment and measuring
sition and not in contact with other piling. The Engineer
systems shall conform to ASTM D 1143. The Contractor
will furnish the equipment, materials, and labor necessary
shall submit to the Engineer for approval, detailed plans,
for drilling holes in the piles for mounting the instru-
prepared by a licensed professional engineer, of the
ments.
proposed loading apparatus. The apparatus shall be
The Contractor shall either attach the instruments to
constructed to allow the various increments of the load
the pile after the pile is placed in the leads, or provide the
to be placed gradually without causing vibration to the
Engineer reasonable means of access to the pile for at-
test pile. When the approved method requires the use of
taching instruments after the pile is placed in the leads. A
tension (anchor) piles which will later be used as perma-
platform with minimum size of 4 3 4 feet (16 square feet)
nent piles in the work, such tension piles shall be of the
designed to be raised to the top of the pile while the pile
same type and diameter as the production piles and shall
is located in the leads shall be provided by the Contractor.
be driven in the location of permanent piles when
The Contractor shall furnish electric power for the dy-
feasible.
namic test equipment. The power supply at the outlet shall
The design bearing capacity shall be defined as 50% of
be 10 amp, 115 volt, 55-60 cycle, A.C. only. Field gener-
the failure load.
ators used as the power source shall be equipped with
The failure load of a pile tested under axial compres-
functioning meters for monitoring voltage and frequency
sive load is that load which produces a settlement at fail-
levels.
ure of the pile head equal to:
The Contractor shall furnish a shelter to protect the
dynamic test equipment from the elements. The shelter
Sf 5 S 1 (0.15 1 0.008D)
shall have a minimum floor size of 8 3 8 feet (64 square
feet) and minimum roof height of 7 feet. The inside tem-
where:
perature of the shelter shall be maintained above 45°.
The shelter shall be located within 50 feet of the test lo- Sf 5 Settlement at failure in inches
cation. D 5 Pile diameter or width in inches
The Contractor shall drive the pile to the depth at S 5 Elastic deformation of total unsupported pile
which the dynamic test equipment indicates that the de- length in inches
sign bearing capacity shown in the contract plans has been
achieved, unless directed otherwise by the Engineer. If di- The top elevation of the test pile shall be determined
rected by the Engineer, the Contractor shall reduce the driv- immediately after driving and again just before load test-
ing to check for heave. Any pile which heaves more than crushing and spalling of the concrete, injurious splitting,
1
⁄ 4 inch shall be redriven or jacked to the original elevation splintering and brooming of the wood, or excessive defor-
prior to testing. Unless otherwise specified in the contract, mation of the steel. Manipulation of piles to force them
a minimum 3-day waiting period shall be observed be- into proper position, considered by the Engineer to be ex-
tween the driving of any anchor piles or the load test pile cessive, will not be permitted. Any pile damaged by rea-
and the commencement of the load test. son of internal defects or by improper driving or driven out
of its proper location or driven below the butt elevation
4.4.5 Splicing of Piles fixed by the plans or by the Engineer shall be corrected at
the Contractor’s expense by one of the following methods
4.4.5.1 Steel Piles approved by the Engineer for the pile in question:
Full-length piles shall be used where practicable. If The pile shall be withdrawn and replaced by a new
splicing is permitted, the method of splicing shall be as and, if necessary, a longer pile.
shown on the plans or as approved by the Engineer. The A second pile shall be driven adjacent to the defec-
arc method of welding shall be preferred when splicing tive or low pile.
steel piles. Welding shall only be performed by certified The pile shall be spliced or built up as otherwise
welders. provided herein or a sufficient portion of the foot-
ing extended to properly embed the pile. All piles
4.4.5.2 Concrete Piles pushed up by the driving of adjacent piles or by any
other cause shall be driven down again.
Concrete piles shall not be spliced, other than to pro- All such remedial materials and work shall be
duce short extensions as permitted herein, unless specifi- furnished at the Contractor’s expense.
cally allowed by the plans, the special provisions, or by
the Engineer in writing. 4.4.7 Pile Cut-off
Short extensions or “build-ups” may be added to the
tops of reinforced concrete piles to correct for unantici- 4.4.7.1 General
pated events. After the driving is completed, the concrete
at the end of the pile shall be cut away, leaving the rein- All piles shall be cutoff to a true plane at the elevations
forcing steel exposed for a length of 40 diameters. The required and anchored to the structure, as shown on the
final cut of the concrete shall be perpendicular to the axis plans.
of the pile. Reinforcement similar to that used in the pile All cutoff lengths of piling shall remain the property of
shall be securely fastened to the projecting steel and the the Contractor and shall be properly disposed of.
necessary form work shall be placed, care being taken to
prevent leakage along the pile. The concrete shall be of 4.4.7.2 Timber Piles
not less than the quality used in the pile. Just prior to plac-
ing concrete, the top of the pile shall be thoroughly Timber piles which support timber caps or grillage
flushed with water, allowed to dry, then covered with a shall be sawed to conform to the plane of the bottom of
thin coating of neat cement, mortar, or other suitable the superimposed structure. In general, the length of pile
bonding material. The forms shall remain in place not less above the elevation of cutoff shall be sufficient to permit
than 7 days and shall then be carefully removed and the the complete removal of all material injured by driving,
entire exposed surface of the pile finished as previously but piles driven to very nearly the cutoff elevation shall be
specified. carefully adzed or otherwise freed from all “broomed,”
splintered, or otherwise injured material.
4.4.5.3 Timber Piles Immediately after making final cutoff on treated tim-
ber foundation piles, the cut area shall be given two lib-
Timber piles shall not be spliced unless specifically al- eral applications of preservative followed by a heavy ap-
lowed by the plans, special provisions, or by the Engineer plication of coal-tar roofing cement or other approved
in writing. sealer. Treated timber piles which will have the cutoff
exposed in the structure shall have the cut area treated
4.4.6 Defective Piles with three coats of a compatible preservative material
meeting the requirements of AWPA Standard M4. A min-
The procedure incident to the driving of piles shall not imum time period of 2 hours shall elapse between each
subject them to excessive and undue abuse producing application.
4.5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT load tests made at the option of the Contractor will not be
included in the quantity measured for payment.
4.5.1 Method of Measurement Anchor and test piles for load tests, whether incorpo-
rated into the permanent structure or not, will be measured
4.5.1.1 Timber, Steel, and Concrete Piles as provided for Piles Furnished and Piles Driven and will
be paid for under the appropriate pay item.
4.5.1.1.1 Piles Furnished
4.5.2 Basis of Payment
The quantities of each type of pile to be paid for will
be the sum of the lengths in feet of the piles, of the types
The quantities, determined as provided, will be paid for
and lengths indicated on the plans or ordered in writing by
at the contract price per unit of measurement, respectively,
the Engineer, furnished in compliance with the material
for each of the general pay items listed below for each size
requirements of these specifications and stockpiled or, in
and type of pile shown in the bid schedule.
the case of driven cast-in-place concrete piles, installed in
good condition at the site of the work by the Contractor, Pay Item Pay Unit
and accepted by the Engineer. The footage of piles, in-
Piles, Furnished Linear Foot
cluding test piles, furnished by the Contractor to replace
Piles, Driven Each
piles which were previously accepted by the Engineer, but
Test Piles, Furnished Linear Foot
were subsequently damaged prior to completion of the
Test Piles, Driven Each
contract will not be included.
Pile Load Test (Static) Each
When extensions of piles are necessary, the extension
Pile Load Test (Dynamic) Each
length ordered in writing by the Engineer will be included
Splices Each
in the linear footage of piling furnished.
Pile Shoes Each
4.5.1.1.2 Piles Driven Pile Lugs Each
The quantities of driven piles of each type to be paid Payment for furnishing piles includes full compensa-
for will be the number of acceptable piles of each type that tion for all costs involved in the furnishing and delivery
were driven. of all piles, including steel shells for cast-in-place driven
Preboring, jetting, or other methods used for facil- piles, to the project site and all costs involved in the fur-
itating pile driving procedures when either required nishing and placing of concrete and reinforcing steel for
or permitted will not be measured, and payment will be cast-in-place concrete piles.
considered included in the unit price paid for the Piles Payment for driving piles includes full compensation
Driven. for all costs involved in the actual driving and cutting off
of piles and pile shells, and for all costs for which com-
pensation is not provided for under other pay items in-
4.5.1.2 Pile Splices, Pile Shoes, and Pile Lugs volved with the furnishing of labor, equipment, and mate-
rials used to construct the piles as shown on the plans and
When pile splices, protective pile tip shoes or soil shear as specified or ordered. When mobilization of plant and
lugs are shown on the plans, the number of pile splices, equipment for the project is not paid for separately, pay-
shoes, or lugs measured for payment will be those shown ment for driving piles also includes full compensation for
on the plans, or ordered in writing by the Engineer, and the cost of mobilization of all equipment needed for the
actually installed on piles used in the work. No payment handling and driving piles after the piles have been deliv-
will be made for splices, shoes, or lugs used at the option ered to the project site.
of the Contractor. When not shown on the plans or speci- Payment for load tests includes full compensation for
fied to be used, pile splices, shoes, or lugs ordered by the providing labor, equipment, and materials needed to per-
Engineer will be paid for as extra work. form the load tests as specified.
Payment under the appropriate pay items for pile
4.5.1.3 Load Tests splices, shoes, and lugs includes full compensation for all
costs involved with furnishing all materials and perform-
The quantity of load tests to be paid for will be the ing the work involved with attaching or installing splices,
number of load tests completed and accepted, except that shoes, or lugs to the piles.
Section 5
DRILLED PILES AND SHAFTS
5.1 DESCRIPTION time resulting from the suspension of work will be

allowed.
This work shall consist of constructing drilled foun- (d) A shaft preconstruction conference will be
dation shafts, with or without bell footings, including the held with the Contractor and Sub-Contractor (if
placing of reinforcing steel and concrete all in accor- applicable) prior to the start of shaft construction
dance with the plans, these specifications and the special to discuss construction and inspection procedures.
provisions. This conference will be scheduled by the Engineer
after the Contractor’s submittals are approved by the
5.2 SUBMITTALS Engineer.
5.2.1 Contractor Qualifications (Recommended 5.2.2 Working Drawings

where permitted by state law)
When required by the special provisions, at least four
(a) The Contractor shall have a minimum of 3 years weeks before work on shafts is to begin, the Contractor
experience in constructing shaft foundations of similar shall submit to the Engineer for review and approval, an
size, depth and site conditions within the past 5 years. installation plan for the construction of drilled shafts. The
Prior to shaft construction the Contractor shall submit submittal shall include the following:
written documentation of the three years experience to
the Engineer for verification and acceptance. The sub- (a) List of proposed equipment to be used including
mittal shall include at least three projects on which the cranes, drills, augers, bailing buckets, final cleaning
Contractor has previously been engaged in shaft con- equipment, desanding equipment, slurry pumps, sam-
pling equipment, tremies or concrete pumps, casing
struction with satisfactory results. A brief description
(including: casing dimensions, material and splice de-
of each project and the owner’s contact person’s name
tails), etc.
and current phone number shall be included for each
(b) Details of overall construction operation sequence
project listed.
and the sequence of shaft construction in bents or
(b) On-site supervisors shall have a minimum 2 years
groups.
experience in construction of shaft foundations, and
(c) Details of shaft excavation methods, and final shaft
drill operators shall have a minimum 1 year experi- dimensions.
ence. Prior to the start of work, the Contractor shall (d) When slurry is required, details of the method pro-
submit a list identifying the on-site supervisors and posed to mix, circulate and desand slurry and disposal
drill operators who will be assigned on the project. of slurry.
The list shall contain a summary of each individual’s (e) Details of methods to clean the shaft excavation,
experience. including the bottom of the shaft.
(c) The Engineer will approve or reject the Contrac- (f) Details of reinforcement placement including sup-
tor’s qualifications and field personnel within 10 work- port and centralization methods.
ing days after receipt of the submission. Work shall not (g) Details of concrete placement, curing and protec-
be started on any shaft until the Contractor’s qualification, that demonstrates contractors ability to perform
tions are approved by the Engineer. The Engineer may concrete placement in the required time.
suspend the shaft construction if the Contractor substi- (h) Other information shown on the plans or requested
tutes unqualified personnel. The Contractor shall be by the Engineer.
fully liable for the additional costs resulting from the (i) Concrete mixes, and mitigation of possible slump
suspension of work, and no adjustments in contract loss during placement at the site.
499
The Contractor shall not start the construction of 5.4.3 General Methods and Equipment
drilled shafts for which Contractor qualifications and
working drawings are required until such submittals have Excavations required for shafts and bell footings shall
been approved by the Engineer. Such approval will not re- be constructed to the dimensions and elevations shown
lieve the Contractor of responsibility for results obtained on the plans. The methods and equipment used shall be
by use of these submittals or any other responsibilities suitable for the intended purpose and materials encoun-
under the contract. tered. Generally either the dry method, wet method, tem-
porary casing method, or permanent casing method will
5.3 MATERIALS be used as necessary to produce sound, durable concrete
foundation shafts free of defects. The permanent casing
5.3.1 Concrete method shall be used only when required by the plans or
authorized by the Engineer. When a particular method
Concrete shall conform to the requirements of Section of construction is required on the plans, that method
8. The concrete shall be Class A unless otherwise specified. shall be used. If no particular method is specified for
NOTE: The concrete mix for drilled shafts shall be use, the Contractor shall select and use the method, as
fluid, consolidate under self-weight, be resistant to seg- determined by site conditions, subject to approval of
regation, and have a set time that will assure that fluid- the Engineer, that is needed to properly accomplish
ity is maintained throughout the shaft concrete place- the work.
ment, and removal of temporary casing. The time for The excavation shall be completed in a continuous
initial set of the shaft concrete should generally not ex- operation. If the excavation operation is stopped, the
ceed 12 hours. shaft cavity shall be protected by installation of a safety
cover. It shall be the Contractor’s responsibility to en-
5.3.2 Reinforcing Steel sure the safety of the shaft excavation, surrounding soil
and the stability of the side walls. A temporary casing,
Reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of slurry or other methods approved by the Engineer shall
Section 9, “Reinforcing Steel.” be used if necessary to ensure such safety and stability.
Excavations shall not be left open overnight unless cased
5.3.3 Casings full depth.
The Contractor shall use appropriate means such as a
Casings which are required to be incorporated as part cleanout bucket or air lift to clean the bottom of the
of the permanent work shall conform to the requirements excavation of all shafts. When unexpected obstructions
of Section 11, “Steel Structures.” Steel shall be AASHTO are encountered, the Contractor shall notify the Engineer
M 183 (ASTM A 36), AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) promptly. The removal of such obstructions, and the
Grade 36, or ASTM A 252, Grade 2 or 3 unless otherwise construction of excavation shall be as directed by the
specified. Engineer.
5.4 CONSTRUCTION 5.4.4 Dry Construction Method
5.4.1 Protection of Existing Structures The dry construction method shall be used only at sites
where the groundwater table and site conditions are suit-
All precautions shall be taken to prevent damage to ex- able to permit construction of the shaft in a relatively dry
isting structures and utilities. These measures shall in- excavation, and where the sides and bottom of the shaft
clude but are not limited to, selecting construction meth- remain stable without any caving, sloughing or swelling
ods and procedures that will prevent excessive caving of and may be visually inspected prior to placing the con-
the shaft excavation, monitoring, and controlling the vi- crete. The dry method consists of drilling the shaft exca-
brations from the driving of casing or sheeting, drilling of vation, removing accumulated water and loose material
the shaft or from blasting, if permitted. from the excavation, and placing the shaft concrete in a
relatively dry excavation.
5.4.2 Construction Sequence
5.4.5 Wet Construction Method
Where drilled shafts are to be installed in conjunction
with embankment placement, they shall be constructed The wet construction method shall be used at sites
after the placement of the fill and completion of any speci- where a dry excavation cannot be maintained for place-
fied settlement periods unless shown otherwise in the plans. ment of the shaft concrete. This method consists of using
water or mineral slurry to contain seepage, groundwater The casing shall be continuous between the elevations
movement, and to maintain stability of the hole perimeter shown on the plans. Unless shown on the plans, the use of
while advancing the excavation to final depth, placing the temporary casing in lieu of or in addition to the permanent
reinforcing cage and shaft concrete. This procedure may casing shall not be used.
require desanding and cleaning the slurry; final cleaning After the installation of the casing and the excavation
of the excavation by means of a bailing bucket, air lift, of the shaft is complete, the reinforcing steel shall be
submersible pump, cleanout bucket or other devices; and placed, followed by the placement of the shaft concrete.
requires placing the shaft concrete with a tremie. Tempo- After the permanent casing has been filled with concrete,
rary surface casings shall be provided to aid shaft align- any voids between the shaft excavation and the casing
ment and position, and to prevent sloughing of the top of shall be pressure grouted with cement grout. The method
the shaft excavation, unless it is demonstrated to the sat- of pressure grouting the voids shall be submitted to the
isfaction of the Engineer that the surface casing is not re- Engineer for approval.
quired. Surface casing is defined as the amount of casing NOTE: Pressure grouting is required to assure contact
required from the ground surface to a point in the shaft ex- (bearing) between the casing and any surrounding soil
cavation where sloughing of the surrounding soil does not layer that is utilized for lateral support.
occur.
5.4.8 Alternative Construction Methods
5.4.6 Temporary Casing Construction Method
The Contractor may propose alternative methods to
The temporary casing construction method shall be prevent caving and control ground water. Such proposals,
used at all sites where the stability of the excavated hole accompanied by supporting technical data, shall be sub-
and/or the effects of groundwater cannot be controlled by mitted in accordance with Article 5.2, and are subject to
other means. the approval of the Engineer.
Temporary casing may be installed by driving or vibra-
tory procedures in advance of excavation to the lower 5.4.9 Excavations
limits of the caving material.
Temporary casings shall be removed while the con- The bottom elevation of the drilled shaft shown on the
crete remains workable (i.e., a slump of 4 inches or plans may be adjusted during construction if the Engineer
greater). As the casing is being withdrawn, a 5 foot mini- determines that the foundation material encountered dur-
mum head of fresh concrete in the casing shall be main- ing excavation is unsuitable or differs from that antici-
tained so that all the fluid trapped behind the casing is dis- pated in the design of the drilled shaft.
placed upward without contaminating the shaft concrete. When specified or shown in the plans, the Contractor
The required minimum concrete head may have to be in- shall take soil samples or rock cores to determine the char-
creased to counteract groundwater head outside the cas- acter of the material directly below the shaft excavation.
ing. Movement of the casing by rotating, exerting down- The Engineer will inspect the samples or cores and deter-
ward pressure and tapping to facilitate extraction or mine the final depth of required shaft excavation.
extraction with a vibratory hammer will be permitted. Excavated materials which are removed from the shaft
Casing extraction shall be at a slow, uniform rate with the excavation and any drilled fluids used shall be disposed of
pull in line with the shaft axis. in accordance with the special provisions, and in compli-
ance with federal and state laws.
5.4.7 Permanent Casing Construction Method When bell footings are shown in the plans they shall be
excavated to form a bearing area of the size and shape
The permanent casing construction method shall be shown.
used only when required by the plans. This method gen-
erally consists of driving or drilling a casing to a pre- 5.4.10 Casings
scribed depth before excavation begins. If full penetration
cannot be attained, the Contractor may either excavate Casings shall be metal, smooth, clean, watertight, and
material within the embedded portion of the casing or ex- of ample strength to withstand both handling and driving
cavate a pilot hole ahead of the casing until the casing stresses and the pressure of both concrete and the sur-
reaches the desired penetration. The pilot hole shall be no rounding earth materials. The outside diameter of casing
larger than one-half the diameter of the shaft and shall be shall not be less than the specified diameter of the shaft.
centered in the shaft. Overreaming to the outside diame- The inside diameter of the casing shall not be greater than
ter of the casing shall not be performed unless specifically the specified diameter of the shaft plus 6 inches unless
stated in the Plans or Special Provisions. otherwise approved by the Engineer. Where the minimum
thickness of the casing is specified in the Plans, it is spec- Tests to determine density, viscosity, and pH values
ified to satisfy structural design requirements only. The shall be done before or during the shaft excavation to es-
Contractor shall increase the casing thickness as neces- tablish a consistent working pattern.
sary to satisfy the casing strength requirements for han- Prior to placing shaft concrete, the Contractor shall use
dling and driving stresses. an approved slurry sampling tool to take slurry samples
Temporary casings may be corrugated and nonwater- from the bottom and at midheight of the shaft. Any heav-
tight if conditions permit. ily contaminated slurry that has accumulated at the bot-
tom of the shaft shall be eliminated. The mineral slurry
5.4.11 Slurry shall be within specification requirements immediately
before shaft concrete placement.
Slurry used in the drilling process shall be a mineral
slurry. The slurry shall have both a mineral grain size that 5.4.12 Excavation Inspection
will remain in suspension and sufficient viscosity and gel
characteristics to transport excavated material to a suitable The Contractor shall provide equipment for checking
screening system. The percentage and specific gravity of the the dimensions and alignment of each shaft excavation.
material used to make the suspension shall be sufficient to The dimensions and alignment shall be determined by the
maintain the stability of the excavation and to allow proper Contractor under the direction of the Engineer. Final shaft
concrete placement. The level of the slurry shall be main- depth shall be measured after final cleaning.
tained at a height sufficient to prevent caving of the hole. No more than 1 ⁄ 2 inch of loose or disturbed material
The mineral slurry shall be premixed thoroughly with shall be present at the bottom of the shaft just prior to plac-
clean fresh water and adequate time allotted for hydration ing the concrete for end bearing shafts. No more than 2
prior to introduction into the shaft excavation. Adequate inches of loose or disturbed material shall be present for
slurry tanks will be required when specified. No excavated side friction shafts. End bearing shafts shall be assumed
slurry pits will be allowed when slurry tanks are required on unless otherwise noted in the Plans. The excavated shaft
the project without written permission of the Engineer. Ad- shall have the approval of the Engineer prior to proceed-
equate desanding equipment will be required when speci- ing with construction.
fied. Steps shall be taken as necessary to prevent the slurry
from “setting up” in the shaft excavation, such as, agitation, 5.4.13 Reinforcing Steel Cage Construction and
circulation, and adjusting the properties of the slurry. Placement
Control tests using suitable apparatus shall be carried
out by the Contractor on the mineral slurry to determine The reinforcing steel cage consisting of the steel shown
density, viscosity, and pH. An acceptable range of values on the plans plus cage stiffener bars, spacers, centralizers,
for those physical properties is shown in the following and other necessary appurtenance shall be completely as-
table: sembled and placed as a unit immediately after the shaft ex-
cavation is inspected and accepted and prior to shaft con-
Range of Values (at 68°F)
crete placement. The reinforcing cage shall be rigidly braced
Time of Time of to retain its configuration during handling and construction.
Property Slurry Concreting Test Individual or loose bars shall not be used. The Contractor
(Units) Introduction (In Hole) Method shall show bracing and any extra reinforcing steel required
for fabrication of the cage on the shop drawings.
Density 64.3 to 64.3 to Density
The reinforcement shall be carefully positioned and se-
(pcf) 69.1 75.0 Balance
curely fastened to provide the minimum clearances listed
Viscosity below, and to ensure that no displacement of the reinforc-
(seconds 28 to 45 28 to 45 Marsh ing steel bars occurs during placement of the concrete.
per quart) Cone Place bars as shown in the contract plans with concrete
pH 8 to 11 8 to 11 pH paper or cover as shown in the table below:
meter
Concrete Cover
Notes
Shaft Casing Casing
Diameter Uncased Remains Withdrawn
(a) Increase density values by 2 pcf in salt water.
(b) If desanding is required; sand content shall not ex- 2900 or less 30 30 40
ceed 4% (by volume) at any point in the shaft excava- 3900 30 30 40
tion as determined by the American Petroleum Institute 4900 40 40 40
sand content test. 5900 or larger 60 60 60
Rolling spacers for reinforcing steel shall be used to sign that the concrete remains in workable plastic state
minimize disturbance of the side walls of the shaft and to throughout the 2-hour placement limit.
facilitate removal of the casing during concrete placement. When the top of shaft elevation is above ground, the
Concrete spacers or other approved noncorrosive spac- portion of the shaft above ground shall be formed with a re-
ing devices shall be used at sufficient intervals not exceed- movable form or with a permanent casing, when specified.
ing 5 feet along the shaft to insure concentric location of the The shaft concrete shall be vibrated or rodded to a
cage within the shaft excavation. When the size of the lon- depth of 5 feet below the ground surface except where soft
gitudinal reinforcing steel exceeds one inch diameter, the uncased soil or slurry remaining in the excavation will
maximum spacing of the spacing devices may be increased possibly mix with the concrete.
to 10 feet (maximum). Approved noncorrosive bottom sup- After placement, the temporarily exposed surfaces of
ports shall be provided for the rebar cage to assure that the the shaft concrete shall be cured in accordance with the
provisions in Article 8.11, “Curing Concrete.”
reinforcing is the proper distance above the base.
For at least 48 hours after shaft concrete has been
Other types of spacers may be used if approved by the
placed, no construction operations that would cause soil
Engineer. The Contractor shall submit details of the pro-
movement adjacent to the shaft, other than mild vibration,
posed reinforcing cage spacers along with the shop draw-
shall not be conducted. Mild vibration is defined as oper-
ings. Shaft excavation shall not be started until the Con- ation of light construction equipment adjacent to the shaft.
tractor has received approval from the Engineer for the Portions of drilled shafts exposed to a body of water
Contractor-proposed spacers. shall be protected from the action of water by leaving the
forms in place for a minimum of seven days after concrete
5.4.14 Concrete Placement, Curing, placement or until the shaft concrete reaches a minimum
and Protection strength of 2500 psi, whichever occurs first.
Concrete placement shall commence immediately after 5.4.15 Test Shafts and Bells
completion of excavation, inspection and setting of the re-
inforcing cage, and shall continue in one operation, to the Test shafts shall be constructed when required in the con-
top of the shaft, or to a construction joint identified on the tract. The construction of test shafts will be used to deter-
mine if the methods, equipment, and procedures used by the
plans. An unforeseen stoppage of work may require a hor-
Contractor are sufficient to produce a shaft excavation
izontal construction joint during the shaft construction.
which meets the requirements of the plans and specifica-
For this reason, an emergency construction joint method
tions. Production shaft construction shall not be started until
shall be submitted to the Engineer for approval prior to
the required test shaft(s) has been successfully completed.
starting shaft construction. The Contractor shall revise his methods and equipment
Concrete to be placed in water or slurry shall be placed as necessary at any time during the construction of the test
through a tremie using methods specified in Article 8.7.5, shaft hole to satisfactorily complete the excavation.
“Underwater Placement.” Before placing any new con- The location of the test shaft shall be as shown on the
crete against concrete deposited in water, the Contractor plans, or as directed by the Engineer. The diameter and
shall remove all scum, laitance, loose gravel and sediment depth of the test shaft excavation shall be the same diam-
on the upper surface of the concrete deposited in water and eter and depth as the production drilled shafts shown on the
chip off any high spots on the upper surface of the existing plans. The test shaft holes shall be filled with concrete in
concrete that would prevent any subsequent shaft rein- the same manner that production shafts will be constructed
forcing from being placed in the position required by the unless a different backfill material is shown on the plans.
Plans. When the Contractor fails to satisfactorily demonstrate
Concrete to be placed in dry shafts shall be placed and the adequacy of his methods, procedures or equipment,
consolidated as specified in Article 4.3.2, “Cast-in-Place additional test shafts shall be provided at no additional
Concrete Piles,” and these Specifications. cost to the Department, until a successful test shaft
For shafts less than 8 feet in diameter, the elapsed time has been constructed in accordance with the Engineer-
from the beginning of concrete placement in the shaft to approved construction methods.
the completion of placement shall not exceed 2 hours un- When shown on the plans, the reaming of bells at spec-
less a shaft concrete retarder is approved by the Engineer. ified test shaft holes will be required to establish the fea-
For shafts 8 feet and greater in diameter, the concrete plac- sibility of belling in a specific soil strata.
ing rate shall be not less than 30 feet of shaft height per 5.4.16 Construction Tolerances
each 2-hour period providing a 4 inch minimum slump is
maintained throughout the concrete placement based on The following construction tolerances shall be main-
tests of a trial mix. The concrete mix shall be of such de- tained in constructing drilled shafts.
(a) Shafts shall be constructed so that the center at the In the event testing discloses voids or discontinuities in
top of the shaft is within the following tolerances: the concrete which, as determined by the Engineer, indi-
cate that the drilled shaft is not structurally adequate, the
Shaft Diameter Tolerance
shaft shall be rejected. The Contractor shall repair, replace
29-00 or less 30 or supplement the defective work in a manner approved
39-00 31 /20 by the Engineer. The construction of additional drilled
49-00 40 shafts shall be discontinued until the Contractor demon-
59-00 or larger 60 strates the adequacy of the shaft construction method and
(b) Shafts shall be within 1.5% of plumb. For rock ex- any subsequent method changes to the satisfaction of the
cavation, the allowable tolerance can be increased to Engineer. Any additional work required as a result of shaft
2% max. defects shall be at no additional cost to the Department.
(c) After all the shaft concrete is placed, the portion of
the shaft reinforcing steel cage embedded in the shaft 5.5 DRILLED SHAFT LOAD TESTS
shall be no more than 1 inch above and no more than 3
inches below plan position, and shall be at least 1 inch When the contract documents include load testing, all
below the top of the shaft. tests shall be completed before construction of any pro-
(d) The minimum diameter of the drilled shaft shall be duction drilled shafts. The Contractor shall allow two
the diameter shown on the plans for diameters 24 weeks after the last load test for the analysis of the load
inches or less, and not more than 1 inch less than the test data by the Engineer before specified drilled shaft tip
diameter shown on the plans for diameters greater than elevations will be provided for production shafts.
24 inches. The maximum shaft diameter shall be the di- The locations of load test shafts and reaction shafts, the
ameter shown in the plans, plus 6 inches. maximum loads to be applied, the test equipment to be
(e) The bearing area of bells shall be excavated to the
furnished by the Contractor, and the actual performance
plan bearing area as a minimum. All other dimensions
of the load testing shall be as shown on the plans or spec-
for the bells shall be as shown on the approved work-
ified in the special provisions.
ing drawings.
After testing is completed, the test shafts and any reac-
(f) The top elevation of the shaft shall be within 2
inches of the plan top of shaft elevation. tion shafts, if not also to be used as production shafts, shall
(g) The bottom of the shaft excavation shall be normal be cutoff at an elevation 3 feet below the finished ground
to the axis of the shaft within 3 ⁄ 4 inch per foot of shaft surface. The portion of the shafts cutoff shall be disposed
diameter. of by the Contractor in a manner approved by the Engineer.
NOTE: Load tests should generally be performed as a
During drilling or excavation of the shaft, the Contrac- separate contract in advance of the bridge construction.
tor shall make frequent checks on the plumbness, align-
ment, and dimensions of the shaft. Any deviation exceed-
ing the allowable tolerances shall be corrected with a 5.6 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
procedure approved by the Engineer.
Drilled shaft excavations constructed in such a manner 5.6.1 Measurement
that the concrete shaft cannot be completed within the re-
quired tolerances are unacceptable. Correction methods 5.6.1.1 Drilled Shaft
shall be submitted by the Contractor for the Engineer’s
approval. Approval will be obtained before continuing Drilled shafts, complete in place, will be measured by
with the drilled shaft construction. the linear foot for each size of shaft listed in the schedule
Materials and work necessary to effect correction for of bid items. Measurement will be along the centerline of
out-of-tolerance drilled shaft excavations shall be fur- the shaft based on the tip and shaft cut-off elevations shown
nished at no additional cost to the Department. on the plans or as ordered by the Engineer.
5.4.17 Integrity Testing 5.6.1.2 Bell Footings
When called for in the special provisions, the completed Bell footings will be measured by the cubic yard,
shaft will be subjected to nondestructive testing to determine computed by using the dimensions and shape specified
the extent of any defects that may be present in the shaft. on the plans or as revised by the Engineer. The bell shall
Work and materials required for testing which are to be consist of the volume outside the plan or authorized di-
furnished by the Contractor shall be as shown on the plans mensions of the shaft, which will extend to the bottom of
or special provisions. the bell for the purpose of measurement.
5.6.1.3 Test Shafts equipment and incidentals necessary to complete the bell
footings.
Test shafts of the specified diameter will be measured
from the elevation of the ground at the time drilling be- 5.6.2.3 Test Shafts
gins, by the linear foot of acceptable test shaft drilled.
Test shafts of the specified diameter will be paid for at the
5.6.1.4 Test Bells contract unit price per linear foot for test shafts. Such pay-
ment shall be full compensation for excavation and concrete
Test bells will be measured by the cubic yard computed or backfill material including all labor, materials, equip-
by using the dimensions specified in Article 5.6.1.2. ment, and incidentals necessary to complete the test shafts.
5.6.1.5 Exploration Holes 5.6.2.4 Test Bells
Exploration holes will be measured by the linear foot Test bells of the diameter and shape specified or au-
measured from the bottom of shaft elevation to the bottom thorized and approved will be paid for at the contract unit
of the exploration hole, for each authorized hole drilled. price per cubic yard for test bells. Such payment shall be
full compensation for excavation and concrete or backfill
5.6.1.6 Permanent Casing material including all labor, materials, equipment, and in-
cidentals necessary to complete the test bells, except for
Permanent casing will be measured by the linear foot for unexpected obstructions.
each size of casing authorized to be used. Measurement will
be along the casing from top of casing or top of shaft, 5.6.2.5 Exploration Holes
whichever is lower, to the bottom of the casing at each shaft
location where permanent casing is authorized and used. When specified or shown in the plans, exploration
holes for soil samples or rock cores will be paid for at the
5.6.1.7 Load Tests contract unit price per linear foot for exploration holes.
Such payment shall be full compensation for drilling or
Load tests will be measured by the number of load tests coring the holes, extracting and packaging the samples or
performed for each designated pile load capacity. cores and delivering them to the Department and all other
expenses necessary to complete the work.
5.6.2 Payment
5.6.2.6 Permanent Casing
5.6.2.1 Drilled Shaft
Permanent casing will be paid for at the contract unit
Drilled shafts will be paid for at the contract price per price per linear foot for permanent casing. Such payment
lineal foot for drilled shaft of the diameter specified. Such shall be full compensation for furnishing and placing the
payment shall be considered to be full compensation for all casing above the costs attributable to the work paid for
costs involved with shaft excavation, disposal of exca- under associated pay items.
vated material, and the furnishing and placing of concrete
and reinforcing steel, including all labor, materials, equip- 5.6.2.7 Load Tests
ment, temporary casing, and incidentals necessary to com-
plete the drilled shafts, except for unexpected obstructions. Load tests will be paid for at the contract unit price
for each load test. Such payment shall be full com-
5.6.2.2 Bell Footings pensation for all costs related to the performance of the
load tests.
Bell footings constructed to the specified or authorized
dimensions will be paid for at the contract unit price per 5.6.2.8 Unexpected Obstructions
cubic yard for bell footings. Such payment shall be full
compensation for excavation, and concrete beyond the di- Removal of unexpected obstructions will be paid for
ameter of the drilled shaft including all labor, materials, by force account.
Section 6
GROUND ANCHORS
6.1 DESCRIPTION submittal. No work on ground anchors shall begin until

working drawings have been approved in writing by the
This work shall consist of designing, furnishing, in- Engineer. Such approval shall not relieve the Contractor
stalling, testing, and stressing permanent cement-grouted of any responsibility under the contract for the successful
ground anchors in accordance with the plans, these spec- completion of the work.
ifications, and the special provisions.
6.2 WORKING DRAWINGS

6.3 MATERIALS
At least 4 weeks before work is to begin, the Contrac-
6.3.1 Prestressing Steel
tor shall submit to the Engineer for review and approval
complete working drawings and design calculations de-
Ground anchor tendons shall consist of single or mul-
scribing the ground anchor system or systems intended for
tiple elements of prestressing steel, anchorage devices
use. The submittal shall include the following:
and, if required, couplers conforming to the requirements
described in Section 10, “Prestressing.”
(1) A ground anchor schedule giving:
The following materials are acceptable for use as
(a) Ground anchor number,
ground anchor tendons:
(b) Ground anchor design load,
(c) Type and size of tendon,
(d) Minimum total anchor length, AASHTO Designation: M 203 (ASTM Designation
(e) Minimum bond length, A 416 - Uncoated, 7-wire strand)
(f) Minimum tendon bond length, and ASTM Designation: A 886/A 886M (Indented, 7-wire
(g) Minimum unbonded length. strand)
(2) A drawing of the ground anchor tendon and the ASTM Designation: A 882/A 882M (Epoxy coated,
corrosion protection system, including details for the 7-wire strand)
following:
(a) Spacers separating elements of tendon and
6.3.2 Grout
their location,
(b) Centralizers and their location,
Cement shall be Type I, II, or III Portland Cement con-
(c) Unbonded length corrosion protection system,
forming to AASHTO M 85. Cement used for grouting
(d) Bond length corrosion protection system,
shall be fresh and shall not contain any lumps or other in-
(e) Anchorage and trumpet,
dications of hydration or “pack set.”
(f) Anchorage corrosion protection system,
Aggregate shall conform to the requirements for fine
(g) Drilled or formed hole size,
aggregate described in Section 8, “Concrete Structures.”
(h) Level of each stage of grouting, and
Admixtures may be used in the grout subject to the ap-
(i) Any revisions to structure details necessary to
proval of the Engineer. Expansive admixtures may only
accommodate the ground anchor system intended
be added to the grout used for filling sealed encapsula-
for use.
tions, trumpets, and anchorage covers. Accelerators shall
(3) The grout mix design and procedures for placing
not be used.
the grout.
Water for mixing grout shall be potable, clean and free
The Engineer will approve or reject the Contractor’s of injurious quantities of substances known to be harmful
working drawings within 4 weeks of receipt of a complete to Portland cement or prestressing steel.
507
6.3.3 Steel Elements (4) Fusion-bonded epoxy conforming to the require-

ments of AASHTO M 284, except that it shall have a
Bearing plates shall be fabricated from steel con- film thickness of 15 mils.
forming to AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36
minimum, or be a ductile iron casting conforming to 6.3.5 Miscellaneous Elements
ASTM A 536.
Trumpets used to provide a transition from the anchor- Bondbreaker for a tendon shall consist of smooth plas-
age to the unbonded length corrosion protection shall be tic tube or pipe that is resistant to aging by ultra-violet
fabricated from a steel pipe or tube conforming to the re- light and that is capable of withstanding abrasion, impact
quirements of ASTM A 53 for pipe or ASTM A 500 for and bending during handling and installation.
tubing. Minimum wall thickness shall be 0.20 inches. Spacers for separation of elements of a multi-element
Anchorage covers used to enclose exposed anchorages tendon shall permit the free flow of grout. They shall be
shall be fabricated from steel, steel pipe, steel tube, or fabricated from plastic, steel, or material which is not detri-
ductile cast iron conforming to the requirements of mental to the prestressing steel. Wood shall not be used.
AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36 for steel, Centralizers shall be fabricated from plastic, steel, or
ASTM A 53 for pipe, ASTM A 500 for tubing, and ASTM material which is not detrimental to either the prestressing
A 536 for ductile cast iron. Minimum thickness shall be steel or any element of the tendon corrosion protection.
0.10 inches. Wood shall not be used. The centralizer shall be able to
maintain the position of the tendon so that a minimum of
0.5 inches of grout cover is obtained on the tendons, or
6.3.4 Corrosion Protection Elements
over the encapsulation.
Corrosion inhibiting grease shall conform to the re-
quirements of the Post Tensioning Institute’s “Specifica- 6.4 FABRICATION
tions for Unbonded Single Strand Tendons,” Section 3.2.5.
Sheath for the unbonded length of a tendon shall con- Tendons for ground anchors may be either shop or field
sist of one of the following: fabricated from materials conforming to the requirements
of Article 6.3. Tendons shall be fabricated as shown on the
(1) Seamless polyethylene (PE) tube having a mini- approved working drawings. The tendon shall be sized so
mum wall thickness of 60 mils plus or minus 10 mils. that the maximum test load does not exceed 80% of the
The polyethylene shall be cell classification 334413 by minimum guaranteed ultimate strength of the tendon.
ASTM D 3350.
(2) Seamless polypropylene tube having a minimum 6.4.1 Bond Length and Tendon Bond Length
wall thickness of 60 mils plus or minus 10 mils. The
polypropylene shall be cell classification The Contractor shall determine the bond length neces-
PP210B55542-11 by ASTM D 4101. sary to satisfy the load test requirements. The minimum
(3) Heat shrinkable tube consisting of a radiation bond length shall be 10 feet in rock, 15 feet in soil or the
crosslinked polyolefin tube internally coated with an minimum length shown on the plans. The minimum ten-
adhesive sealant. The minimum tube wall thickness be- don bond length shall be 10 feet.
fore shrinking shall be 24 mils. The minimum adhesive
sealant thickness shall be 20 mils.
6.4.1.1 Grout Protected Ground Anchor Tendon
(4) Corrugated polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tube having
a minimum wall thickness of 30 mils.
Spacers shall be placed along the tendon bond length
Encapsulation for the tendon bond length shall consist of multi-element tendons so that the prestressing steel will
of one of the following: bond to the grout. They shall be located at 10-foot maxi-
mum centers with the upper one located a maximum of 5
(1) Corrugated high density polyethylene (HDPE) feet from the top of the tendon bond length and the lower
tube having a minimum wall thickness of 30 mils and one located a maximum of 5 feet from the bottom of the
conforming to AASHTO M 252 requirements. tendon bond length.
(2) Deformed steel tube or pipe having a minimum Centralizers shall be placed along the bond length.
wall thickness of 25 mils. They shall be located at 10-foot maximum centers with the
(3) Corrugated polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tube having upper one located a maximum of 5 feet from the top of the
a minimum wall thickness of 30 mils. bond length and the lower one located 1 foot from the bot-
tom of the bond length. Centralizers are not required on ified in the special provisions.
tendons installed utilizing a hollow-stem auger if it is Bearing plates shall be sized so that the bending
grouted through the auger and the drill hole is maintained stresses in the plate and average bearing stress on the con-
full of a stiff grout (9-inch slump or less) during extraction crete, if applicable, do not exceed the allowable stresses
of the auger. A combination centralizer-spacer may be described in Article 10.3.1.4.3, “Anchorage Devices with
used. Distribution Plates.” The size of bearing plates shall not
Centralizers are not required on tendons installed uti- be less than that shown on the plans or on the approved
lizing a pressure injection system in coarse-grained soils working drawings.
using grouting pressures greater than 150 psi. The trumpet shall be welded to the bearing plate. The
trumpet shall have an inside diameter at least 0.25 inches
6.4.1.2 Encapsulation Protected Ground Anchor greater than the diameter of the tendon at the anchorage.
Tendon The trumpet shall be long enough to accommodate move-
ments of the structure during testing and stressing. For
The tendon bond length shall be encapsulated by a strand tendons with encapsulation over the unbonded
grout-filled corrugated plastic or deformed steel tube, or length, the trumpet shall be long enough to enable the ten-
by a fusion-bonded epoxy coating. The tendon can be dons to make a transition from the diameter of the tendon
grouted inside the encapsulation prior to inserting the ten- in the unbonded length to the diameter of the tendon at the
don in the drill hole or after the tendon has been placed in anchorhead without damaging the encapsulation. Trum-
the drill hole. Punching holes in the encapsulation and al- pets filled with corrosion-inhibiting grease shall have a
lowing the grout to flow from the encapsulation to the drill permanent Buna-N rubber or approved equal seal pro-
hole, or vice versa, will not be permitted. The tendon shall vided between the trumpet and the unbonded length cor-
be centralized within the encapsulation and the tube sized rosion protection. Trumpets filled with grout shall have a
to provide an average of 0.20 inches of grout cover for the temporary seal provided between the trumpet and the un-
prestressing steel. Spacers and centralizers shall be used bonded length corrosion protection.
to satisfy the same requirements specified in Article
6.4.1.1 for grout protected ground anchor tendons. 6.4.4 Tendon Storage and Handling
The anchorage device of tendons protected with
fusion-bonded epoxy shall be electrically isolated from Tendons shall be stored and handled in such a manner
the structure. as to avoid damage or corrosion. Damage to tendon pre-
stressing steel as a result of abrasions, cuts, nicks, welds
6.4.2 Unbonded Length and weld splatter will be cause for rejection by the Engi-
neer. Grounding of welding leads to the prestressing steel
The unbonded length of the tendon shall be a minimum is not permitted. A slight rusting, provided it is not suffi-
of 15 feet or as indicated on the plans or approved work- cient to cause pits visible to the unaided eye, shall not be
ing drawings. cause for rejection. Prior to inserting a tendon into the
Corrosion protection shall be provided by a sheath drilled hole, its corrosion protection elements shall be ex-
completely filled with corrosion inhibiting grease or amined for damage. Any damage found shall be repaired
grout, or a heat shrinkable tube. If grease is used to fill the in a manner approved by the Engineer.
sheath, provisions shall be made to prevent it from escap-
ing at the ends. The grease shall completely coat the ten-
don and fill the interstices between the wires of seven- 6.5 INSTALLATION
wire strands. Continuity of corrosion protection shall be
provided at the transition from the bonded length to un- The Contractor shall select the drilling method, the
bonded length of the tendon. grouting procedure and grouting pressure to be used for
If the sheath provided is not a smooth tube, then a sep- the installation of the ground anchor as necessary to sat-
arate bondbreaker must be provided to prevent the tendon isfy the load test requirements.
from bonding to the anchor grout surrounding the un-
bonded length. 6.5.1 Drilling
6.4.3 Anchorage and Trumpet The drilling method used may be core drilling, rotary
drilling, percussion drilling, auger drilling or driven cas-
Nonrestressable anchorages may be used unless re- ing. The method of drilling used shall prevent loss of
stressable anchorages are designated on the plans or spec- ground above the drilled hole that may be detrimental to
the structure or existing structures. Casing for anchor demonstrated that the ground anchor system does not de-
holes, if used, shall be removed, unless permitted by the rive a significant portion of its load resistance from the
Engineer to be left in place. The location, inclination, and soil above the bond length portion of the ground anchor.
alignment of the drilled hole shall be as shown on the If grout protected tendons are used for ground anchors
plans. Inclination and alignment shall be within plus or anchored in rock, then pressure grouting techniques shall
minus 3° of the planned angle at the bearing plate, and be utilized. Pressure grouting requires that the drill hole
within plus or minus 12 inches of the planned location at be sealed and that the grout be injected until a 50-psi grout
the ground surface (point of entry). pressure can be maintained on the grout within the bond
length for a period of 5 minutes.
6.5.2 Tendon Insertion Upon completion of grouting, the grout tube may re-
main in the drill hole provided it is filled with grout.
The tendon shall be inserted into the drilled hole to After grouting, the tendon shall not be loaded for a
the desired depth without difficulty. When the tendon minimum of 3 days.
cannot be completely inserted it shall be removed and
the drill hole cleaned or redrilled to permit insertion. 6.5.4 Trumpet and Anchorage
Partially inserted tendons shall not be driven or forced
into the hole. The corrosion protection surrounding the unbonded
length of the tendon shall extend into the trumpet a mini-
6.5.3 Grouting mum of 6 inches beyond the bottom seal in the trumpet.
The corrosion protection surrounding the unbonded
A neat cement grout or sand-cement grout conforming length of the tendon shall not contact the bearing plate or
to Article 6.3.2 shall be used. Admixtures, if used, shall be the anchorhead during load testing or stressing.
mixed in quantities not to exceed the manufacturer’s rec- The bearing plate and anchorhead shall be placed per-
ommendations. pendicular to the axis of the tendon.
The grouting equipment shall produce a grout free of The trumpet shall be completely filled with corrosion
lumps and undispersed cement. A positive displacement inhibiting grease or grout. The grease may be placed any
grout pump shall be used. The pump shall be equipped time during construction. The grout shall be placed after
with a pressure gauge to monitor grout pressures. The the ground anchor has been load tested. The Contractor
pressure gauge shall be capable of measuring pressures of shall demonstrate that the procedures selected for place-
at least 150 psi or twice the actual grout pressures used, ment of either grease or grout will produce a completely
whichever is greater. The grouting equipment shall be filled trumpet.
sized to enable the grout to be pumped in one continuous Anchorages not encased in concrete shall be covered
operation. The mixer shall be capable of continuously ag- with a corrosion inhibiting grease-filled or grout-filled
itating the grout. steel enclosure.
The grout shall be injected from the lowest point of the
drill hole. The grout may be pumped through grout tubes, 6.5.5 Testing and Stressing
casing, hollow-stem augers or drill rods. The grout may
be placed before or after insertion of the tendon. The Each ground anchor shall be load tested by the Con-
quantity of the grout and the grout pressures shall be tractor. No load greater than 10% of the design load may
recorded. The grout pressures and grout takes shall be be applied to the ground anchor prior to load testing. The
controlled to prevent excessive heave of the ground or test load shall be simultaneously applied to the entire
fracturing of rock formations. tendon.
Except where indicated below, the grout above the top
of the bond length may be placed at the same time as the 6.5.5.1 Testing Equipment
bond length grout, but it shall not be placed under pres-
sure. The grout at the top of the drill hole shall stop 6 A dial gauge or vernier scale capable of measuring dis-
inches from the back of the structure or from the bottom placements to 0.001 inches shall be used to measure
of the trumpet, whichever is lowest. ground anchor movement. It shall have adequate travel so
If the ground anchor is installed in a fine-grained soil total ground anchor movement can be measured without
using a drilled hole larger than 6 inches in diameter, then resetting the device.
the grout above the top of the bond length shall be placed A hydraulic jack and pump shall be used to apply the
after the ground anchor has been load tested. The entire test load. The jack and a calibrated pressure gauge shall
drill hole may be grouted at the same time if it can be be used to measure the applied load. The pressure gauge
shall be graduated in 100-psi increments or less. When the 0.25DL AL

theoretical elastic elongation of the total anchor length at 0.50DL 0.25DL
the maximum test load exceeds the ram travel of the jack, 0.75DL* 0.50DL
the procedure for recycling the jack ram shall be included AL 0.75DL
in the working drawings. Each increment of test load shall 0.25DL 1.00DL
be applied as rapidly as possible. 0.50DL 1.20DL
A calibrated reference pressure gauge shall be avail- 0.75DL 1.33DL*
able at the site. The reference gauge shall be calibrated (Max. test load)
with the test jack and pressure gauge. 1.00DL* Reduce to
An electrical resistance load cell and readout shall be lock-off load
provided when performing a creep test. (Art. 6.5.5.6)
The stressing equipment shall be placed over the
ground anchor tendon in such a manner that the jack, bear- Where: AL 5 Alignment load
ing plates, load cell and stressing anchorage are axially DL 5 Design load for ground anchor
aligned with the tendon and the tendon is centered within * 5 Graph required. See last paragraph in this
the equipment. Article 6.5.5.2.
The maximum test load in a performance test shall be

6.5.5.2 Performance Test held for 10 minutes. The jack shall be repumped as nec-
essary in order to maintain a constant load. The load-hold
Five percent of the ground anchors or a minimum of period shall start as soon as the maximum test load is
three ground anchors, whichever is greater shall be per- applied and the ground anchor movement shall be
formance tested in accordance with the following proce- measured and recorded at 1 minute, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 10
dures. The Engineer shall select the ground anchors to be minutes. If the ground anchor movements between 1
performance tested. The remaining anchors shall be tested minute and 10 minutes exceeds 0.04 inches, the
in accordance with the proof test procedures. maximum test load shall be held for an additional 50 min-
The performance test shall be made by incrementally utes. If the load hold is extended, the ground anchor
loading and unloading the ground anchor in accordance movement shall be recorded at 15 minutes, 20, 25, 30, 45,
with the following schedule unless a different maximum and 60 minutes.
test load and schedule are indicated on the plans. The load A graph shall be constructed showing a plot of ground
shall be raised from one increment to another immediately anchor movement versus load for each load increment
after recording the ground anchor movement. The ground marked with an asterisk (*) in the performance test sched-
anchor movement shall be measured and recorded to the ule and a plot of the residual ground anchor movement of
nearest 0.001 inches with respect to an independent fixed the tendon at each alignment load versus the highest pre-
reference point at the alignment load and at each incre- viously applied load. Graph format shall be approved by
ment of load. The load shall be monitored with a pressure the Engineer prior to use.
gauge. The reference pressure gauge shall be placed in se-
ries with the pressure gauge during each performance test.
If the load determined by the reference pressure gauge and 6.5.5.3 Proof Test
the load determined by the pressure gauge differ by more
than 10%, the jack, pressure gauge and reference pressure The proof test shall be performed by incremen-
gauge shall be recalibrated. At load increments other than tally loading the ground anchor in accordance with
the maximum test load, the load shall be held just long the following schedule unless a different maximum
enough to obtain the movement reading. test load and schedule are indicated on the plans. The
load shall be raised from one increment to another
Performance Test Schedule immediately after recording the ground anchor move-
Load Load ment. The ground anchor movement shall be measured
and recorded to the nearest 0.001 inches with respect
AL AL to an independent fixed reference point at the align-
0.25DL* 0.25DL ment load and at each increment of load. The load
AL 0.50DL shall be monitored with a pressure gauge. At load
0.25DL 0.75DL increments other than the maximum test load, the load
0.50DL* 1.00DL shall be held just long enough to obtain the movement
AL 1.20DL* reading.
Proof Test Schedule Creep Test Schedule

Load Load Observation
Period (Minutes)
AL 1.00DL
0.25DL 1.20DL AL
0.50DL 1.33DL 0.25 DL 10
(Max. test load) 0.50DL 30
0.75DL Reduce to 0.75DL 30
lock-off load 1.00DL 45
1.20DL 60
where: AL 5 Alignment load 1.33DL 300
DL 5 Design load for ground anchor A graph shall be constructed showing a plot of the
ground anchor movement and the residual movement
The maximum test load in a proof test shall be held measured in a creep test as described for the performance
for 10 minutes. The jack shall be repumped as neces- test. Also, a graph shall be constructed showing a plot of
sary in order to maintain a constant load. The load- the ground anchor creep movement for each load hold as
hold period shall start as soon as the maximum test a function of the logarithm of time. Graph formats shall
load is applied and the ground anchor movement shall be be approved by the Engineer prior to use.
measured and recorded at 1 minute, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 10
minutes. If the ground anchor movement between 1 6.5.5.5 Ground Anchor Load Test Acceptance
minute and 10 minutes exceeds 0.04 inches, the maxi- Criteria
mum test load shall be held for an additional 50 minutes.
If the load hold is extended, the ground anchor movement A performance-tested or proof-tested ground anchor
shall be recorded at 15 minutes, 20, 30, 45, and 60 with a 10-minute load hold is acceptable if the:
minutes. A graph shall be constructed showing a plot of
ground anchor movement versus load for each load incre- (1) Ground anchor resists the maximum test load with
ment in the proof test. Graph format shall be approved by less than 0.04 inches of movement between 1 minute
the Engineer prior to use. and 10 minutes; and
(2) Total movement at the maximum test load exceeds
80% of the theoretical elastic elongation of the un-
6.5.5.4 Creep Test bonded length.
(3) Total movement at the maximum test load may not
Creep tests shall be performed if required by the plans exceed the theoretical elastic elongation of the un-
or special provisions. The Engineer shall select the ground bonded length plus 50% of the theoretical elastic elon-
anchors to be creep tested. gation of the bonded length. [Criterion (3) applies only
The creep test shall be made by incrementally loading for a performance-tested ground anchor in competent
and unloading the ground anchor in accordance with the rock.]
performance test schedule used. At the end of each load- A performance-tested or proof-tested ground anchor
ing cycle, the load shall be held constant for the observa- with a 60-minute load hold is acceptable if the:
tion period indicated in the creep test schedule below un-
less a different maximum test load is indicated on the (1) Ground anchor resists the maximum test load with
plans. The times for reading and recording the ground an- a creep rate that does not exceed 0.08 inches in the last
chor movement during each observation period shall be 1 log cycle of time; and
minute, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 100, (2) Total movement at the maximum test load exceeds
120, 150, 180, 210, 240, 270, and 300 minutes as appro- 80% of the theoretical elastic elongation of the un-
priate. Each load-hold period shall start as soon as the test bonded length.
load is applied. In a creep test the pressure gauge and ref- (3) Total movement at the maximum test load may not
erence pressure gauge will be used to measure the applied exceed the theoretical elastic elongation of the un-
load, and the load cell will be used to monitor small bonded length plus 50% of the theoretical elastic elon-
changes of load during a constant load-hold period. The gation of the bonded length. [Criterion (3) applies only
jack shall be repumped as necessary in order to maintain for a performance-tested ground anchor in competent
a constant load. rock.]
A creep-tested ground anchor is acceptable if the: struction procedures shall be without additional cost to the
Department and without extension of contract time.
(1) Ground anchor carries the maximum test load with Retesting of a ground anchor will not be permitted, ex-
a creep rate that does not exceed 0.08 inches in the last cept that regrouted ground anchors may be retested.
log cycle of time; and
(2) Total movement at the maximum test load exceeds 6.5.5.6 Lock Off
80% of the theoretical elastic elongation of the un-
bonded length. Upon successful completion of the load testing, the
(3) Total movement at the maximum test load may not ground anchor load shall be reduced to the lock-off load
exceed the theoretical elastic elongation of the un- indicated on the plans and transferred to the anchorage de-
bonded length plus 50% of the theoretical elastic elon- vice. The ground anchor may be completely unloaded
gation of the bonded length. [Criterion (3) applies only prior to lock-off. After transferring the load and prior to re-
for a performance-tested ground anchor in competent moving the jack, a lift-off load reading shall be made. The
rock.] lift-off load shall be within 10% of the specified lock-off
load. If the load is not within 10% of the specified lock-off
If the total movement of the ground anchor at the max- load, the anchorage shall be reset and another lift-off load
imum test load does not exceed 80% of the theoretical reading shall be made. This process shall be repeated until
elastic elongation of the unbonded length, the ground an- the desired lock-off load is obtained.
chor shall be replaced at the Contractor’s expense.
A ground anchor which has a creep rate greater than 6.6 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
0.08 inches per log cycle of time can be incorporated into
the structure at a design load equal to one-half of its fail- Ground anchors will be measured and paid for by the
ure load. The failure load is the load resisted by the ground number of units installed and accepted as shown on the
anchor after the load has been allowed to stabilize for 10 plans or ordered by the Engineer. No change in the num-
minutes. ber of ground anchors to be paid for will be made because
When a ground anchor fails, the Contractor shall mod- of the use by the Contractor of an alternative number of
ify the design and/or the installation procedures. These ground anchors.
modifications may include, but are not limited to, in- The contract unit price paid for ground anchors shall
stalling a replacement ground anchor, reducing the design include full compensation for furnishing all labor, materi-
load by increasing the number of ground anchors, modi- als, tools, equipment, and incidentals, and for doing all the
fying the installation methods, increasing the bond length work involved in installing the ground anchors (including
or changing the ground anchor type. Any modification testing), complete in place, as shown on the plans and as
which requires changes to the structure shall be approved specified in these specifications and the special provi-
by the Engineer. Any modifications of design or con- sions, and as directed by the Engineer.
Section 7
EARTH RETAINING SYSTEMS
7.1 DESCRIPTION The Contractor shall not start work on any earth re-
taining system for which working drawings are required
This work shall consist of furnishing and installing until such drawings have been approved by the Engineer.
earth retaining systems in accordance with the plans, these Approval of the Contractor’s working drawings shall not
specifications, and the special provisions. relieve the Contractor of any of his responsibility under
Earth retaining systems include concrete and masonry the contract for the successful completion of the work.
gravity walls, reinforced concrete retaining walls, sheet
pile and soldier pile walls (with and without ground an- 7.3 MATERIALS
chors or other anchorage systems), crib and cellular walls,
and mechanically stabilized earth walls. 7.3.1 Concrete
7.2 WORKING DRAWINGS 7.3.1.1 Cast-in-Place
Working drawings and design calculations shall be Cast-in-place concrete shall conform to the require-
submitted to the Engineer for review and approval at least ments of Section 8, “Concrete Structures.” The concrete
4 weeks before work is to begin. Such submittals shall be shall be Class A unless otherwise indicated in the contract
required (1) for each alternative proprietary or nonpropri- documents.
etary earth retaining system proposed as permitted or
specified in the contract, (2) when complete details for the 7.3.1.2 Pneumatically Applied Mortar
system to be constructed are not included in the plans, and
(3) when otherwise required by the special provisions or Pneumatically applied mortar shall conform to the
these specifications. Working drawings and design calcu- requirements of Section 24, “Pneumatically Applied
lations shall include the following: Mortar.”
(a) Existing ground elevations that have been verified 7.3.1.3 Precast Elements
by the Contractor for each location involving con-
struction wholly or partially in original ground. The materials, manufacturing, storage, handling, and
(b) Layout of wall that will effectively retain the earth erection of precast concrete elements shall conform to
but not less in height or length than that shown for the the requirements in Article 8.13, “Precast Concrete
wall system in the plans. Members.” Unless otherwise shown on the plans or on
(c) Complete design calculations substantiating that the approved working drawings, Portland cement con-
the proposed design satisfies the design parameters in crete used in precast elements shall conform to Class A
the plans and in the special provisions. (AE) with a minimum compressive strength at 28 days
(d) Complete details of all elements required for the of 4,000 psi.
proper construction of the system, including complete
material specifications. 7.3.1.4 Segmental Concrete Facing Blocks
(e) Earthwork requirements including specifications
for material and compaction of backfill. Masonry concrete blocks used as wall facing elements
(f) Details of revisions or additions to drainage sys- shall have a minimum compressive strength of 4,000 psi
tems or other facilities required to accommodate the and a water absorption limit of 5%. In areas of repeated
system. freeze-thaw cycles, the facing blocks shall be tested in ac-
(g) Other information required in the plans or special cordance with ASTM C 1262 to demonstrate durability.
provisions or requested by the Engineer. The facing blocks shall meet the requirements of ASTM
515
C 1372, except that acceptance regarding durability under 7.3.6 Structure Backfill Material
this testing method shall be achieved if the weight loss of
each of 4 of the 5 specimens at the conclusion of 150 cy- 7.3.6.1 General
cles does not exceed 1% of its initial weight. Blocks shall
also meet the additional requirements of ASTM C 140. All structure backfill material shall consist of material
Facing blocks directly exposed to spray from deiced pave- free from organic material or other unsuitable material as
ments shall be sealed after erection with a water resistant determined by the Engineer. Gradation will be determined
coating or be manufactured with a coating or additive to by AASHTO T 27. Grading shall be as follows unless oth-
increase freeze-thaw resistance. erwise specified.
Sieve Size Percent Passing
7.3.2 Reinforcing Steel
3 in. 100
Reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of No. 4 35–100
Section 9, “Reinforcing Steel.” No. 30 20–100
No. 200 0–15
7.3.3 Structural Steel
7.3.6.2 Crib and Cellular Walls
Structural steel shall conform to AASHTO M 270
Structure backfill material for crib and cellular walls
(ASTM A 709) Grade 36 unless otherwise specified.
shall be of such character that it will not sift or flow
through openings in the wall. For wall heights over 20 feet
7.3.4 Timber (6 meters), the following grading shall be required:
Timber shall conform to the requirements of Section Sieve Size Percent Passing
16, “Timber Structures” and Article 4.2.2, “Timber Piles.” 3 in. 100
No. 4 25–70
7.3.5 Drainage Elements No. 30 5–20
No. 200 0–50
7.3.5.1 Pipe and Perforated Pipe
7.3.6.3 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls
Pipe and perforated pipe shall conform to subsections
708 and 709 of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Structure backfill material for MSE walls shall consist
Highway Construction. of material free from organic material or other unsuitable
material as determined by the Engineer. Gradation shall
be determined by AASHTO T 27. Grading shall be as fol-
7.3.5.2 Geotextile lows unless otherwise specified:
Geotextile shall conform to AASHTO M 288. Sieve Size Percent Passing

4 in.1 100
7.3.5.3 Permeable Material No. 40 0–60
No. 200 0–15*
Permeable material shall conform to subsection 704 of 1For the soil to be considered to be nonaggressive, the
the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Highway Con- maximum soil particle size for geosynthetic reinforce-
struction unless otherwise specified in the contract or the ment shall be 0.75 inches unless full scale installa-
approved working drawings. tion damage tests are conducted in accordance with
ASTM D 5818, or if epoxy coatings are used for steel
reinforcements.
7.3.5.4 Geocomposite Drainage Systems
*Plasticity index (PI), as determined by AASHTO
T 90, shall not exceed 6.
Geocomposite drainage systems shall conform to the
requirements specified in the special provisions or the ap- The material shall exhibit an angle of internal friction
proved working drawings. of not less than 34°, as determined by the standard Di-
rect Shear Test, AASHTO T 236, on the portion finer foundation material is indicated, the Contractor shall
than the No. 10 sieve, utilizing a sample of the material perform the excavation to the limits shown. Materials
compacted to 95% of AASHTO T 99, Methods C or excavated shall be replaced with structure backfill mate-
D (with oversized correction as outlined in Note 7) at rial meeting the requirements for the particular earth re-
optimum moisture content. No testing is required for taining system to be constructed unless a different mate-
backfills where 80% of the sizes are greater than 0.75 rial is specified in the special provisions. The material
inches. shall be compacted to a density not less than 95% of the
The materials shall be substantially free of shale or maximum density as determined by AASHTO T 99,
other soft, poor durability particles. The material shall Methods C or D (with oversize correction as outlined in
have a magnesium sulfate soundness loss of less than 30% Note 7).
after four cycles or a sodium sulfate soundness loss of less
than 15% after five cycles determined in accordance with 7.4.3 Structure Backfill
AASHTO T 104. The soil shall also have an organic con-
tent of less than or equal to 1% measured in accordance Placement of structure backfill material shall con-
with AASHTO T 267 for material finer than the No. 10 form to the requirements of Articles 1.4.3 and 7.6.
sieve. Material used shall conform to the requirements of Arti-
The soil backfill electrochemical requirements for steel cle 7.3.6.
soil reinforcement are as follows:
pH of 5 to 10 7.5 DRAINAGE
Resistivity of not less than 3,000 ohm-cm
Chlorides not greater than 100 ppm Drainage facilities shall be constructed in accor-
Sulfates not greater than 200 ppm dance with the details shown on the plans or approved
working drawings, the special provisions, and these Spec-
If the resistivity is greater than or equal to 5,000 ohm-cm, ifications.
the chlorides and sulfates requirements may be waived.
The soil backfill electrochemical requirements for per-
manent geosynthetic reinforcement are as follows: 7.5.1 Concrete Gutters
pH of 4.5 to 9 for permanent structures Concrete gutters shall be constructed to the profile in-
3 to 10 for temporary structures dicated on the plans or the approved working drawings.
Pneumatically applied mortar shall conform to the re-
Recommended test methods for soil chemical property quirements of Section 24, “Pneumatically Applied Mor-
determination include AASHTO T 289 for pH, AASHTO tar.” Outlet works shall be provided at sags in the profile,
T 288 for resistivity, AASHTO T 291 for chlorides, and at the low ends of the gutter, and at other indicated loca-
AASHTO T 290 for sulfates. tions.
7.4 EARTHWORK 7.5.2 Weep Holes
7.4.1 Structure Excavation Weep holes, if specified, shall be constructed at the

locations shown on the plans or the approved working
Structure excavation for earth retaining systems shall drawings. A minimum of 2 cubic feet of permeable mate-
conform to the requirements of Section 1, “Structure Ex- rial encapsulated with geotextile shall be placed at each
cavation and Backfill,” and as provided below. weep hole.
Joints between precast concrete retaining wall face
7.4.2 Foundation Treatment panels which function as weep holes shall be covered with
geotextile. The geotextile shall be bonded to the face pan-
Foundation treatment shall conform to the require- els with adhesive conforming to Federal Specification
ments of Article 1.4.2, “Foundation Preparation and Con- MMM-A-121. The face panels which are to receive the
trol of Water” unless otherwise specified or included in geotextile shall be dry and thoroughly cleaned of dust and
the approved working drawings. If subexcavation of loose materials.
7.5.3 Drainage Blankets 7.6 CONSTRUCTION
Drainage blankets consisting of permeable mate- The construction of earth retaining systems shall
rial encapsulated in geotextile, collector pipes, outlet conform to the lines and grades indicated on the
pipes and clean out pipes shall be constructed as shown on plans or working drawings or as directed by the
the plans or the approved working drawings. Engineer.
The subgrade to receive the geotextile shall con-
form to the compaction and elevation tolerance specified 7.6.1 Concrete and Masonry Gravity Walls,
and shall be free of loose or extraneous material and Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls
sharp objects that may damage the geotextile during
installation. The geotextile shall be stretched, aligned, Stone masonry construction shall conform to the re-
and placed in a wrinkle-free manner. Adjacent borders of quirements of Section 14, “Stone Masonry.” Concrete
the geotextile shall be overlapped from 12 to 18 inches. construction shall conform to the requirements of Section
Should the geotextile be damaged, the torn or punctured 8, “Concrete Structures.” Reinforced concrete block ma-
section shall be repaired by placing a piece of geotextile sonry shall conform to the requirements of Section 15,
that is large enough to cover the damaged area and to “Concrete Block and Brick Masonry.”
meet the overlap requirement. Vertical precast concrete wall elements with cast-in-
The permeable material shall be placed in horizontal place concrete footing support shall be adequately sup-
layers and thoroughly consolidated along with and by the ported and braced to prevent settlement or lateral dis-
same methods specified for structure backfill. Ponding placement until the footing concrete has been placed and
and jetting of permeable material or structure backfill has achieved sufficient strength to support the wall ele-
material adjacent to permeable material will not be per- ments.
mitted. During spreading and compaction of the perme- The exposed face of concrete walls shall receive a
able material and structure backfill or embankment ma- Class 1 finish as specified in Section 8, “Concrete Struc-
terial, a minimum of 6 inches of such material shall be tures,” unless a special architectural treatment is specified
maintained between the geotextile and the Contractor’s on the plans, the special provisions, or the approved work-
equipment. ing drawings.
The perforated collector pipe shall be placed within
the permeable material to the flow line elevations 7.6.2 Sheet Pile and Soldier Pile Walls
shown.
Outlet pipes shall be placed at sags in the flow line, at This work shall consist of constructing continuous
the low end of the collector pipe, and at other locations walls of timber, steel or concrete sheet piles, and the con-
shown or specified. Rock slope protection, when required structing of soldier pile walls with horizontal facing ele-
at the end of outlet pipes, shall conform to the details on ments of timber, steel or concrete.
the plans or approved working drawings and the require-
ments in Section 22, “Slope Protection.” 7.6.2.1 Sheet Pile Walls
Cleanout pipes shall be placed at the high ends of col-
lector pipes and at other locations as specified. Steel sheet piles shall be of the type and weight indi-
cated on the plans or designated in the special provisions.
Steel sheet piles shall conform to the requirements of
AASHTO M 202 (ASTM A 328), AASHTO M 270
7.5.4 Geocomposite Drainage Systems (ASTM A 709) Grade 50, or to the specifications for “Pil-
ing for use in Marine Environments” in ASTM A 690.
Geocomposite drainage systems shall be installed at Painting of steel sheet piles, when required, shall conform
the locations shown on the plans or the approved working to Article 13.2.
drawings. The geocomposite drainage material shall be Timber sheet piles, unless otherwise specified or per-
placed and secured tightly against the excavated face, lag- mitted, shall be treated in accordance with Section 17,
ging or back of wall as specified. When concrete is to be “Preservative Treatment of Wood.” The piles shall be of
placed against geocomposite drainage materials, the the dimensions, species, and grade of timber shown on the
drainage material shall be protected against physical dam- plans. The piles may be either cut from solid material or
age and grout leakage. made by building up with three planks securely fastened
together. The piles shall be drift sharpened at their lower concrete backfill shall be in accordance with Section 5,
ends so as to wedge adjacent piles tightly together during “Drilled Piles and Shafts.” The structural component of
driving. the soldier pile placed in the shaft excavation shall be as
Concrete sheet piles shall conform to the details specified on the plans. Reinforced concrete, either cast-
shown on the plans or the approved working drawings. in-place or precast, shall conform to the requirements of
The manufacture and installation shall conform, in gen- Section 8, “Concrete Structures.” Timber members shall
eral, to the requirements for precast concrete bearing conform to the requirements of Section 16, “Timber
piles in Section 4, “Driven Foundation Piles.” Concrete Structures,” and Section 17, “Preservative Treatment of
sheet piles detailed to have a tongue and groove joint on Wood.” Steel members shall conform to the requirements
the portion below ground and a double-grooved joint on of Section 11, “Steel Structures.” Painting of steel
the exposed portion shall, after installation, have the members, if required, shall conform to Section 13,
upper grooves cleaned of all sand, mud or debris, and “Painting.”
grouted full. Unless otherwise provided in the special Concrete backfill placed around precast concrete, tim-
provisions or approved in writing by the Engineer, grout ber or steel pile members in the drilled shaft excavation
shall be composed of one part cement and two parts of shall be commercially available Portland cement concrete
sand. The grout shall be deposited through a grout pipe with a cement content not less than five sacks per cubic
placed within a watertight plastic sheath extending the yard. Lean concrete backfill shall consist of commercial
full depth of the grout slot formed by the grooves in two quality concrete sand, water and not greater than one sack
adjacent pilings and which, when filled, completely fills of Portland cement per cubic yard. The limits for place-
the slot. ment of concrete and lean concrete shall be as indicated
Sheet piles shall be driven to the specified penetration on the plans.
or bearing capacity in accordance with the requirements The facing spanning horizontally between soldier piles
of Section 4, “Driven Foundation Piles.” shall conform to the materials and details shown on the
After driving, the tops of sheet piles shall be neatly cut plans or the approved working drawings. Timber lagging
off in a workmanlike manner to a straight line at the ele- shall conform to the requirements in Section 16, “Timber
vation shown on the plans, indicated in the special provi- Structures” and Section 17, “Preservative Treatment of
sions or as directed by the Engineer. Wood.” Precast concrete lagging or facing panels and
Sheet pile walls shall be braced by wales or other brac- cast-in-place concrete facing shall conform to the re-
ing system as shown on the plans, indicated in the special quirements in Section 8, “Concrete Structures.” Concrete
provisions or directed by the Engineer. anchors, welded connections and bolted connections for
Timber waling strips shall be properly lapped and securing facing elements to the soldier piles shall conform
joined at all splices and corners. The wales shall prefer- to the details on the plans and the requirements in the
ably be in one length between corners and shall be bolted special provisions.
near the tops of the piles. The exposed surface of concrete wall facing shall re-
Reinforced concrete caps, when indicated on the ceive a Class 1 finish as specified in Section 8, “Concrete
plans or the approved working drawings, shall be con- Structures,” unless a special architectural treatment is
structed in accordance with Section 8, “Concrete Struc- specified on the plans, the special provisions, or the
tures.” approved working drawings.
7.6.2.2 Soldier Pile Walls 7.6.2.3 Anchored Sheet Pile and Soldier Pile
Walls
Soldier piles shall be either driven piles or piles con-
structed in a drilled shaft excavation to the specified pen- 7.6.2.3.1 General
etration or bearing capacity indicated on the plans.
Driven piles shall be furnished and installed in accor- The construction of anchored walls shall consist of
dance with the requirements of Section 4, “Driven Foun- constructing sheet pile and soldier pile walls anchored
dation Piles.” The piles shall be of the type indicated on with a tie-rod and concrete anchor system or with ground
the plans. anchors.
Piles constructed in a drilled shaft excavation shall Sheet pile and soldier pile wall construction shall con-
conform to the details shown on the plans. Construction form to the requirements of Articles 7.6.2.1 and 7.6.2.2,
of the shaft excavation and placement of concrete or lean respectively.
7.6.2.3.2 Wales Unless otherwise specified or permitted, excavation in

front of the wall shall not proceed more than 3 feet below
Wales consisting of either timber, steel or concrete
a level of tie-rods or ground anchors until such tie-rods
shall conform to the details on the plans or the approved
and anchors or ground anchors are complete and accepted
working drawings. The alignment of wales shall be such
by the Engineer.
that tie-rods or ground anchors can be installed without
Placement of lagging shall closely follow excavation
bending. Timber wales shall conform to the requirements
in front of the wall such that loss of ground is minimized.
of Section 16, “Timber Structures,” and Section 17,
“Preservative Treatments of Wood.” Steel wales shall
7.6.3 Crib Walls and Cellular Walls
conform to the requirements of Section 11, “Steel Struc-
tures.” Concrete wales shall conform to the requirements
This work shall consist of constructing timber, con-
of Section 8, “Concrete Structures.”
crete or steel crib walls, and concrete monolithic cell walls
7.6.2.3.3 Concrete Anchor Systems complete with backfill material within the cells formed by
the members.
Concrete anchor systems, consisting of either drilled
shafts or reinforced concrete shapes placed within the lim- 7.6.3.1 Foundation
its of soil or rock excavation, with or without pile support,
shall conform to the details on the plans or the approved In addition to the requirements of Article 7.4.2, the
working drawings. foundation or bed course material shall be finished to
Battered anchor piles shall be driven to the proper bat- exact grade and cross slope so that the vertical or battered
ter shown. The tension anchor piles shall be furnished face alignment will be achieved.
with adequate means of anchorage to the concrete anchor When required, timber mud sills, concrete leveling
block. pads or concrete footings shall conform to the details on
Drilled shaft concrete anchors shall conform to the de- the plans. Timber mud sills shall be firmly and evenly bed-
tails on the plans or approved working drawings, and be ded in the foundation material. Concrete for leveling pads
constructed in conformance with Section 5, “Drilled Piles or footings shall be placed against the sides of excavation
and Shafts.” in the foundation material.
7.6.2.3.4 Tie-rods 7.6.3.2 Crib Members

Tie-rods shall be round steel bars conforming to
AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36 unless other- Timber header and stretcher members shall conform to
wise specified on the plans or in the special provisions. the requirements of Section 16, “Timber Structures,” and
Corrosion protection shall be provided as specified in the unless otherwise specified shall be the same as for caps,
special provisions. Care shall be taken in the handling and posts, and sills. Preservative treatment shall conform to
backfilling operations to prevent damage to the corrosion the requirements of Section 17, “Preservative Treatment
protection or bending of the tie-rod itself. of Wood.” The size of the members shall be as shown on
The connection of the tie-rods to the soldier piles, the plans.
wales, wall face and concrete anchor shall conform to the Concrete header and stretcher members shall con-
details specified. form to the requirements of Section 8, “Concrete
Structures,” for precast concrete members. The dimen-
7.6.2.3.5 Ground Anchors sions of the members and minimum concrete strength
shall be as indicated on the plans or the approved work-
Ground anchors shall be constructed in conformance
ing drawings.
with the requirements of Section 6, “Ground Anchors.”
Steel crib members consisting of base plates, columns,
The connection of ground anchors to soldier piles,
stretchers and spacers shall be fabricated from sheet steel
wales, or wall face shall conform to the details on the
conforming to AASHTO M 218. Thickness of members
plans or the approved working drawings.
shall be as specified. Crib members shall be so fabricated
that members of the same nominal size and thickness
7.6.2.3.6 Earthwork
shall be fully interchangeable. No drilling, punching, or
Earthwork shall conform to the requirements in drifting to correct defects in manufacture shall be per-
Article 7.4. mitted. Any members having holes improperly punched
shall be replaced. Bolts, nuts, and miscellaneous hard- 300 millimeters (1 foot) in thickness unless otherwise pro-
ware shall be galvanized in accordance with ASTM posed by the Contractor and approved by the Engineer.
A 153. Compaction shall be to a density of at least 95% of the
maximum density as determined by AASHTO T 99,
7.6.3.3 Concrete Monolithic Cell Members Method C. Backfilling behind the wall to the limits of ex-
cavation shall conform to the same requirements unless
Concrete monolithic cell members consisting of four- otherwise indicated or approved.
sided cells of uniform height and various depths shall be
cast in conformance with the requirements set forth for 7.6.4 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls
precast members in Section 8, “Concrete Structures.” The
minimum concrete compressive strength shall be 28 MPa. The construction of mechanically stabilized earth
The exposed cell face shall have a Class 1 finish; faces not walls shall consist of constructing a facing system to
exposed to view shall have a uniform surface finish free which steel or polymeric soil reinforcement is connected
of open pockets of aggregate or surface distortions in ex- and the placing of structure backfill material surrounding
cess of 0.25 inch. The protruding keys and recesses for the soil reinforcement.
keys on the tops and bottoms of the side walls of the cells
shall be accurately located. 7.6.4.1 Facing
7.6.3.4 Member Placement Facing consisting of either precast concrete panels,
cast-in-place concrete panels, pneumatically-applied mor-
Timber and concrete crib members shall be placed in tar, segmental concrete blocks, or welded wire fabric shall
successive tiers at spacings conforming to the specified conform to the details and materials indicated on the
details for the particular height of wall being constructed. plans, in the special provisions, or on the approved work-
Drift bolts at the intersection of timber header and ing drawings.
stretcher members shall be accurately installed so that Precast concrete panels shall be cast in conformance
minimum edge distances are maintained. At the intersec- with the requirements set forth for precast members in
tion of concrete header and stretcher members asphalt felt Section 8, “Concrete Structures.” The concrete com-
shims or other approved material shall be used to obtain pressive strength shall be that specified or 4,000 psi,
uniform bearing between the members. whichever is greater. The exposed face shall have a
Steel column sections, stretchers and spacers shall con- Class 1 finish or the architectural treatment indicated on
form to the proper length and weight as specified. These the plans, in the special provisions, or the approved
members shall be accurately aligned to permit completing working drawings. The face not exposed to view shall
the bolted connections without distorting the members. have a uniform surface finish free of open pockets of
Bolts at the connections shall be torqued to not less than aggregate or surface distortions in excess of 0.25 inch.
25 foot-pounds. Soil reinforcement connection hardware shall be accu-
Concrete monolithic cell members of the proper sizes rately located and secured during concrete placement
shall be successively stacked in conformance with the lay-
and shall not contact the panel reinforcing steel. Joint
out shown on the plans or the approved working draw-
filler, bearing pads, and joint cover material shall be as
ings. Care shall be exercised in placing the members to
specified.
prevent damage to the protruding keys. Damaged or ill-
Cast-in-place concrete facing shall be constructed in
fitting keys shall be repaired using a method approved by
conformance with the requirements in Section 8, “Con-
the Engineer.
crete Structures.” Soil reinforcement extending beyond
7.6.3.5 Backfilling the temporary facing shall be embedded in the facing con-
crete the minimum dimensions shown on the plans or the
The cells formed by the wall members shall be back- approved working drawings.
filled with structure backfill material conforming to the re- Welded wire facing, either temporary or permanent,
quirements in Article 7.3.6. Backfilling shall progress si- shall be formed by a 90° bend of the horizontal soil rein-
multaneously with the erection of the members forming forcement. The vertical portion of the soil reinforcement
the cells. Backfill material shall be so placed and com- forming the face shall be connected to the succeeding
pacted as to not disturb or damage the members. Place- upper level of soil reinforcement. A separate backing mat
ment of backfill shall be in uniform layers not exceeding and hardware cloth shall be placed immediately behind
the vertical portion of soil reinforcement. Its wire size and ment, the backfill material shall be roughly leveled to
spacing shall be as specified. an elevation approximately 0.1 foot above the level of
connection at the facing before placing the soil rein-
7.6.4.2 Soil Reinforcement forcement. All soil reinforcement shall be uniformly
tensioned to remove any slack in the connection or
All steel soil reinforcement and any steel connection material.
hardware shall be galvanized in accordance with ASTM
A 123.
Steel strip reinforcement shall be hot rolled to the re- 7.7 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
quired shape and dimensions. The steel shall conform to
AASHTO M 223 (ASTM A 572) Grade 65 unless other- Unless otherwise designated in the special provisions,
wise specified. earth retaining systems will be measured and paid for by
Welded wire fabric reinforcement shall be shop fabri- the square foot. The square meter (square foot) area for
cated from cold-drawn wire of the sizes and spacings payment will be based on the vertical height and length of
shown on the plans or the approved working drawings. each section built except in the case when alternative earth
The wire shall conform to the requirements of ASTM A retaining systems are permitted in the contract documents.
82, fabricated fabric shall conform to the requirements of When alternative earth retaining systems are permitted,
ASTM A 185. the square meter (square foot area) for payment will be
Geosynthetic reinforcement shall be of the type and based on the vertical height and length of each section
size designated on the plans or the approved working of the system type designated as the basis of payment
drawings and shall conform to the specified material and whether or not it is actually constructed. The vertical
manufacturing requirements. height of each section will be taken as the difference in
Connection hardware shall conform to the details on elevation on the outer face from the bottom of the low-
the plans and the requirements in the special provisions or ermost face element for systems without footings, and
the approved working drawings. from the top of footing for systems with footings, to the
The installation of instrumentation for monitoring cor- top of the wall, excluding any barrier.
rosion shall conform to the requirements specified. The contract price paid per square meter (square foot)
for earth retaining systems shall include full compensa-
7.6.4.3 Construction tion for furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment,
and incidentals, and for doing all the work involved in
When required, a precast reinforced or a cast-in-place constructing the earth retaining systems including—but
concrete leveling pad shall be provided at each panel not limited to— earthwork, piles, footings, and drainage
foundation level. Prior to placing the leveling pads, the systems, complete in place as shown on the plans, as
foundation material shall conform to the requirements of specified in these specifications and as directed by the
Article 7.4.2. Engineer.
Precast concrete panels, segmental concrete blocks, Full compensation for revisions to drainage system, or
timber, and welded wire fabric facing shall be placed and other facilities made necessary by the use of an alternative
supported as necessary so that their final position is verti- earth retaining system shall be considered as included in
cal or battered as shown on the plans or the approved the contract price paid per square meter (square foot) for
working drawings within a tolerance acceptable to the earth retaining system and no adjustment in compensation
Engineer. will be made therefore.
Joint filler, bearing pads and joint covering material
shall be installed concurrent with face panel placement.
Backfill material conforming to the requirement in REFERENCES
Article 7.3.6 shall be placed and compacted simultane-
ously with the placement of facing and soil reinforce- Elias, V., 1996, Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforce-
ment. Placement and compaction shall be accomplished ments for Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Re-
without distortion or displacement of the facing or soil inforced Soil Slopes, Federal Highway Administration,
reinforcement. Sheepsfoot or grid-type rollers shall No. FHWA-DP.82-2.
not be used for compacting backfill within the limits of Elias, V., and Christopher, B.R., 1996, Mechanically Sta-
the soil reinforcement. At each level of soil reinforce- bilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil Slopes Design
and Construction Guidelines, Federal Highway Ad- Simac, M. R., Bathurst, R. J., Berg, R. R., and Lothspeich,
ministration, No. FHWA-DP.82.1. S. E., 1993, Design Manual for Segmental Retaining
Federal Highway Administration, 1991, Scour at Bridges, Walls (Modular Concrete Block Retaining Wall Sys-
Technical Advisory, T 5150.20, U.S. Department of tems), First Edition, NCMA, Herndon, Virginia.
Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, 64 p.
Section 8
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
8.1 GENERAL quate arrangements will be provided for curing, finishing,

and protecting the concrete.
8.1.1 Description
This work shall consist of furnishing, placing, 8.2 CLASSES OF CONCRETE

finishing, and curing concrete in bridges, culverts, and
miscellaneous structures in accordance with these 8.2.1 General
specifications and conforming to the lines, grades, and
dimensions shown on the plans. The work includes The class of concrete to be used in each part of the
elements of structures constructed by cast-in-place and structure shall be as specified or shown on the plans. If not
precast methods using either plain (unreinforced), shown or specified, the Engineer will designate the class
reinforced, or prestressed concrete or any combination of concrete to be used.
thereof. The requirements of this section are not applica-
ble to precast box culvert structures, which are addressed 8.2.2 Normal Weight Concrete
in Section 27.
Eight classes of normal weight concrete are provided
for in these Specifications as listed in Table 8.2.
8.1.2 Related Work
8.2.3 Lightweight Concrete
Other work involved in the construction of concrete
structures shall be as specified in the applicable sections Lightweight concrete shall conform to the require-
of this Specification. Especially applicable are Section 3 ments specified in the special provisions or shown on the
for forms and falsework, Section 9 for reinforcing steel, plans. When the special provisions require the use of nat-
and Section 10 for prestressing. ural sand for a portion or all of the fine aggregate, the nat-
ural sand shall conform to AASHTO M 6.
8.1.3 Construction Methods

8.3 MATERIALS
Whenever the specifications permit the Contractor
to select the method or equipment to be used for any 8.3.1 Cements
operation, it shall be the Contractor’s responsibility to
employ methods and equipment which will produce Portland cements shall conform to the requirements of
satisfactory work under the conditions encountered and AASHTO M 85 (ASTM C 150) and Blended Hydraulic
which will not damage any partially completed portions cements shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO
of the work. M 240 (ASTM C 595). For Type 1P Portland-pozzolan ce-
Falsework and forms shall conform to the requirement, the pozzolan constituent shall not exceed 20% of
ments of Section 3, “Temporary Works.” the weight of the blend and the loss on ignition of the poz-
Generally, all concrete shall be fully supported until zolan shall not exceed 5%.
the required strength and age has been reached. However, Unless otherwise specified, only Type I, II, or III Port-
the slip form method will be permitted for the construc- land Cement, Types IA, IIA, or IIIAAir Entrained Portland
tion of pier shafts and railings providing the Contractor’s Cement, or Types IP or IS Blended Hydraulic cements
plan assures that: (1) the results will be equal in all respect shall be used. Types IA, IIA, and IIIA cements may be
to those obtained by the use of fixed forms, and (2) ade- used only in concrete where air entrainment is required.
525
TABLE 8.2
Low-alkali cements conforming to the requirements of 8.3.3 Fine Aggregate

AASHTO M 85 for low-alkali cement shall be used when
specified or when ordered by the Engineer as a condition Fine aggregate for concrete shall conform to the re-
of use for aggregates of limited alkali-silica reactivity. quirements of AASHTO M 6.
Unless otherwise permitted, the product of only one mill
of any one brand and type of cement shall be used for like 8.3.4 Coarse Aggregate
elements of a structure that are exposed to view, except
when cements must be blended for reduction of any exces- Coarse aggregate for concrete shall conform to the re-
sive air-entrainment where air-entraining cement is used. quirements of AASHTO M 80.
8.3.5 Lightweight Aggregate

8.3.2 Water
Lightweight aggregate for concrete shall conform to
Water used in mixing and curing of concrete shall be the requirements of AASHTO M 195 (ASTM C 330).
subject to approval and shall be reasonably clean and free
of oil, salt, acid, alkali, sugar, vegetable, or other injurious 8.3.6 Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures
substances. Water will be tested in accordance with, and
shall meet the suggested requirements of AASHTO T 26. Air-entraining admixtures shall conform to the re-
Water known to be of potable quality may be used with- quirements of AASHTO M 154 (ASTM C 260).
out test. Where the source of water is relatively shallow, Chemical admixtures shall conform to the require-
the intake shall be so enclosed as to exclude silt, mud, ments of AASHTO M 194 (ASTM C 494). Unless other-
grass, or other foreign materials. wise specified, only Type A (Water-reducing), Type B
Mixing water for concrete in which steel is embedded (Retarding), Type D (Water-reducing and retarding), Type
shall not contain a chloride ion concentration in excess of F (Water-reducing, high range) or Type G (Water-reduc-
1,000 ppm or sulphates as SO4 in excess of 1,300 ppm. ing, high range and retarding) shall be used.
Admixtures containing chloride ion (C1) in excess of For normal weight concrete the absolute volume
1% by weight of the admixture shall not be used in rein- method, such as described in American Concrete Institute
forced concrete. Admixtures in excess of 0.1% shall not Publication 211.1, shall be used in selecting mix propor-
be used in prestressed concrete. tions. For structural lightweight concrete, the mix propor-
A Certificate of Compliance signed by the manufac- tions shall be selected on the basis of trial mixes with the
turer of the admixture shall be furnished to the Engineer cement factor rather than the water/cement ratio being de-
for each shipment of admixture used in the work. Said termined by the specified strength using methods such as
Certificate shall be based upon laboratory test results from those described in American Concrete Institute Publica-
an approved testing facility and shall certify that the ad- tion 211.2.
mixture meets the above specifications. The mix design shall be based upon obtaining an aver-
If more than one admixture is used, the admixtures age concrete strength sufficiently above the specified
shall be compatible with each other and shall be incorpo- strength so that, considering the expected variability of
rated into the concrete mix in correct sequence so that the the concrete and test procedures, no more than 1 in 10
desired effects of all admixtures are obtained. strength tests will be expected to fall below the specified
Air-entraining and chemical admixtures shall be incor- strength. Mix designs shall be modified during the course
porated into the concrete mix in a water solution. The of the work when necessary to ensure compliance with
water so included shall be considered to be a portion of strength and consistency requirements.
the allowed mixing water.
8.4.1.2 Trial Batch Tests
8.3.7 Mineral Admixtures
For classes A, A(AE) and P concrete, for lightweight
Fly ash pozzolans and calcined natural pozzolans for concrete, and for other classes of concrete when specified
use as mineral admixtures in concrete shall conform to the or ordered by the Engineer, satisfactory performance of the
requirements of AASHTO M 295 (ASTM C 618). proposed mix design shall be verified by laboratory tests
The use of fly ash as produced by plants that utilize the on trial batches. The results of such tests shall be furnished
limestone injection process or use compounds of sodium, to the Engineer by the Contractor or the manufacturer of
ammonium or sulphur, such as soda ash, to control stack precast elements at the time the proposed mix design is
emissions shall not be used in concrete. submitted. For mix design approval, the strengths of a min-
A Certificate of Compliance, based on test results and imum of five test cylinders taken from a trial batch shall
signed by the producer of the mineral admixture certify- average at least 800 psi greater than the specified strength.
ing that the material conforms to the above specifications, If materials and a mix design identical to those pro-
shall be furnished for each shipment used in the work. posed for use have been used on other work within the
previous year, certified copies of concrete test results from
this work which indicate full compliance with these spec-
8.3.8 Steel
ifications may be substituted for such laboratory tests. If
the results of more than 10 such strength tests are avail-
Materials and installation of reinforcing and pre-
able from historical records for the past year, average
stressing steel shall conform to the requirements of
strength for these tests shall be at least 1.28 standard de-
Sections 9, “Reinforcing Steel,” and 10, “Prestressing,”
viations above the specified strength.
respectively.
8.4.1.3 Approval
8.4 PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE
All mix designs, and any modifications thereto, shall
8.4.1 Mix Design be approved by the Engineer prior to use. Mix design data
provided to the Engineer for each class of concrete re-
8.4.1.1 Responsibility and Criteria quired shall include the name, source, type, and brand of
each of the materials proposed for use and the quantity to
The Contractor shall design and be responsible for the be used per cubic yard of concrete.
performance of all concrete mixes used in structures. The
mix proportions selected shall produce concrete that is 8.4.2 Water Content
sufficiently workable and finishable for all uses intended
and shall conform to the requirements in Table 8.2 and all For calculating the water/cement ratio of the mix, the
other requirements of this section. weight of the water shall be that of the total free water in
the mix which includes the mixing water, the water in any (AASHTO M 85) cements are used and mineral admix-
admixture solutions and any water in the aggregates in ex- tures are neither specified nor prohibited, the Contractor
cess of that needed to reach a saturated-surface-dry con- will be permitted to replace up to 20% of the required Port-
dition. land cement with a mineral admixture. The weight of the
The amount of water used shall not exceed the limits mineral admixture used shall be equal to or greater than the
listed in Table 8.2 and shall be further reduced as neces- weight of the Portland cement replaced. In calculating the
sary to produce concrete of the consistencies listed in water/cement ratio of the mix, the weight of the cement
Table 8.3 at the time of placement: shall be considered to be the sum of the weights of the
Portland cement and the mineral admixture.
TABLE 8.3
8.4.5 Air-Entraining and Chemical Admixtures
Air-entraining and chemical admixtures shall be used

as specified. Otherwise, such admixtures may be used, at
the option and expense of the Contractor when permitted
by the Engineer, to increase the workability or alter the
time of set of the concrete.
8.5 MANUFACTURE OF CONCRETE
The production of ready-mixed concrete shall conform

to the requirements of AASHTO M 157 (ASTM C 94) and
the requirements of this Article 8.5. The production of
concrete with stationary mixers shall conform to the ap-
When Type F or G high range water reducing admix-
plicable requirements of AASHTO M 157 (ASTM C 94)
tures are used, the above listed slump limits may be ex-
and the requirements of this article.
ceeded as permitted by the Engineer.
When the consistency of the concrete is found to ex-
ceed the nominal slump, the mixture of subsequent 8.5.1 Storage of Aggregates
batches shall be adjusted to reduce the slump to a value
within the nominal range. Batches of concrete with a The handling and storage of concrete aggregates shall
slump exceeding the maximum specified shall not be used be such as to prevent segregation or contamination with
in the work. foreign materials. The methods used shall provide for ad-
If concrete of adequate workability cannot be obtained equate drainage so that the moisture content of the aggre-
by the use of the minimum cement content allowed, the gates is uniform at the time of batching. Different sizes of
cement and water content shall be increased without ex- aggregate shall be stored in separate stock piles suffi-
ceeding the specified water/cement ratio, or an approved ciently removed from each other to prevent the material at
admixture shall be used. the edges of the piles from becoming intermixed.
When specified in Table 8.2 or in the special provi-
8.4.3 Cement Content sions, the coarse aggregate shall be separated into two or
more sizes in order to secure greater uniformity of the
The minimum cement content shall be as listed in concrete mixture.
Table 8.2 or otherwise specified. The maximum cement or
cement plus mineral admixture content shall not exceed 8.5.2 Storage of Cement
800 pounds per cubic yard of concrete. The actual cement
content used shall be within these limits and shall be suf- The Contractor shall provide suitable means for stor-
ficient to produce concrete of the required strength and ing and protecting cement against dampness. Cement
consistency. which for any reason has become partially set or which
contains lumps of caked cement will be rejected. Cement
8.4.4 Mineral Admixtures held in storage for a period of over 3 months if bagged or
6 months if bulk, or cement which for any reason the
Mineral admixtures shall be used in the amounts spec- Engineer may suspect of being damaged, shall be subject
ified. In addition, when either Types I, II, IV, or V to a retest before being used in the work.
Copies of cement records shall be furnished to the En- For other than transit mixed concrete, the first batch of
gineer, showing, in such detail, as he may reasonably re- concrete materials placed in the mixer shall contain a suf-
quire, the quantity used during the day or run at each part ficient excess of cement, sand, and water to coat the inside
of the work. of the drum without reducing the required mortar content
of the mix.
8.5.3 Measurement of Materials When mixer performance tests, as described in
AASHTO M 157, are not made, the required mixing time
Materials shall be measured by weighing, except as for stationary mixers shall be not less than 90 seconds nor
otherwise specified or where other methods are specifi- more than 5 minutes. The minimum drum revolutions for
cally authorized. The apparatus provided for weighing the transit mixers at the mixing speed recommended by the
aggregates and cement shall be suitably designed and con- manufacturer shall not be less than 70 and not less than
structed for this purpose. Each size of aggregate and the that recommended by the manufacturer.
cement shall be weighed separately. The accuracy of all The timing device on stationary mixers shall be
weighing devices shall be such that successive quantities equipped with a bell or other suitable warning device ad-
can be measured to within 1% of the desired amount. Ce- justed to give a clearly audible signal each time the lock
ment in standard packages (sack) need not be weighed, is released. In case of failure of the timing device, the
but bulk cement shall be weighed. The mixing water shall Contractor will be permitted to operate while it is being
be measured by volume or by weight. The accuracy of repaired, provided he furnishes an approved timepiece
measuring the water shall be within a range of error of not equipped with minute and second hands. If the timing
over 1%. All measuring devices shall be subject to ap- device is not placed in good working order within 24
proval and shall be tested, at the Contractor’s expense, hours, further use of the mixer will be prohibited until
when deemed necessary by the Engineer. repairs are made.
When volumetric measurements are authorized for For small quantities of concrete needed in emergencies
projects, the weight proportions shall be converted to or for small noncritical elements of the work, concrete
equivalent volumetric proportions. In such cases, suitable may be hand-mixed using methods approved by the
allowance shall be made for variations in the moisture Engineer.
condition of the aggregates, including the bulking effect Between uses, any mortar coating inside of mixing
in the fine aggregate. equipment which sets or dries shall be cleaned from the
When sacked cement is used, the quantities of aggre- mixer before use is resumed.
gates for each batch shall be exactly sufficient for one or
more full sacks of cement and no batch requiring frac-
8.5.5 Delivery
tional sacks of cement will be permitted.
The organization supplying concrete shall have
8.5.4 Batching and Mixing Concrete
sufficient plant capacity and transporting apparatus to
ensure continuous delivery at the rate required. The rate
8.5.4.1 Batching
of delivery of concrete during concreting operations
shall be such as to provide for the proper handling,
The size of the batch shall not exceed the capacity of
placing, and finishing of the concrete. The rate shall be
the mixer as guaranteed by the manufacturer or as deter-
such that the interval between batches shall not exceed
mined by the Standard Requirements of the Associated
20 minutes and shall be sufficient to prevent joints within
General Contractors of America.
a monolithic pour caused by placing fresh concrete
The measured materials shall be batched and charged
against concrete in which initial set has occurred. The
into the mixer by means that will prevent loss of any ma-
methods of delivering and handling the concrete shall
terials due to effects of wind or other causes.
be such as will facilitate placing with the minimum of
rehandling and without damage to the structure or the
8.5.4.2 Mixing
concrete.
The concrete shall be mixed only in the quantity re-
quired for immediate use. Mixing shall be sufficient to 8.5.6 Sampling and Testing
thoroughly intermingle all mix ingredients into a uniform
mixture. Concrete that has developed an initial set shall Compliance with the requirements indicated in this
not be used. Retempering concrete by adding water will Section shall be determined in accordance with the fol-
not be permitted. lowing standard methods of AASHTO or ASTM:
Sampling Fresh Concrete, AASHTO T 141 (ASTM 8.5.7.3 For Acceptance of Concrete
C 172)
Weight Per Cubic Foot, Yield and Air Content For determining compliance of concrete with a speci-
(Gravimetric) of Concrete, AASHTO T 121 (ASTM fied 28-day strength, test cylinders shall be cured under
C 138) controlled conditions as described in Article 9.3 of
Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregate, AASHTO T 23 and tested at the age of 28 days. Samples
AASHTO T 27 for acceptance tests for each class of concrete shall be
Slump of Portland Cement Concrete, AASHTO T taken not less than once a day nor less than once for each
119 (ASTM C 143) 150 cubic yards of concrete or once for each major
Air Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete by the placement.
Pressure Method, AASHTO T 152 (ASTM Any concrete represented by a test which indicates a
C 231) strength which is less than the specified 28-day compres-
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate, sive strength by more than 500 psi will be rejected and
AASHTO T 84 (ASTM C 128) shall be removed and replaced with acceptable concrete.
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggre- Such rejection shall prevail unless either:
gate, AASHTO T 85 (ASTM C 127)
Unit Weight of Structural Lightweight Concrete, (1) The Contractor, at own expense, obtains and sub-
ASTM C 567 mits evidence of a type acceptable to the Engineer that
Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the the strength and quality of the rejected concrete is ac-
Laboratory, AASHTO T 126 (ASTM C 192) ceptable. If such evidence consists of cores taken from
Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the the work, the cores shall be obtained and tested in ac-
Field, AASHTO T 23 (ASTM C 31) cordance with the standard methods of AASHTO
Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Spec- T 24 (ASTM C 42) or,
imens, AASHTO T 22 (ASTM C 39) (2) The Engineer determines that said concrete is lo-
cated where it will not create an intolerable detrimen-
tal effect on the structure and the Contractor agrees to
8.5.7 Evaluation of Concrete Strength
a reduced payment to compensate the Department for
loss of durability and other lost benefits.
8.5.7.1 Tests
A strength test shall consist of the average strength 8.5.7.4 For Control of Mix Design
of two compressive strength test cylinders fabricated
from material taken from a single randomly selected Whenever the average of three consecutive tests,
batch of concrete, except that, if any cylinder should which were made to determine acceptability of concrete,
show evidence of improper sampling, molding, or test- falls to less than 150 psi above the specified strength or
ing, said cylinder shall be discarded and the strength any single test falls more than 200 psi below the specified
test shall consist of the strength of the remaining strength, the Contractor shall, at own expense, make cor-
cylinder. rective changes in the materials, mix proportions or in the
concrete manufacturing procedures before placing addi-
tional concrete of that class. Such changes must be ap-
8.5.7.2 For Controlling Construction
proved by the Engineer prior to use.
Operations
For determining adequacy of cure and protection, and 8.5.7.5 Steam and Radiant Heat-Cured
for determining when loads or stresses can be applied to Concrete
concrete structures, test cylinders shall be cured at the
structure site under conditions that are not more favorable When a precast concrete member is steam or radiant
than the most unfavorable conditions for the portions of heat-cured, the compressive strength test cylinders made
the structure which they represent as described in Article for any of the above purposes shall be cured under condi-
9.4 of AASHTO T 23. Sufficient test cylinders shall be tions similar to the member. Such concrete will be con-
made and tested at the appropriate ages to determine when sidered to be acceptable whenever a test indicates that the
operations such as release of falsework, application of concrete has reached the specified 28-day compressive
prestressing forces or placing the structure in service can strength provided such strength is reached not more than
occur. 28 days after the member is cast.
8.6 PROTECTION OF CONCRETE FROM concrete shall be maintained at a temperature of not less
ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS than 45°F for the first six days after-placement except that
when pozzolan cement or fly ash cement is used, this pe-
8.6.1 General riod shall be as follows:
Precautions shall be taken as needed to protect con-

crete from damage due to weather or other environmental
conditions during placing and curing operations. Concrete
that has been frozen or otherwise damaged by weather
conditions shall be either repaired to an acceptable condi-
tion or removed and replaced.
The temperature of the concrete mixture immediately
before placement shall be between 50°F and 90°F, except The above requirement for an extended period of con-
as otherwise provided herein. trolled temperature may be waived if a compressive
strength of 65% of the specified 28-day design strength is
8.6.2 Rain Protection achieved in 6 days.
If external heating is employed, the heat shall be ap-
Under conditions of rain, the placing of concrete shall plied and withdrawn gradually and uniformly so that no
not commence or shall be stopped unless adequate pro- part of the concrete surface is heated to more than 90°F or
tection is provided to prevent damage to the surface mor- caused to change temperature by more than 20°F in 8
tar or damaging flow or wash of the concrete surface. hours.
When requested by the Engineer, the Contractor shall
8.6.3 Hot Weather Protection provide and install two maximum-minimum type ther-
mometers at each structure site. Such thermometers shall
When the ambient temperature is above 90°F, the be installed as directed by the Engineer so as to monitor
forms, reinforcing steel, steel beam flanges, and other sur- the temperature of the concrete and the surrounding air
faces which will come in contact with the mix shall be during the cure period.
cooled to below 90°F by means of a water spray or other
approved methods. 8.6.4.2 Mixing and Placing
The temperature of the concrete at time of placement
shall be maintained within the specified temperature range When the air temperature is below 35°F, the tempera-
by any combination of the following: ture of the concrete at the time of placement in sections
less than 12 inches thick shall be not less than 60°F. Re-
• Shading the materials storage areas or the produc- gardless of air temperature, aggregates shall be free of ice,
tion equipment. frost and frozen lumps when batched and concrete shall
• Cooling the aggregates by sprinkling with water not be placed against any material whose temperature is
which conforms to the requirements of Article 8.3.2. 32°F or less.
• Cooling the aggregates or water by refrigeration or
replacing a portion or all of the mix water with ice 8.6.4.3 Heating of Mix
that is flaked or crushed to the extent that the ice will
completely melt during mixing of the concrete. When necessary in order to produce concrete of the
• Liquid nitrogen injection. specified temperature, either the mix water or the aggre-
gates, or both, shall be heated prior to batching. Heating
8.6.4 Cold Weather Protection shall be done in a manner which is not detrimental to the
mix and does not prevent the entrainment of the required
8.6.4.1 Protection During Cure amount of air. The methods used shall heat the materials
uniformly. Aggregates shall not be heated directly by gas
When there is a probability of air temperatures below or oil flame or on sheet metal over fire. Neither aggregates
35°F during the cure period, the Contractor shall submit nor water shall be heated to over 150°F. If either are
for approval by the Engineer prior to concrete placement, heated to over 100°F, they shall be mixed together prior to
a cold weather concreting and curing plan detailing the the addition of the cement so that the cement does not
methods and equipment which will be used to assure that come into contact with materials which are in excess of
the required concrete temperatures are maintained. The 100°F.
8.6.5 Special Requirements for Bridge Decks 8.7 HANDLING AND PLACING CONCRETE
During periods of low humidity, wind or high temper- 8.7.1 General

atures and prior to the application of curing materials,
concrete being placed and finished for bridge decks shall Concrete shall be handled, placed, and consolidated by
be protected from damage due to rapid evaporation. Such methods that will not cause segregation of the mix and
protection shall be adequate to prevent premature crusting will result in a dense homogeneous concrete which is free
of the surface or an increase in drying cracking. Such proof voids and rock pockets. The methods used shall not
tection shall be provided by raising the humidity of the cause displacement of reinforcing steel or other materials
surrounding air with fog sprayers operated upwind of the to be embedded in the concrete. Concrete shall be placed
deck, the use of wind-breaks or sun-shades, additionally and consolidated prior to initial set and in no case more
reducing of the temperature of the concrete, scheduling than 11 ⁄ 2 hours after the cement was added to the mix.
placement during the cooler times of days or nights, or Retempering the concrete by adding water to the mix shall
any combination thereof. not be done.
For bridge decks that are located over or adjacent to Concrete shall not be placed until the forms, all mate-
salt water or when specified, the maximum temperature of rials to be embedded and, for spread footings, the ade-
the concrete at time of placement shall be 80°F. quacy of the foundation material have been inspected and
approved by the Engineer. All mortar from previous
placements, debris, and foreign material shall be removed
8.6.6 Concrete Exposed to Salt Water
from the forms and steel prior to commencing placement.
The forms and subgrade shall be thoroughly moistened
Unless otherwise specifically provided, concrete for
with water immediately before concrete is placed against
structures exposed to salt or brackish water shall be Class
them. Temporary form spreader devices may be left in
S for concrete placed under water and Class A for other
place until concrete placement precludes their need, after
work. Such concrete shall be mixed for a period of not less
which they shall be removed.
than 2 minutes and the water content of the mixture shall
Placement of concrete for each section of the structure
be carefully controlled and regulated so as to produce con-
shall be done continuously without interruption between
crete of maximum impermeability. The concrete shall be
planned construction or expansion joints. The delivery
thoroughly consolidated as necessary to produce maxi-
rate, placing sequence and methods shall be such that
mum density and a complete lack of rock pockets. Unless
fresh concrete is always placed and consolidated against
otherwise indicated on the plans, the clear distance from
previously placed concrete before initial set has occurred
the face of the concrete to the reinforcing steel shall be not
in the previously placed concrete.
less than 4 inches. No construction joints shall be formed
During and after placement of concrete, care shall be
between levels of extreme low water and extreme high
taken not to injure the concrete or break the bond with re-
water or the upper limit of wave action as determined by
inforcing steel. Workmen shall not walk in fresh concrete.
the Engineer. Between these levels the forms shall not be
Platforms for workmen and equipment shall not be sup-
removed, or other means provided, to prevent salt water
ported directly on any reinforcing steel. Once the concrete
from coming in direct contact with the concrete for a pe-
is set, forces shall not be applied to the forms or to rein-
riod of not less than 30 days after placement. Except for
forcing bars, which project from the concrete, until the
the repair of any rock pockets and the plugging of form tie
concrete is of sufficient strength to resist damage.
holes, the original surface as the concrete comes from the
forms shall be left undisturbed. Special handling shall be
8.7.2 Sequence of Placement
provided for precast members to avoid even slight defor-
mation cracks.
Whenever a concrete placement plan or schedule is
specified or approved, the sequence of placement shall
8.6.7 Concrete Exposed to Sulfate Soils or Water conform to the plan. Unless otherwise specifically per-
mitted by such a placement plan, the requirements of the
When the special provisions identify the area as con- following paragraphs shall apply.
taining sulfate soils or water, the concrete that will be in
contact with such soil or water shall be mixed, placed, and 8.7.2.1 Vertical Members
protected from contact with soil or water as required for
concrete exposed to salt water except that the protection Concrete for columns, substructure and culvert walls,
period shall be not less than 72 hours. and other similar vertical members shall be placed and al-
lowed to set and settle for a period of time before concrete the culvert is constructed. For culverts whose wall height
for integral horizontal members, such as caps, slabs, or is 5 feet or less, the sidewalls and top slab may be placed
footings is placed. Such period shall be adequate to allow in one continuous operation. For higher culvert walls the
completion of settlement due to loss of bleed water and requirements for vertical members shall apply.
shall be not less than 12 hours for vertical members over
15 feet in height and not less than 30 minutes for members 8.7.2.5 Precast Elements
over 5 feet but not over 15 feet in height. When friction
collars or falsework brackets are mounted on such verti- The sequence of placement for concrete in precast ele-
cal members and unless otherwise approved, the vertical ments shall be such that sound well-consolidated concrete
member shall have been in place at least 7 days and shall which is free of settlement or shrinkage cracks is pro-
have attained its specified strength before loads from hor- duced throughout the member.
izontal members are applied.
8.7.3 Placing Methods
8.7.2.2 Superstructures
8.7.3.1 General
Unless otherwise permitted, no concrete shall be
placed in the superstructure until substructure forms have Concrete shall be placed as nearly as possible in its
been stripped sufficiently to determine the character of the final position and the use of vibrators for extensive shift-
supporting substructure concrete. ing of the mass of fresh concrete will not be permitted.
Concrete for T-beam or deck girder spans whose depth Concrete shall be placed in horizontal layers of a thick-
is less than 4 feet may be placed in one continuous oper- ness not exceeding the capacity of the vibrator to consol-
ation or may be placed in two separate operations; first, to idate the concrete and merge it with the previous lift. In
the top of the girder stems, and second, to completion. For no case shall the depth of a lift exceed 2 feet. The rate of
T-beam or deck girder spans whose depth is 4 feet or more concrete placement shall not exceed that assumed for the
and, unless the falsework is nonyielding, such concrete design of the forms as corrected for the actual temperature
shall be placed in two operations and at least 5 days shall of the concrete being placed.
elapse after placement of stems before the top deck slab When placing operations would involve dropping the
is placed. concrete more than 5 feet, the concrete shall be dropped
Concrete for box girders may be placed in two or three through a tube fitted with a hopper head, or through other
separate operations consisting of bottom slab, girder approved devices, as necessary to prevent segregation of
stems and top slab. In either case the bottom slab shall be the mix and spattering of mortar on steel and forms above
placed first and, unless otherwise permitted by the Engi- the elevation of the lift being placed. This requirement
neer, the top slab shall not be placed until the girder stems shall not apply to cast-in-place piling when concrete
have been in place for at least 5 days. placement is completed before initial set occurs in the first-
placed concrete.
8.7.2.3 Arches
8.7.3.2 Equipment
The concrete in arch rings shall be placed in such a
manner as to load the centering uniformly and symmetri- All equipment used to place concrete shall be of ade-
cally. Arch rings shall be cast in transverse sections of quate capacity and designed and operated so as to prevent
such size that each section can be cast in a continuous op- segregation of the mix or loss of mortar. Such equipment
eration. The arrangement of the sections and the sequence shall not cause vibrations that might damage the freshly
of placing shall be as approved and shall be such as to placed concrete. No equipment shall have aluminum parts
avoid the creation of initial stress in the reinforcement. which come in contact with the concrete. Between uses,
The sections shall be bonded together by suitable keys or the mortar coating inside of placing equipment which sets
dowels. Arch barrels for culverts and, unless prohibited by or dries out shall be cleaned from the equipment before
the special provisions, other arches may be cast in a sin- use is resumed.
gle continuous operation. Chutes shall be lined with smooth watertight material
and, when steep slopes are involved, shall be equipped
8.7.2.4 Box Culverts with baffles or reverses.
Concrete pumps shall be operated such that a continu-
In general, the base slab or footings of box culverts ous stream of concrete without air pockets is produced.
shall be placed and allowed to set before the remainder of When pumping is completed, the concrete remaining in
the pipeline, if it is to be used, shall be ejected in such a Vibration shall be supplemented by such spading as is
manner that there will be no contamination of the concrete necessary to ensure smooth surfaces and dense concrete
or separation of the ingredients. along form surfaces and in corners and locations impossi-
Conveyor belt systems shall not exceed a total length ble to reach with the vibrators.
of 550 lineal feet, measured from end to end of the total When approved by the Engineer, concrete for small
assembly. The belt assembly shall be so arranged that each noncritical elements may be consolidated by the use of
section discharges into a vertical hopper arrangement to suitable rods and spades.
the next section. To keep segregation to a minimum,
scrapers shall be situated over the hopper of each section 8.7.5 Underwater Placement
so as to remove mortar adhering to the belt and to deposit
it into the hopper. The discharge end of the conveyor belt 8.7.5.1 General
system shall be equipped with a hopper, and a chute or
suitable deflectors to cause the concrete to drop vertically Only concrete used in cofferdams to seal out water
to the deposit area. may be placed under water unless otherwise specified or
specifically approved by the Engineer. If other than Class
8.7.4 Consolidation S concrete is to be placed under water, the minimum ce-
ment content of the mix shall be increased by 10% to com-
All concrete, except concrete placed under water and pensate for loss due to wash.
concrete otherwise exempt, shall be consolidated by me- To prevent segregation, concrete placed under water
chanical vibration immediately after placement. shall be carefully placed in a compact mass, in its final po-
The vibration shall be internal except that external sition, by means of a tremie, concrete pump, or other ap-
form vibrators may be used for thin sections when the proved method, and shall not be disturbed after being de-
forms have been designed for external vibration. posited. Still water shall be maintained at the point of
Vibrators shall be of approved type and design and of deposit and the forms under water shall be watertight.
a size appropriate for the work. They shall be capable of Cofferdams shall be vented during the placement and cure
transmitting vibration to the concrete at frequencies of not of concrete to equalize the hydrostatic pressure and thus
less than 4,500 impulses per minute. prevent flow of water through the concrete.
The Contractor shall provide a sufficient number of vi-
Concrete placed under water shall be placed con-
brators to properly compact each batch immediately after
tinuously from start to finish. The surface of the concrete
it is placed in the forms. The Contractor shall also have at
shall be kept as nearly horizontal as practicable. To
least one spare vibrator immediately available in case of
ensure thorough bonding, each succeeding layer of
breakdown.
seal shall be placed before the preceding layer has
Vibrators shall be manipulated so as to thoroughly work
taken initial set. For large pours, more than one tremie or
the concrete around the reinforcement and imbedded fix-
pump shall be used to ensure compliance with this
tures and into the corners and angles of the forms. Vibra-
tion shall be applied at the point of deposit and in the area requirement.
of freshly deposited concrete. The vibrators shall be in-
serted and withdrawn out of the concrete slowly. The vi- 8.7.5.2 Equipment
bration shall be of sufficient duration and intensity to thor-
oughly consolidate the concrete, but shall not be continued A tremie shall consist of a watertight tube having a di-
so as to cause segregation. Vibration shall not be continued ameter of not less than 10 inches and fitted with a hopper
at any one point to the extent that localized areas of grout at the top. The tremies shall be supported so as to permit
are formed. Application of vibrators shall be at points uni- free movement of the discharge end over the entire top
formly spaced and not farther apart than 1.5 times the ra- surface of the work and so as to permit rapid lowering
dius over which the vibration is visibly effective. when necessary to retard or stop the flow of concrete. The
Vibration shall not be applied directly to, or through discharge end shall be sealed closed at the start of work so
the reinforcement to sections or layers of concrete which as to prevent water from entering the tube before the tube
have hardened to the degree that the concrete ceases to be is filled with concrete. After placement has started the
plastic under vibration. Vibrators shall not be used to tremie tube shall be kept full of concrete to the bottom of
transport concrete in the forms. the hopper. If water enters the tube after placement is
When immersion-type vibrators are used to consoli- started, the tremie shall be withdrawn, the discharge end
date concrete around epoxy-coated reinforcement, the resealed, and the placement restarted. When a batch is
vibrators shall be equipped with rubber or other non- dumped into the hopper, the flow of concrete shall be in-
metallic coating. duced by slightly raising the discharge end, always keep-
ing it in the deposited concrete. The flow shall be contin- extent that clean aggregate is exposed. All construction
uous until the work is completed. When cofferdam struts joints shall be flushed with water and allowed to dry to a
prevent lateral movement of tremies, one tremie shall be surface dry condition immediately prior to placing
used in each bay. concrete.
Concrete pumps used to place concrete under water
shall include a device at the end of the discharge tube to 8.8.3 Bonding and Doweling to Existing Structures
seal out water while the tube is first being filled with con-
crete. Once the flow of concrete is started, the end of the When new concrete is shown on the plans to be
discharge tube shall be kept full of concrete and below the bonded to existing concrete structures, the existing con-
surface of the deposited concrete until placement is crete shall be cleaned and flushed as specified above.
completed. When the plans show reinforcing dowels grouted into
holes drilled in the existing concrete at such construction
8.7.5.3 Cleanup joints, the holes shall be drilled by methods that will not
shatter or damage the concrete adjacent to the holes. The
Dewatering may proceed after test specimens cured diameters of the drilled holes shall be 1 ⁄ 4 inch larger than
under similar conditions indicate that the concrete has suf- the nominal diameter of the dowels unless shown other-
ficient strength to resist the expected loads. All laitance or wise on the plans. The grout shall be a neat cement paste
other unsatisfactory materials shall be removed from the of Portland cement and water. The water content shall be
exposed surface by scraping, chipping, or other means not more than 4 gallons per 94 pounds of cement. Retem-
which will not injure the surface of the concrete before pering of grout will not be permitted. Immediately prior
placing foundation concrete. to placing the dowels, the holes shall be cleaned of dust
and other deleterious materials, shall be thoroughly satu-
rated with water, have all free water removed and the
8.8 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS holes shall be dried to a saturated surface dry condition.
Sufficient grout shall be placed in the holes so that no
8.8.1 General voids remain after the dowels are inserted. Grout shall be
cured for a period of at least 3 days or until dowels are
Construction joints shall be made only where located encased in concrete.
on plans, or shown in the pouring schedule, unless other- When specified or approved by the Engineer, epoxy
wise approved. All planned reinforcing steel shall extend may be used in lieu of Portland cement grout for the bond-
uninterrupted through joints. In the case of emergency, ing of dowels in existing concrete. When used, epoxy
construction joints shall be placed as directed by the En- shall be mixed and placed in accordance with the manu-
gineer and, if directed, additional reinforcing steel dowels facturer’s recommendations.
shall be placed across the joint. Such additional steel shall
be furnished and placed at the Contractor’s expense. 8.8.4 Forms at Construction Joints
8.8.2 Bonding When forms at construction joints overlap previously

placed concrete, they shall be retightened before deposit-
Unless otherwise shown on the plans, horizontal joints ing new concrete. The face edges of all joints that are ex-
may be made without keys and vertical joints shall be con- posed to view shall be neatly formed with straight bulk-
structed with shear keys. Surfaces of fresh concrete at hor- heads or grade strips, or otherwise carefully finished
izontal construction joints shall be rough floated suffi- true-to-line and elevation.
ciently to thoroughly consolidate the surface and
intentionally left in a roughened condition. Shear keys 8.9 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION JOINTS
shall consist of formed depressions in the surface cover-
ing approximately one-third of the contact surface. The 8.9.1 General
forms for keys shall be beveled so that removal will not
damage the concrete. Expansion and contraction joints shall be constructed
All construction joints shall be cleaned of surface at the locations and in accordance with the details shown
laitance, curing compound and other foreign materials on the plans. Such joints include open joints, filled joints,
before fresh concrete is placed against the surface of joints sealed with sealants or waterstops, joints reinforced
the joint. Abrasive blast or other approved methods shall with steel armor plates or shapes and joints with combi-
be used to clean horizontal construction joints to the nations of these features.
When preformed elastomeric compression joint seals cone rubber type with an ultimate elongation of
or bridge deck joint seal assemblies are required, they 1,200%.
shall conform to the requirements of Section 19, “Bridge Polyethylene foam strip, for use when shown on the
Deck Joint Seals.” plans, shall be of commercial quality with a contin-
uous impervious glazed top surface, suitable for re-
8.9.2 Materials taining the liquid sealant at the proper elevation in
the joint while hardening.
8.9.2.1 Premolded Expansion Joint Fillers
8.9.2.5 Metal Armor
Premolded fillers shall conform to one of the following
specifications: Expansion joint armor assemblies shall be fabricated
from steel in conformance with the requirements of Sec-
Specification for Preformed Expansion Joint Fillers
tion 23, “Miscellaneous Metal.” Assemblies shall be ac-
for Concrete Paving and Structural Construction,
curately fabricated and straightened at the shop after fab-
AASHTO M 213 (ASTM 1751).
rication and galvanizing, as necessary to conform to the
Specification for Preformed Sponge Rubber and
concrete section.
Cork Expansion Joint Fillers for Concrete Paving
and Structural Construction, AASHTO M 153
(ASTM D 1752). Type II (cork) shall not be used 8.9.2.6 Waterstops
when resiliency is required.
Specification for Preformed Expansion Joint Filler Waterstops shall be of the type, size, and shape shown
for Concrete, AASHTO M 33 (ASTM D 994). on the plans. They shall be dense, homogeneous, and
without holes or other defects.
8.9.2.2 Polystyrene Board Fillers
8.9.2.6.1 Rubber Waterstops
Board fillers shall be expanded polystyrene with a min-
imum flexural strength of 35 pounds per square inch, as Rubber waterstops shall be formed from synthetic
determined by ASTM C 203, and a compressive yield rubber made exclusively from neoprene, reinforcing car-
strength of between 16 and 40 pounds per square inch at bon black, zinc oxide, polymerization agents, and soft-
5% compression. When shown on the plans, or required eners. This compound shall contain not less than 70% by
to prevent damage during concrete placement, the surface volume of neoprene. The tensile strength shall not be less
of polystyrene board shall be faced with 1 ⁄ 8-inch thick than 2,750 pounds per square inch with an elongation at
hardboard conforming to Federal Specification LLL-B- breaking of 600%. The Shore Durometer indication
810. (hardness) shall be between 50 and 60. After seven days
in air at temperature of 158° (62)°F or after 4 days in
8.9.2.3 Contraction Joint Material oxygen at 158° (62)°F and 300 pounds per square inch
pressure, the tensile strength shall not be less than 65%
Material placed in contraction joints shall consist of as- of the original.
phalt saturated felt paper or other approved bond-break- Rubber waterstops shall be formed with an integral
ing material. cross section in suitable molds, so as to produce a uniform
section with a permissible variation in dimension of 1 ⁄ 32
8.9.2.4 Pourable Joint Sealants inch plus or minus. No splices will be permitted in straight
strips. Strips and special connection pieces shall be well
Pourable sealants for placement along the top edges of cured in a manner such that any cross section shall be
contraction or filled expansion joints shall conform to the dense, homogeneous, and free from all porosity. Junctions
following: in the special connection pieces shall be full molded. Dur-
ing the vulcanizing period, the joints shall be securely
Hot-poured sealants shall conform to ASTM D 3406, held by suitable clamps. The material at the splices shall
except that when the sealant will be in contact with be dense and homogeneous throughout the cross section.
asphaltic material, it shall conform to ASTM D
3405.
8.9.2.6.2 Polyvinylchloride Waterstops
Cold-poured sealant shall be silicone type conform-
ing to Federal Specification TT-S-1543, Class A. Polyvinylchloride waterstops shall be manufactured by
The sealant shall be a one-part, low-modulus sili- the extrusion process from an elastomeric plastic com-
pound, the basic resin of which shall be polyvinylchloride to prevent it from working out of the joint but not interfere
(PVC). The compound shall contain any additional resins, with the compression of the material.
plasticizers, stabilizers, or other materials needed to en-
sure that, when the material is compounded, it will meet 8.9.3.3 Sealed Joints
the performance requirements given in this Specification.
No reclaimed PVC or other material shall be used. Prior to installation of pourable joint sealants, all for-
The material shall comply with the following physical eign material shall be removed from the joint, the filler
requirements when tested under the indicated ASTM test material shall be cut back to the depth shown or approved
method: and the surface of the concrete which will be in contact
with the sealant cleaned by light sand blasting. When re-
quired, a polyethylene foam strip shall be placed in the
joint to retain the sealant and isolate it from the filler ma-
terial. The sealant materials shall then be mixed and in-
stalled in accordance with the manufacturer’s directions.
Any material that fails to bond to the sides of the joint
within 24 hours after placement shall be removed and re-
placed.
8.9.2.6.3 Copper Waterstops
Sheet copper shall conform to the Specifications for 8.9.3.4 Waterstops
Copper Sheet, Strip, Plate, and Rolled Bar, AASHTO M
138 (ASTM B 152) and shall meet the Embrittlement Test Adequate waterstops of metal, rubber, or plastic shall
of Section 10 of AASHTO M 138. be placed as shown on the plans. Where movement at the
joint is provided for, the waterstops shall be of a type per-
8.9.2.6.4 Testing of Waterstop Material mitting such movement without injury. They shall be
spliced, welded, or soldered, to form continuous water-
The manufacturer shall be responsible for the testing, tight joints.
either in his own or in a recognized commercial labora- Precautions shall be taken so that the waterstops shall
tory, of all waterstop materials, and shall submit three cer- be neither displaced nor damaged by construction opera-
tified copies of test results to the Engineer. tions or other means. All surfaces of the waterstops shall
be kept free from oil, grease, dried mortar, or any other
8.9.3 Installation foreign matter while the waterstop is being embedded in
concrete. Means shall be used to insure that all portions of
8.9.3.1 Open Joints the waterstop designed for embedment shall be tightly en-
closed by dense concrete.
Open joints shall be constructed by the insertion and
subsequent removal of a wood strip, metal plate, or other 8.9.3.5 Expansion Joint Armor Assemblies
approved material. The insertion and removal of the tem-
plate shall be accomplished without chipping or breaking Armor assemblies shall be installed so that their top sur-
the corners of the concrete. When not protected by metal
face matches the plane of the adjacent finished concrete
armor, open joints in decks and sidewalks shall be finished
surface throughout the length of the assembly. Positive
with an edging tool. Upon completion of concrete finish-
methods shall be employed in placing the assemblies to
ing work, all mortar and other debris shall be removed
keep them in correct position during the placing of the con-
from open joints.
crete. The opening at expansion joints shall be that desig-
nated on the plans at normal temperature or as directed by
8.9.3.2 Filled Joints the Engineer for other temperatures, and care shall be
taken to avoid impairment of the clearance in any manner.
When filled joints are shown on the plans, premolded-
type fillers shall be used unless polystyrene board is specif-
ically called for. Filler for each joint shall consist of as few 8.10 FINISHING PLASTIC CONCRETE
pieces of material as possible. Abutting edges of filler ma-
terial shall be accurately held in alignment with each other 8.10.1 General
and tightly fit or taped as necessary to prevent the intrusion
of grout. Joint filler material shall be anchored to one side Unless otherwise specified, after concrete has been con-
of the joint by waterproof adhesive or other methods so as solidated and prior to the application of cure, all surfaces
of concrete which are not placed against forms shall be Before the delivery of concrete is begun, the finishing
struck-off to the planned elevation or slope and the surface machine or, if used, the hand-operated strike-off tool shall
finished by floating with a wooden float sufficiently to seal be operated over the entire area to be finished to check for
the surface. While the concrete is still in a workable state, excessive rail deflections, for proper deck thickness, and
all construction and expansion joints shall be carefully cover on reinforcing steel, and to verify operation of all
tooled with an edger. Joint filler shall be left exposed. equipment. Any necessary corrections shall be made be-
fore concrete placement is begun.
8.10.2 Roadway Surface Finish The finishing machine shall go over each area of the
surface as many times as it is required to obtain the re-
All bridge decks, approach slabs, and other concrete quired profile and cross section. A slight excess of con-
surfaces for use by traffic shall be finished to a smooth crete shall be kept in front of the cutting edge of the screed
skid-resistant surface in accordance with this article. Dur- at all times. This excess of concrete shall be carried all the
ing finishing operations the contractor shall provide suit- way to the edge of the pour or form and shall not be
able and adequate work bridges for proper performance of worked into the slab, but shall be wasted.
the work, including the application of fog sprays and cur- After strike-off, the surface shall be finished with a
ing compound, and for inspecting the work. float, roller, or other approved device as necessary to re-
move any local irregularities and to leave sufficient mor-
8.10.2.1 Striking Off and Floating tar at the surface of the concrete for later texturing.
During finishing operations, excess water, laitance, or
After the concrete is placed and consolidated ac- foreign materials brought to the surface during the course
cording to Article 8.7, bridge decks or top slabs of of the finishing operations shall not be reworked into the
structures serving as finished pavements shall be finished slab, but shall be removed immediately upon appearance
using approved power-driven finishing machines. Hand- by means of a squeegee or straightedge drawn from the
finishing methods may be used if approved by the center of the slab towards either edge.
Engineer for short bridges 50 feet or less in length or for The addition of water to the surface of the concrete to
irregular areas where the use of a machine would be assist in finishing operations will not be permitted.
impractical.
All surfaces shall be struck-off by equipment supported 8.10.2.2 Straightedging
by and traveling on rails or headers. The rails, headers, and
strike-off equipment shall be of sufficient strength and be After finishing as described above, the entire surface
adjusted so that the concrete surface after strike-off will shall be checked by the Contractor with a 10-foot metal
conform to the planned profile and cross section. straightedge operated parallel to the center line of the
The rails or headers shall be set on nonyielding sup- bridge and shall show no deviation in excess of 1 ⁄ 8 inch
ports and shall be completely in place and firmly secured from the testing edge of the straightedge. For deck sur-
for the scheduled length for concrete placement before faces that are to be overlaid with 1 inch or more of another
placing of concrete will be permitted. Rails for finishing material, such deviation shall not exceed 3 ⁄ 8 inch in 10
machines shall extend beyond both ends of the scheduled feet. Deviations in excess of these requirements shall be
length for concrete placement a sufficient distance that corrected before the concrete sets. The checking operation
will permit the float of the finishing machine to fully clear shall progress by overlapping the straightedge at least
the concrete to be placed. Rails or headers shall be ad- one-half the length of the preceding pass.
justable for elevation and shall be set to allow for antici-
pated settlement, camber, and deflection of falsework, as 8.10.2.3 Texturing
necessary to obtain a finished surface true to the required
grade and cross section. Rails or headers shall be of a type The surface shall be given a skid-resistant texture by
and shall be so installed that no springing or deflection either burlap or carpet dragging, brooming, tining, or by a
will occur under the weight of the finishing equipment and combination of these methods. The method employed
shall be so located that finishing equipment may operate shall be as specified or as approved by the Engineer. Sur-
without interruption over the entire surface being finished. faces that are to be covered with a waterproofing mem-
Rails or headers shall be adjusted as necessary to correct brane deck seal shall not be coarse textured. They shall be
for unanticipated settlement or deflection that may occur finished to a smooth surface, free of mortar ridges and
during finishing operations. If rail supports are located other projections.
within the area where concrete is being placed, as soon as This operation shall be done after floating and at such
they are no longer needed they shall be removed to at least time and in such manner that the desired texture will be
2 inches below the finished surface and the void filled achieved while minimizing displacement of the larger ag-
with fresh concrete. gregate particles.
8.10.2.3.1 Dragged 8.10.3 Pedestrian Walkway Surface Finish

If the surface texture is to be a drag finish, the surface
After the concrete for sidewalks and decks of pedes-
shall be finished by dragging a seamless strip of damp
trian structures has been deposited in place, it shall be
burlap over the full width of the surface. The burlap drag
consolidated and the surface shall be struck off by means
shall consist of sufficient layers of burlap and have suffi-
of a strike board and floated with wooden or cork float. If
cient length in contact with the concrete to slightly groove directed, the surface shall then be lightly broomed in a
the surface and shall be moved forward with a minimum transverse direction. An edging tool shall be used on
bow of the lead edge. The drag shall be kept damp, clean, edges and expansion joints. The surface shall not vary
and free of particles of hardened concrete. As an alter- more than 1 ⁄ 8 inch under a 5-foot straightedge. The surface
native to burlap, the Engineer may approve or direct that shall have a granular or matte texture that will not be slip-
carpet or artificial turf of approved type and size be sub- pery when wet.
stituted. Sidewalk surfaces shall be laid out in blocks with an
approved grooving tool as shown on the plans or as di-
8.10.2.3.2 Broomed rected.
If the surface texture is to be a broom finish, the surface
shall be broomed when the concrete has hardened suffi- 8.10.4 Troweled and Brushed Finish
ciently. The broom shall be of an approved type. The
strokes shall be square across the slab, from edge to edge, Surfaces which are shown on the plans or specified to
with adjacent strokes slightly overlapped, and shall be be troweled shall first be finished as specified under
made by drawing the broom without tearing the concrete, Article 8.10.1 then, after the concrete is partially set, the
but so as to produce regular corrugations not over 1 ⁄ 8 of an surface shall be finished to a smooth surface by troweling
inch in depth. The surface as thus finished shall be free with a steel trowel until a slick surface free of bleed water
is produced. The surface shall then be brushed with a fine
from porous spots, irregularities, depressions, and small
brush using parallel strokes.
pockets or rough spots such as may be caused by the acci-
dental disturbing of particles of coarse aggregate embed-
ded near the surface during the final brooming operation. 8.10.5 Surface Under Bearings
8.10.2.3.3 Tined When metallic masonry plates are to be placed directly

on the concrete or on filler material less than 1 ⁄ 8-inch thick,
If the surface is to be tined, the tining shall be in a
the surface shall first be finished with a float finish. After
transverse direction using a wire broom, comb or finned
the concrete has set, the area which will be in contact with
float having a single row of tines or fins. The tining
the masonry plate shall be ground as necessary to provide
grooves shall be between 1 ⁄ 16 inch and 3 ⁄ 16 inch wide and full and even bearing. When such plates are to be set on
between 1 ⁄ 8 inch and 3 ⁄ 16 inch deep, spaced 1 ⁄ 2 to 3 ⁄ 4 inch filler material between 1 ⁄ 8 and 1 ⁄ 2-inch thick, the concrete
on centers. Tining shall be discontinued 12 inches from surface shall be steel-trowel finished without brushing and
the curb line on bridge decks. The area adjacent to the the flatness of the finished surface shall not vary from a
curbs shall be given a light broom finish longitudinally. As straightedge laid on the surface in any direction within the
an alternative, tining may be achieved using an approved limits of the masonry plate by more than 1 ⁄ 16 inch. Sur-
machine designed specifically for tining or grooving con- faces which fail to conform to the required flatness shall
crete pavements. be ground until acceptable.
Surfaces under elastomeric bearings and under metallic
8.10.2.4 Surface Testing and Correction masonry plates which are supported on mortar or filler
After the concrete has hardened, an inspection of fin- pads 1 ⁄ 2 inch or greater in thickness shall be finished by
ished deck roadway surfaces, which will not be overlaid wood floating to a flat and even surface free of ridges.
with a wearing surface, will be made by the Engineer. Any
variations in the surface which exceed 1 ⁄ 8 inch from a 10- 8.11 CURING CONCRETE
foot straightedge will be marked. The Contractor shall
correct such irregularities by the use of concrete planing 8.11.1 General
or grooving equipment which produces a textured surface
equal in roughness to the surrounding unground concrete All newly placed concrete shall be cured so as to pre-
without shattering or otherwise damaging the remaining vent loss of water by use of one or more of the methods
concrete. specified herein. Curing shall commence immediately
after the free water has left the surface and finishing op- consist of cotton mats, multiple layers of burlap or other
erations are completed. If the surface of the concrete be- approved materials which do not discolor or otherwise
gins to dry before the selected cure method can be applied, damage the concrete.
the surface of the concrete shall be kept moist by a fog
spray applied so as not to damage the surface. 8.11.3.3 Liquid Membrane Curing Compound
Curing by other than steam or radiant heat methods Method
shall continue uninterrupted for 7 days except that when
pozzolans in excess of 10%, by weight, of the Portland ce- The liquid membrane method shall not be used on sur-
ment are used in the mix. When such pozzolans are used, faces where a rubbed finish is required or on surfaces of
the curing period shall be 10 days. For other than top slabs construction joints unless it is removed by sand blasting
of structures serving as finished pavements, the above cur- prior to placement of concrete against the joint. Type 2,
ing periods may be reduced and curing terminated when white pigmented, liquid membranes may be used only on
test cylinders cured under the same conditions as the the surfaces of bridge decks, on surfaces that will not be
structure indicate that concrete strengths of at least 70% exposed to view in the completed work or on surfaces
of that specified have been reached. where their use has been approved by the Engineer.
When deemed necessary by the Engineer during peri- When membrane curing is used, the exposed concrete
ods of hot weather, water shall be applied to concrete sur- shall be thoroughly sealed immediately after the free
faces being cured by the liquid membrane method or by water has left the surface. Formed surfaces shall be sealed
the forms-in-place method, until the Engineer determines immediately after the forms are removed and necessary
that a cooling effect is no longer required. Such applica- finishing has been done. The solution shall be applied by
tion of water will be paid for as extra work. power-operated atomizing spray equipment in one or two
separate applications. Hand-operated sprayers may be
8.11.2 Materials used for coating small areas. Membrane solutions con-
taining pigments shall be thoroughly mixed prior to use
8.11.2.1 Water and agitated during application. If the solution is applied
in two increments, the second application shall follow the
Water shall conform to the requirements of Article first application within 30 minutes. Satisfactory equip-
8.3.2. ment shall be provided, together with means to properly
control and assure the direct application of the curing so-
8.11.2.2 Liquid Membranes lution on the concrete surface so as to result in a uniform
coverage at the rate of 1 gallon for each 150 square feet
Liquid membrane-forming compounds for curing con- of area.
crete shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M If rain falls on the newly coated concrete before the
148 (ASTM C 309). film has dried sufficiently to resist damage, or if the film
is damaged in any other manner during the curing period,
8.11.2.3 Waterproof Sheet Materials a new coat of the solution shall be applied to the affected
portions equal in curing value to that above specified.
Waterproof paper, polyethylene film, and white burlap
polyethylene sheet shall conform to the requirements of 8.11.3.4 Waterproof Cover Method
AASHTO M 171 (ASTM C 171).
This method shall consist of covering the surface with
8.11.3 Methods a waterproof sheet material so as to prevent moisture loss
from the concrete. This method may be used only when
8.11.3.1 Forms-In-Place Method the covering can be secured adequately to prevent mois-
ture loss.
Formed surfaces of concrete may be cured by retaining The concrete shall be wet at the time the cover is
the forms in place without loosening for the required time. installed. The sheets shall be of the widest practicable
width and adjacent sheets shall overlap a minimum of
8.11.3.2 Water Method 6 inches and shall be tightly sealed with pressure
sensitive tape, mastic, glue, or other approved methods to
Concrete surface shall be kept continuously wet by form a complete waterproof cover of the entire concrete
ponding, spraying or covering with materials that are kept surface. The paper shall be secured so that wind will not
continuously and thoroughly wet. Such materials may displace it. Should any portion of the sheets be broken or
damaged before expiration of the curing period, the curing compound so as not to reduce bond below design
broken or damaged portions shall be immediately limits. Surfaces of concrete members to which other ma-
repaired. Sections that have lost their waterproof terials will be bonded in the finished structure shall be
qualities shall not be used. clear of residue of the membrane curing compound so as
not to reduce bond below design limits.
8.11.3.5 Steam or Radiant Heat Curing Method Unless the ambient temperature is maintained above
60°F, for prestressed members the transfer of the stressing
This method may be used only for precast concrete force to the concrete shall be accomplished immediately
members manufactured in established plants. after the steam curing or the heat curing has been discon-
Steam curing or radiant heat curing shall be done under tinued.
a suitable enclosure to contain the live steam or the heat.
Steam shall be low pressure and saturated. Temperature 8.11.4 Bridge Decks
recording devices shall be employed as necessary to ver-
ify that temperatures are uniform throughout the enclo- The top surfaces of bridge decks shall be cured by a
sure and within the limits specified. combination of the liquid membrane curing compound
The initial application of the steam or of the heat shall method and the water method. The liquid membrane shall
be from 2 to 4 hours after the final placement of concrete be Type 2, white pigmented, and shall be applied from fin-
to allow the initial set of the concrete to take place. If re- ishing bridges progressively and immediately after finish-
tarders are used, the waiting period before application of ing operations are complete on each portion of the deck.
the steam or of the radiant heat shall be increased to be- The water cure shall be applied not later than 4 hours after
tween 4 and 6 hours after placement. The time of initial completion of deck finishing or, for portions of the decks
set may be determined by the “Standard Method of Test on which finishing is completed after normal working
for Time of Setting of Concrete Mixtures by Penetration hours, the water cure shall be applied not later than the fol-
Resistance,” AASHTO T 197 (ASTM C 403), and the lowing morning.
time limits described above may then be waived.
During the waiting period, the temperature within the
8.12 FINISHING FORMED CONCRETE
curing chamber shall not be less than 50°F and live steam
SURFACES
or radiant heat may be used to maintain the curing cham-
ber at the proper minimum temperature. During this pe-
8.12.1 General
riod the concrete shall be kept wet.
Application of live steam shall not be directed on the
Surface finishes for formed concrete surfaces shall be
concrete or on the forms so as to cause localized high tem-
classified as follows:
peratures. During the initial application of live steam or of
radiant heat, the ambient temperature within the curing
Class 1. Ordinary Surface Finish
enclosure shall increase at an average rate not exceeding
Class 2. Rubbed Finish
40°F per hour until the curing temperature is reached. The
Class 3. Tooled Finish
maximum curing temperature within the enclosure shall
Class 4. Sandblast Finish
not exceed 160°F. The maximum temperature shall be
Class 5. Wire Brush, or Scrubbed Finish
held until the concrete has reached the desired strength. In
discontinuing the steam application, the ambient air tem- All concrete shall be given a Class 1, Ordinary Surface
perature shall not decrease at a rate to exceed 40°F per Finish, and in addition if further finishing is required, such
hour until a temperature 20°F above the temperature of other type of finish as is specified.
the air to which the concrete will be exposed has been If not otherwise specified, exposed surfaces except the
reached. soffits of superstructures and the interior faces and bot-
Radiant heat may be applied by means of pipes circu- toms of concrete girders shall also be given a Class 2,
lating steam, hot oil or hot water, or by electric heating el- Rubbed Finish.
ements. Radiant heat curing shall be done under a suitable Class 3, 4, or 5 type surface finishes shall be applied
enclosure to contain the heat, and moisture loss shall be only where shown on the plans or specified.
minimized by covering all exposed concrete surfaces with
a plastic sheeting or by applying an approved liquid mem- 8.12.2 Class 1—Ordinary Surface Finish
brane-curing compound to all exposed concrete surfaces.
Top surfaces of concrete members to be used in compos- Immediately following the removal of forms, fins, and
ite construction shall be clear of residue of the membrane irregular projections shall be removed from all surfaces
which are to be exposed or waterproofed. Bulges and off- After the final rubbing is completed and the surface has
sets in such surfaces shall be removed with carborundum dried, it shall be rubbed with burlap to remove loose pow-
stones or discs. der and shall be left free from all unsound patches, paste,
Localized poorly bonded rock pockets or honey- powder, and objectionable marks.
combed concrete shall be removed and replaced with When metal forms, fiber forms, lined forms or ply-
sound concrete or packed mortar as specified in Article wood forms in good condition are used, the requirement
8.14. If rock pockets, in the opinion of the Engineer, are for a Class 2, Rubbed Finish may be waived by the Engi-
of such an extent or character as to affect the strength of neer when the uniformity of color and texture obtained
the structure materially or to endanger the life of the steel with Class 1 finishing are essentially equal to that which
reinforcement, he or she may declare the concrete defec- could be attained with the application of a Class 2,
tive and require the removal and replacement of the por- Rubbed Finish. In such cases, grinding with powered disc
tions of the structure affected. grinders or light sandblasting with fine sand or other
On all surfaces, the cavities produced by form ties and means approved by the Engineer may be utilized in con-
all other holes, broken corners or edges, and other defects junction with Class 1 finishing.
shall be thoroughly cleaned, and after having been thor-
oughly saturated with water shall be carefully pointed and 8.12.4 Class 3—Tooled Finish
trued with a mortar conforming to Article 8.14. For ex-
posed surfaces, white cement shall be added to the mortar Finish of this character for panels and other like
in an amount sufficient to result in a patch which, when work may be secured by the use of a bushhammer, pick,
dry, matches the surrounding concrete. Mortar used in crandall, or other approved tool. Air tools, preferably,
pointing shall be not more than 1 hour old. The concrete shall be employed. No tooling shall be done until the con-
shall then be rubbed if required or the cure continued as crete has set for at least 14 days and as much longer as
specified under Article 8.10. Construction and expansion may be necessary to prevent the aggregate particles from
joints in the completed work shall be left carefully tooled being “picked” out of the surface. The finished surface
and free of mortar and concrete. The joint filler shall be shall show a grouping of broken aggregate particles in a
left exposed for its full length with clean and true edges. matrix of mortar, each aggregate particle being in slight
The resulting surfaces shall be true and uniform. Re- relief.
paired surfaces, the appearance of which is not satisfac-
tory, shall be “rubbed” as specified under Class 2, Rubbed
8.12.5 Class 4—Sandblasted Finish
Finish.
The thoroughly cured concrete surface shall be sand-
8.12.3 Class 2—Rubbed Finish
blasted with hard, sharp sand to produce an even fine-
grained surface in which the mortar has been cut away,
After removal of forms, the rubbing of concrete shall be
leaving the aggregate exposed.
started as soon as its condition will permit. Immediately
before starting this work, the concrete shall be thoroughly
saturated with water. Sufficient time shall have elapsed be- 8.12.6 Class 5—Wire Brushed or Scrubbed Finish
fore the wetting down to allow the mortar used in the
pointing of rod holes and defects to thoroughly set. Sur- As soon as the forms are removed and while the con-
faces to be finished shall be rubbed with a medium coarse crete is yet comparatively green, the surface shall be thor-
carborundum stone, using a small amount of mortar on its oughly and evenly scrubbed with stiff wire or fiber
face. The mortar shall be composed of cement and fine brushes, using a solution of muriatic acid in the propor-
sand mixed in proportions used in the concrete being fin- tion of one part acid to four parts water until the cement
ished. Rubbing shall be continued until form marks, pro- film or surface is completely removed and the aggregate
jections, and irregularities have been removed, voids have particles are exposed, leaving an even-pebbled texture
been filled, and a uniform surface has been obtained. The presenting an appearance grading from that of fine gran-
paste produced by this rubbing shall be left in place. ite to coarse conglomerate, depending upon the size and
After other work which could effect the surface has grading of aggregate used. When the scrubbing has pro-
been completed, the final finish shall be obtained by rub- gressed sufficiently to produce the texture desired, the en-
bing with a fine carborundum stone and water. This rub- tire surface shall be thoroughly washed with water to
bing shall be continued until the entire surface is of a which a small amount of ammonia has been added, to re-
smooth texture and uniform color. move all traces of acid.
8.13 PRECAST CONCRETE MEMBERS Precast members shall be cast on unyielding beds or
pallets. Special care shall be used in casting the bearing
8.13.1 General surfaces so that they will join properly with other ele-
ments of the structure.
Precast concrete members shall be constructed and For prestressed precast units, several units may be cast
placed in the work in conformance with the details shown in one continuous line and stressed at one time. Sufficient
on the plans, specified or shown on the approved working space shall be left between ends of units to permit access
drawings. for cutting of tendons after the concrete has attained the
If approved by the Engineer, the use of precasting meth- required strength.
ods may be used for elements of the work which are oth- The side forms may be removed as soon as their re-
erwise indicated to be constructed by the cast-in-place moval will not cause distortion of the concrete surface,
method. When such precasting is proposed, the Contractor providing that curing is not interrupted. Members shall
shall submit working drawings showing construction joint not be lifted from casting beds until their strength is suf-
details and any other information required by the Engineer. ficient to prevent damage.
When cast-in-place concrete will later be cast against
8.13.2 Working Drawings the top surfaces of precast beams or girders, these surfaces
shall be finished to a coarse texture by brooming with a
Whenever specified or requested by the Engineer, the stiff coarse broom. Prior to shipment, such surfaces shall
Contractor shall provide working drawings for precast be cleaned of laitance or other foreign material by sand-
members. Such drawings shall include all details not pro- blasting or other approved methods.
When precast members are designed to be abutted to-
vided in the plans for the construction and the erection of
gether in the finished work, each member shall be match-
the members and shall be approved before any members
cast with its adjacent segments to ensure proper fit during
are cast. Such approval shall not relieve the Contractor of
erection. As the segments are match-cast they must be
any responsibility under the contract for the successful
precisely aligned to achieve the final structure geometry.
completion of the work.
During the alignment, adjustments to compensate for de-
flections shall be made.
8.13.3 Materials and Manufacture
8.13.4 Curing
The materials and manufacturing processes used for
precast concrete members shall conform to the require- Unless otherwise permitted, precast members shall be
ments of the other articles in this section except as those cured by either the water method or the steam or radiant
requirements are modified or supplemented by the provi- heat method.
sions that follow.
When precast members are manufactured in estab- 8.13.5 Storage and Handling
lished casting yards, the manufacturer shall be responsi-
ble for the continuous monitoring of the quality of all ma- Extreme care shall be exercised in handling and mov-
terials and concrete strengths. Tests shall be performed in ing precast prestressed concrete members. Precast girders
accordance with appropriate AASHTO or ASTM meth- shall be transported in an upright position and the points
ods. The Engineer shall be allowed to observe all sam- of support and directions of the reactions with respect to
pling and testing and the results of all tests shall be made the member shall be approximately the same during trans-
available to the Engineer. portation and storage as when the member is in its final
Established, Precast Concrete Manufacturing Plants position.
shall be certified under the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Prestressed concrete members shall not be shipped until
Institute (PCI) Certification Program or alternative equiv- tests on concrete cylinders, manufactured of the same con-
alent program for the category of work being manu- crete and cured under the same conditions as the girders,
factured. indicate that the concrete of the particular member has at-
Plant Quality Control personnel shall be certified in tained a compressive strength equal to the specified design
the PCI Quality Control Personnel Certification Program, compressive strength of the concrete in the member.
Level II. Plant Quality Control Managers shall be certi- Care shall be taken during storage, hoisting, and han-
fied PCI Level III. These requirements may be met by al- dling of the precast units to prevent cracking or damage.
ternative experience and certification considered to be Units damaged by improper storage or handling shall be
equivalent. replaced at the Contractor’s expense.
8.13.6 Erection cation from a reputable independent laboratory indicating

that the material has passed the required tests.
The Contractor shall be responsible for the safety of Specific properties of epoxy and the test procedures to
precast members during all stages of construction. Lifting be used to measure these properties shall be as described
devices shall be used in a manner that does not cause dam- in the following subarticles.
aging bending or torsional forces. After a member has
been erected and until it is secured to the structure, tem-
8.13.7.1.1 Test 1—Sag Flow of Mixed Epoxy
porary braces shall be provided as necessary to resist wind
Bonding Agent
or other loads.
Precast deck form panels shall be erected and placed so This test measures the application workability of the
that the fit of mating surfaces shall be such that excessive bonding agent.
grout leakage will not occur. If such fit is not provided,
joints shall be dry-packed or sealed with an acceptable Testing Method: ASTM D 2730 for the designated tem-
caulking compound prior to placing the cast-in-place con- perature range.
crete. End panels for skewed structures may be sawed to
fit the skew. Specification: Mixed epoxy bonding agent must not
sag flow at 1 ⁄ 8-inch minimum thickness at the designated
8.13.7 Epoxy Bonding Agents for Precast minimum and maximum application temperature range
Segmental Box Girders for the class of bonding agents used.
8.13.7.1 Materials 8.13.7.1.2 Test 2—Gel Time of Mixed Epoxy

Bonding Agent
Epoxy bonding agents for match cast joints shall be
thermosetting 100% solid compositions that do not con- Gel time is determined on samples mixed as specified
tain solvent or any nonreactive organic ingredient except in the testing method. It provides a guide for the period of
for pigments required for coloring. Epoxy bonding agents time the mixing bonding agent remains workable in the
shall be of two components, a resin and a hardener. The mixing container during which it must be applied to the
two components shall be distinctly pigmented, so that match-cast joint surfaces.
mixing produces a third color similar to the concrete in the
segments to be joined, and shall be packaged in prepor- Testing Method: ASTM D 2471 (except that 1 quart
tioned, labeled, ready-to-use containers. and 1 gallon quantities shall be tested).
Epoxy bonding agents shall be formulated to provide
application temperature ranges that will permit erection of Specification: 30 minutes minimum on 1 quart and 1
match cast segments at substrate temperatures from 40°F gallon quantities at the maximum temperature of the des-
to 115°F. If two surfaces to be bonded have different sub- ignated application temperature range. (Note: Gel time is
strate temperatures, the adhesive applicable at the lower not to be confused with open time specified in Test 3.)
temperature shall be used.
8.13.7.1.3 Test 3—Open Time of Bonding Agent
Epoxy bonding agents shall be insensitive to damp
conditions during application and, after curing, shall ex- This test measures workability of the epoxy bonding
hibit high bonding strength to cured concrete, good water agent for the erection and post-tensioning operations. As
resistivity, low creep characteristics, and tensile strength tested here, open time is defined as the minimum allow-
greater than the concrete. In addition, the epoxy bonding able period of elapsed time from the application of the
agents shall function as a lubricant during the joining of mixed epoxy bonding agent to the precast segments until
the match cast segments, as a filler to accurately match the the two segments have been assembled together and tem-
surface of the segments being joined, and as a durable, porarily post-tensioned.
watertight bond at the joint.
Epoxy bonding agents shall be tested to determine Testing Method: Open time is determined using test
their workability, gel time, open time, bond and compres- specimens as detailed in the Tensile Bending Test (Test 4).
sion strength, shear, and working temperature range. The The epoxy bonding agent, at the highest specified appli-
frequency of the tests shall be as stated in the Special Pro- cation temperature, is mixed together and applied as in-
visions of the Contract. structed in Test 4 to the concrete prisms, which shall also
The Contractor shall furnish the Engineer with samples be at the highest specified application temperature. The
of the material for quality assurance testing, and a certifi- adhesive coated prisms shall be maintained for 60 minutes
at the highest specified application temperature with the same concrete, cured for the same period, and tested fol-
adhesive coated surface or surfaces exposed and uncov- lowing AASHTO T 97 (ASTM C 78).
ered before joining together. The assembled prisms are
then curved and tested as instructed in Test 4. Specification: The epoxy bonding agent is acceptable
if the load on the prisms at failure is greater than 90% of
Specification: The epoxy bonding agent is acceptable the load on the reference test beam at failure.
for the specified application temperature only when es-
sentially total fracturing of concrete paste and aggregate
occurs with no evidence of adhesive failure. 8.13.7.1.5 Test 5—Compression Strength of Cured
Construction situations may sometimes require appli- Epoxy Bonding Agent
cation of the epoxy bonding agent to the precast section This test measures the compressive strength of the
prior to erecting, positioning, and assembling. This oper- epoxy bonding agent.
ation may require epoxy bonding agents having prolonged
open time. In general, where the erection conditions are
such that the sections to be bonded are prepositioned prior Testing Method: ASTM D 695.
to epoxy application, the epoxy bonding agent shall have
a minimum open time of 60 minutes within the tempera- Specification: Compressive strength at 77°F shall be
ture range specified for its application. 2,000 psi minimum after 24 hours cure at the minimum
temperature of the designated application temperature
8.13.7.1.4 Test 4—Three-Point Tensile Bending Test range and 6,000 psi at 48 hours.
This test, performed on a pair of concrete prisms 8.13.7.1.6 Test 6—Temperature Deflection of Epoxy
bonded together with epoxy bonding agent, determines Bonding Agent
the bonding strength between the bonding agent and con-
crete. The bonded concrete prisms are compared to a ref- This test determines the temperature at which an arbi-
erence test beam of concrete 6 3 6 3 18 inches. trary deflection occurs under arbitrary testing conditions
in the cured epoxy bonding agent. It is a screening test to
establish performance of the bonding agent throughout
Testing Method: 6 3 6 3 9-inch concrete prisms of
the erection temperature range.
6,000-psi compressive strength at 28 days shall be sand-
blasted on one 6 3 6-inch side to remove mold release
agent, laitance, etc., and submerged in clean water at the Testing Method: ASTM D 648.
lower temperature of the specified application tempera-
ture range for 72 hours. Immediately on removing the Specification: A minimum deflection temperature of
concrete prisms from the water, the sandblasted surfaces 122°F at fiber stress loading of 264 psi is required on test
shall be air-dried for 1 hour at the same temperature and specimens cured 7 days at 77°F.
50% relative humidity and each shall be coated with
approximately a 1 ⁄ 16-inch layer of the mixed bonding
8.13.7.1.7 Test 7—Compression and Shear Strength
agent. The adhesive coated faces of two prisms shall
of Cured Epoxy Bonding Agent
then be placed together and held with a clamping force
normal to the bonded interface of 50 psi. The assembly This test is a measure of the compressive strength and
shall then be wrapped in a damp cloth which is kept wet shear strength of the epoxy bonding agent compared to the
during the curing period of 24 hours at the lower concrete to which it bonds. The “slant cylinder” specimen
temperature of the specified application temperature with the epoxy bonding agent is compared to a reference
range. test cylinder of concrete only.
After 24 hours curing at the lower temperature of
the application temperature range specified for the Testing Method: A test specimen of concrete is pre-
epoxy bonding agent, the bonded specimen shall be pared in a standard 6 3 12-inch cylinder mold to have a
unwrapped, removed from the clamping assembly height at midpoint of 6 inches and an upper surface with
and immediately tested. The test shall be conducted a 30° slope from the vertical. The upper and lower por-
using the standard AASHTO T 97 (ASTM C 78) test for tions of the specimen with the slant surfaces may be
flexural strength with third point loading and the standard formed through the use of an elliptical insert or by saw-
MR unit. At the same time the two prisms are prepared ing a full-sized 6 3 12-inch cylinder. If desired, 3 3 6-
and cured, a companion test beam shall be prepared of the inch or 4 3 8-inch specimens may be used. After the
specimens have been moist cured for 14 days, the slant ing the epoxy bonding agent to the segments, erection,
surfaces shall be prepared by light sandblasting, stoning, assembling, and temporary post-tensioning of the newly
or acid etching, then washing and drying the surfaces, joined segment within 70% of the open time period of the
and finally coating one of the surfaces with a 10-mil. bonding agent.
thickness of the epoxy bonding agent under test. The The epoxy material shall be applied to all surfaces to
specimens shall then be pressed together and held in po- be joined within the first half of the gel time, as shown on
sition for 24 hours. The assembly shall then be wrapped the containers. The segments shall be joined within 45
in a damp cloth which shall be kept wet during an addi- minutes after application of the first epoxy material placed
tional curing period of 24 hours at the minimum temper- and a minimum average temporary prestress of 40 psi
ature of the designated application temperature range. over the cross section should be applied within 70% of the
The specimen shall then be tested at 77°F following open time of the epoxy material. At no point of the cross
AASHTO T 22 (ASTM C 39) procedures. At the same section shall the temporary prestress be less than 30 psi.
time as the slant cylinder specimens are made and cured, The joint shall be checked immediately after erection
a companion standard test cylinder of the same concrete to verify uniform joint width and proper fit. Excess epoxy
shall be made, cured for the same period, and tested fol- from the joint shall be removed where accessible. All ten-
lowing AASHTO T 22 (ASTM C 39). don ducts shall be swabbed immediately after stressing,
while the epoxy is still in the nongelled condition, to re-
Specification: The epoxy bonding agent is acceptable move or smooth out any epoxy in the conduit and to seal
for the designated application temperature range if the any pockets or air bubble holes that have formed at the
load on the slant cylinder specimen is greater than 90% of joint.
the load on the companion cylinder. If the jointing is not completed within 70% of the open
time, the operation shall be terminated and the epoxy
8.13.7.2 Mixing and Installation of Epoxy bonding agent shall be completely removed from the sur-
faces. The surfaces must be prepared again and fresh
Instructions furnished by the supplier for the safe stor- epoxy shall be applied to the surface before resuming
age, mixing, and handling of the epoxy bonding agent jointing operations.
shall be followed. The epoxy shall be thoroughly mixed As general instructions cannot cover all situations, spe-
until it is of uniform color. Use of a proper-sized mechan- cific recommendations and instructions shall be obtained
ical mixer operating at no more than 600 RPM will be rein each case from the Engineer in charge.
quired. Contents of damaged or previously opened con-
tainers shall not be used. 8.14 MORTAR AND GROUT
Surfaces to which the epoxy material is to be applied
shall be at least 40°F and shall be free from oil, laitance, 8.14.1 General
form release agent, or any other material that would pre-
vent the epoxy from bonding to the concrete surface. All This work consists of the making and placing of mor-
laitance and other contaminants shall be removed by light tar and grout for use in concrete structures other than in
sandblasting or by high pressure water blasting with a prestressing ducts. Such uses include mortar for filling
minimum pressure of 5,000 psi. Wet surfaces shall be under masonry plates and for filling keyways between
dried before applying epoxy bonding agents. The surface
precast members where shown on the plans, mortar used
shall be at least the equivalent of saturated surface dry (no
to fill voids and repair surface defects, grout used to fill
visible water).
sleeves for anchor bolts, and mortar and grout for other
Mixing shall not start until the segment is prepared for
such uses where required or approved.
installation. Application of the mixed epoxy bonding
agent shall be according to the manufacturer’s instruc-
tions using trowel, rubber glove, or brush on one or both 8.14.2 Materials and Mixing
surfaces to be joined. The coating shall be smooth and
uniform and shall cover the entire surface with a mini- Materials for mortar and grout shall conform to the re-
mum thickness of 1 ⁄ 16 inch applied on both surfaces or 1⁄ 8 quirements of Article 8.3. The grading of sand for use in
inch if applied on one surface. Epoxy should not be grout or for use in mortar when the width or depth of the
placed within 3 ⁄ 8 inch of prestressing ducts to minimize void to be filled is less than 3 ⁄ 4 inch shall be modified so
flow into the ducts. A discernible bead line must be that all material passes the No. 8 sieve.
observed on all exposed contact areas after temporary Type 1A, air entraining, Portland cement shall be used
post-tensioning. Erection operations shall be coordinated when air entrainment is required for the concrete against
and conducted so as to complete the operations of apply- which the grout or mortar is to be placed.
Unless otherwise specified or ordered by the Engineer, 8.15.2 Earth Loads

the proportion of cement to sand for mortar shall be one
to two and for grout shall be one to one. Proportioning Whenever possible the sequence of placing backfill
shall be by loose volume. around structures shall be such that overturning or sliding
When nonshrink mortar or grout is specified, either a forces are minimized. When the placement of backfill will
nonshrink admixture or an expansive hydraulic cement cause flexural stresses in the concrete, and unless other-
conforming to ASTM C 845 of a type approved by the En- wise permitted by the Engineer, the placement shall not
gineer, shall be used. begin until the concrete has reached not less than 80% of
Only sufficient water shall be used to permit placing its specified strength.
and packing. For mortar, only enough water shall be used
so that the mortar will form a ball when squeezed gently 8.15.3 Construction Loads
in the hand.
Mixing shall be done by either hand methods or Light materials and equipment may be carried on
with rotating paddle-type mixing machines and shall bridge decks only after the concrete has been in place at
be continued until all ingredients are thoroughly least 24 hours, providing curing is not interfered with and
mixed. Once mixed, mortar or grout shall not be the surface texture is not damaged. Vehicles needed for
retempered by the addition of water and shall be placed construction activities and weighing between 1,000 and
within 1 hour. 4,000 pounds, and comparable materials and equipment
loads, will be allowed on any span only after the last
placed deck concrete has attained a compressive strength
8.14.3 Placing and Curing of at least 2,400 pounds per square inch. Loads in excess
of the above shall not be carried on bridge decks until the
Concrete areas to be in contact with the mortar or grout deck concrete has reached its specified strength. In addi-
shall be cleaned of all loose or foreign material that would tion, for post-tensioned structures, vehicles weighing over
in any way prevent bond and the concrete surfaces and 4,500 pounds, and comparable materials and equipment
shall be flushed with water and allowed to dry to a surface loads, will not be allowed on any span until the prestress-
dry condition immediately prior to placing the mortar or ing steel for that span has been tensioned.
grout. Precast concrete or steel girders shall not be placed on
The mortar or grout shall completely fill and shall be substructure elements until the substructure concrete has
tightly packed into recesses and holes, on surfaces, under attained 70% of its specified strength.
structural members, and at other locations specified. After Otherwise, loads imposed on existing, new or partially
placing, all surfaces of mortar or grout shall be cured by completed portions of structures due to construction oper-
the water method as provided in Article 8.11 for a period ations shall not exceed the load-carrying capacity of the
of not less than 3 days. structure, or portion of structure, as determined by the Load
Keyways, spaces between structural members, holes, Factor Design methods of AASHTO using Load Group IB.
spaces under structural members, and other locations The compressive strength of concrete (fc9) to be used in
where mortar could escape shall be mortar-tight before computing the load-carrying capacity shall be the smaller
placing mortar. of the actual compressive strength at the time of loading or
No load shall be allowed on mortar that has been in the specified compressive strength of the concrete.
place less than 72 hours, unless otherwise permitted by
the Engineer. 8.15.4 Traffic Loads
All improperly cured or otherwise defective mortar or
grout shall be removed and replaced by the Contractor at Traffic will not be permitted on concrete decks until at
own expense. least 14 days after the last placement of deck concrete and
until such concrete has attained its specified strength.
8.15 APPLICATION OF LOADS 8.16 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
8.15.1 General 8.16.1 Measurement
Loads shall not be applied to concrete structures until Except for concrete in components of the work for
the concrete has attained sufficient strength and, when ap- which payment is made under other bid items, all concrete
plicable, sufficient prestressing has been completed, so for structures will be measured by either the cubic yard for
that damage will not occur. each class of concrete included in the schedule of bid
items or by the unit for each type of precast concrete Whenever an alternative or option is shown on the
member listed in the schedule of bid items. plans or permitted by the specifications, the quantities of
When measured by the cubic yard, the quantity of con- concrete will be computed on the basis of the dimensions
crete will be computed from the dimensions shown on the shown on the plans and no change in quantities measured
plans or authorized in writing by the Engineer with the for payment will be made because of the use by the Con-
following exceptions: tractor of such alternatives or options.
The quantity of concrete involved in fillets, scorings
and chamfers 1 square inch or less in cross-sec- 8.16.2 Payment
tional area will not be included or deducted.
Deductions for the volume of concrete displaced by The cubic yards of concrete and the number of precast
concrete and timber piles embedded in the concrete concrete members, as measured above for each type or
will be made. Deductions for other embedded class listed in the schedule of bid items, will be paid for at
materials including reinforcing, structural and pre-
the contract prices per cubic yard or the contract prices per
stressing steel, expansion joint filler material,
each member.
waterstops and deck drains will not be made. The
Payment for concrete of the various classes and for
volume of timber piles will be assumed to be 0.8
cubic foot per linear foot of pile. precast concrete members of the various types shall be
When there is a bid item for concrete to be used as a considered to be full compensation for the cost of
seal course in cofferdams, the quantity of such con- furnishing all labor, materials, equipment, and incidentals,
crete to be paid for shall include the actual volume and for doing all the work involved in constructing
of concrete seal course in place, but in no case shall the concrete work complete in place, as shown on the
the total volume to be paid for exceed the cubical plans and specified. Such payment includes full com-
contents contained between the vertical surfaces 1 pensation for furnishing and placing expansion joint
foot outside the neat lines of the seal course as fillers, sealed joints, waterstops, drains, vents, miscella-
shown on the plans. The thickness of seal course to neous metal devices and the drilling of holes for dowels
be paid for shall be the thickness shown on the and the grouting of dowels in drilled holes, unless
plans or ordered in writing by the Engineer. payment for such work is specified to be included in an-
other bid item.
The number of precast concrete members of each type
In addition, payment for precast concrete members
listed in the schedule of bid items will be the number of
acceptable members of each type furnished and installed shall be considered to be full compensation for the cost of
in the work. all reinforcing steel, prestressing materials and other
Expansion joint armor assemblies will be measured items embedded in the member, and for the erection of the
and paid for as provided for in Section 23, “Miscellaneous members.
Metal.”
Section 9
REINFORCING STEEL
9.1 DESCRIPTION the point of shipment to the jobsite shall conform to the
requirements of AASHTO M 284 (ASTM D 3963) or
This work shall consist of furnishing and placing rein- ASTM A 934, as specified in the contract documents.
forcing steel in accordance with these Specifications and Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars shall be coated in a cer-
in conformity with the plans. tified epoxy coating applicator plant in accordance with
the Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute’s Voluntary Cer-
tification Program for Fusion-Bonded Epoxy Coated Ap-
9.2 MATERIAL
plicator Plants, or equivalent.
Epoxy-coated steel wire and welded wire fabric for re-
All reinforcing bars shall be deformed except that plain
inforcement shall conform to the requirements of ASTM
bars may be used for spirals and ties.
A 884, Class A.
Reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of
Each shipment of epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall
the following specifications.
be accompanied with a Certificate of Compliance signed
9.2.1 Uncoated Reinforcing Steel by the applicator of the coating certifying that the epoxy-
coated reinforcing bars conform to the requirements of
Deformed and Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Re- AASHTO M 284 or ASTM A 934 or that the epoxy-
inforcement—AASHTO M 31 (ASTM A 615). Grade 60 coated wire or welded wire fabric conforms to ASTM A
shall be used unless otherwise shown or specified. 884, Class A.
Low-Alloy Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Con-
crete Reinforcement—ASTM A 706. 9.2.3 Stainless Steel Reinforcing Bars
Rail-Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Re-
inforcement—AASHTO M 42 including Supplementary When required by the contract documents, deformed
Requirement S1 (ASTM A 616 including Supplementary or plain stainless steel reinforcing bars shall conform to
Requirement S1). Grade 60 steel shall be used unless oth- the requirements of ASTM A 955 M.
erwise shown or specified.
Deformed Steel Wire for Concrete Reinforcement— 9.2.4 Mill Test Reports
AASHTO M 225 (ASTM A 496).
Welded Plain Steel Wire Fabric for Concrete Rein- Whenever steel reinforcing bars, other than bars con-
forcement—AASHTO M 55 (ASTM A 185). forming to ASTM A 706, are to be spliced by welding or
Plain Steel Wire for Concrete Reinforcement— when otherwise requested, a certified copy of the mill test
AASHTO M 32 (ASTM A 82). report showing physical and chemical analysis for each
Welded Deformed Steel Wire Fabric for Concrete Re- heat or lot of reinforcing bars delivered shall be provided
inforcement—AASHTO M 221 (ASTM A 497). to the Engineer.
9.2.2 Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing Steel 9.3 BAR LISTS AND BENDING DIAGRAMS
The reinforcing steel to be epoxy coated shall conform When the plans do not include detailed bar lists and
to Article 9.2.1. bending diagrams, the Contractor shall provide such lists
When epoxy coating of reinforcing bars is required, the and diagrams to the Engineer for review and approval.
coating materials and process, the fabrication, handling, Fabrication of material shall not begin until such lists have
identification of the bars, and the repair of damaged coat- been approved. The approval of bar lists and bending dia-
ing material that occurs during fabrication and handling to grams shall in no way relieve the Contractor of responsi-
549
bility for the correctness of such lists and diagrams. Any ing. All systems for handling epoxy-coated reinforce-
expense incident to the revision of material furnished in ment bars shall have adequately padded contact areas. All
accordance with such lists and diagrams to make it com- bundling bands shall be padded and all bundles shall be
ply with the design drawings shall be borne by the Con- lifted with a strong back, multiple supports, or platform
tractor. bridge so as to prevent bar-to-bar abrasion from sags in
the bundle. Bars or bundles shall not be dropped or
9.4 FABRICATION dragged. Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall be stored
on wooden or padded supports.
9.4.1 Bending Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall be protected from
sunlight, salt spray, and weather exposure. Provisions
Bar reinforcement shall be cut and bent to the shapes shall be made for air circulation around the coated rein-
shown on the plans. Fabrication tolerances shall be in ac- forcement to minimize condensation under the protective
cordance with ACI 315. All bars shall be bent cold, unless covering.
otherwise permitted. Bars partially embedded in concrete
shall not be field bent except as shown on the plans or
specifically permitted. 9.6 PLACING AND FASTENING
9.4.2 Hooks and Bend Dimensions 9.6.1 General
The dimensions of hooks and the diameters of bends Steel reinforcement shall be accurately placed as
measured on the inside of the bar shall be as shown on the shown on the plans and firmly held in position during the
plans. When the dimensions of hooks or the diameter of placing and consolidation of concrete. Bars shall be tied
bends are not shown, they shall be in accordance with Di- at all intersections around the perimeter of each mat and
vision I, Article 8.23 or ACI 318, “Building Code Re- at not less than 2-foot centers or at every intersection,
quirements for Reinforced Concrete.” whichever is greater, elsewhere. Bundled bars shall be
tied together at not more than 6-foot centers. For fasten-
9.4.3 Identification ing epoxy-coated reinforcement, tie wire and metal clips
shall be plastic-coated or epoxy-coated. If uncoated
Bar reinforcement shall be shipped in standard bundles, welded wire fabric is shipped in rolls, it shall be straight-
tagged and marked in accordance with the Manual of Stan- ened into flat sheets before being placed. Welding of
dard Practice of the Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute. crossing bars (tack welding) will not be permitted for as-
sembly of reinforcement unless authorized in writing by
the Engineer.
9.5 HANDLING, STORING, AND SURFACE
CONDITION OF REINFORCEMENT
9.6.2 Support Systems
Steel reinforcement shall be stored above the surface
Reinforcing steel shall be supported in its proper posi-
of the ground on platforms, skids, or other supports and
tion by use of precast concrete blocks, wire bar supports,
shall be protected from mechanical injury and surface de-
supplementary bars or other approved devices. Such rein-
terioration caused by exposure to conditions producing
rust. When placed in the work, reinforcement shall be free forcement supports or devices shall be of such height and
from dirt, loose rust or scale, mortar, paint, grease, oil, or placed at sufficiently frequent intervals so as to maintain
other nonmetallic coatings that reduce bond. Epoxy coat- the distance between the reinforcing steel and the formed
ings of reinforcing steel in accord with standards in this surface or the top surface of deck slabs within 1⁄ 4 inch of
article shall be permitted. Reinforcement shall be free that indicated on the plans.
from injurious defects such as cracks and laminations. Platforms for the support of workers and equipment
Bonded rust, surface seams, surface irregularities, or mill during concrete placement shall be supported directly on
scale will not be cause for rejection, provided the mini- the forms and not on the reinforcing steel.
mum dimensions, cross-sectional area, and tensile prop-
erties of a hand wire brushed specimen meet the physical 9.6.3 Precast Concrete Blocks
requirements for the size and grade of steel specified.
Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall be handled and Precast concrete blocks shall have a compressive
stored by methods that will not damage the epoxy coat- strength not less than that of the concrete in which they
are to be embedded. The face of blocks in contact with Annex A1 of ASTM A 934, or shall be accompanied by a
forms for exposed surfaces shall not exceed 2 inches by Certificate of Compliance certifying that the material
2 inches in size and shall have a color and texture that meets the requirements of said Annexes A1. Patching of
will match the concrete surface. When used on vertical or damaged areas shall be performed in accordance with the
sloping surfaces, such blocks shall have an embedded patching material manufacturer’s recommendations.
wire for securing the block to the reinforcing steel. When Patches shall be allowed to cure before placing concrete
used in slabs, either such a tie wire or, when the weight over the coated bars.
of the reinforcing steel is sufficient to firmly hold the
blocks in place, a groove in the top of the block may 9.7 SPLICING OF BARS
be used. For epoxy-coated bars, such tie wires shall be
plastic-coated or epoxy-coated. 9.7.1 General
9.6.4 Wire Bar Supports All reinforcement shall be furnished in the full lengths
indicated on the plans unless otherwise permitted. Except
Wire bar supports, such as ferrous metal chairs and for splices shown on the plans and lap splices for No. 5 or
bolsters, shall conform to industry practice as described smaller bars, splicing of bars will not be permitted with-
in the Manual of Standard Practice of the Concrete Re- out written approval. Splices shall be staggered as far as
inforcing Steel Institute. Such chairs or bolsters which possible.
bear against the forms for exposed surfaces shall be ei-
ther Class 1—Maximum Protection (Plastic Protected) or
Class 2, Type B-Moderate Protection (Stainless Steel 9.7.2 Lap Splices
Tipped) for which the stainless steel conforms to ASTM
A 493, Type 430. For epoxy-coated reinforcement, all Lap splices shall be of the lengths shown on the plans.
wire bar supports and bar clips shall be plastic-coated or If not shown on the plans, the length of lap splices shall
epoxy-coated. be in accordance with Division I, Article 8.32, or as ap-
proved by the Engineer.
9.6.5 Adjustments In lap splices, the bars shall be placed and tied in such
a manner as to maintain the minimum distance to the sur-
Nonprestressed reinforcement used in post-tensioned face of the concrete shown on the plans. Lap splices shall
concrete shall be adjusted or relocated during the installa- not be used for Nos. 14 and 18 bars except as provided in
tion of prestressing ducts or tendons, as required to pro- Division I, Articles 4.4.11.5.7 and 8.32.4.1.
vide planned clearances to the prestressing tendons, an-
chorages and stressing equipment, as approved by the 9.7.3 Welded Splices
Engineer.
Welded splices of reinforcing bars shall be used only if
9.6.6 Repair of Damaged Epoxy Coating detailed on the plans or if authorization is made by the En-
gineer in writing. Welding shall conform to the Structural
In addition to the requirements of Article 9.2.2, dam- Welding Code, Reinforcing Steel, ANSI AWS D1.4 of the
aged coating on epoxy-coated reinforcing steel that oc- American Welding Society and applicable special provi-
curs during shipment, handling and placement of the re- sions in the contract documents.
inforcing steel shall be repaired. The maximum amount Welded splices shall not be used on epoxy-coated bars.
of repaired damaged areas shall not exceed 2% of the sur- To avoid heating of the coating, no welding shall be per-
face area in any linear foot of each bar. Should the formed in close proximity to epoxy-coated bars.
amount of damaged coating incurred during shipment,
handling and placing exceed 2% of the surface area in 9.7.4 Mechanical Splices
any linear foot of each bar, that bar shall be removed and
replaced with an acceptable epoxy-coated bar. The sum Mechanical splices shall be used only if preapproved
of the areas covered with patching material applied dur- or detailed on the plans or authorized in writing by the En-
ing repairs at all stages of the work shall not exceed 5% gineer. Such mechanical splices shall develop in tension
of the total surface area of any bar. The patching material or compression, as required, at least 125% of the specified
shall be prequalified as required for the coating material yield strength of the bars being spliced.
and shall be either identified on the container as meeting When requested by the Engineer, up to two field
the requirements of Annex A1 of AASHTO M 284 or splices out of each 100, or portion thereof, placed in the
work and chosen at random by the Engineer, shall be re- The weight of wire, welded wire fabric and plain bars
moved by the Contractor and tested by the Engineer for of sizes other than those listed above, will be computed
compliance to 125% of the specified yield strength of the from tables of weights published by CRSI or computed
bars being spliced. using nominal dimensions and an assumed unit weight of
0.2833-pound per cubic inch. The cross-sectional area of
wire in hundredths of square inches will be assumed to be
9.8 SPLICING OF WELDED WIRE FABRIC equal to its W or D-Size Number. If the weight per square
foot of welded wire fabric is given on the plans, that
Sheets of welded wire fabric shall be spliced by over- weight will be used.
lapping each other sufficiently to maintain a uniform The weight of reinforcement used in items such as rail-
strength and shall be securely fastened at the ends and ings and precast members, where payment for the rein-
edges. The edge lap shall not be less than one mesh in forcement is included in the contract price for the item,
width plus 2 inches. will not be included. Threaded bars or dowels placed after
the installation of precast members in the work and used
9.9 SUBSTITUTIONS to attach such members to cast-in-place concrete will be
included.
Substitution of different size reinforcing bars will be No allowance will be made for clips, wire, separators,
permitted only when authorized by the Engineer. The sub- wire chairs, and other material used in fastening the rein-
stituted bars shall have an area equivalent to the design forcement in place. If bars are substituted upon the Con-
area, or larger, and shall conform to the requirements of tractor’s request and as a result more reinforcing steel is
Division I, Article 8.16.8.4. used than specified, only the amount specified will be
included.
The additional reinforcing steel required for splices
9.10 MEASUREMENT that are not shown on the plans but are authorized as pro-
vided herein, will not be included.
Steel reinforcement incorporated in the concrete will No allowance will be made for the weight of epoxy
be measured in pounds based on the total computed coating in computing the weight of epoxy-coated rein-
weight for the sizes and lengths of bars, wire or welded forcing steel.
wire fabric shown on the plans or authorized for use in the
work.
9.11 PAYMENT
The weight of bars will be computed using the follow-
ing weights:
Payment for the quantity of reinforcement determined
under measurement for each class of reinforcing steel
Bar Size Weight lbs. per lin. feet shown in the bid schedule will be made at the contract
price per pound. Payment shall be considered to be full
No. 3 0.376 compensation for furnishing, fabricating, splicing, and
No. 4 0.668 placing of the reinforcing steel including all incidental
No. 5 1.043 work and materials required.
No. 6 1.502
No. 7 2.044
No. 8 2.670
No. 9 3.400
No. 10 4.303
No. 11 5.313
No. 14 7.65
No. 18 13.60
Section 10
PRESTRESSING
10.1 GENERAL only pretensioning details. If the plans show only preten-
sioning details, the use of a post-tensioning system will be
10.1.1 Description allowed only if complete details of any necessary modifi-
cations are approved by the Engineer.
This work shall consist of prestressing precast or cast- When the effective or working force or stress is
in-place concrete by furnishing, placing, and tensioning of shown on the plans, it shall be considered to be the force
prestressing steel in accordance with details shown on the or stress remaining in the prestressing steel after all losses,
plans, and as specified in these specifications and the spe- including creep and shrinkage of concrete, elastic short-
cial provisions. It includes prestressing by either the pre- ening of concrete, relaxation of steel, friction and take up
tensioning or post-tensioning methods or by a combina- or seating of anchorages, and all other losses peculiar to
tion of these methods. the method or system of prestressing have taken place or
This work shall include the furnishing and installation have been provided for. When the jacking force is shown
of any appurtenant items necessary for the particular pre- on the plans, it shall be considered to be the force applied
stressing system to be used, including but not limited to to the tendon prior to anchorage and the occurrence of any
ducts, anchorage assemblies and grout used for pressure losses, including the anchor set loss.
grouting ducts.
For cast-in-place prestressed concrete, the term “mem- 10.2 SUPPLEMENTARY DRAWINGS
ber” as used in this section shall be considered to mean the
concrete which is to be prestressed. 10.2.1 Working Drawings
When members are to be constructed with part of the
reinforcement pretensioned and part post-tensioned, the Whenever the plans do not include complete details for
applicable requirement of this Specification shall apply to a prestressing system and its method of installation, or
each method. when complete details are provided in the plans and the
Contractor wishes to propose any change, the Contractor
shall prepare and submit to the Engineer working draw-
10.1.2 Details of Design ings of the prestressing system proposed for use. Fabrica-
tion or installation of prestressing material shall not begin
When the design for the prestressing work is not fully until the Engineer has approved the drawings.
detailed on the plans, the Contractor shall determine the The working drawings of the prestressing system shall
details or type of prestressing system for use and select show complete details and substantiating calculations of
materials and details conforming to these Specifications the method, materials and equipment the Contractor pro-
as needed to satisfy the prestressing requirements speci- poses to use in the prestressing operations, including any
fied. The system selected shall provide the magnitude and additions or rearrangement of reinforcing steel and any re-
distribution of prestressing force and ultimate strength revision in concrete dimensions from that shown on the
quired by the plans without exceeding allowable tempo- plans. Such details shall outline the method and sequence
rary stresses. Unless otherwise shown on the plans, all de- of stressing and shall include complete specifications and
sign procedures, coefficients and allowable stresses, details of the prestressing steel and anchoring devices,
friction and prestress losses as well as tendon spacing and working stresses, anchoring stresses, tendon elongations,
clearances shall be in accordance with the Division I, De- type of ducts, and all other data pertaining to the pre-
sign, of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for High- stressing operation, including the proposed arrangement
way Bridges. of the prestressing steel in the members.
The prestressing may be performed by either preten- Working drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in
sioning or post-tensioning methods unless the plans show advance of the start of the affected work to allow time for
553
review by the Engineer and correction by the Contractor 10.3.1.3 Bars

of the drawings without delaying the work.
Uncoated high-strength bars shall conform to the re-
10.2.2 Composite Placing Drawings quirements of AASHTO M 275 (ASTM A 722). Bars with
greater minimum ultimate strength, but otherwise pro-
When required by the special provisions, in addition duced and tested in accordance with AASHTO M 275
to all required working drawings, the Contractor shall (ASTM A 722), may be used provided they have no prop-
prepare composite placing drawings to scale and in suf- erties that make them less satisfactory than the specified
ficient detail to show the relative positions of all items material.
that are to be embedded in the concrete, and their em-
bedment depth, for the portions of the structure that are 10.3.2 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers
to be prestressed. Such embedded items include the pre-
stressing ducts, vents, anchorage reinforcement and hard- All anchorages and couplers shall develop at least 95%
ware, reinforcing steel, anchor bolts, earthquake restrain- of the actual ultimate strength of the prestressing steel,
ers, deck joint seal assemblies, drainage systems, utility when tested in an unbonded state, without exceeding an-
conduits and other such items. Such drawings shall be ad- ticipated set. The coupling of tendons shall not reduce the
equate to ensure that there will be no conflict between the elongation at rupture below the requirements of the ten-
planned positions of any embedded items and that con- don itself. Couplers and/or coupler components shall be
crete cover will be adequate. If during the preparation of enclosed in housings long enough to permit the necessary
such drawings conflicts are discovered, the Contractor movements. Couplers for tendons shall be used only at lo-
shall revise his or her working drawing for one or more cations specifically indicated and/or approved by the En-
of the embedded items or propose changes in the dimen- gineer. Couplers shall not be used at points of sharp ten-
sions of the work as necessary to eliminate the conflicts don curvature.
or provide proper cover. Any such revisions shall be ap-
proved by the Engineer before work on any affected item 10.3.2.1 Bonded Systems
is started.
All costs involved with the preparation of such Bond transfer lengths between anchorages and the
drawings and with making the necessary modifications zone where full prestressing force is required under ser-
to the work resulting therefrom shall be borne by the vice and ultimate loads shall normally be sufficient to de-
Contractor. velop the minimum specified ultimate strength of the pre-
stressing steel. When anchorages or couplers are located
at critical sections under ultimate load, the ultimate
10.3 MATERIALS
strength required of the bonded tendons shall not exceed
the ultimate capacity of the tendon assembly, including
10.3.1 Prestressing Steel and Anchorages
the anchorage or coupler, tested in an unbonded state.
Housings shall be designed so that complete grouting
Prestressing reinforcement shall be high-strength
of all of the coupler components will be accomplished
seven-wire strand, high-strength steel wire, or high-
during grouting of tendons.
strength alloy bars of the grade and type called for on the
plans or in the special provisions and shall conform to the
10.3.2.2 Unbonded Systems
requirements of the following specifications.
For unbonded tendons, a dynamic test shall be per-
10.3.1.1 Strand formed on a representative anchorage and coupler speci-
men and the tendon shall withstand, without failure,
Uncoated seven-wire strand shall conform to the 500,000 cycles from 60% to 66% of its minimum specified
requirements of AASHTO M 203 (ASTM A 416). ultimate strength, and also 50 cycles from 40% to 80% of
Supplement S1 (Low-Relaxation) shall apply when its minimum specified ultimate strength. The period of
specified. each cycle involves the change from the lower stress level
to the upper stress level and back to the lower. The speci-
10.3.1.2 Wire men used for the second dynamic test need not be the same
used for the first dynamic test. Systems utilizing multiple
Uncoated stress-relieved steel wire shall conform to strands, wires, or bars may be tested utilizing a test tendon
the requirements of AASHTO M 204 (ASTM A 421). of smaller capacity than the full-sized tendon. The test ten-
don shall duplicate the behavior of the full-sized tendon sustained loading described in Article 10.3.2.3.8, or
and generally shall not have less than 10% of the capacity monotonic loading described in Article 10.3.2.3.9. The
of the full-sized tendon. Dynamic tests are not required on loads specified for the tests are given in fractions of
bonded tendons, unless the anchorage is located or used in the ultimate load Fpu of the largest tendon that the
such manner that repeated load applications can be ex- anchorage device is designed to accommodate. The
pected on the anchorage. specimen shall be loaded in accordance with normal
Anchorages for unbonded tendons shall not cause a re- usage of the device in post-tensioning applications except
duction in the total elongation under ultimate load of the that load can be applied directly to the wedge plate or
tendon to less than 2% measured in a minimum gauge equivalent area.
length of 10 feet.
All the coupling components shall be completely pro-
tected with a coating material prior to final encasement in 10.3.2.3.7 Cyclic Loading Test
concrete.
10.3.2.3.7.1 In a cyclic loading test, the load shall be
10.3.2.3 Special Anchorage Device increased to 0.8Fpu. The load shall then be cycled between
Acceptance Test 0.1Fpu and 0.8Fpu until crack widths stabilize, but for not
less than 10 cycles. Crack widths are considered stabilized
10.3.2.3.1 The test block shall be a rectangular if they do not change by more than 0.001 inch over the last
prism. It shall contain those anchorage components which three readings. Upon completion of the cyclic loading the
will also be embedded in the structure’s concrete. Their specimen shall be preferably loaded to failure or, if lim-
arrangement has to comply with the practical application ited by the capacity of the loading equipment, to at least
and the suppliers specifications. The test block shall con- 1.1Fpu.
tain an empty duct of size appropriate for the maximum
tendon size which can be accommodated by the anchor- 10.3.2.3.7.2 Crack widths and crack patterns shall be
age device. recorded at the initial load of 0.8Fpu, at least at the last
three consecutive peak loadings before termination of the
10.3.2.3.2 The dimensions of the test block perpen- cyclic loading, and at 0.9Fpu. The maximum load shall
dicular to the tendon in each direction shall be the smaller also be reported.
of the minimum edge distance or the minimum spacing
specified by the anchorage device supplier, with the stip-
10.3.2.3.8 Sustained Loading Test
ulation that the cover over any confining reinforcing steel
or supplementary skin reinforcement be appropriate for
10.3.2.3.8.1 In a sustained loading test, the load shall
the particular application and environment. The length of
be increased to 0.8Fpu and held constant until crack widths
the block along the axis of the tendon shall be at least two
stabilize but for not less than 48 hours. Crack widths are
times the larger of the cross-section dimensions.
considered stabilized if they do not change by more than
0.001 inch over the last three readings. After sustained
10.3.2.3.3 The confining reinforcing steel in the local
loading is completed, the specimen shall be preferably
zone shall be the same as that specified by the anchorage
loaded to failure or, if limited by the capacity of the load-
device supplier for the particular system.
ing equipment, to at least 1.1Fpu.
10.3.2.3.4 In addition to the anchorage device and its
10.3.2.3.8.2 Crack widths and crack patterns shall be
specified confining reinforcement steel, supplementary
recorded at the initial load of 0.8Fpu, at least three times at
skin reinforcement may be provided throughout the spec-
intervals of not less than 4 hours during the last 12 hours
imen. This supplementary skin reinforcement shall be
before termination of the sustained loading, and during
specified by the anchorage device supplier but shall not
loading to failure at 0.9Fpu. The maximum load shall also
exceed a volumetric ratio of 0.01.
be reported.
10.3.2.3.5 The concrete strength at the time of stress-
ing shall be greater than the concrete strength of the test 10.3.2.3.9 Monotonic Loading Test
specimen at time of testing.
10.3.2.3.9.1 In a monotonic loading test, the load
10.3.2.3.6 Either of three test procedures is ac- shall be increased to 0.9Fpu and held constant for 1 hour.
ceptable: cyclic loading described in Article 10.3.2.3.7, The specimen shall then be preferably loaded to failure or,
if limited by the capacity of the loading equipment, to at 10.4 PLACEMENT OF DUCTS, STEEL, AND
least 1.2Fpu. ANCHORAGE HARDWARE
10.3.2.3.9.2 Crack widths and crack patterns shall be 10.4.1 Placement of Ducts
recorded at 0.9Fpu after the 1-hour period, and at 1.0Fpu.
The maximum load shall also be reported. Ducts shall be rigidly supported at the proper locations
in the forms by ties to reinforcing steel which are adequate
10.3.2.3.10 The strength of the anchorage zone must to prevent displacement during concrete placement. Sup-
exceed: plementary support bars shall be used where needed to
maintain proper alignment of the duct. Hold-down ties to
Specimens tested under cyclic or sustained the forms shall be used when the buoyancy of the ducts in
loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..1Fpu the fluid concrete would lift the reinforcing steel.
Joints between sections of duct shall be coupled with
Specimens tested under monotonic loading . . . . . .1.2Fpu positive connections which do not result in angle changes
The maximum crack width criteria specified below must at the joints and will prevent the intrusion of cement paste.
be met for moderately aggressive environments. For After placing of ducts, reinforcement and forming is
higher aggressivity environments the crack width criteria complete, an inspection shall be made to locate possible
shall be reduced by at least 50%. duct damage.
All unintentional holes or openings in the duct must be
(1) No cracks greater than 0.010 inch at 0.8Fpu repaired prior to concrete placing.
after completion of the cyclic or sustained loading, Grout openings and vents must be securely anchored
or at 0.9Fpu after the 1-hour period for monotonic to the duct and to either the forms or to reinforcing steel
loading. to prevent displacement during concrete placing opera-
(2) No cracks greater than 0.016 inch at 0.9Fpu for tions.
cyclic or sustained loading, or at 1.0Fpu for monotonic After installation in the forms, the ends of ducts shall
at all times be covered as necessary to prevent the entry of
loading.
water or debris.
10.3.2.3.11 A test series shall consist of three test 10.4.1.1 Vents and Drains
specimens. Each one of the tested specimens must meet
the acceptance criteria. If one of the three specimens fails All ducts for continuous structures shall be vented at
to pass the test, a supplementary test of three additional the high points of the duct profile, except where the cur-
specimens is allowed. The three additional test specimen vature is small, as in continuous slabs, and at additional
results must meet all acceptance criteria of Article locations as shown on the plans. Where freezing condi-
10.3.2.3.10. tions can be anticipated prior to grouting, drains shall be
For a series of similar special anchorage devices, tests installed at low point in ducts where needed to prevent the
are only required for representative samples unless tests accumulation of water. Low-point drains shall remain
for each capacity of the anchorages in the series are re- open until grouting is started.
quired by the engineer-of-record. The ends of vents and drains shall be removed 1 inch
below the surface of the concrete after grouting has been
10.3.2.3.12 Records of the anchorage device accep- completed, and the void filled with mortar.
tance test shall include:
10.4.2 Placement of Prestressing Steel
(1) Dimensions of the test specimen.
(2) Drawings and dimensions of the anchorage device, 10.4.2.1 Placement for Pretensioning
including all confining reinforcing steel.
(3) Amount and arrangement of supplementary skin Prestressing steel shall be accurately installed in the
reinforcement. forms and held in place by the stressing jack or temporary
(4) Type and yield strength of reinforcing steel. anchors and, when tendons are to be draped, by hold-
(5) Type and compressive strength at time of testing of down devices. The hold-down devices used at all points
concrete. of change in slope of tendon trajectory shall be of an ap-
(6) Type of testing procedure and all measurements proved low-friction type.
required in Articles 10.3.2.3.7 through 10.3.2.3.10 for Prestressing steel shall not be removed from its pro-
each specimen. tective packaging until immediately prior to installation in
the forms and placement of concrete. Openings in the Very Damp Atmosphere or
packaging shall be resealed as necessary to protect the un- over Saltwater 7 days
used steel. While exposed, the steel shall be protected as (Humidity . 70%)
needed to prevent corrosion.
Moderate Atmosphere 15 days
(Humidity from 40% to 70%)
10.4.2.2 Placement for Post-Tensioning Very Dry Atmosphere 20 days
(Humidity , 40%)
All prestressing steel preassembled in ducts and in-
stalled prior to the placement of concrete shall be accu- After tendons are placed in ducts, the openings at
rately placed and held in position during concrete place- the ends of the ducts shall be sealed to prevent entry of
ment. moisture.
When the prestressing steel is installed after the When steam curing is used, steel for post-tensioning
concrete has been placed, the Contractor shall demon- shall not be installed until the steam curing is completed.
strate to the satisfaction of the Engineer that the ducts are Whenever electric welding is performed on or near
free of water and debris immediately prior to installation members containing prestressing steel, the welding
of the steel. The total number of strands in an individual ground shall be attached directly to the steel being
welded. All prestressing steel and hardware shall be pro-
tendon may be pulled into the duct as a unit, or the
tected from weld spatter or other damage.
individual strand may be pulled or pushed through
the duct.
Anchorage devices or block-out templates for anchor- 10.4.3 Placement of Anchorage Hardware
ages shall be set and held so that their axis coincides with
the axis of the tendon and anchor plates are normal in all The constructor is responsible for the proper placement
directions to the tendon. of all materials according to the design documents of the
The prestressing steel shall be distributed so that the engineer of record and the requirements stipulated by the
force in each girder stem is equal or as required by the anchorage device supplier. The Contractor shall exercise
plans, except as provided herein. For box girders with all due care and attention in the placement of anchorage
more than two girder stems, at the Contractor’s option, the hardware, reinforcement, concrete, and consolidation of
prestressing force may vary up to 5% from the theoretical concrete in anchorage zones. Modifications to the local
required force per girder stem provided the required total zone details verified under provisions of Article 9.21.7.3.
force in the superstructure is obtained and the force is dis- in Division I and Article 10.3.2.3 in Division II shall be
tributed symmetrically about the center line of the typical approved by both the engineer of record and the anchor-
section. age device supplier.
10.4.2.2.1 Protection of Steel After Installation 10.5 IDENTIFICATION AND TESTING
Prestressing steel installed in members prior to All wire, strand, or bars to be shipped to the site shall
placing and curing of the concrete, or installed in the duct be assigned a lot number and tagged for identification pur-
but not grouted within the time limit specified below, poses. Anchorage assemblies to be shipped shall be like-
shall be continuously protected against rust or other cor- wise identified.
rosion by means of a corrosion inhibitor placed in the Each lot of wire or bars and each reel of strand rein-
ducts or directly applied to the steel. The prestressing forcement shall be accompanied by a manufacturer’s cer-
steel shall be so protected until grouted or encased in con- tificate of compliance, a mill certificate, and a test report.
crete. Prestressing steel installed and tensioned in mem- The mill certificate and test report shall include the chem-
bers after placing and curing of the concrete and grouted ical composition (not required for strand), cross-sectional
within the time limit specified below will not require the area, yield and ultimate strengths, elongation at rupture,
use of a corrosion inhibitor described herein and rust modulus of elasticity, and the stress strain curve for the ac-
which may form during the interval between tendon in- tual prestressing steel intended for use. All values certified
stallation and grouting will not be cause for rejection of shall be based on test values and nominal sectional areas
the steel. of the material being certified.
The permissible interval between tendon installation The Contractor shall furnish to the Engineer for verifi-
and grouting without use of a corrosion inhibitor for var- cation testing the samples described in the following sub-
ious exposure conditions shall be as follows: articles selected from each lot. If ordered by the Engineer,
the selection of samples shall be made at the manufac- provided there is no change in the material, design, or de-
turer’s plant by the Inspector. tails previously approved. Shop drawings or prestressing
All samples submitted shall be representative of the lot details shall identify the project on which approval was
to be furnished and, in the case of wire or strand, shall be obtained, otherwise testing shall be conducted.
taken from the same master roll.
The actual strength of the prestressing steel shall not be
10.6 PROTECTION OF PRESTRESSING STEEL
less than specified by the applicable ASTM Standard, and
shall be determined by tests of representative samples of
All prestressing steel shall be protected against physi-
the tendon material in conformance with ASTM Stan-
cal damage and rust or other results of corrosion at all
dards.
times from manufacture to grouting. Prestressing steel
All of the materials specified for testing shall be fur-
shall also be free of deleterious material such as grease,
nished free of cost and shall be delivered in time for tests
oil, wax, or paint. Prestressing steel that has sustained
to be made well in advance of anticipated time of use.
physical damage at any time shall be rejected. The devel-
opment of pitting or other results of corrosion, other than
10.5.1 Pretensioning Method Tendons
rust stain, shall be cause for rejection.
Prestressing steel shall be packaged in containers or
For pretensioned strands, one sample at least 7 feet
shipping forms for the protection of the strand against
long shall be furnished in accordance with the require-
physical damage and corrosion during shipping and stor-
ments of paragraph 9.1 of AASHTO M 203.
age. A corrosion inhibitor which prevents rust or other re-
sults of corrosion shall be placed in the package or form,
10.5.2 Post-Tensioning Method Tendons
or shall be incorporated in a corrosion inhibitor carrier
type packaging material, or when permitted by the Engi-
The following lengths shall be furnished for each 20
neer, may be applied directly to the steel. The corrosion
ton, or portion thereof, lot of material used in the work.
inhibitor shall have no deleterious effect on the steel or
concrete or bond strength of steel to concrete or grout.
(a) For wires requiring heading—5 feet.
Packaging or forms damaged from any cause shall be im-
(b) For wires not requiring heading—sufficient length
mediately replaced or restored to original condition.
to make up one parallel-lay cable 5 feet long consist-
The shipping package or form shall be clearly marked
ing of the same number of wires as the cable to be fur-
with a statement that the package contains high-strength
nished.
prestressing steel, and the type of corrosion inhibitor used,
(c) For strand to be furnished with fittings—5 feet be-
including the date packaged.
tween near ends of fittings.
All anchorages, end fittings, couplers, and exposed
(d) For bars to be furnished with threaded ends and
tendons, which will not be encased in concrete or grout in
nuts—5 feet between threads at ends.
the completed work, shall be permanently protected
against corrosion.
10.5.3 Anchorage Assemblies and Couplers
The Contractor shall furnish for testing, one specimen 10.7 CORROSION INHIBITOR
of each size of prestressing tendon, including couplings,
of the selected type, with end fittings and anchorage as- Corrosion inhibitor shall consist of a vapor phase in-
sembly attached, for strength tests only. These specimens hibitor (VPI) powder conforming to the provisions of
shall be 5 feet in clear length, measured between ends of Federal Specification MIL-P-3420 or as otherwise ap-
fittings. If the results of the test indicate the necessity of proved by the Engineer. When approved, water soluble oil
check tests, additional specimens shall be furnished with- may be used on tendons as a corrosion inhibitor.
out cost.
When dynamic testing is required, the Contractor shall
perform the testing and shall furnish certified copies of 10.8 DUCTS
test results which indicate conformance with the specified
requirements prior to installation of anchorages or cou- Ducts used to provide holes or voids in the concrete
plers. for the placement of post-tensioned bonded tendons
For prestressing systems previously tested and ap- may be either formed with removable cores or may con-
proved on projects having the same tendon configuration, sist of rigid or semi-rigid ducts which are cast into the
the Engineer may not require complete tendon samples concrete.
Ducts formed with removable cores shall be formed 10.8.3 Duct Area
with no constrictions which would tend to block the
passage of grout. All coring materials shall be removed. The inside diameter of ducts shall be at least 1⁄ 4 inch
Ducts formed by sheath left in place shall be a larger than the nominal diameter of single wire, bar, or
type that will not permit the intrusion of cement paste. strand tendons, or in the case of multiple wire, bar or
They shall transfer bond stresses as required and shall strand tendons, the inside cross-sectional area of the
retain shape under the weight of the concrete and shall sheathing shall be at least two times the net area of the pre-
have sufficient strength to maintain their correct stressing steel. When tendons are to be placed by the pull
alignment without visible wobble during placement of through method, the duct area shall be at least 21⁄ 2 times
concrete. the net area of the prestressing steel.
10.8.1 Metal Ducts

10.8.4 Duct Fittings
Sheathing for ducts shall be metal, except as provided
Coupling and transition fittings for ducts formed by
herein. Such ducts shall be galvanized ferrous metal and
sheathing shall be of either ferrous metal or polyethylene,
shall be fabricated with either welded or interlocked
and shall be cement paste intrusion proof and of sufficient
seams. Galvanizing of welded seams will not be required.
strength to prevent distortion or displacement of the ducts
Rigid ducts shall have smooth inner walls and shall be ca-
during concrete placement.
pable of being curved to the proper configuration without
All ducts or anchorage assemblies shall be provided
crimping or flattening. Semi-rigid ducts shall be
with pipes or other suitable connections at each end of the
corrugated and when tendons are to be inserted after the
duct for the injection of grout after prestressing. As spec-
concrete has been placed their minimum wall thickness
ified in Article 10.4.1.1, ducts shall also be provided with
shall be as follows: 26 gauge for ducts less than or equal
ports for venting or grouting at high points and for drain-
to 25⁄ 8-inch diameter, 24 gauge for ducts greater than
ing at intermediate low points.
25⁄ 8-inch diameter. When bar tendons are preassembled
Vent and drain pipes shall be 1⁄ 2-inch minimum diame-
with such ducts, the duct thickness shall not be less than
ter standard pipe or suitable plastic pipe. Connection to
31 gauge.
ducts shall be made with metallic or plastic structural fas-
teners. The vents and drains shall be mortar tight, taped as
10.8.2 Polyethylene Duct
necessary, and shall provide means for injection of grout
through the vents and for sealing to prevent leakage of
As an alternative to metal ducts, ducts for transverse
grout.
tendons in deck slabs and at other locations where shown
or approved may be of high density polyethylene, con-
forming to the material requirements of ASTM D 3350. 10.9 GROUT
Polyethylene duct shall not be used when the radius of
curvature of the tendon is less than 30 feet. Materials for use in making grout which is to be placed
Semi-rigid polyethylene ducts for use where com- in the ducts after tendons are post-tensioned shall conform
pletely embedded in concrete shall be corrugated to the following.
with minimum material thickness of 0.05060.010 inch.
Such ducts shall have a white coating on the outside, or
10.9.1 Portland Cement
shall be of white material with ultraviolet stabilizers
added.
Portland cement shall conform to one of the following:
Rigid polyethylene ducts for use where the tendon is not
Specifications for Portland Cement—AASHTO M 85
embedded in concrete shall be rigid pipe manufactured in
(ASTM C 150), Types I, II, or III. Cement used for grout-
accordance with ASTM D 2447, Grades P33 or P34; F714
ing shall be fresh and shall not contain any lumps or other
or D3350 with a cell classification of PE345433C. For
indication of hydration or “pack set.”
external applications, such duct shall have an external
diameter to wall thickness ratio of 21 or less.
For applications where polyethylene duct is exposed to 10.9.2 Water
sunlight or ultraviolet light, carbon black shall be incor-
porated into the polyethylene pipe resin in such amount to The water used in the grout shall be potable, clean, and
provide resistance to ultraviolet degradation in accor- free of injurious quantities of substances known to be
dance with ASTM D 1248. harmful to Portland cement or prestressing steel.
10.9.3 Admixtures released from the external anchorages and transferred,

by bond, into the concrete.
Admixtures, if used, shall impart the properties of low- (2) Post-tensioning; in which the reinforcing tendons
water content, good flowability, minimum bleed, and ex- are installed in voids or ducts within the concrete and
pansion if desired. They shall contain no chemicals in are stressed and anchored against the concrete after the
quantities that may have harmful effect on the prestress- development of the required concrete strength. As a
ing steel or cement. Admixtures which, at the dosage final operation under this method, the voids or ducts
used, contain chlorides in excess of 0.005% of the weight are pressure-grouted.
of the cement used or contain any fluorides, sulphites, and (3) Combined Method; in which part of the reinforce-
nitrates shall not be used. ment is pretensioned and part post-tensioned. Under
When a grout expanding admixture is required, or is this method all applicable requirements for preten-
used at the Contractor’s option, it shall be well dispersed sioning and for post-tensioning shall apply to the re-
through the other admixtures and shall produce a 2% to spective reinforcing elements using these methods.
6% unrestrained expansion of the grout.
During stressing of strand, individual wire failures
Amount of admixture to obtain a desired amount of
may be accepted by the Engineer, provided not more than
expansion shall be determined by tests. If the source of
one wire in any strand is broken and the area of broken
manufacture or brand of either admixture or cement
wires does not exceed 2% of the total area of the pre-
changes after testing, new tests shall be conducted to de-
stressing steel in the member.
termine proper proportions.
All admixtures shall be used in accordance with the in-
structions of the manufacturer. 10.10.1.1 Concrete Strength
Prestressing forces shall not be applied or transferred

10.10 TENSIONING to the concrete until the concrete has attained the strength
specified for initial stressing. In addition, cast-in-place
10.10.1 General Tensioning Requirements concrete for other than segmentally constructed bridges
shall not be post-tensioned until at least 10 days after the
Prestressing steel shall be tensioned by hydraulic jacks last concrete has been placed in the member to be post-
so as to produce the forces shown on the plans or on the tensioned.
approved working drawing with appropriate allowances
for all losses. Losses to be provided for shall be as speci- 10.10.1.2 Prestressing Equipment
fied in Division I, Article 9.16. For post-tensioned work
the losses shall also include the anchor set loss appropri- Hydraulic jacks used to stress tendons shall be capable
ate for the anchorage system employed. of providing and sustaining the necessary forces and shall
For pretensioned members, the strand stress prior to be equipped with either a pressure gauge or a load cell for
seating (jacking stress) shall not exceed 80% of the mini- determining the jacking stress. The jacking system shall
mum ultimate tensile strength of the prestressing steel provide an independent means by which the tendon elon-
(0.80 fs9). This allowable stress, which slightly exceeds the gation can be measured. The pressure gauge shall have an
values allowed in Division I, Article 9.15.1, may be per- accurately reading dial at least 6 inches in diameter or a
mitted to offset seating losses and to accommodate com- digital display, and each jack and its gauge shall be cali-
pensation for temperature differences specified in Article brated as a unit with the cylinder extension in the approx-
10.5.2. imate position that it will be at final jacking force, and shall
For post-tensioned members, the strand stress prior to be accompanied by a certified calibration chart or curve.
seating (jacking stress) and the stress in the steel immedi- The load cell shall be calibrated and shall be provided with
ately after seating shall not exceed the values allowed in an indicator by means of which the prestressing force in
Division I, Article 9.15.1. the tendon may be determined. The range of the load cell
The method of tensioning employed shall be one of shall be such that the lower 10% of the manufacturer’s
the following as specified or approved: rated capacity will not be used in determining the jacking
stress. When approved by the Engineer, calibrated proving
(1) Pretensioning; in which the prestressing strand or rings may be used in lieu of load cells.
tendons are stressed prior to being embedded in the Recalibration of gauges shall be repeated at least an-
concrete placed for the member. After the concrete has nually and whenever gauge pressures and elongations in-
attained the required strength, the prestressing force is dicate materially different stresses.
Only oxygen flame or mechanical cutting devices shall 10.10.2 Pretensioning Method Requirements
be used to cut strand after installation in the member or
after stressing. Electric arc welders shall not be used. Stressing shall be accomplished by either single strand
stressing or multiple strand stressing. The amount of
10.10.1.3 Sequence of Stressing stress to be given each strand shall be as shown in the
plans or the approved working drawings.
When the sequence of stressing individual tendons is All strand to be stressed in a group (multiple strand
not otherwise specified, the stressing of post-tensioning stressing) shall be brought to a uniform initial tension
tendons and the release of pretensioned tendons shall be prior to being given their full pretensioning. The amount
done in a sequence that produces a minimum of eccentric of the initial tensioning force shall be within the range
force in the member. specified in Article 10.5.1.4 and shall be the minimum re-
quired to eliminate all slack and to equalize the stresses in
10.10.1.4 Measurement of Stress the tendons as determined by the Engineer. The amount of
this force will be influenced by the length of the casting
A record of gauge pressures and tendon elongations for bed and the size and number of tendons in the group to be
each tendon shall be provided by the Contractor for retensioned.
view and approval by the Engineer. Elongations shall be Draped pretensioned tendons shall either be tensioned
measured to an accuracy of 11⁄ 16 inch. Stressing tails of partially by jacking at the end of the bed and partially by
post-tensioned tendons shall not be cut off until the stress- uplifting or depressing tendons, or they shall be tensioned
ing records have been approved. entirely by jacking, with the tendons being held in their
The stress in tendons during tensioning shall be deter- draped positions by means of rollers, pins, or other ap-
mined by the gauge or load cell readings and shall be ver- proved methods during the jacking operation.
ified with the measured elongations. Calculations of an- Approved low-friction devices shall be used at all
ticipated elongations shall utilize the modulus of points of change in slope of tendon trajectory when ten-
elasticity, based on nominal area, as furnished by the man- sioning draped pretensioned strands, regardless of the ten-
ufacturer for the lot of steel being tensioned, or as deter- sioning method used.
mined by a bench test of strands used in the work. If the load for a draped strand, as determined by elon-
All tendons shall be tensioned to a preliminary gation measurements, is more than 5% less than that indi-
force as necessary to eliminate any take-up in the ten- cated by the jack gauges, the strand shall be tensioned
sioning system before elongation readings are started. from both ends of the bed and the load as computed from
This preliminary force shall be between 5% and 25% of the sum of elongation at both ends shall agree within 5%
the final jacking force. The initial force shall be measured of that indicated by the jack gauges.
by a dynamometer or by other approved method, so that When ordered by the Engineer, prestressing steel
its amount can be used as a check against elongation strands in pretensioned members, if tensioned individu-
as computed and as measured. Each strand shall be ally, shall be checked by the Contractor for loss of pre-
marked prior to final stressing to permit measurement stress not more than 3 hours prior to placing concrete for
of elongation and to insure that all anchor wedges set the members. The method and equipment for checking the
properly. loss of prestress shall be subject to approval by the Engi-
It is anticipated that there may be discrepancy in indi- neer. All strands that show a loss of prestress in excess of
cated stress between jack gauge pressure and elongation. 3% shall be retensioned to the original computed jacking
In such event, the load used as indicated by the gauge stress.
pressure, shall produce a slight over-stress rather than Stress on all strands shall be maintained between an-
under-stress. When a discrepancy between gauge pressure chorages until the concrete has reached the compressive
and elongation of more than 5% in tendons over 50 feet strength required at time of transfer of stress to concrete.
long or 7% in tendons of 50 feet or less in length occurs, When prestressing steel in pretensioned members is
the entire operation shall be carefully checked and the tensioned at a temperature more than 25°F lower than the
source of error determined and corrected before proceed- estimated temperature of the concrete and the prestressing
ing further. When provisional ducts are provided for ad- steel at the time of initial set of the concrete, the calculated
dition of prestressing force in event of an apparent force elongation of the prestressing steel shall be increased to
deficiency in tendons over 50 feet long, the discrepancy compensate for the loss in stress, due to the change in tem-
between the force indicated by gauge pressure and elon- perature, but in no case shall the jacking stress exceed
gation may be increased to 7% before investigation into 80% of the specified minimum ultimate tensile strength of
the source of the error. the prestressing steel.
Strand splicing methods and devices shall be ap- 10.11.2 Preparation of Ducts
proved by the Engineer. When single strand jacking is
used, only one splice per strand will be permitted. When All ducts shall be clean and free of deleterious materi-
multi-strand jacking is used, either all strands shall be als that would impair bonding or interfere with grouting
spliced or no more than 10% of the strands shall be procedures.
spliced. Spliced strands shall be similar in physical prop- Ducts with concrete walls (cored ducts) shall be
erties, from the same source, and shall have the same flushed to ensure that the concrete is thoroughly wetted.
“twist” or “lay.” All splices shall be located outside of the Metal ducts shall be flushed if necessary to remove dele-
prestressed units. terious material.
Side and flange forms that restrain deflection shall be Water used for flushing ducts may contain slack lime
removed before release of pretensioning reinforcement. (calcium hydroxide) or quicklime (calcium oxide) in the
Except when otherwise shown on the plans, all preten- amount of 0.1 lb per gallon.
sioned-prestressing strands shall be cut off flush with the After flushing, all water shall be blown out of the duct
end of the member and the exposed ends of the strand and with oil-free compressed air.
a 1-inch strip of adjoining concrete shall be cleaned and
painted. Cleaning shall be by wire brushing or abrasive 10.11.3 Equipment
blast cleaning to remove all dirt and residue that is not
firmly bonded to the metal or concrete surfaces. The sur- The grouting equipment shall include a mixer capable
faces shall be coated with one thick coat of zinc-rich paint of continuous mechanical mixing which will produce a
conforming to the requirements of Federal Specification grout free of lumps and undispersed cement, a grout pump
TT-P-641. The paint shall be thoroughly mixed at the time and standby flushing equipment with water supply. The
of application, and shall be worked into any voids in the equipment shall be able to pump the mixed grout in a
strands. manner which will comply with all requirements.
Accessory equipment which will provide for accurate
solid and liquid measures shall be provided to batch all
10.10.3 Post-Tensioning Method Requirements materials.
The pump shall be a positive displacement type and be
Prior to post-tensioning any member, the Contractor able to produce an outlet pressure of at least 150 psi. The
shall demonstrate to the satisfaction of the Engineer that pump should have seals adequate to prevent introduction
the prestressing steel is free and unbonded in the duct. of oil, air, or other foreign substance into the grout, and to
All strands in each tendon, except for those in flat ducts prevent loss of grout or water.
with not more than four strands, shall be stressed simulta- A pressure gauge having a full-scale reading of no
neously with a multi-strand jack. greater than 300 psi shall be placed at some point in the
Tensioning shall be accomplished so as to provide the grout line between the pump outlet and the duct inlet.
forces and elongations specified in Article 10.5.1. The grouting equipment shall contain a screen having
Except as provided herein or when shown on the clear openings of 0.125-inch maximum size to screen the
plans or on the approved working drawings, tendons grout prior to its introduction into the grout pump. If a
in continuous post-tensioned members shall be ten- grout with a thixotropic additive is used, a screen opening
sioned by jacking at each end of the tendon. For straight of 3⁄ 16 inch is satisfactory. This screen shall be easily ac-
tendons and when one end stressing is shown on the cessible for inspection and cleaning.
plans, tensioning may be performed by jacking from one The grouting equipment shall utilize gravity feed to the
end or both ends of the tendon at the option of the pump inlet from a hopper attached to and directly over it.
Contractor. The hopper must be kept at least partially full of grout at
all times during the pumping operation to prevent air from
being drawn into the post-tensioning duct.
10.11 GROUTING Under normal conditions, the grouting equipment shall
be capable of continuously grouting the largest tendon on
10.11.1 General the project in no more than 20 minutes.
When the post-tensioning method is used, the pre- 10.11.4 Mixing of Grout
stressing steel shall be provided with permanent protec-
tion and shall be bonded to the concrete by completely Water shall be added to the mixer first, followed by
filling the void space between the duct and the tendon Portland cement and admixture, or as required by the ad-
with grout. mixture manufacturer.
Mixing shall be of such duration as to obtain a uniform, and the pumping pressure allowed to build to a minimum
thoroughly blended grout, without excessive temperature of 75 psi before the inlet vent is closed. Plugs, caps, or
increase or loss of expansive properties of the admixture. valves thus required shall not be removed or opened until
The grout shall be continuously agitated until it is pumped. the grout has set.
Water shall not be added to increase grout flowability
which has been decreased by delayed use of the grout. 10.11.6 Temperature Considerations
Proportions of materials shall be based on tests made
on the grout before grouting is begun, or may be selected When temperatures are below 32°F, ducts shall be kept
based on prior documented experience with similar mate- free of water to avoid damage due to freezing.
rials and equipment and under comparable field condi- The temperature of the concrete shall be 35°F or higher
tions (weather, temperature, etc.). The water content shall from the time of grouting until job cured 2-inch cubes of
be the minimum necessary for proper placement, and grout reach a minimum compressive strength of 800 psi.
when Type I or II cement is used shall not exceed a water- Grout shall not be above 90°F during mixing or pump-
cement ratio of 0.45 or approximately 5 gallons of water ing. If necessary, the mixing water shall be cooled.
per sack (94 lb) of cement.
The water content required for Type III cement shall be
established for a particular brand based on tests. 10.12 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
The pumpability of the grout may be determined by the
Engineer in accordance with the U.S. Corps of Engineers 10.12.1 Measurement
Method CRD-C79. When this method is used, the efflux
time of the grout sample immediately after mixing shall The prestressing of cast-in-place concrete will be mea-
not be less than 11 seconds. The flow cone test does not sured by the lump sum for each item or location listed in
apply to grout which incorporates a thixotropic additive. the schedule of bid items.
10.11.5 Injection of Grout 10.12.2 Payment
All grout and high-point vent openings shall be open No separate payment will be made for prestressing pre-
when grouting starts. Grout shall be allowed to flow from cast concrete members. Payment for prestressing precast
the first vent after the inlet pipe until any residual flushing concrete members shall be considered as included in the
water or entrapped air has been removed, at which time contract price paid for the precast members as provided
the vent should be capped or otherwise closed. Remain- for in Section 8, “Concrete Structures.”
ing vents shall be closed in sequence in the same manner. The contract lump sum price paid for prestressing cast-
The pumping pressure at the tendon inlet shall not ex- in-place concrete shall include full compensation for fur-
ceed 250 psi. nishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment and inciden-
If the actual grouting pressure exceeds the maximum tals, and for doing all work involved in furnishing,
recommended pumping pressure, grout may be injected at placing, and tensioning the prestressing steel in cast-in-
any vent which has been, or is ready to be capped as long place concrete structures, complete in place, as shown on
as a one-way flow of grout is maintained. If this procedure the plans, as specified in these Specifications and the spe-
is used, the vent which is to be used for injection shall be cial provisions, and as directed by the Engineer.
fitted with a positive shutoff. Full compensation for furnishing and placing addi-
When one-way flow of grout cannot be maintained, the tional concrete and deformed bar reinforcing steel re-
grout shall be immediately flushed out of the duct with quired by the particular system used, ducts, anchoring de-
water. vices, distribution plates or assemblies and incidental
Grout shall be pumped through the duct and continu- parts, for furnishing samples for testing, working draw-
ously wasted at the outlet pipe until no visible slugs of ings, and for pressure grouting ducts shall be considered
water or air are ejected and the efflux time of the ejected as included in the contract lump sum price paid for pre-
grout, as measured by a flow cone test, if used, is not less stressing cast-in-place concrete or in the contract price for
than that of the injected grout. To ensure that the tendon furnishing precast members, and no additional compensa-
remains filled with grout, the outlet shall then be closed tion will be allowed therefore.
Section 11
STEEL STRUCTURES
11.1 GENERAL mill orders and certified mill test reports. Mill test reports
shall show the chemical analysis and physical test results
11.1.1 Description for each heat of steel used in the work.
With the approval of the Engineer, certificates of com-
This work shall consist of furnishing, fabricating, and pliance shall be furnished in lieu of mill test reports for
erecting steel structures and structural steel portions of material that normally is not supplied with mill test re-
other structures in accordance with these Specifications, ports, and for items such as fills, minor gusset plates and
the Special Provisions and the details shown on the plans. similar material when quantities are small and the mater-
The structural steel fabricating plant shall be certified ial is taken from stock.
under the AISC Quality Certification Program, Category Certified mill test reports for steels with specified
I. The fabrication of fracture critical members shall be impact values shall include, in addition to other test re-
Category III. sults, the results of Charpy V-notch impact tests. When
Details of design which are permitted to be selected fine grain practice is specified, the test report shall
by the Contractor shall conform to Division I of these confirm that the material was so produced. Copies of mill
Specifications. orders shall be furnished at the time orders are placed
Painting shall conform to the provisions of Section 13, with the manufacturer. Certified mill test reports and
“Painting,” of these Specifications. Certificates of Compliance shall be furnished prior to the
Falsework used in the erection of structural steel shall start of fabrication of material covered by these reports.
conform to the provisions of Section 3, “Temporary The Certificate of Compliance shall be signed by the
Works,” of these Specifications. manufacturer and shall certify that the material is in
Structural components designated on the plans or in conformance with the specifications to which it has been
the special provisions as “fracture critical” shall conform manufactured.
to the provisions of Chapter 12 of the ANSI/AASHTO/ Material to be used shall be made available to the
AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code. Engineer so that each piece can be examined. The Engi-
Welding and weld qualification tests shall conform to neer shall have free access at all times to any portion of
the provisions of the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 the fabrication site where the material is stored or where
Bridge Welding Code. work on the material is being performed.
11.1.2 Notice of Beginning of Work 11.1.4 Inspector’s Authority
The Contractor shall give the Engineer ample notice of The Inspector shall have the authority to reject materi-
the beginning of work at the mill or in the shop, so that in- als or workmanship which do not fulfill the requirements
spection may be provided. The term “mill” means any of these Specifications. In cases of dispute, the Contractor
rolling mill or foundry where material for the work is to may appeal to the Engineer, whose decision shall be final.
be manufactured. No material shall be manufactured, or Inspection at the mill and shop is intended as a means
work done in the shop, before the Engineer has been so of facilitating the work and avoiding errors, and it is ex-
notified. pressly understood that it will not relieve the Contractor
of any responsibility in regard to defective material or
11.1.3 Inspection workmanship and the necessity for replacing the same.
The acceptance of any material or finished members by
Structural steel will be inspected at the fabrication site. the Inspector shall not be a bar to their subsequent rejec-
The Contractor shall furnish to the Engineer a copy of all tion, if found defective. Rejected materials and workman-
565
ship shall be replaced as soon as practical or corrected by in the cases of trusses or arch ribs, and at the location of
the Contractor. field splices and fractions of span length (1 ⁄ 4 points mini-
mum) in the cases of continuous beam and girders or rigid
frames. The camber diagram shall show calculated cam-
bers to be used in preassembly of the structure in accor-
dance with Article 11.5.3.
The Contractor shall expressly understand that the En-
gineer’s approval of the working drawings submitted by
the Contractor covers the requirements for “strength and 11.3 MATERIALS
detail,” and that the Engineer assumes no responsibility
for errors in dimensions. 11.3.1 Structural Steel
Working drawings must be approved by the Engineer
prior to performance of the work involved and such ap- 11.3.1.1 General
proval shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibil-
ity under the contract for the successful completion of the Steel shall be furnished according to the following
work. specifications. The grade or grades of steel to be furnished
shall be as shown on the plans or specified.
11.2.1 Shop Drawings All steel for use in main load-carrying member com-
ponents subject to tensile stresses shall conform to the ap-
The Contractor shall submit copies of the detailed shop plicable Charpy V-notch Impact Test requirements of
drawings to the Engineer for approval. Working drawings AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709).
shall be submitted sufficiently in advance of the start of the Welded girders made of ASTM A 709, Grade
affected work to allow time for review by the Engineer and HPS70W steels shall be fabricated in accordance with the
corrections by the Contractor without delaying the work. AASHTO Guide Specifications for Highway Bridge Fab-
Working drawings for steel structures shall give full rication with HPS70W Steel, which supplements the
detailed dimensions and sizes of component parts of the ANSI/AASHTO/ AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code.
structure and details of all miscellaneous parts, such as
pins, nuts, bolts, drains, etc. 11.3.1.2 Carbon Steel
Where specific orientation of plates is required, the di-
rection of rolling of plates shall be shown. Unless otherwise specified, structural carbon steel
Working drawings shall specifically identify each for bolted or welded construction shall conform to: Struc-
piece that is to be made of steel which is to be other than tural Steel for Bridges, AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709)
AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36 steel. Grade 36.
11.2.2 Erection Drawings 11.3.1.3 High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural

Steel
The Contractor shall submit drawings illustrating fully
his or her proposed method of erection. The drawings High-strength low-alloy steel shall conform to:
shall show details of all falsework bents, bracing, guys, Structural Steel for Bridges, AASHTO M 270 (ASTM
dead-men, lifting devices, and attachments to the bridge A 709) Grades 50 or 50W.
members: sequence of erection, location of cranes and
barges, crane capacities, location of lifting points on the 11.3.1.4 High-Strength Low-Alloy, Quenched
bridge members, and weights of the members. The plan and Tempered Structural Steel Plate
and drawings shall be complete in detail for all anticipated
phases and conditions during erection. Calculations may High-strength, low-alloy quenched and tempered steel
be required to demonstrate that allowable stresses are not plate shall conform to AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709)
exceeded and that member capacities and final geometry Grade 70W, or Grade HPS70W.
will be correct.
11.3.1.5 High-Yield Strength, Quenched and
11.2.3 Camber Diagram Tempered Alloy Steel Plate
A camber diagram shall be furnished to the Engineer High-yield strength, quenched, and tempered alloy
by the Fabricator, showing the camber at each panel point steel plate shall conform to:
(a) Structural Steel for Bridges, AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 563) Grades DH, DH3, C, C3, and D. Nuts for
(ASTM A 709) Grades 100 or 100W. AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts shall conform to the
(b) Quenched and tempered alloy steel structural shapes requirements of AASHTO M 291 (ASTM A 563) Grades
and seamless mechanical tubing, meeting all of the me- DH and DH3.
chanical and chemical requirements of AASHTO M 270
(ASTM A 709) Grades 100 or 100W steel, except that • Nuts to be galvanized (hot-dip or mechanically gal-
the specified maximum tensile strength may be 140,000 vanized) shall be heat treated Grade DH or DH3.
psi for structural shapes and 145,000 psi for seamless • Plain (ungalvanized) nuts shall have a minimum
mechanical tubing, shall be considered as AASHTO hardness of 89 HRB.
M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 100 and 100W steel. • Nuts to be used with AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A
325) Type 3 bolts shall be of Grade C3 or DH3. Nuts
11.3.1.6 Eyebars to be used with AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490)
bolts shall be of Grade DH3.
Steel for eyebars shall be of a weldable grade. These
grades include structural steel conforming to: All galvanized nuts shall be lubricated with a lubricant
containing a visible dye. Black bolts must be oily to touch
(a) Structural Steel for Bridges, AASHTO M 270 when delivered and installed.
(ASTM A 709) Grade 36. Washers shall be hardened steel washers conforming to
(b) Structural Steel for Bridges, AASHTO M 270 the requirements of AASHTO M 293 (ASTM F 436) and
(ASTM A 709) Grades 50 and 50W. Article 11.5.6.4.3.
11.3.1.7 Structural Tubing
11.3.2.2 Identifying Marks
Structural tubing shall be either cold-formed welded or
seamless tubing conforming to ASTM A 500, Grade B or AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) for bolts and the
hot-formed welded or seamless tubing conforming to specifications referenced therein for nuts require that bolts
ASTM A 501. and nuts manufactured to the specification be identified by
specific markings on the top of the bolt head and on one
11.3.2 High-Strength Fasteners face of the nut. Head markings must identify the grade by
the symbol “A 325,” the manufacturer and the type, if
11.3.2.1 Material Type 2 or 3. Nut markings must identify the grade, the
manufacturer and if Type 3, the type. Markings on direct
High-strength bolts for structural steel joints shall con- tension indicators must identify the manufacturer and
form to either AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) or Type “325.” Other washer markings must identify the
AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490). When high-strength manufacturer and if Type 3, the type.
bolts are used with unpainted weathering grades of steel, AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) for bolts and the
the bolts shall be Type 3. specifications referenced therein for nuts require that bolts
The supplier shall provide a lot number appearing on and nuts manufactured to the specifications be identified
the shipping package and a certification noting when and by specific markings on the top of the bolt head and on one
where all testing was done, including rotational capacity face of the nut. Head markings must identify the grade by
tests, and zinc thickness when galvanized bolts and nuts the symbol “A 490,” the manufacturer and the type, if
are used. Type 2 or 3. Nut markings must identify the grade, the
The maximum hardness for AASHTO M 164 (ASTM manufacturer and if Type 3, the type. Markings on direct
A 325) bolts 1 inch or less in diameter shall be 33 HRC. tension indicators must identify the manufacturer and
Proof load tests (ASTM F 606 Method 1) are required Type “490.” Other washer markings must identify the
for the bolts. Wedge tests of full-sized bolts are required manufacturer and if Type 3, the type.
in accordance with Section 8.3 of AASHTO M 164. Gal-
vanized bolts shall be wedge tested after galvanizing.
Proof load tests (AASHTO M 291) are required for the 11.3.2.3 Dimensions
nuts. The proof load tests for nuts to be used with galva-
nized bolts shall be performed after galvanizing, overtap- Bolt and nut dimensions shall conform to the require-
ping, and lubricating. ments for Heavy Hexagon Structural Bolts and for Heavy
Except as noted below, nuts for AASHTO M 164 Semi-Finished Hexagon Nuts given in ANSI Standard
(ASTM A 325) bolts shall conform to AASHTO M 291 B18.2.1 and B18.2.2, respectively.
11.3.2.4 Galvanized High-Strength Fasteners 11.3.2.6 Load Indicator Devices
When fasteners are galvanized, they shall be specified Load indicating devices may be used in conjunction
to be hot-dip galvanized in accordance with AASHTO M with bolts, nuts, and washers specified in Article 11.3.2.1.
232 (ASTM A 153) Class C or, mechanically galvanized Load indicating devices shall conform to the requirements
in accordance with AASHTO M 298 (ASTM B 695) Class of ASTM Specification for Compressible-Washer Type
50. Bolts to be galvanized shall be either AASHTO M 164 Direct Tension Indicators For Use with Structural Fasten-
(ASTM A 325) Type 1 or Type 2 except that Type 2 bolts ers, ASTM F 959, except as provided in the following
shall only be mechanically galvanized. Galvanized bolts paragraph.
shall be tension tested after galvanizing. Washers, nuts Subject to the approval of the Engineer, alternate design
and bolts of any assembly shall be galvanized by the same direct tension indicating devices may be used provided
process. The nuts should be overtapped to the minimum they satisfy the requirements of Article 11.5.6.4.6 or other
amount required for the fastener assembly, and shall be lu- requirements detailed in specifications provided by the
bricated with a lubricant containing a visible dye so a vis- manufacturer and subject to the approval of the Engineer.
ual check can be made for the lubricant at the time of field
installation. AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts shall 11.3.3 Welded Stud Shear Connectors
not be galvanized.
11.3.3.1 Materials
11.3.2.5 Alternative Fasteners
Shear connector studs shall conform to the require-
Other fasteners or fastener assemblies, such as those ments of Cold Finished-Carbon Steel Bars and Shafting.
conforming to the requirements of ASTM F 1852, which AASHTO M 169 (ASTM A 108), cold drawn bars, grades
meet the materials, manufacturing, and chemical compo- 1015, 1018, or 1020, either semi- or fully killed. If flux re-
sition requirements of AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) or taining caps are used, the steel for the caps shall be of a
AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490), and which meet the me- low carbon grade suitable for welding and shall comply
chanical property requirements of the same specification with Cold-Rolled Carbon Steel Strip, ASTM A 109.
in full-sized tests, and which have body diameter and Tensile properties as determined by tests of bar stock
bearing areas under the head and nut, or their equivalent, after drawing or of finished studs shall conform to the fol-
not less than those provided by a bolt and nut of the same lowing requirements:
nominal dimensions prescribed in Article 11.3.2.3, may
Tensile strength 60,000 psi (min.)
be used, subject to the approval of the Engineer. Such al-
Yield strength* 50,000 psi (min.)
ternate fasteners may differ in other dimensions from
Elongation 20% in 2 inches (min.)
those of the specified bolts and nuts.
Reduction of area 50% (min.)
Subject to the approval of the Engineer, high-strength
*As determined by a 0.2% offset method.
steel lock-pin and collar fasteners may be used as an
alternate for high-strength bolts as shown on the plans.
The shank and head of high-strength steel lock-pin and 11.3.3.2 Test Methods
collar fasteners shall meet the requirements of Article
11.3.2.3. Each fastener shall provide a solid shank body of Tensile properties shall be determined in accordance
sufficient diameter to provide tensile and shear strength with the applicable sections of ASTM A370, Mechanical
equivalent to or greater than that of the bolt specified, Testing of Steel Products. Tensile tests of finished studs
shall have a cold forged head on one end, of type and di- shall be made on studs welded to test plates using a test
mensions as approved by the Engineer, a shank length fixture similar to that shown in Figure 7.2 of the current
suitable for material thickness fastened, locking grooves, ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code. If frac-
breakneck groove and pull grooves (all annular grooves) ture occurs outside of the middle half of the gage length,
on the opposite end. Each fastener shall provide a steel the test shall be repeated.
locking collar of proper size for shank diameter used
which, by means of suitable installation tools, is cold 11.3.3.3 Finish
swaged into the locking grooves forming head for the
grooved end of the fastener after the pull groove section Finished studs shall be of uniform quality and condi-
has been removed. The steel locking collar shall be a stan- tion, free from injurious laps, fins, seams, cracks, twists,
dard product of an established manufacturer of lockpin bends, or other injurious defects. Finish shall be as pro-
and collar fasteners, as approved by the Engineer. duced by cold drawing, cold rolling, or machining.
11.3.3.4 Certification 11.3.6 Iron Castings
The manufacturer shall certify that the studs as deliv- 11.3.6.1 Materials
ered are in accordance with the material requirements of
this section. Certified copies of in-plant quality control (1) Gray Iron Castings—Gray iron castings shall con-
test reports shall be furnished to the Engineer upon form to the Specification for Gray Iron Castings,
request. AASHTO M 105 (ASTM A 48), Class No. 30 unless
otherwise specified.
11.3.3.5 Check Samples (2) Ductile Iron Castings—Ductile iron castings
shall conform to the Specifications for Ductile Iron
The Engineer may select, at the Contractor’s ex- Castings, ASTM A 536, Grade 60-40-18 unless
pense, studs of each type and size used under the con- otherwise specified. In addition to the specified test
tract, as necessary for checking the requirements of this coupons, test specimens from parts integral with the
section. castings, such as risers, shall be tested for castings
weighing more than 1,000 pounds to determine that
the required quality is obtained in the castings in the
11.3.4 Steel Forgings and Steel Shafting
finished condition.
(3) Malleable Castings—Malleable castings shall
11.3.4.1 Steel Forgings
conform to the Specification for Malleable Iron Cast-
ings, ASTM A 47. Grade No. 35018 shall be furnished
Steel forgings shall conform to the Specifications
unless otherwise specified.
for Steel Forgings Carbon and Alloy for General
Use, AASHTO M 102 (ASTM A 668), Classes C, D, F,
or G. 11.3.6.2 Workmanship and Finish
11.3.4.2 Cold Finished Carbon Steel Shafting Iron castings shall be true to pattern in form and di-
mensions, free from pouring faults, sponginess, cracks,
Cold finished carbon steel shafting shall conform to the blow holes, and other defects in positions affecting their
specifications for Cold Finished Carbon Steel Bars Stan- strength and value for the service intended.
dard Quality, AASHTO M 169 (ASTM A 108). Grade Castings shall be boldly filleted at angles and the ar-
10160-10300, inclusive, shall be furnished unless other- rises shall be sharp and perfect.
wise specified.
11.3.5 Steel Castings 11.3.6.3 Cleaning
11.3.5.1 Mild Steel Castings All castings must be sandblasted or otherwise effec-
tively cleaned of scale and sand so as to present a smooth,
Steel castings for use in highway bridge components clean, and uniform surface.
shall conform to Standard Specifications for Steel Cast-
ings for Highway Bridges, AASHTO M 192 (ASTM 11.3.7 Galvanizing
A 486) or Carbon-Steel Castings for General Applica-
tions, AASHTO M 103 (ASTM A 27). The Class 70 or When galvanizing is shown on the plans or spec-
Grade 70-36 of steel, respectively, shall be used unless ified in the special provisions, ferrous metal products,
otherwise specified. other than fasteners and hardware items, shall be gal-
vanized in accordance with the Specifications for
11.3.5.2 Chromium Alloy-Steel Castings Zinc (Hot-Galvanized) Coatings on Products Fabricated
from Rolled, Pressed, and Forged Steel Shape Plates,
Chromium alloy-steel castings shall conform to the Bars, and Strip, AASHTO M 111 (ASTM A 123). Fas-
Specification for Corrosion-Resistant Iron-Chromium, teners and hardware items shall be galvanized in accor-
Iron-Chromium-Nickel and Nickel-Based Alloy Castings dance with the Specification for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip)
for General Application, AASHTO M 163 (ASTM on Iron and Steel Hardware, AASHTO M 232 (ASTM A
A 743). Grade CA 15 shall be furnished unless otherwise 153) except as noted in Article 11.3.2.4 for high-strength
specified. fasteners.
11.4 FABRICATION 11.4.3.2.2 Oxygen Cutting

Oxygen cutting of structural steel shall conform to the
11.4.1 Identification of Steels During Fabrication
requirements of the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5
Bridge Welding Code.
The Contractor’s system of assembly-marking indi-
vidual pieces, and the issuance of cutting instructions to
the shop (generally by cross-referencing of the assembly- 11.4.3.2.3 Visual Inspection and Repair of Plate
marks shown on the shop drawings with the correspond- Cut Edges
ing item covered on the mill purchase order) shall be such
as to maintain identity of the original piece. The Contrac- Visual inspection and repair of plate cut edges shall
tor may furnish from stock, material that can be identified be in accordance with the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS
by heat number and mill test report. D1.5 Bridge Welding Code.
During fabrication, up to the point of assembling
members, each piece of steel, other than Grade 36 11.4.3.3 Bent Plates
steel, shall show clearly and legibly its specification.
Any piece of steel, other than Grade 36 steel, which 11.4.3.3.1 General
prior to assembling into members, will be subject to fab-
ricating operations such as blast cleaning, galvanizing, Cold bending of fracture critical steels and fracture
heating for forming, or painting which might obliterate critical members is prohibited. Perform cold bending of
marking, shall be marked for grade by steel die stamping other steels or members in accordance with the ANSI/
or by a substantial tag firmly attached. Steel die stamps AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code and Table
shall be low stress-type. 11.4.3.3.2, and in a manner such that no cracking occurs.
Upon request, by the Engineer, the Contractor shall
furnish an affidavit certifying that throughout the fabrica- 11.4.3.3.2 Cold Bending
tion operation the identification of steel has been main-
tained in accordance with this specification. For bent plates, the bend radius and the radius of the
male die should be as liberal as the finished part will per-
11.4.2 Storage of Materials mit. The width across the shoulders of the female die
should be at least 8 times the plate thickness for Grade 36
Structural material, either plain or fabricated, shall be steel. Higher strength steels require larger die openings.
stored above the ground on platforms, skids, or other sup- The surface of the dies in the area of radius should be
ports. It shall be kept free from dirt, grease, and other for- smooth.
eign matter, and shall be protected as far as practicable Where the concave face of a bent plate must fit tightly
from corrosion. See Article 11.5.6.4 for storage of high- against another surface, the male die should be sufficiently
strength fasteners. thick and have the proper radius to ensure that the bent
plate has the required concave surface.
11.4.3 Plates Since cracks in cold bending commonly originate from
the outside edges, shear burrs and gas cut edges should be
11.4.3.1 Direction of Rolling removed by grinding. Sharp corners on edges and on
punched or gas cut holes should be removed by chamfer-
Unless otherwise shown on the plans, steel plates for ing or grinding to a radius.
main members and splice plates for flanges and main ten- Unless otherwise approved, the minimum bend radii
sion members, not secondary members, shall be cut and for cold forming (at room temperature), measured to the
fabricated so that the primary direction of rolling is paral- concave face of the plate, are given in Table 11.4.3.3.2. If
lel to the direction of the main tensile and/or compressive a smaller radius is required, heat may be needed to be a
stresses.
part of the bending procedure. Provide the heating proce-
dure for review by the Engineer. For grades not included
11.4.3.2 Plate Cut Edges
in Table 11.4.3.3.2, follow minimum bend radii recom-
mendations of the plate producer.
11.4.3.2.1 Edge Planing
If possible, orient bend lines perpendicular to the di-
Sheared edges of plate more than 5 ⁄ 8 inch in thickness rection of final rolling of the plate. If the bend line is par-
and carrying calculated stress shall be planed, milled, allel to the direction of final rolling, multiply the sug-
ground, or thermal cut to a depth of 1 ⁄ 4 inch. gested minimum radii in Table 11.4.3.3.2 by 1.5.
TABLE 11.4.3.3.2 Minimum Cold-Bending Radii ness requirements as defined in ANSI B46.1, Surface
Thickness Up to Over 3/4 Over 1
Roughness, Waviness and Lay, Part I:
Inches (t) 3/4 to 1, incl. to 2, incl. Over 2
Steel slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANSI 2,000
ASTM A 709/ Heavy plates in contact in shoes to
AASHTO M 270 be welded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANSI 1,000
Grades
Milled ends of compression members,
36 1.5t 1.5t 1.5t 2.0t
50 1.5t 1.5t 2.0t 2.5t
milled or ground ends of stiffeners
50W 1.5t 1.5t 2.0t 2.5t and fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANSI 500
HPS70W 1.5t 1.5t 2.5t 3.0t Bridge rollers and rockers. . . . . . . . . . ANSI 250
100 1.75t 2.25t 4.5t 5.5t Pins and pin holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANSI 125
100W 1.75t 2.25t 4.5t 5.5t Sliding bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANSI 125
11.4.7 Straightening Material

11.4.3.3.3 Hot Bending
The straightening of plates, angles, other shapes, and
If a radius shorter than the minimum specified for cold built-up members, when permitted by the Engineer, shall be
bending is essential, the plates shall be bent hot at a tem- done by methods that will not produce fracture or other in-
perature not greater than 1,200°F, except for Grades 70W, jury to the metal. Distorted members shall be straightened
100 and 100W. If Grades 100 and 100W steel plates to be by mechanical means or, if approved by the Engineer, by
bent are heated to a temperature greater than 1,100°F, or carefully planned procedures and supervised application of
Grade 70W plates to be bent are heated to a temperature a limited amount of localized heat, except that heat straight-
greater than 1,050°F, they must be requenched and tem- ening of AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades 70W,
pered in accordance with the producing mill’s practice HPS70W, 100 and 100W steel members shall be done only
and tested to verify restoration of specified properties, as under rigidly controlled procedures, each application sub-
directed by the Engineer. Grade HPS70W steel to be bent ject to the approval of the Engineer. In no case shall the
shall not be heated to a temperature greater than 1,100°F. maximum temperature exceed values in the following table.
Requenching and tempering is not required for Grade
Grade 70W 1,050°F
HPS70W steel heated to this limit. Grade HPS70W 1,100°F
Grade 100 or 100W 1,100°F
11.4.4 Fit of Stiffeners
In all other steels, the temperature of the heated area shall
End bearing stiffeners for girders and stiffeners in- not exceed 1,200°F as controlled by temperature indicating
tended as supports for concentrated loads shall have full crayons, liquids, or bimetal thermometers. Heating in ex-
bearing (either milled, ground or, on weldable steel in cess of the limits shown shall be cause for rejection, unless
compression areas of flanges, welded as shown on the the Engineer allows testing to verify material integrity.
plans or specified) on the flanges to which they transmit Parts to be heat straightened shall be substantially free
load or from which they receive load. Intermediate stiff- of stress and from external forces, except stresses result-
eners not intended to support concentrated loads, unless ing from mechanical means used in conjunction with the
shown or specified otherwise, shall have a tight fit against application of heat.
the compression flange. Evidence of fracture following straightening of a bend
or buckle will be cause for rejection of the damaged piece.
11.4.5 Abutting Joints
11.4.8 Bolt Holes
Abutting joints in compression members of trusses and
11.4.8.1 Holes for High-Strength Bolts and
columns shall be milled or saw-cut to give a square joint
Unfinished Bolts*
and uniform bearing. At other joints, not required to be
faced, the opening shall not exceed 3 ⁄ 8 inch.
11.4.8.1.1 General
11.4.6 Facing of Bearing Surfaces All holes for bolts shall be either punched or drilled ex-
cept as noted herein. Material forming parts of a member
The surface finish of bearing and base plates and other
bearing surfaces that are to come in contact with each *See Article 11.5.5 for bolts included in designation “Unfinished
other or with concrete shall meet the ANSI surface rough- Bolts.”
composed of not more than five thicknesses of metal may 11.4.8.2 Accuracy of Hole Group
be punched 1 ⁄ 16 inch larger than the nominal diameter of
the bolts whenever the thickness of the material is not 11.4.8.2.1 Accuracy Before Reaming
greater than 3 ⁄ 4 inch for structural steel, 5 ⁄ 8 inch for high-
All holes punched full size, subpunched, or subdrilled
strength steel or 1 ⁄ 2 inch for quenched and tempered alloy
shall be so accurately punched that after assembling (be-
steel, unless subpunching and reaming are required under
fore any reaming is done) a cylindrical pin 1 ⁄ 8 inch smaller
Article 11.4.8.5.
in diameter than the nominal size of the punched hole may
When material is thicker than 3 ⁄ 4 inch for structural
be entered perpendicular to the face of the member, with-
steel, 5 ⁄ 8 inch for high-strength steel, or 1 ⁄ 2 inch for
out drifting, in at least 75% of the contiguous holes in the
quenched and tempered alloy steel, all holes shall either
same plane. If the requirement is not fulfilled, the badly
be subdrilled and reamed or drilled full size. Also, when
punched pieces will be rejected. If any hole will not pass
more than five thicknesses are joined, or as required by
a pin 3⁄ 16 inch smaller in diameter than the nominal size of
Article 11.4.8.5, material shall be subdrilled and reamed
the punched hole, this will be cause for rejection.
or drilled full size while in assembly.
When required, all holes shall be either subpunched or
11.4.8.2.2 Accuracy After Reaming
subdrilled (subdrilled if thickness limitation governs) 3 ⁄ 16
inch smaller and, after assembling, reamed 1 ⁄ 16 inch larger When holes are reamed or drilled, 85% of the holes in
or drilled full size to 1 ⁄ 16 inch larger than the nominal any contiguous group shall, after reaming or drilling,
diameter of the bolts. show no offset greater than 1 ⁄ 32 inch between adjacent
When shown on the plans, enlarged or slotted holes are thicknesses of metal.
allowed with high-strength bolts. All steel templates shall have hardened steel bushings
in holes accurately dimensioned from the center lines of
11.4.8.1.2 Punched Holes the connection as inscribed on the template. The center
lines shall be used in locating accurately the template
The diameter of the die shall not exceed the diameter from the milled or scribed ends of the members.
of the punch by more than 1 ⁄ 16 inch. If any holes must be
enlarged to admit the bolts, such holes shall be reamed. 11.4.8.3 Numerically Controlled Drilled Field
Holes must be clean cut without torn or ragged edges. The Connections
slightly conical hole that naturally results from punching
operations is considered acceptable. In lieu of subsized holes and reaming while assembled,
or drilling holes full-size while assembled, the Contractor
11.4.8.1.3 Reamed or Drilled Holes shall have the option to drill or punch bolt holes full-size
Reamed or drilled holes shall be cylindrical, perpen- in unassembled pieces and/or connections including tem-
dicular to the member, and shall comply with the require- plates for use with matching subsized and reamed holes,
ments of Article 11.4.8.1.1 as to size. Where practical, by means of suitable numerically controlled (N/C) drilling
reamers shall be directed by mechanical means. Burrs on or punching equipment. Full-sized punched holes shall
the outside surfaces shall be removed. Reaming and meet the requirements of Article 11.4.8.1.
drilling shall be done with twist drills, twist reamers or ro- If N/C drilling or punching equipment is used, the Con-
tobroach cutters. Connecting parts requiring reamed or tractor, by means of check assemblies, will be required to
drilled holes shall be assembled and securely held while demonstrate the accuracy of this drilling or punching pro-
being reamed or drilled and shall be match marked before cedure in accordance with the provisions of Article
disassembling. 11.5.3.3.
Holes drilled or punched by N/C equipment shall be
drilled or punched to appropriate size either through indi-
11.4.8.1.4 Accuracy of Holes
vidual pieces, or drilled through any combination of
Holes not more than 1 ⁄ 32 inch larger in diameter than pieces held tightly together.
the true decimal equivalent of the nominal diameter that
may result from a drill or reamer of the nominal diameter 11.4.8.4 Holes for Ribbed Bolts, Turned Bolts, or
are considered acceptable. The width of slotted holes Other Approved Bearing Type Bolts
which are produced by flame cutting or a combination of
drilling or punching and flame cutting shall generally be All holes for ribbed bolts, turned bolts, or other ap-
not more than 1 ⁄ 32 inch greater than the nominal width. The proved bearing-type bolts shall be subpunched or sub-
flame cut surface shall be ground smooth. drilled 3⁄ 16 inch smaller than the nominal diameter of the
bolt and reamed when assembled, or drilled to a steel 11.4.9.2 Boring Pin Holes
template or, after assembling, drilled from the solid at the
option of the Fabricator. In any case the finished holes Pin holes shall be bored true to the specified diameter,
shall provide a driving fit as specified on the plans or in smooth and straight, at right angles with the axis of the
the special provisions. member and parallel with each other unless otherwise
required. The final surface shall be produced by a finish-
11.4.8.5 Preparation of Field Connections ing cut.
The diameter of the pin hole shall not exceed that of the
Holes in all field connections and field splices of main pin by more than 1 ⁄ 50 inch for pins 5 inches or less in
member of trusses, arches, continuous beam spans, bents, diameter, or by 1 ⁄ 32 inch for larger pins.
towers (each face), plate girders, and rigid frames shall The distance outside to outside of end holes in tension
be subpunched or subdrilled and subsequently reamed members and inside to inside of end holes in compression
while assembled or drilled full size through a steel tem- members shall not vary from that specified more than 1 ⁄ 32
plate while assembled. Holes for field splices of rolled inch. Boring of pin holes in built-up members shall be
beam stringers continuous over floor beams or cross done after the member has been assembled.
frames may be drilled full size unassembled to a steel
template. All holes for floor beams or cross frames may 11.4.9.3 Threads for Bolts and Pins
be drilled full size unassembled to a steel template, ex-
cept that all holes for floor beam and stringer field end Threads for all bolts and pins for structural steel con-
connections shall be subpunched and reamed while as- struction shall conform to the United Standard Series
sembled or drilled full size to a steel template. Reaming UNC ANSI B1.1, Class 2A for external threads and Class
or drilling full size of field connection holes through a 2B for internal threads, except that pin ends having a di-
steel template shall be done after the template has been ameter of 13 ⁄ 8 inches or more shall be threaded six threads
located with utmost care as to position and angle and to the inch.
firmly bolted in place. Templates used for reaming
matching members, or the opposite faces of a single 11.4.10 Eyebars
member shall be exact duplicates. Templates used for
connections on like parts or members shall be so accu- Pin holes may be flame cut at least 2 inches smaller in
rately located that the parts or members are duplicates diameter than the finished pin diameter. All eyebars that
and require no match-marking. are to be placed side by side in the structure shall be se-
curely fastened together in the order that they will be
For any connection, in lieu of subpunching and ream-
placed on the pin and bored at both ends while so
ing or subdrilling and reaming, the fabricator may, at his
clamped. Eyebars shall be packed and match-marked for
option, drill holes full size with all thicknesses or mate-
shipment and erection. All identifying marks shall be
rial assembled in proper position.
stamped with steel stencils on the edge of one head of
each member after fabrication is completed so as to be vis-
11.4.9 Pins and Rollers ible when the bars are nested in place on the structure.
Steel die stamps shall be low stress type. No welding is al-
11.4.9.1 General lowed on eyebars or to secure adjacent eyebars.
The eyebars shall be straight and free from twists and
Pins and rollers shall be accurately turned to the the pin holes shall be accurately located on the center line
dimensions shown on the drawings and shall be straight, of the bar. The inclination of any bar to the plane of the
smooth, and free from flaws. Pins and rollers more than truss shall not exceed 1 ⁄ 16 inch to a foot.
9 inches in diameter shall be forged and annealed. Pins The edges of eyebars that lie between the transverse
and rollers 9 inches or less in diameter may be either center line of their pin holes shall be cut simultaneously
forged and annealed or cold-finished carbon-steel with two mechanically operated torches abreast of each
shafting. other, guided by a substantial template, in such a manner
In pins larger than 9 inches in diameter, a hole not less as to prevent distortion of the plates.
than 2 inches in diameter shall be bored full length along
the axis after the forging has been allowed to cool to a 11.4.11 Annealing and Stress Relieving
temperature below the critical range, under suitable con-
ditions to prevent injury by too rapid cooling, and before Structural members which are indicated in the contract
being annealed. to be annealed or normalized shall have finished machin-
ing, boring, and straightening done subsequent to heat perature to obtain the required curvature. For the V-type
treatment. Normalizing and annealing (full annealing) heating, the top and bottom flanges shall be heated in trun-
shall be as specified in ASTM E 44. The temperatures cated triangular or wedge-shaped areas having their base
shall be maintained uniformly throughout the furnace dur- along the flange edge and spaced at regular intervals along
ing the heating and cooling so that the temperature at no each flange; the spacing and temperature shall be as re-
two points on the member will differ by more than 100°F quired to obtain the required curvature, and heating shall
at any one time. progress along the top and bottom flange at approximately
Members of AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grades the same rate.
100/100W or Grade 70W steels shall not be annealed or For the V-type heating, the apex of the truncated trian-
normalized and shall be stress relieved only with the ap- gular area applied to the inside flange surface shall termi-
proval of the Engineer. nate just before the juncture of the web and the flange is
A record of each furnace charge shall identify the reached. To avoid unnecessary web distortion, special
pieces in the charge and show the temperatures and sched- care shall be taken when heating the inside flange surfaces
ule actually used. Proper instruments, including recording (the surfaces that intersect the web) so that heat is not ap-
pyrometers, shall be provided for determining at any time plied directly to the web. When the radius of curvature is
the temperatures of members in the furnace. The records 1,000 feet or more, the apex of the truncated triangular
of the treatment operation shall be available to and meet heating pattern applied to the outside flange surface shall
the approval of the Engineer. The holding temperature for extend to the juncture of the flange and web. When the ra-
stress relieving Grades HPS70W and 100/100W shall not dius of curvature is less than 1,000 feet, the apex of the
exceed 1,100°F and for Grade 70W shall not exceed truncated triangular heating pattern applied to the outside
1,050°F. flange surface shall extend past the web for a distance
Members, such as bridge shoes, pedestals, or other equal to one-eighth of the flange width or 3 inches,
parts that are built up by welding sections of plate together whichever is less. The truncated triangular pattern shall
shall be stress relieved in accordance with the procedure have an included angle of approximately 15 to 30°, but the
of Section 4.4 of the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 base of the triangle shall not exceed 10 inches. Variations
Bridge Welding Code, when required by the plans, speci- in the patterns prescribed above may be made with the ap-
fications, or special provisions governing the contract. proval of the Engineer.
For both types of heating, the flange edges to be heated
11.4.12 Curved Girders are those that will be on the inside of the horizontal curve
after cooling. Heating both inside and outside flange sur-
11.4.12.1 General faces is only mandatory when the flange thickness is 11 ⁄ 4
inches or greater, in which case, the two surfaces shall be
Flanges of curved, welded girders may be cut to the heated concurrently. The maximum temperature shall be
radii shown on the plans or curved by applying heat as prescribed as follows.
specified in the succeeding articles providing the radii is
not less than allowed by Article 10.15.2 of Division I. 11.4.12.2.3 Temperature
The heat-curving operation shall be conducted in such
11.4.12.2 Heat Curving Rolled Beams and
a manner that the temperature of the steel does not exceed
Welded Girders
1,200°F for Grades 36, 50 and 50W; 1,100°F for Grades
HPS70W and 100/100W; and 1,050°F for Grade 70W as
11.4.12.2.1 Materials
measured by temperature indicating crayons or other suit-
Except for Grade HPS70W steel, steels that are manu- able means. The girder shall not be artificially cooled until
factured to a specified minimum yield point greater than after naturally cooling to 600°F. The method of artificial
50,000 psi shall not be heat curved. cooling is subject to the approval of the Engineer.
11.4.12.2.2 Type of Heating 11.4.12.2.4 Position for Heating

Beams and girders may be curved by either continuous The girder may be heat-curved with the web in either
or V-type heating as approved by the Engineer. For the a vertical or a horizontal position. When curved in the ver-
continuous method, a strip or intermittent strips along the tical position, the girder must be braced or supported in
edge of the top and bottom flange shall be heated approx- such a manner that the tendency of the girder to deflect lat-
imately simultaneously depending on flange widths and erally during the heat-curving process will not cause the
thicknesses; the strip shall be of sufficient width and tem- girder to overturn.
When curved in the horizontal position, the girder 11.4.13 Orthotropic-Deck Superstructures
must be supported near its ends and at intermediate
points, if required, to obtain a uniform curvature; the 11.4.13.1 General
bending stress in the flanges due to the dead weight of the
girder and externally applied loads must not exceed the Dimensional tolerance limits for orthotropic-deck
usual allowable design stress. When the girder is posi- bridge members shall be applied to each completed
tioned horizontally for heating, intermediate safety catch but unloaded member and shall be as specified in Arti-
blocks must be maintained at the mid-length of the girder cle 3.5 of the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge
within 2 inches of the flanges at all times during the heat- Welding Code except as follows. The deviation from de-
ing process to guard against a sudden sag due to plastic tailed flatness, straightness, or curvature at any point
flange buckling. shall be the perpendicular distance from that point to a
template edge which has the detailed straightness or cur-
vature and which is in contact with the element at two
11.4.12.2.5 Sequence of Operations
other points. The term element as used herein refers to
The girder shall be heat-curved in the fabrication individual panels, stiffeners, flanges, or other pieces.
shop before it is painted. The heat curving operation may The template edge may have any length not exceeding
be conducted either before or after all the required the greatest dimension of the element being examined
welding of transverse intermediate stiffeners is com- and, for any panel, not exceeding 1.5 times the least
pleted. However, unless provisions are made for girder dimension of the panel; it may be placed anywhere
shrinkage, connection plates and bearing stiffeners shall within the boundaries of the element. The deviation shall
be located and attached after heat curving. If longitudinal be measured between adjacent points of contact of the
stiffeners are required, they shall be heat-curved or template edge with the element; the distance between
oxygen-cut separately and then welded to the curved these adjacent points of contact shall be used in the for-
girder. When cover plates are to be attached to rolled mulas to establish the tolerance limits for the segment
beams, they may be attached before heat curving if the being measured whenever this distance is less than the
total thickness of one flange and cover plate is less than applicable dimension of the element specified for the
21⁄ 2 inches and the radius of curvature is greater than formula.
1,000 feet. For other rolled beams with cover plates,
the beams must be heat-curved before the cover plates
are attached; cover plates must be either heat curved or 11.4.13.2 Flatness of Panels
oxygen-cut separately and then welded to the curved
beam. (a) The term “panel” as used in this article means a
clear area of steel plate surface bounded by stiffeners,
webs, flanges, or plate edges and not further subdivided
11.4.12.2.6 Camber
by any such elements. The provisions of this article apply
Girders shall be cambered before heat curving. to all panels in the bridge; for plates stiffened on one side
Camber for rolled beams may be obtained by heat- only such as orthotropic-deck plates or flanges of box
cambering methods approved by the Engineer. For girders, this includes the total clear width on the side with-
plate girders, the web shall be cut to the prescribed cam- out stiffeners as well as the panels between stiffeners on
ber with suitable allowance for shrinkage due to cutting, the side with stiffeners.
welding, and heat curving. However, subject to the (b) The maximum deviation from detailed flatness or
approval of the Engineer, moderate deviations from curvature of a panel shall not exceed the greater of:
specified camber may be corrected by a carefully super-
vised application of heat.
D
3
⁄ 16 inch or inch
11.4.12.2.7 Measurement of Curvature 144 T
and Camber
where,
Horizontal curvature and vertical camber shall be
measured for final acceptance after all welding and heat- D 5 the least dimension in inches along the bound-
ing operations are completed and the flanges have cooled ary of the panel
to a uniform temperature. Horizontal curvature shall be T 5 the minimum thickness in inches of the plate
checked with the girder in the vertical position. comprising the panel.
11.4.13.3 Straightness of Longitudinal Stiffeners being excessively stressed, deformed, or otherwise

Subject to Calculated Compressive damaged.
Stress, Including Orthotropic-Deck Bolts, nuts and washers (where required) from each ro-
Ribs tational-capacity lot shall be shipped in the same con-
tainer. If there is only one production lot number for each
The maximum deviation from detailed straightness or size of nut and washer, the nuts and washers may be
curvature in any direction perpendicular to its length of a shipped in separate containers. Pins, small parts and pack-
longitudinal web stiffener or other stiffener subject to cal- ages of bolts, washers, and nuts shall be shipped in boxes,
culated compressive stress shall not exceed: crates, kegs, or barrels, but the gross weight of any pack-
age shall not exceed 300 pounds. A list and description of
L
the contained materials shall be plainly marked on the out-
480 side of each shipping container.
where L 5 the length of the stiffener or rib between cross
members, webs, or flanges, in inches. 11.5 ASSEMBLY
11.4.13.4 Straightness of Transverse Web 11.5.1 Bolting

Stiffeners and Other Stiffeners not
Subject to Calculated Compressive Surfaces of metal in contact shall be cleaned before as-
Stress sembling. The parts of a member shall be assembled, well
pinned, and firmly drawn together before drilling, ream-
The maximum deviation from detailed straightness or ing, or bolting is commenced. Assembled pieces shall be
curvature in any direction perpendicular to its length of a taken apart, if necessary, for the removal of burrs and
transverse web stiffener or other stiffener not subject to shavings produced by the operation. The member shall be
calculated compressive stress shall not exceed: free from twists, bends, and other deformation.
The drifting done during assembling shall be only such
L
as to bring the parts into position and not sufficient to en-
240 large the holes or distort the metal.
where L 5 the length of the stiffener between cross mem-
bers, webs, or flanges, in inches. 11.5.2 Welded Connections
11.4.14 Full-Sized Tests Surfaces and edges to be welded shall be smooth, uni-
form, clean and free of defects which would adversely af-
When full-sized tests of fabricated structural members fect the quality of the weld. Edge preparation shall be
or eyebars are required by the contract, the Contractor done in accordance with the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS
shall provide suitable facilities, material, supervision, and D1.5 Bridge Welding Code.
labor necessary for making and recording the required
tests. The members tested in accordance with the contract 11.5.3 Preassembly of Field Connections
shall be paid for in accordance with Article 11.7.2.
11.5.3.1 General
11.4.15 Marking and Shipping
Field connections of main members of trusses, arches,
Each member shall be painted or marked with an erec- continuous beams, plate girders, bents, towers and rigid
tion mark for identification and an erection diagram show- frames shall be preassembled prior to erection as nec-
ing these marks shall be furnished to the Engineer. essary to verify the geometry of the completed structure
The Contractor shall furnish to the Engineer as many or unit and to verify or prepare field splices. Attaining
copies of material orders, shipping statements, and erec- accurate geometry is the responsibility of the Contractor
tion diagrams as the Engineer may direct. The weights of who shall propose an appropriate method of preassembly
the individual members shall be shown on the statements. for approval by the Engineer. The method and details of
Members weighing more than 3 tons shall have the preassembly shall be consistent with the erection proce-
weights marked thereon. Structural members shall be dure shown on the erection plans and camber diagrams
loaded on trucks or cars in such a manner that they may prepared by the Contractor and approved by the Engi-
be transported and unloaded at their destination without neer. As a minimum, the preassembly procedure shall
consist of assembling three contiguous panels accurately 11.5.3.4 Field Welded Connections
adjusted for line and camber. Successive assemblies
shall consist of at least one section or panel of the previ- For field welded connections the fit of members in-
ous assembly (repositioned if necessary and adequately cluding the proper space between abutting flanges shall be
pinned to assure accurate alignment) plus two or more prepared or verified with the segment preassembled in ac-
sections or panels added at the advancing end. In the cordance with Article 11.5.3.1.
case of structures longer than 150 feet, each assembly
shall be not less than 150 feet long regardless of the 11.5.4 Match Marking
length of individual continuous panels or sections. At the
option of the fabricator, sequence of assembly may start Connecting parts preassembled in the shop to assure
from any location in the structure and proceed in one or proper fit in the field shall be match-marked, and a
both directions so long as the preceding requirements are diagram showing such marks shall be furnished to the
satisfied. Engineer.
11.5.5 Connections Using Unfinished, Turned or

11.5.3.2 Bolted Connections
Ribbed Bolts
For bolted connections holes shall be prepared as out-
11.5.5.1 General
lined in Article 11.4.8. Where applicable, major compo-
nents shall be assembled with milled ends of compression
When unfinished bolts are specified, the bolts shall be
members in full bearing and then shall have their subsized
unfinished, turned, or ribbed bolts conforming to the re-
holes reamed to the specified size while the connections
quirements for Grade A Bolts of Standard Specification
are assembled.
for Carbon Steel Bolts and Studs, 60,000 PSI Tensile
Strength, ASTM A 307. Bolts shall have single self-lock-
11.5.3.3 Check Assembly—Numerically ing nuts or double nuts unless otherwise shown on the
Controlled Drilling plans or in the special provisions. Beveled washers shall
be used where bearing faces have a slope of more than
When the contractor elects to use numerically 1:20 with respect to a plane normal to the bolt axis. The
controlled drilling, a check assembly shall be required specifications of this article do not pertain to the use of
for each major structural type of each project, unless high-strength bolts. Bolted connections fabricated with
otherwise designated on the plans or in the special high-strength bolts shall conform to Article 11.5.6.
provisions, and shall consist of at least three contiguous
shop sections or, in a truss, all members in at least three 11.5.5.2 Turned Bolts
contiguous panels but not less than the number of panels
associated with three contiguous chord lengths (i.e., The surface of the body of turned bolts shall meet the
length between field splices). Check assemblies should be ANSI roughness rating value of 125. Heads and nuts shall
based on the proposed order of erection, joints in bearings, be hexagonal with standard dimensions for bolts of the
special complex points, and similar considerations. nominal size specified or the next larger nominal size. Di-
Special points could be the portals of skewed trusses, for ameter of threads shall be equal to the body of the bolt or
example. the nominal diameter of the bolt specified. Holes for turned
The check assemblies shall preferably be the first sec- bolts shall be carefully reamed with bolts furnished to pro-
tions of each major structural type to be fabricated. vide for a light driving fit. Threads shall be entirely outside
Shop assemblies other than the check assemblies will of the holes. A washer shall be provided under the nut.
not be required.
If the check assembly fails in some specific manner to 11.5.5.3 Ribbed Bolts
demonstrate that the required accuracy is being obtained,
further check assemblies may be required by the Engineer The body of ribbed bolts shall be of an approved form
for which there shall be no additional cost to the Depart- with continuous longitudinal ribs. The diameter of the
ment. body measured on a circle through the points of the ribs
Each assembly, including camber, alignment, accuracy shall be 5 ⁄ 64 inch greater than the nominal diameter speci-
of holes, and fit of milled joints, shall be approved by the fied for the bolts.
Engineer before reaming is commenced or before an N/C Ribbed bolts shall be furnished with round heads con-
drilled check assembly is dismantled. forming to ANSI B 18.5 unless otherwise specified. Nuts
shall be hexagonal, either recessed or with a washer of eign material. Burrs that would prevent solid seating of the
suitable thickness. Ribbed bolts shall make a driving fit connected parts in the snug condition shall be removed.
with the holes. The hardness of the ribs shall be such that Paint is permitted on the faying surface including slip
the ribs do not mash down enough to permit the bolts to critical joints when designed in accordance with Articles
turn in the holes during tightening. If for any reason the 10.32.3, or 10.56.1.3, Division I.
bolt twists before drawing tight, the hole shall be carefully The faying surfaces of slip-critical connections shall meet
reamed and an oversized bolt used as a replacement. the requirements of the following paragraphs, as applicable:
(1) In noncoated joints, paint, including any inadver-
11.5.6 Connections Using High-Strength Bolts tent overspray, shall be excluded from areas closer than
one-bolt diameter, but not less than 1 inch, from the edge
11.5.6.1 General of any hole and all areas within the bolt pattern.
(2) Joints specified to have painted faying surfaces
This article covers the assembly of structural joints shall be blast cleaned and coated with a paint which has
using AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) or AASHTO M been qualified in accordance with requirements of Articles
253 (ASTM A 490) high-strength bolts, or equivalent fas- 10.32.3.2.3 or 10.57.3.3, Division I.
teners, installed so as to develop the minimum required (3) Coated joints shall not be assembled before the
bolt tension specified in Table 11.5A. The bolts are used coating has cured for the minimum time used in the qual-
in holes conforming to the requirements of Article 11.4.8. ifying test.
(4) Faying surfaces specified to be galvanized shall be
11.5.6.2 Bolted Parts hot-dip galvanized in accordance with AASHTO M 111
(ASTM A 123), and shall subsequently be roughened by
All material within the grip of the bolt shall be steel, means of hand wire brushing. Power wire brushing is not
there shall be no compressible material such as gaskets or permitted.
insulation within the grip. Bolted steel parts shall fit
solidly together after the bolts are snugged, and may be
11.5.6.4 Installation
coated or uncoated. The slope of the surfaces of parts in
contact with the bolt head or nut shall not exceed 1:20
11.5.6.4.1 General
with respect to a plane normal to the bolt axis.
Fastener components shall be assigned lot numbers
11.5.6.3 Surface Conditions (including rotational-capacity lot numbers) prior to ship-
ping, and components shall be assembled when installed.
At the time of assembly, all joint surfaces, including sur- Such components shall be protected from dirt and moisture
faces adjacent to the bolt head and nut, shall be free of scale, at the job site. Remove from protective storage only the
except tight mill scale, and shall be free of dirt or other for- number of anticipated components to be installed during a
work shift. Components not used shall be returned to pro-
tected storage at the end of the shift. Components shall not
TABLE 11.5A Required Fastener Tension
Minimum Bolt Tension in Pounds* be cleaned of lubricant that is required to be present in as-
delivered condition. Assemblies for slip-critical connec-
tions which accumulate rust or dirt resulting from job site
conditions shall be cleaned, relubricated and tested for ro-
tational-capacity prior to installation. All galvanized nuts
shall be lubricated with a lubricant containing a visible
dye. Plain bolts must be “oily” to touch when delivered
and installed. Lubricant on exposed surfaces shall be re-
moved prior to painting.
A bolt tension measuring device (a Skidmore-Wilhelm
Calibrator or other acceptable bolt tension indicating de-
vice) shall be at all job sites where high-strength bolts are
being installed and tensioned. The tension measuring de-
vice shall be used to perform the rotational-capacity test
and to confirm (1) the suitability to satisfy the require-
ments of Table 11.5A of the complete fastener assembly,
including lubrication if required to be used in the work,
(2) calibration of the wrenches, if applicable, and (3) the TABLE 11.5B Nut Rotation from the Snug-Tight
understanding and proper use by the bolting crew of the Conditiona,b Geometry of Outer Faces of Bolted Parts
installation method. To perform the calibrated wrench
verification test for short grip bolts, direct tension indica-
tors (DTI) with solid plates may be used in lieu of a ten-
sion measuring device. The DTI lot shall be first verified
with a longer grip bolt in the Skidmore-Wilhelm Calibra-
tor or an acceptable equivalent device. The frequency of
confirmation testing, the number of tests to be performed,
and the test procedure shall be as specified in Articles
11.5.6.4.4 through 11.5.6.4.7, as applicable. The accuracy
of the tension measuring device shall be confirmed by an
approved testing agency at least annually.
Bolts and nuts together with washers of size and quality
specified, located as required below, shall be installed in
properly aligned holes and tensioned and inspected by any
of the installation methods described in Articles 11.5.6.4.4
through 11.5.6.4.7 to at least the minimum tension speci-
fied in Table 11.5A. Tensioning may be done by turning the
bolt while the nut is prevented from rotating when it is im-
practical to turn the nut. Impact wrenches, if used, shall be
of adequate capacity and sufficiently supplied with air to
tension each bolt in approximately 10 seconds.
AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) fasteners and galva-
nized AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) fasteners shall not
be reused. Other AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) bolts
may be reused if approved by the Engineer. Touching up
or retensioning previously tensioned bolts which may
have been loosened by the tensioning of adjacent bolts
shall not be considered as reuse provided the tensioning
continues from the initial position and does not require
greater rotation, including the tolerance, than that required
by Table 11.5B.
Bolts shall be installed in all holes of the connection
and the connection brought to a snug condition. Snug is de- washers are not required by the installation procedures,
fined as having all plies of the connection in firm contact. they need not be included in the lot identification.
Snugging shall progress systematically from the most (c) A rotational-capacity lot number shall have been
rigid part of the connection to the free edges. The snug- assigned to each combination of lots tested.
ging sequence shall be repeated until the full connection (d) The minimum frequency of testing shall be two
is in a snug condition.
assemblies per rotational-capacity lot.
(e) For bolts that are long enough to fit in a Skidmore-
11.5.6.4.2 Rotational-Capacity Tests
Wilhelm Calibrator, the bolt, nut and washer assembly
Rotational-capacity testing is required for all fastener shall be assembled in a Skidmore-Wilhelm Calibrator
assemblies. Galvanized assemblies shall be tested galva- or an acceptable equivalent device.
nized. Washers are required as part of the test even though (f) Bolts that are too short to be tested in a Skidmore-
they may not be required as part of the installation proce- Wilhelm Calibrator may be tested in a steel joint. The
dure. The following shall apply: tension requirement, in (g) below, need not apply. The
maximum torque requirement, torque , 0.25 PD, shall
(a) Except as modified herein, the rotational-capacity be computed using a value of P equal to the turn test
test shall be performed in accordance with the require- tension taken as 1.15 times the bolt tension in Table
ments of AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325). 11.5A.
(b) Each combination of bolt production lot, nut lot (g) The tension reached at the below rotation (i.e., turn-
and washer lot shall be tested as an assembly. Where test tension) shall be equal to or greater than 1.15 times
the required fastener tension (i.e., installation tension) ers conforming to AASHTO M 293 (ASTM F 436)
shown in Table 11.5A. except with 5 ⁄ 16 inch minimum thickness shall be
(h) The minimum rotation from an initial tension of used under both the head and the nut in lieu of stan-
10% of the minimum required tension (snug condition) dard thickness hardened washers. Multiple hard-
shall be two times the required number of turns indi- ened washers with combined thickness equal to or
cated in Table 11.5B without stripping or failure. greater than 5 ⁄ 16 inch do not satisfy this requirement.
(i) After the required installation tension listed above • Where AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) bolts of
has been exceeded, one reading of tension and torque any diameter or AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490)
shall be taken and recorded. The torque value shall bolts equal to or less than 1 inch in diameter are to
conform to the following: be installed in a long slotted hole in an outer ply, a
plate washer or continuous bar of at least 5⁄ 16 inch
Torque # 0.25 PD thickness with standard holes shall be provided.
These washers or bars shall have a size sufficient to
Where: completely cover the slot after installation and shall
Torque 5 measured torque (foot-pounds) be of structural grade material, but need not be
P 5 measured bolt tension (pounds) hardened except as follows. When AASHTO M
D 5 bolt diameter (feet). 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts over 1 inch in diameter
are to be used in long slotted holes in external plies,
11.5.6.4.3 Requirement for Washers a single hardened washer conforming to AASHTO
M 293 (ASTM F 436) but with 5 ⁄ 16 inch minimum
Where the outer face of the bolted parts has a slope thickness shall be used in lieu of washers or bars of
greater than 1:20 with respect to a plane normal to the bolt structural grade material. Multiple hardened wash-
axis, a hardened beveled washer shall be used to com- ers with combined thickness equal to or greater
pensate for the lack of parallelism. than 5⁄ 16 inch do not satisfy this requirement.
Hardened beveled washers for American Standard • Alternate design fasteners meeting the requirements
Beams and Channels shall be required and shall be of Article 11.3.2.6 with a geometry which provides a
square or rectangular, shall conform to the requirements bearing circle on the head or nut with a diameter equal
of AASHTO M 293 (ASTM F 436), and shall taper in to or greater then the diameter of hardened washers
thickness. meeting the requirements of AASHTO M 293
Where necessary, washers may be clipped on one side (ASTM F 436) satisfy the requirements for washers
to a point not closer than 7⁄ 8 inch of the bolt diameter from specified herein and may be used without washers.
the center of the washer.
Hardened washers are not required for connections 11.5.6.4.4 Turn-of-Nut Installation Method
using AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) and AASHTO M
253 (ASTM A 490) bolts except as follows: When the turn-of-nut installation method is used,
hardened washers are not required except as may be spec-
• Hardened washers shall be used under the turned ified in Article 11.5.6.4.3.
element when tensioning is to be performed by cal- Verification testing using a representative sample of not
ibrated wrench method. less than three fastener assemblies of each diameter, length
• Irrespective of the tensioning method, hardened and grade to be used in the work shall be performed at the
washers shall be used under both the head and the start of work in a device capable of indicating bolt tension.
nut when AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts This verification test shall demonstrate that the method used
are to be installed in material having a specified to develop a snug condition and control the turns from snug
yield point less than 40 ksi. However, when DTIs by the bolting crew develops a tension not less than 5%
are used they may replace a hardened washer pro- greater than the tension required by Table 11.5A. Periodic
vided a standard hole is used. retesting shall be performed when ordered by the Engineer.
• Where AASHTO M 164 (ASTM A 325) bolts of After snugging, the applicable amount of rotation spec-
any diameter or AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) ified in Table 11.5B shall be achieved. During the tension-
bolts equal to or less than 1 inch in diameter are to ing operation there shall be no rotation of the part not
be installed in oversize or short-slotted holes in an turned by the wrench. Tensioning shall progress systemat-
outer ply, a hardened washer conforming to ically from the most rigid part of the joint to its free edges.
AASHTO M 293 (ASTM F 436) shall be used.
11.5.6.4.5 Calibrated Wrench Installation Method
• When AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) bolts over
1 inch in diameter are to be installed in an oversized The calibrated wrench method may be used only when
or short-slotted hole in an outer ply, hardened wash- wrenches are calibrated on a daily basis and when a hard-
ened washer is used under the turned element. Standard When alternate design fasteners which are intended to
torques determined from tables or from formulas which are control or indicate bolt tension of the fasteners are used,
assumed to relate torque to tension shall not be acceptable. bolts shall be installed in all holes of the connection and
When calibrated wrenches are used for installation, initially snugged sufficiently to bring all plies of the joint
they shall be set to deliver a torque which has been cali- into firm contact but without yielding or fracturing the con-
brated to develop a tension not less than 5% in excess of trol or indicator element of the fasteners. All fasteners shall
the minimum tension specified in Table 11.5A. The instal- then be further tensioned, progressing systematically from
lation procedures shall be calibrated by verification testing the most rigid part of the connection to the free edges in a
at least once each working day for each fastener assembly manner that will minimize relaxation of previously ten-
lot that is being installed that day in the work. This verifi- sioned bolts. In some cases, proper tensioning of the bolts
cation testing shall be accomplished in a tension measur- may require more than a single cycle of systematic partial
ing device capable of indicating actual bolt tension by test- tensioning prior to final yielding or fracturing of the con-
ing three typical fastener assemblies from each lot. Bolts, trol or indicator element of individual fasteners. If yield-
nuts and washers under the turned element shall be sam- ing or twist-off occurs prior to the final tensioning cycle,
pled from production lots. Wrenches shall be recalibrated the fastener assembly shall be replaced with a new one.
when significant difference is noted in the surface condi-
tion of the bolts, threads, nuts or washers. It shall be veri- 11.5.6.4.7 Direct Tension Indicator Installation
fied during actual installation in the assembled steel work Method
that the wrench adjustment selected by the calibration does
not produce a nut or bolt head rotation from a snug condi- When Direct Tension Indicators (DTIs) meeting the re-
tion greater than that permitted in Table 11.5B. If manual quirements of Article 11.3.2.6 are to be used with high-
torque wrenches are used, nuts shall be torqued in the ten- strength bolts to indicate bolt tension, they shall be sub-
sioning direction when torque is measured. jected to the verification testing described below and
When calibrated wrenches are used to install and ten- installed in accordance with the method specified below.
sion bolts in a connection, bolts shall be installed with Unless otherwise approved by the engineer-of-record, the
hardened washers under the turned element. Following DTIs shall be installed under the head of the bolt and the
snugging, the connection shall be tensioned using the cal- nut turned to tension the bolt. The Manufacturer’s recom-
ibrated wrench. Tensioning shall progress systematically mendations shall be followed for the proper orientation of
from the most rigid part of the joint to its free edges. The the DTI and additional washers, if any, required for the
wrench shall be returned to “touch up” previously ten- correct use of the DTI. Installation of a DTI under the
sioned bolts which may have been relaxed as a result of turned element may be permitted if a washer separates the
the subsequent tensioning of adjacent bolts until all bolts turned element from the DTI.
are tensioned to the prescribed amount.
11.5.6.4.7a Verification
11.5.6.4.6 Alternative Design Bolts Installation Verification testing shall be performed in a calibrated
Method bolt tension measuring device. A special flat insert shall
When fasteners which incorporate a design feature in- be used in place of the normal bolt head holding insert.
tended to indirectly indicate that the applied torque de- Three verification tests are required for each combination
velops the required tension or to automatically develop of fastener assembly rotational-capacity lot, DTI lot, and
the tension required by Table 11.5A and which have been DTI position relative to the turned element (bolt head or
qualified under Article 11.3.2.5 are to be installed, verifi- nut) to be used on the project. The fastener assembly shall
cation testing using a representative sample of not less be installed in the tension measuring device with the DTI
than three fastener assemblies of each diameter, length located in the same position as in the work. The element
and grade to be used in the work shall be performed at the not turned (bolt or nut) shall be restrained from rotation.
job site in a device capable of indicating bolt tension. The The purpose of verification testing is to ensure that the fas-
test assembly shall include flat-hardened washers, if re- tener will be at or above the desired installation tension
quired in the actual connection, arranged as in the actual when the requisite number of spaces between the protru-
connections to be tensioned. The verification test shall sions have a gap of 0.005 inches or less and that the bolt
demonstrate that each bolt develops a tension not less than will not have excessive plastic deformation at the mini-
5% greater than the tension required by Table 11.5A. mum gap allowed on the project.
Manufacturer’s installation procedure shall be followed The verification tests shall be conducted in two stages.
for installation of bolts in the calibration device and in all The bolt nut and DTI assembly shall be installed in a man-
connections. Periodic retesting shall be performed when ner so that at least three and preferably not more than five
ordered by the Engineer. threads are located between the bearing face of the nut and
582 HIGHWAY BRIDGES 11.5.6.4.7a
the bolt head. The bolt shall be tensioned first to the load unless the load recorded is less than 95% of the average
equal to that listed in Table 11.5C under Verification Ten- load measured in the rotational capacity test for the fas-
sion for the grade and diameter of bolt. If an impact wrench tener lot as specified in Article 11.5.6.4.2g.
is used, the tension developed using the impact wrench If the bolt is too short to be tested in the calibration de-
shall be no more than two-thirds the required tension. Sub- vice, the DTI lot shall be verified on a long bolt in a cali-
sequently a manual wrench shall be used to attain the re- brator to determine the number of refusals at the Verifica-
quired tension. The number of refusals of a 0.005 inch tion Tension listed in Table 11.5C. The number of refusals
tapered feeler gauge in the spaces between the protrusions shall not exceed the values listed under Maximum Verifi-
shall be recorded. The number of refusals for uncoated cation Refusals in Table 11.5C. Another DTI from the same
DTIs under the stationary or turned element, or coated lot shall then be verified with the short bolt in a convenient
DTIs under the stationary element, shall not exceed the hole in the work. The bolt shall be tensioned until the 0.005
number listed under Maximum Verification Refusals in inch feeler gauge is refused in all spaces and a visible gap
Table 11.5C for the grade and diameter of bolt used. The exists in at least one space. The bolt shall then be removed
maximum number of verification refusals for coated DTIs from the tension measuring device and the nut must be able
(galvanized, painted, or epoxy-coated), when used under to be rundown by hand for the complete thread length of
the turned element shall be no more than the number of the bolt excluding thread runout. The DTI lot shall be re-
spaces on the DTI less one. The DTI lot is rejected if the jected if the nut cannot be rundown for this thread length.
number of refusals exceeds the values in the table or, for
coated DTIs if the gauge is refused in all spaces. 11.5.6.4.7b Installation
After the number of refusals is recorded at the ver-
Installation of fastener assemblies using DTIs shall
ification load, the bolt shall be further tensioned until the
be performed in two stages. The stationary element shall
0.005 inch feeler gauge is refused at all the spaces and a
be held against rotation during each stage of the installa-
visible gap exists in at least one space. The load at this
tion. The connection shall be first snugged with bolts
condition shall be recorded and the bolt removed from
the tension measuring device. The nut shall be able to be installed in all the holes of the connection and tensioned
rundown by hand for the complete thread length of the sufficiently to bring all the plies of the connection into
bolt excluding thread runout. If the nut cannot be run- firm contact. The number of spaces in which 0.005 inch
down for this thread length, the DTI lot shall be rejected feeler gauge is refused in the DTI after snugging shall not
exceed those listed under Maximum Verification Re-
fusals in Table 11.5C. If the number exceeds the values
TABLE 11.5C in the table, the fastener assembly shall be removed and
another DTI installed and snugged.
For uncoated DTIs under the stationary or turned ele-
ment, or coated DTIs under the stationary element, the bolts
shall be further tensioned until the number of refusals of
the 0.005 inch feeler gauge is equal to or greater than the
number listed under Minimum Installation Refusals in
Table 11.5C. If the bolt is tensioned so that no visible gap
in any space remains, the bolt and DTI shall be removed,
and replaced by a new properly tensioned bolt and DTI.
The feeler gauge shall be refused in all spaces when
coated DTIs (galvanized, painted, or epoxy-coated) are
used under the turned element.
11.5.6.4.8 Lock-Pin and Collar Fasteners

The installation of lock-pin and collar fasteners shall
be by methods and procedures approved by the Engineer.
11.5.6.4.9 Inspection
11.5.6.4.9.1 The Engineer shall determine that the

requirements of Articles 11.5.6.4.9.2 and 11.5.6.4.9.3, fol-
lowing, are met in the work.
11.5.6.4.9.2 DIVISION II—CONSTRUCTION 583
11.5.6.4.9.2 Before the installation of fasteners in the inspection, so long as DTIs are not overtensioned or fas-
work, the Engineer shall check the marking, surface con- tener assemblies are not damaged.
dition and storage of bolts, nuts, washers, and DTIs, if used,
and the faying surfaces of joints for compliance with the 11.5.7 Welding
requirements of Articles 11.3.2, 11.5.6.1, and 11.5.6.4.1.
The Engineer shall observe calibration and/or test- Welding, welder qualifications, prequalification of
ing procedures required in Articles 11.5.6.4.4 through weld details and inspection of welds shall conform to the
11.5.6.4.7 as applicable, to confirm that the selected pro- requirements of the current ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5
cedure is properly used and that, when so used with the Bridge Welding Code.
Brackets, clips, shipping devices, or other material not
fastener assemblies supplied, the tensions specified in
required by the plans or special provisions shall not be
Table 11.5A are developed.
welded or tacked to any member unless shown on the
The Engineer shall monitor the installation of fasten-
shop drawings and approved by the Engineer.
ers in the work to assure that the selected installation
method, as demonstrated in the initial testing to develop 11.6 ERECTION
the specified tension, is routinely followed.
11.6.1 General
11.5.6.4.9.3 Either the Engineer or the Contractor, in
the presence of the Engineer at the Engineer’s option, The Contractor shall provide all tools, machinery, and
shall inspect the tensioned bolts using an inspection equipment necessary to erect the structure.
torque wrench, unless alternate fasteners or direct tension Falsework and forms shall be in accordance with the
indicator devices are used, allowing verification by other requirements of Section 3, “Temporary Works.”
methods. Inspection tests should be conducted in a timely
11.6.2 Handling and Storing Materials
manner prior to possible loss of lubrication or before cor-
rosion influences torque.
Material to be stored at the job site shall be placed on
Three fastener assembly lots in the same condition as skids above the ground. It shall be kept clean and properly
those under inspection shall be placed individually in a drained. Girders and beams shall be placed upright and
device calibrated to measure bolt tension. This calibration shored. Long members, such as columns and chords, shall
operation shall be done at least once each inspection day. be supported on skids placed near enough together to pre-
There shall be a washer under the turned element in ten- vent injury from deflection. If the contract is for erection
sioning each bolt if washers are used on the structure. If only, the Contractor shall check the material turned over
washers are not used on the structure, the material used in to him or her against the shipping lists and report
the tension measuring device which abuts the part turned promptly in writing any shortage or injury discovered.
shall be of the same specification as that used on the struc- The Contractor shall be responsible for the loss of any ma-
ture. In the calibrated device, each bolt shall be tensioned terial while in his or her care, or for any damage caused to
by any convenient means to the specified tension. The in- it after being received by the Contractor.
specting wrench shall then be applied to the tensioned bolt
to determine the torque required to turn the nut or head 11.6.3 Bearings and Anchorages
5° (approximately 1 inch at a 12-inch radius) in the
tensioning direction. The average of the torque required for Bridge bearings shall be furnished and installed in con-
all three bolts shall be taken as the job-inspection torque. formance with Section 18, “Bearing Devices,” of these
Ten percent (at least two) of the tensioned bolts on the Specifications.
If the steel superstructure is to be placed on a sub-
structure represented by the test bolts shall be selected at
structure that was built under a separate contract, the Con-
random in each connection. The job-inspection torque
tractor shall verify that the masonry has been constructed
shall then be applied to each with the inspecting wrench
in the right location and to the correct lines and elevations
turned in the tensioning direction. If this torque turns no before ordering materials.
bolt head or nut, the bolts in the connection will be con-
sidered to be properly tensioned. But if the torque turns 11.6.4 Erection Procedure
one or more bolt heads or nuts, the job-inspection torque
shall then be applied to all bolts in the connection. Any 11.6.4.1 Conformance to Drawings
bolt whose head or nut turns at this stage shall be reten-
sioned and reinspected. The Contractor may, however, The erection procedure shall conform to the erection
retension all the bolts in the connection and resubmit it for drawings submitted in accordance with Article 11.2.2.
Any modifications to or deviations from this erection pro- 11.6.6 Pin Connections
cedure will require revised drawings and verification of
stresses and geometry. Pilot and driving nuts shall be used in driving pins.
They shall be furnished by the Contractor without charge.
11.6.4.2 Erection Stresses Pins shall be so driven that the members will take full
bearing on them. Pin nuts shall be screwed up tight and
Any erection stresses, induced in the structure as a re- the threads burred at the face of the nut with a pointed
sult of using a method of erection which differs from the tool.
plans, shall be accounted for by the Contractor. The Con-
tractor, at his own expense, shall prepare erection design 11.6.7 Misfits
calculations for such changed methods and submit them
to the Engineer. The calculations shall indicate any The correction of minor misfits involving minor
change in stresses or change in behavior for the temporary amounts of reaming, cutting, grinding and chipping
and final structures. Additional material required to keep will be considered a legitimate part of the erection. How-
both the temporary and final stresses within the allowable ever, any error in the shop fabrication or deformation re-
limits used in design shall be provided at the Contractor’s sulting from handling and transporting will be cause for
expense. rejection.
The Contractor will be responsible for providing tem- The Contractor shall be responsible for all misfits, er-
porary bracing or stiffening devices to accommodate han- rors, and damage and shall make the necessary corrections
dling stresses in individual members or segments of the and replacements.
structure during erection.
11.7 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
11.6.4.3 Maintaining Alignment and Camber
11.7.1 Method of Measurement
During erection, the Contractor will be responsible for
supporting segments of the structure in a manner that will Pay quantities for each type of steel and iron will be
produce the proper alignment and camber in the com- measured by the pound computed from dimensions
pleted structure. Cross frames and diagonal bracing shall shown on the plans using the following rules and as-
be installed as necessary during the erection process to sumptions:
provide stability and assure correct geometry. Temporary
bracing, if necessary at any stage of erection, shall be pro-
vided by the Contractor.
11.6.5 Field Assembly
The parts shall be accurately assembled as shown on The weights of rolled shapes shall be computed on the
the plans or erection drawings, and any match-marks shall basis of their nominal weights per foot as shown on the
be followed. The material shall be carefully handled so drawings, or listed in the handbooks.
that no parts will be bent, broken, or otherwise damaged. The weights of plates shall be computed on the basis of
Hammering which will injure or distort the members shall the nominal weight for their width and thickness as shown
not be done. Bearing surfaces and surfaces to be in per- on the drawings, plus an estimated overrun computed as
manent contact shall be cleaned before the members are one-half the “Permissible Variation in Thickness and
assembled. Splices and field connections shall have one- Weight” as tabulated in Specification, “General Require-
half of the holes filled with bolts and cylindrical erection ments for Delivery of Rolled Steel Plates, Shapes, Steel
pins (half bolts and half pins) before installing and tight- Piling, and Bars for Structural Use,” AASHTO M 160
ening the balance of high-strength bolts. Splices and con- (ASTM A 6).
nections carrying traffic during erection shall have three- The weight of castings shall be computed from the di-
fourths of the holes so filled. mensions shown on the approved shop drawings, deduct-
Fitting-up bolts may be the same high-strength bolts ing for open holes. To this weight shall be added 5%
used in the installation. If other fitting-up bolts are used allowance for fillets and overrun. Scale weights may be
they shall be of the same nominal diameter as the high- substituted for computed weights in the case of castings
strength bolts, and cylindrical erection pins shall be 1⁄ 32 or of small complex parts for which accurate computa-
inch larger. tions of weight would be difficult.
The weight of temporary erection bolts, shop and (d) To determine the pay quantities of galvanized
field paint, boxes, crates, and other containers used for metal, the weight to be added to the calculated weight
shipping, and materials used for supporting members dur- of base metal for the galvanizing will be determined
ing transportation and erection, will not be included. from the weights of zinc coatings specified by
The weight of any additional material required by Ar- AASHTO M 111 (ASTM A 123).
ticle 11.6.4.2 to accommodate erection stresses resulting (e) No allowance will be made for the weight of
from the Contractor’s choice of erection methods will not paint.
be included.
In computing pay weight on the basis of computed net
weight the following stipulations in addition to those in 11.7.2 Basis of Payment
the foregoing paragraphs shall apply.
The contract price for fabrication and erection
(a) The weight shall be computed on the basis of of structural steel shall be considered to be full com-
the net finished dimensions of the parts as shown pensation for the cost of all labor, equipment, mate-
on the approved shop drawings, deducting for copes, rials, transportation, and shop and field painting, if
cuts, clips, and all open holes, except bolt holes. not otherwise provided for, necessary for the proper
(b) The weight of heads, nuts, single washers, and completion of the work in accordance with the con-
threaded stick-through of all high tensile strength bolts, tract. The contract price for fabrication without erec-
both shop and field, shall be included on the basis of
tion shall be considered to be full compensation for
the following weights:
the cost of all labor, equipment, and materials neces-
sary for the proper completion of the work, other than erec-
tion and field assembly, in accordance with the contract.
Under contracts containing an item for structural steel,
all metal parts other than metal reinforcement for con-
crete, such as anchor bolts and nuts, shoes, rockers,
rollers, bearing and slab plates, pins and nuts, expansion
dams, roadway drains and scuppers, weld metal, bolts em-
bedded in concrete, cradles and brackets, railing, and rail-
ing pots shall be paid for as structural steel unless other-
wise stipulated.
Payment will be made on a pound-price or a lump-
sum basis as required by the terms of the contract, but un-
(c) The weight of fillet welds shall be as follows: less stipulated otherwise, it shall be on a pound-price basis.
For members comprising both carbon steel and
other special steel or material, when separate unit prices
are provided for same, the weight of each class of steel in
each such member shall be separately computed, and paid
for at the contract unit price therefore.
Full-size members which are tested in accordance
with the specifications, when such tests are required by
the contract, shall be paid for at the same rate as for com-
parable members for the structure. The cost of testing in-
cluding equipment, labor and incidentals shall be in-
cluded in the contract price for structural steel. Members
which fail to meet the contract requirements, and mem-
bers rejected as a result of tests, will not be paid for by
the Department.
Section 12
STEEL GRID FLOORING
12.1 GENERAL If painted, the paint shall be applied according to the

specifications for Section 13, “Painting,” except that dip-
12.1.1 Description ping will be permitted. The paint shall be as specified for
metal structures unless paint or coating of another type is
This work shall consist of furnishing and installing required by the special provisions. When painting is spec-
steel grid flooring of the open type, or of the concrete ified, those areas of steel grid flooring completely encased
filled type as specified in the special provisions and as in concrete may remain unpainted, unless otherwise spec-
shown on the plans. When the Contractor is allowed to se- ified.
lect any details of the design, said details shall meet the
requirements for the design of steel grid floors in Division
12.2.3 Concrete
I, Article 3.27.
All concrete in filled steel grid floors shall conform to
12.1.2 Working Drawings the requirements of Section 8, “Concrete Structures.” The
concrete and the size of aggregate shall be as specified for
The Contractor shall submit complete working draw- Class C (AE) concrete.
ings with assembly details to the Engineer for approval.
Fabrication or construction of the flooring shall not be
started until the drawings have been approved. Such ap- 12.2.4 Skid Resistance
proval shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibil-
ity under the contract for the successful completion of the The upper edges of all members forming the wearing
work. surface of open type grid flooring shall be serrated to give
the maximum skid resistance.
Concrete filled or overlayed grid floors shall be given
12.2 MATERIALS a skid-resistant texture as specified in Article 8.10.2.
12.2.1 Steel
12.3 ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS
All steel shapes, plates and bars shall conform to
AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade 36, 50, or 50W. Where the main elements are normal to center line of
Unless the material is galvanized or epoxy coated it shall roadway, the units generally shall be of such length as to
have a copper content of 0.2%. extend over the full width of the roadway for roadways up
Reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of to 40 feet but in every case the units shall extend over at
Section 9, “Reinforcing Steel.” least three panels. Where joints are required, the ends of
the main floor members shall be welded at the joints over
12.2.2 Protective Treatment their full cross-sectional area, or otherwise connected to
provide full continuity.
Open type floors, unless otherwise specified, shall be Where the main elements are parallel to center line of
galvanized in accordance with the requirements of roadway, the sections shall extend over not less than three
AASHTO M 111 (ASTM A 123). panels, and the ends of abutting units shall be welded
Filled or partially filled types, as called for in the spe- over their full cross-sectional area, or otherwise con-
cial provisions, shall be either galvanized, painted, epoxy nected to provide full continuity in accordance with the
coated, or supplied in unpainted weathering steel. design.
587
12.4 PROVISION FOR CAMBER ing member shall be shimmed before welding the shim,
the grid, and the supporting member. The location, length,
Unless otherwise provided on the plans, provision for and size of the welds shall be subject to the approval of
camber shall be made as follows: the Engineer.
Steel units so rigid that they will not readily follow the Around the perimeter of continuous units of grid floor-
camber required shall be cambered in the shop. For grid ing, the ends of all the main steel members of the flooring
flooring types other than those employing a field placed shall be securely fastened together by means of steel
full depth concrete filling attached to the deck with plates or angles welded to the ends of the main members,
welded shear connectors, the stringers shall be canted or or by thoroughly encasing the ends with concrete.
provided with shop-welded beveled bearing bars to pro- When specified or approved, methods other than weld-
vide a bearing surface parallel to the crown of the roading may be used for attaching steel grid floors (both open
way. If beveled bars are used, they shall be continuous and and concrete filled types) to framing members. In such
fillet welded along the center line of the stringer flange; in cases, welded headed shear connectors can be employed
which case, the design span length shall be governed by for concrete filled grids and open steel grids can be con-
the width of the bearing bar instead of the width of the nected to framing members by bolting.
stringer flange.
Longitudinal stringers, except as provided in the fol-
12.7 WELDING
lowing paragraph, shall be mill cambered or provided
with bearing strips so that the completed floor after dead
All shop and field welding shall be done in accordance
load deflection will conform to the longitudinal camber
with ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code D1.5.
shown on the plans.
Vertical adjustment of full-depth-filled grid floors,
which are to be connected to supporting members with 12.8 REPAIRING DAMAGED GALVANIZED
shear connectors, may be accomplished by use of adjust- COATINGS
ing bolts operating through nuts welded to the grid and
bearing on the top flange of framing members. Alterna- Galvanized surfaces that are abraded or damaged at
tively, shims may be used, and shims must be used if con- any time after the application of the zinc coating shall be
struction vehicles are to be allowed on the floor prior to repaired by thoroughly wire brushing the damaged areas
final attachment. and removing all loose and cracked coating, after which
the cleaned areas shall be painted with two applications of
12.5 FIELD ASSEMBLY unthinned commercial quality zinc-rich primer (organic
vehicle type). Spray cans shall not be used.
Areas of considerable size shall be placed and, if nec-
essary, adjusted to proper fit before the floor is connected
12.9 PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE FILLER
to its supports. Care shall be taken during lifting and plac-
ing to avoid overstressing the grid units. The main ele-
12.9.1 Forms
ments shall be made continuous as specified in Article
12.3, and sections shall be connected together along their
Concrete filled types of flooring with bottom flanges
edges by welding or bolting in accordance with the plans
not in contact with each other shall be provided with bot-
or the approved working drawings.
tom forms of metal or wood to retain the concrete filler
without excessive leakage. Forms shall be removed after
12.6 CONNECTION TO SUPPORTS the concrete has been cured except that metal forms con-
forming to the following paragraph may be left in place.
Except when other connection methods are specified or If metal form strips are used they shall fit tightly on the
approved, the floor shall be connected to its steel supports bottom flanges or protrusions of the grid members and
by welding every fourth main element to the supporting be placed in noncontinuous lengths so as to extend not
member; however, welds shall be spaced no greater than more than 1 inch onto the edge of each support, but in all
15 inches on centers. Before any welding is done, the floor cases the forms shall be such as will result in adequate
shall either be temporarily loaded or it shall be clamped bearing of slab on the support. If metal forms are to be
down to make a tight joint with full bearing. To minimize left in place, they shall either be galvanized or protective
the stresses induced through clamping down, any differ- treated by the same method that is required for the grid
ential elevation of 1⁄ 4 inch or more over a 4-foot support- flooring.
12.9.2 Placement The concrete for filled grid floors shall be mixed,
placed, and cured in accordance with the requirements of
When the plans indicate that the concrete filling does Section 8. The concrete shall be thoroughly compacted by
not extend to the bottom of the steel grid, the concrete, ex- vibrating the steel grid floor. The vibrating device and the
cept concrete for cells in which shear connectors are to be manner of operating it shall be subject to the approval of
installed, may be placed with the grid in an inverted posi- the Engineer.
tion prior to installation, or the portion of the grid to re-
main unfilled may be blocked out by the use of a tempo-
rary inert filling material, such as sand or polystyrene 12.10 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
board filler which is later removed, or by the use of metal
lath form strips or other approved methods. The method Steel grid flooring will be measured by the square foot.
used shall permit full embedment of the tertiary bars and The number of square feet will be based on the dimen-
the shear connector studs, if used. sions of the flooring in place and approved by the Engi-
When the plans or specifications indicate that filled or neer in the completed work.
partially filled grids or reinforced concrete slabs incorpo- Steel grid flooring will be paid for at the contract price
rating steel grids are to act compositely with their sup- per square foot. Such payment for steel grid floor, open or
porting members, all shear connecting studs shall be fully concrete filled types, shall be considered to be full com-
encased in concrete and the entire area between the top pensation for the cost of furnishing of all materials, equip-
flange of the supporting member and the bottom of the ment, tools, and labor necessary for the satisfactory com-
grid filling shall be filled with concrete. pletion of the work.
Section 13
PAINTING
13.1 GENERAL the adjacent roadbed and shoulders with water or dust pal-
liative for a sufficient distance on each side of the location
13.1.1 Description where painting is being done.
Upon completion of all painting operations and of any
This work shall consist of the painting of surfaces other work that would cause dust, grease, or other foreign
shown on the plans or otherwise specified to be painted. materials to be deposited on the painted surfaces, the
The work includes, but is not limited to, the preparation painted surfaces shall be thoroughly cleaned. At the time
of surfaces to be painted, application and curing of the of opening structures to public traffic, the painting shall
paint, protection of the work, protection of existing facil- be completed, and the surfaces shall be undamaged and
ities, vehicles and the public from damage due to this clean.
work, and the furnishing of all labor, equipment, and ma-
terials needed to perform the work. 13.1.4 Color
13.1.2 Protection of Public and Property If not otherwise shown or specified, the color of the top
or finish coat of paint shall be as directed by the Engineer.
The Contractor shall comply with all applicable envi-
ronmental protection and occupational safety and health 13.2 PAINTING METAL STRUCTURES
standards, rules, regulations, and orders. Failure to com-
ply with these standards, rules, regulations, and orders 13.2.1 Coating Systems and Paints
will be sufficient cause for suspension or disqualification.
All reasonable precautions shall be taken to contain The coating system and paints to be applied shall con-
waste materials (used blasting material and old paint) sist of the system in Table 13.2.1 which is specified for use
classified as hazardous. Disposal of hazardous waste ma- or modified by the special provisions.
terial shall be performed in accordance with all applicable
federal, state, and local laws. 13.2.2 Weather Conditions
The Contractor shall provide protective devices such
as tarps, screens or covers as necessary to prevent damage Paint shall be applied only on thoroughly dry surfaces.
to the work and to other property or persons from all Painting will not be permitted when the atmospheric tem-
cleaning and painting operations. perature, paint, or the surface to be painted is at or below
Paint or paint stains that result in an unsightly ap- 40°F or above 100°F, or when metal surfaces are less than
pearance on surfaces not designated to be painted shall 5°F above the dew point, or when the humidity exceeds
be removed or obliterated by the Contractor at own ex- 85% at the site of the work, or when freshly painted sur-
pense. faces may become damaged by rain, fog, or dust, or when
it can be anticipated that the atmospheric temperature will
13.1.3 Protection of the Work drop below 40°F during the drying period, except as pro-
vided herein for painting in enclosures. Metal surfaces
All painted surfaces that are marred or damaged as a which are hot enough to cause the paint to blister, to pro-
result of operations of the Contractor shall be repaired by duce a porous paint film, or to cause the vehicle to sepa-
the Contractor, at own expense, with materials and to a rate from the pigment shall not be painted.
condition equal to that of the coating specified herein. Subject to approval of the Engineer, the Contractor
If traffic causes an objectionable amount of dust, the may provide a suitable enclosure to permit painting dur-
Contractor, when directed by the Engineer, shall sprinkle ing inclement weather. Provisions shall be made to artifi-
591
TABLE 13.2.1
cially control atmospheric conditions inside the enclo- The methods used in the cleaning of metal surfaces
sure within limits suitable for painting throughout the shall conform to the following.
painting operation. Surfaces painted under cover in damp
or cold weather shall remain under cover until the paint 13.2.3.1 Blast Cleaning
dries or weather conditions permit open exposure. Full
compensation for providing and maintaining such en- Abrasives used for blast cleaning shall be either clean
closures shall be considered as included in the prices dry sand, mineral grit, steel shot, or steel grit, at the option
paid for the various contract items of work involving of the Contractor, and shall have a suitable grading to pro-
painting and no additional compensation will be allowed duce satisfactory results. The use of other abrasives will
therefore. not be permitted unless approved in writing by the Engi-
All blast cleaning, except that performed within closed neer.
buildings, and all painting shall be performed during day- Unwashed beach sand containing salt or excessive
light hours unless otherwise provided by the contract doc- amounts of silt will not be allowed.
uments. All dirt, mill scale, rust, paint, and other foreign
material shall be removed from exposed steel surfaces
13.2.3 Surface Preparation in accordance with the requirements of the Steel Struc-
tures Painting Council Surface Preparation Specification
All exposed surfaces of structural steel, except galva- No. 10, SSPC-SP10—Near-White Blast Cleaning. Blast
nized or metalized surfaces, shall be cleaned and painted. cleaning shall leave all surfaces with a dense and uni-
All surfaces of new structural steel shall be cleaned by form anchor pattern of not less than 1 nor more than 3
the blast-cleaning method unless otherwise specified in mils. as measured with an approved surface profile com-
the special provisions, or approved in writing by the En- parator.
gineer. When blast cleaning is being performed near machin-
In repainting existing steel structures the method of ery, all journals, bearings, motors, and moving parts shall
cleaning shall be as specified in the special provisions. be sealed against entry of abrasive dust before blast clean-
Any damage to sound paint, on areas not designated for ing begins.
treatment, resulting from the Contractor’s operations shall Blast cleaned surfaces shall be primed or treated the
be repaired by the Contractor at own expense to the satis- same day blast cleaning is done, unless otherwise autho-
faction of the Engineer. rized by the Engineer. If cleaned surfaces rust or are con-
taminated with foreign material before painting is accom- Painting shall be done in a neat and workmanlike man-
plished, they shall be reblast cleaned by the Contractor at ner. Unless otherwise specified, paint shall be applied by
own expense. brush, spray, or roller, or any combination thereof pecu-
liar to the paint being applied.
13.2.3.2 Steam Cleaning Each application of paint shall be thoroughly cured and
any skips, holidays, thin areas, or other deficiencies cor-
All dirt, grease, loose chalky paint, or other foreign rected before the succeeding application. The surface of
material which has accumulated on the previously painted the paint being covered shall be free from moisture, dust,
or galvanized surfaces shall be removed with a steam grease, or any other deleterious materials that would pre-
cleaning apparatus which shall precede all other phases of vent the bond of the succeeding applications. In spot
cleaning. It is not intended that sound paint be removed painting, old paint which lifts after the first application
by this process. Any paint which becomes loose, curled, shall be removed by scraping and the area repainted be-
lifted, or loses its bond with the preceding coat or coats fore the next application.
after steam cleaning shall be removed as directed by the Paints specified are formulated ready for application
Engineer to sound paint or metal surface by the Contrac- and no thinning will be allowed unless otherwise provided
tor at own expense. in the applicable materials specification for the paint
A biodegradable detergent shall be added to the feed being used.
water of the steam generator or applied to the surface to be Brushes, when used, shall have sufficient body and
cleaned. The detergent shall be of such composition and length of bristle to spread the paint in a uniform film.
shall be added or applied in such quantity that the cleaning Round, oval-shaped brushes, or flat brushes not wider
as described in the above paragraph is accomplished. than 41⁄ 2 inches shall be used. Paint shall be evenly spread
Any residue, detergent, or other foreign material which and thoroughly brushed out.
may accumulate on cleaned surfaces shall be removed by
On all surfaces that are inaccessible for painting by
flushing with fresh water.
regular means, the paint shall be applied by sheepskin
Steam cleaning shall not be performed more than 2
daubers, bottle brushes, or by any other means approved
weeks prior to painting or other phases of cleaning.
by the Engineer.
Subsequent painting shall not be performed until the
Rollers, when used, shall be of a type that do not leave
cleaned surfaces are thoroughly dry and in no case in less
a stippled texture in the paint film. Rollers shall be used
than 24 hours after cleaning and flushing.
only on flat, even surfaces to produce a paint film of even
thickness with no skips, runs, sags, or thin areas.
13.2.3.3 Solvent Cleaning
Paint may be applied with airless or conventional spray
Unless otherwise prohibited by the special provisions, equipment.
solvents shall be used to remove oil, grease, and other sol- Suitable traps or separators acceptable to the Engineer
uble contaminants in accordance with the requirements of shall be furnished and installed in the airline to each spray
SSPC-SP1, Solvent Cleaning. Solvent cleaning shall be pot to exclude oil and water from the air.
performed prior to blast cleaning. If contamination remains Any spray method which produces excessive paint
after blasting, the area shall be recleaned with solvent. build-up, runs, sags, or thin areas in the paint film, or skips
and holidays, will be considered unsatisfactory and the
13.2.3.4 Hand Cleaning Engineer may require modification of the spray method or
prohibit its use and require brushing instead.
Wire brushes, either hand or powered, hand scraping Mechanical mixers shall be used to mix paint. Prior to
tools, power grinders, or sandpaper shall be used to re- application, paint shall be mixed a sufficient length of
move all dirt, loose rust and mill scale, or paint which is time to thoroughly mix the pigment and vehicle together,
not firmly bonded to the metal surfaces. and shall be kept thoroughly mixed during its application.
Pneumatic chipping hammers shall not be used unless The dry film thickness of the paint will be measured in
authorized in writing by the Engineer. place with a calibrated magnetic film thickness gage ac-
cording to Steel Structures Painting Council SSPC-PA2.
13.2.4 Application of Paints The thickness of each application shall be limited to
that which will result in uniform drying throughout the
The Contractor shall notify the Engineer, in writing, at paint film.
least 1 week in advance of the date that cleaning and Succeeding applications of paint shall be of such shade
painting operations are to begin. as to contrast with the paint being covered.
Structures shall be blast cleaned and painted with the Paint shall be cured for 48 hours at a relative humidity
total thickness of undercoats before erection. After erec- of at least 45% before the application of vinyl wash
tion and before applying subsequent paint, all areas where primer. The cured inorganic zinc paint shall be hosed
paint has been damaged or has deteriorated and all ex- down with water and be in a surface dry condition before
posed unpainted surfaces shall be thoroughly cleaned and the application of vinyl wash primer if the vinyl wash
spot painted with the specified undercoats to the specified primer is not applied within 3 weeks after the inorganic
thickness. zinc paint is applied, or when there is evidence of dust,
Surfaces exposed to the atmosphere and which would dirt, salt, or other deleterious deposits on the inorganic
be inaccessible for painting after erection shall be painted zinc paint.
the full number of applications prior to erection.
Vinyl wash primer, if required, shall not be applied
13.2.5 Measurement and Payment
more than 12 hours before application of the succeeding
coat of paint. The vinyl wash primer shall be applied by
Cleaning and painting structural steel will be paid for
spraying to produce a uniform wet film on the surface.
on the basis of lump sum prices, unless otherwise speci-
The dry film thickness shall be between 0.3 and 0.5 mils.
fied in the special provisions.
The painting of areas under joint connection and splice
The lump sum prices paid for clean structural steel and
plates shall conform to Article 11.5.6.3.
for paint structural steel or the lump sum price paid
for clean and paint structural steel shall include full
13.2.4.1 Application of Zinc-Rich Primers
compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools,
equipment, and incidentals, and for doing all the work
Zinc-rich primers, which include organic and inor-
involved in cleaning and painting structural steel as
ganic zinc primers, shall be applied by spray methods. On
shown on the plans, and as specified in these specifica-
areas inaccessible to spray application, the paint may be
tions and the special provisions, and as directed by the
applied by brush or daubers.
Engineer.
Mechanical mixers shall be used in mixing the primer.
After mixing, zinc-rich primers shall be strained through
a metal 30-60 mesh screen or a double layer of cheese-
cloth immediately prior to or during pouring into the spray 13.3 PAINTING GALVANIZED SURFACES
pot.
An agitating spray pot shall be used in all spray appli- All galvanized surfaces that are to be painted shall first
cation of zinc-rich primers. The agitator or stirring rod be cleaned by washing with mineral spirit solvent suffi-
shall reach to within 2 inches of the bottom of the spray cient to remove any oil, grease, or other materials foreign
pot and shall be in motion at all times during primer ap- to the galvanized coating.
plication. Such motion shall be sufficient to keep the After cleaning, vinyl wash primer shall be applied
primer well mixed. to such surfaces. The vinyl wash primer shall be ap-
Spray equipment shall provide the proper pot pressure plied by spraying to produce a uniform wet film on the
and atomization pressure to produce a coating the com- surface. The dry film thickness shall be between 0.3 and
position of which shall comply in all respects to the spec- 0.5 mils.
ifications for zinc paint. The hose from pot to nozzle shall Finish paint to be applied to primed galvanized sur-
not be more than 75 feet long, nor be used more than 15 faces shall be as shown on the plans or otherwise speci-
feet above or below the pot. fied. If not shown or otherwise specified, the finish paint
Cured, zinc-rich primer shall be free from dust, dirt, shall be the same as that used on adjacent metal work or
salt, or other deleterious deposits and thoroughly dry be- shall be as directed by the Engineer.
fore applying vinyl wash primer. No separate payment will be made for preparing and
In addition, the application of inorganic zinc paints painting galvanized surfaces and full compensation for
shall conform to the following paragraphs. furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment, and
Succeeding applications of inorganic zinc paints shall incidentals, and for doing all the work involved in pre-
be applied within 24 hours, but not less than 30 minutes paring and painting galvanized surfaces as shown on
after prior application of such paint. the plans, and as specified in these specifications and the
In areas where mud-cracking occurs in the inorganic special provisions, and as directed by the Engineer will
zinc paint, it shall be blast cleaned back to soundly bonded be considered as included in the prices paid for the
paint, and recoated to the same thickness by the same various contract items of work involving the galvanized
methods specified for the original coat. surfaces.
13.4 PAINTING TIMBER 13.4.5 Painting Treated Timber
13.4.1 General Timber treated with creosote or oil-borne, penta-

chlorophenol preservatives shall normally not be painted.
Unless otherwise shown on the plans or specified in the Timber treated with water-borne preservatives shall be
special provisions, all new timber requiring painting shall clean and be reduced to no more than 20% moisture con-
be painted with three applications of paint. The paint used tent before it is painted. Any visible salt crystals on the
for various applications will be as specified in these spec- wood surface shall be washed and brushed away, and the
ifications or as shown on the plans or specified in the spe- moisture content reduced again to the specified level be-
cial provisions. fore painting. Stored timber awaiting painting shall be
The painting of previously painted surfaces shall be as covered and stacked with spreaders to ensure air circula-
required by the plans and specifications. tion.
13.4.2 Preparation of Surfaces 13.4.6 Payment
All cracked or peeled paint, loose chalky paint, dirt and No separate payment will be made for preparing sur-
other foreign material shall be removed by wire brushing, faces and for painting new timber. The painting of exist-
scraping or other means immediately prior to painting. ing timber will be paid for on the basis of lump sum
The moisture content of the timber shall not be more than prices. Full compensation for furnishing all labor, materi-
20% at the time of the first application. als, tools, equipment, and incidentals, and for doing all the
work involved in preparing surfaces and painting timber
as shown on the plans, and as specified in these specifica-
13.4.3 Paint
tions and the special provisions, and as directed by the En-
gineer will be considered as included in the prices paid for
Paint for timber structures, except as otherwise
the various contract items of work involving new timber
provided herein, shall conform to the Specification for
or the prices paid for painting existing timber.
White and Tinted Ready-Mixed Paint, AASHTO M 70.
The paint as specified is intended for use in covering pre-
viously painted surfaces. When it is applied to unpainted 13.5 PAINTING CONCRETE
timber, turpentine and linseed oil shall be added as
required by the character of the surface in an amount not 13.5.1 Surface Preparation
to exceed 1 pint per gallon of the paint as specified. The
paint shall be either white or tinted as directed by the Prior to painting concrete surfaces, laitance and curing
Engineer. compounds shall be removed from the surface by abrasive
If a black finish paint is specified, the first or prime coat blast cleaning in accordance with Article 13.2.3.1.
shall be as specified above. Black paint shall conform to Concrete surfaces shall be thoroughly dry and free of
the Specifications for Black Paint, AASHTO M 68. dust at the time the paint is to be applied.
Any artificial drying procedures and methods shall be
subject to approval by the Engineer.
13.4.4 Application
When permitted in writing by the Engineer, the first ap- 13.5.2 Paint
plication of paint may be applied prior to erection.
After the first application has dried and the timber is in Unless otherwise specified in the special provisions,
place, all cracks, checks, nail holes, or other depressions paint to be applied to concrete surfaces shall be acrylic
shall be puttied flush with the surface and allowed to dry emulsion and shall comply in all respects to Federal Spec-
before the second application of paint. ification TT-P-19 (latest revision), Paint, Acrylic Emul-
Paint shall be applied by brush, air spray, or roller, sion, Exterior. This paint may be tinted by using “univer-
spread evenly, and worked thoroughly into all seasoning sal” or “all purpose” concentrates.
cracks, corners, and recesses. No later coat shall be ap-
plied until the full thickness of the previous coat has dried. 13.5.3 Application
Final brush strokes with aluminum paint shall be made
in the same direction to ensure that powder particles Acrylic emulsion paint shall be applied in not less than
“leaf” evenly. two applications to produce a uniform appearance.
The paint shall be applied only when the ambient tem- schedule of bid items. When measured by the square foot,
perature is 50°F, or above. Painting will not be permitted measurement will be determined along the surface of the
when it can be anticipated that the ambient temperature actual area painted.
will drop below 50°F during the application and drying of The contract price paid per lump sum or square foot for
the paint. prepare-and-paint concrete shall include full compensation
for furnishing all labor, materials, tools, equipment, and in-
13.5.4 Measurement and Payment cidentals, and for doing all the work involved in preparing
the concrete and applying the paint to concrete surfaces, as
Preparing and painting concrete will be measured ei- shown on the plans, and as specified in these specifications
ther by the lump sum or by the square foot as listed in the and the special provisions, and as directed by the Engineer.
Section 14
STONE MASONRY
14.1 DESCRIPTION 14.2.1.2 Ashlar Stone
This work shall consist of the construction of stone ma- Stone for ashlar masonry shall be reasonably fine
sonry structures and the stone masonry portions of com- grained and uniform in color. Preferably, stone shall be
posite structures in accordance with these Specifications from a quarry, the product of which is known to be of sat-
and in reasonably close conformity with the lines and isfactory quality. Stone shall be of such character that it
grades shown on the plans or established by the Engineer. can be brought to such lines and surfaces, whether curved
or plane, as may be required. Any stone having defects
14.1.1 Rubble Masonry that have been repaired with cement or other materials
shall be rejected.
Rubble masonry, as here specified, shall include vari-
ous classes of roughly squared and dressed stone laid in 14.2.2 Shipment and Storage of Stone
cement mortar.
Quarry operations and delivery of stone to the point of
14.1.2 Ashlar Masonry use shall be organized to insure deliveries well ahead of
masonry operations. A sufficiently large stock of the spec-
Ashlar masonry shall consist of first-class cut ified stone shall be kept on the site at all times, to permit
stone masonry laid in regular courses and shall include adequate selection of stone by the masons.
all work in which, as distinguished from rubble masonry, The stone shall be kept free from dirt, oil, or any other
the individual stones are dressed or tooled to exact di- injurious material which may prevent the proper adhesion
mensions. of the mortar or detract from the appearance of the ex-
posed surfaces.
14.2 MATERIALS
14.2.3 Mortar
14.2.1 Stone for masonry shall be tough, dense, sound
The ingredients used in making mortar shall conform
and durable and free of seams, cracks, inclusions or other
to the following requirements:
structural defects. Stone shall be of the type and quality
shown on the plans or otherwise specified. Prior to ship-
Portland Cement, Admixtures and Water; Section 8
ment of stone to the job site, the Contractor shall obtain
Masonry Cement; ASTM C 91
approval of the proposed source and shall submit a repre-
Hydrated Lime; ASTM C 207
sentative sample of stone to the Engineer for inspection
Quick Lime used to make lime putty; ASTM C 5
and, if necessary, testing. The sample shall be dressed and
Sand Aggregate; AASHTO M 45 (ASTM C 144)
finished as specified for use in the work and shall not be
less than 6 inches in any dimension. All stone used in the The proportions of materials shall be such that the
work shall be of a quality comparable to that of the sam- volume of sand in a damp, loose condition is between
ple submitted. 21⁄ 4 and 3 times the volume of the cementitious materials.
The cementitious materials shall consist of either one
14.2.1.1 Rubble Stone part of portland cement to between 1⁄ 4 and 1⁄ 2 parts of
hydrated lime or lime putty, or one part of portland cement
Stone for mortar rubble masonry shall be free from to between one and two parts of masonry cement.
rounded, worn, or weathered surfaces. All weathered Premixed materials conforming to these requirements
stone shall be rejected. may be used.
597
Admixtures shall be used only when specified or ap- line, shall be used at all angles and ends of walls. If spec-
proved by the Engineer. ified, all corners or angles in exterior surfaces shall be fin-
ished with a chisel draft.
14.3 MANUFACTURE OF STONE FOR Bed surfaces of face stones shall be normal to the faces
MASONRY of the stones for about 3 inches and from this point may
depart from normal not more than 2 inches in 12 inches.
14.3.1 General Joint surfaces of face stones shall form an angle with the
bed surfaces of not less than 45°.
Each stone shall be free from depressions and projec- All shaping or dressing of stone shall be done before
tions that might weaken it or prevent it from being prop- the stone is laid in the wall, and no dressing or hammer-
erly bedded, and shall be of a shape to meet the require- ing which will loosen the stone will be permitted after it
ments for the class of masonry specified. is placed.
When no dimensions are shown on the plans, the
stones shall be furnished in the sizes and face areas nec-
14.3.3.3 Dressing
essary to produce the general characteristics and appear-
ance as indicated on the plans.
Stone shall be dressed to remove any thin or weak por-
The thickness of courses, if varied, shall diminish reg-
tions. Face stones shall be dressed to provide bed and joint
ularly from bottom to top of wall. The size of ring stones
lines with a maximum variation from true line of 11⁄ 2
in arches shall be as shown on the plans.
inches unless otherwise indicated on the plans or in the
When headers are required, their lengths shall be not
special provisions.
less than the width of bed of the widest adjacent stretcher
plus 12 inches.
14.3.4 Ashlar Masonry
14.3.2 Surface Finishes of Stone
14.3.4.1 Size
For the purpose of this specification the surface fin-
ishes of stone are defined as follows: The individual stones shall be large and well propor-
tioned. They shall not be less than 12 inches nor more than
Smooth-finished: Having a surface in which the varia- 30 inches in thickness.
tions from the pitch line do not exceed 1⁄ 16 inch.
Fine-finished: Having a surface in which the varia-
14.3.4.2 Dressing
Rough-finished: Having a surface in which the varia-
Stones shall be dressed to exact sizes and shapes
before being laid and shall be cut to lie on their natural
Scabbled: Having a surface in which the variations
beds with top and bottom truly parallel. Hollow beds
from the pitch line do not exceed 3⁄ 4 inch.
will not be permitted. The bottom bed shall be the full
Rock-faced: Having an irregular projecting face
size of the stone and no stone shall have an over-hanging
without indications of tool marks. The projections
top. In rock-face construction the face side of any stone
beyond the pitch line shall not exceed 3 inches and
shall not present an undercut contour adjacent to its
no part of the face shall recede back of the pitch line.
bottom arris giving a top-heavy, unstable appearance
14.3.3 Rubble Masonry when laid.
Beds of face stone shall be fine-finished for a depth of
14.3.3.1 Size not less than 12 inches.
Vertical joints of face stone shall be fine-finished and
Individual stones shall have a thickness of not less than full to the square for a depth of not less than 9 inches.
8 inches and a width of not less than 11⁄ 2 times the thick- Exposed surfaces of the face stone shall be given the
ness. No stones, except headers, shall have a length less surface finish indicated on the plans, with edges pitched
than 11⁄ 2 times their width. to true lines and exact batter. Chisel drafts 11⁄ 2 inches wide
shall be cut at all exterior corners. Face stone forming the
14.3.3.2 Shape starling or nosing of piers shall be rough-finished unless
otherwise specified.
The stones shall be roughly squared on joints, beds, Holes for stone hooks shall not be permitted to show in
and faces. Selected stone, roughly squared and pitched to exposed surfaces.
14.3.4.3 Stretchers chine-mixed mortar shall be prepared in an approved

mixer and shall be mixed not less than 3 minutes nor more
Stretchers shall have a width of bed of not less than 11⁄ 2 than 10 minutes. Mortar shall be used within 11⁄ 2 hours
times their thickness. They shall have a length of bed not after mixing and before final set begins. Retempering of
less than twice nor more than 31⁄ 2 times their thickness, mortar shall be done as necessary to maintain proper con-
and not less than 3 feet. sistency during placement.
14.3.5 Arch Ring Stones 14.4.3 Selection and Placing of Stone
Arch ring stone joint surfaces shall be radial and at 14.4.3.1 General
right angles to the front faces of the stones. They shall be
dressed for a distance of at least 3 inches from the front When masonry is placed on a prepared foundation bed,
faces and the soffits, from which points they may depart the bed shall be firm and normal to, or in steps normal to,
from a plane normal to the face not to exceed 3⁄ 4 inches to the face of the wall, and approved by the Engineer before
12 inches. The back surface in contact with the concrete any stone is placed. When it is placed on foundation ma-
of the arch barrel shall be parallel to the front face and sonry, the bearing surface of the foundation masonry shall
shall be dressed for a distance of 6 inches from the intra- be cleaned thoroughly and in a saturated-surface dry con-
dos. The top shall be cut perpendicular to the front face dition when the mortar bed is spread.
and shall be dressed for a distance of at least 3 inches from All masonry shall be constructed by experienced work-
the front. men. Face stones shall be set in random bond to produce
When concrete is to be placed after the masonry has the effect shown on the plans.
been constructed, adjacent ring stones shall vary at least 6 Care shall be taken to prevent the bunching of small
inches in depth. stones or stones of the same size. When weathered or col-
Stratification in arch ring stones shall be parallel to the ored stones, or stones of varying texture, are being used,
radial joints and in other stones shall be parallel to care shall be exercised to distribute the various kinds of
the beds. stones uniformly throughout the exposed faces of the
When specified in the special provisions, a full-sized work. Large stones shall be used for the bottom courses
template of the arch ring shall be laid out near the quarry and large, selected stones shall be used in the corners. In
site, showing face dimensions of each ring stone and general, the stones shall decrease in size from the bottom
thickness of joints. The template shall be approved by the to the top of work.
Engineer before the shaping of any ring stone is started, Each stone shall be cleaned and thoroughly saturated
and no ring stone shall be placed in the structure until all with water before being set and the bed which is to receive
ring stones have been shaped, dressed, and approved by it shall be clean and well moistened. All stones shall be
the Engineer. well bedded in freshly made mortar. The mortar joints
shall be full and the stones carefully settled in place be-
fore the mortar has set. No spalls will be permitted in the
14.4 CONSTRUCTION
beds. No pinning up of stones with spalls will be permit-
ted in beds.
14.4.1 Weather Conditions
Stone shall not be dropped upon, or slid over the wall,
nor will hammering, rolling, or turning of stones on the
Stone masonry shall not be constructed in freezing
wall be allowed. They shall be carefully set without jarring
weather or when the stone contains frost, except by writ-
the stone already laid and they shall be handled with a
ten permission of the Engineer and subject to such condi-
lewis or other appliance that will not cause disfigurement.
tions as he or she may require.
In case any stone is moved or the joint broken, the
stone shall be taken up, the mortar thoroughly cleaned
14.4.2 Mixing Mortar from bed and joints, and the stone reset in fresh mortar.
The mortar shall be hand or machine mixed, as may be 14.4.3.2 Rubble Masonry
required by the Engineer. In the preparation of hand-
mixed mortar, the sand and cement shall be thoroughly Rubble masonry shall be laid to line and in courses
mixed together in a clean, tight mortar box until the mix- roughly leveled up. The bottom or foundation courses
ture is of uniform color, after which clean water shall be shall be composed of large, selected stones and all courses
added in such quantity as to form a stiff plastic mass. Ma- shall be laid with bearing beds parallel to the natural bed
of the material. The vertical joints in each course of rub- less, the headers shall extend entirely through the wall. In
ble masonry shall break with those in adjoining courses at walls of greater thickness, the length of headers shall be
least 6 inches. In no case shall a vertical joint be so located not less than 21⁄ 2 times their thickness when the course is
as to occur directly above or below a header. 18 inches or less in height, and not less than 4 feet in
courses of greater height. Headers shall be spaced not fur-
14.4.3.3 Ashlar Masonry ther apart than 8 feet center to center. There shall be at
least one header to every two stretchers.
The stones in any one course of ashlar masonry
shall be placed so as to form bonds of not less than 12 14.4.6 Cores and Backing
inches with the stones of adjoining courses. Headers shall
be placed over stretchers and, in general, the headers of 14.4.6.1 General
each course shall equally divide the spaces between the
headers of adjoining courses, but no header shall be Cores and backing shall consist either of roughly bed-
placed over a joint and no joint shall be made over a ded and jointed headers and stretchers, as specified above,
header. or of Class B or C concrete, as may be specified.
The headers and stretchers in walls having a thickness
14.4.4 Beds and Joints of 3 feet or less shall have a width or length equal to the
full thickness of the wall. No backing will be allowed.
Beds and joints in rubble masonry shall have an aver-
age thickness of not more than 1 inch. Beds and joints in 14.4.6.2 Stone
ashlar masonry shall be not less than 3⁄ 8 inch nor more than
1
⁄ 2 inch in thickness and the thickness of the joint or bed When stone is used for cores or backing, at least one-
shall be uniform throughout. half of the stone shall be of the same size and character as
The thickness of beds in ashlar masonry may vary as the face stone, and with parallel ends. No course shall be
shown from the bottom to the top of the work. However, less than 8 inches thick.
in each course the beds shall be of uniform thickness Stone backing shall be laid in the same manner as spec-
throughout. ified above for face stone, with headers interlocking with
Beds shall not extend in an unbroken line through more face headers when the thickness of the wall will permit.
than five stones. Backing shall be laid to break joints with the face stone.
Joints in ashlar masonry shall be vertical. In all other Stone cores shall be laid in full mortar beds so as to bond
masonry, joints may be at angles with the vertical from 0° not less than 12 inches with face and backing stone and
to 45°. with each other. Bed joints in cores and backing shall not
Each face stone shall bond with all contiguous face exceed 1 inch and vertical joints shall not exceed 4 inches
stones at least 6 inches longitudinally and 2 inches verti- in thickness.
cally. Ring stone joints on the faces and soffits shall be not
less than 1⁄ 4 inch nor more than 11⁄ 2 inches in thickness. 14.4.6.3 Concrete
Cross beds for vertical walls shall be level and for bat-
tered walls may vary from level to normal to the batter Concrete used for cores and backing shall conform
line of the face of the wall. All joints shall be completely to the requirements specified in Section 8, “Concrete
filled with mortar. Structures.”
The operations involved in the handling and placing of
14.4.5 Headers concrete used in cores and backing shall conform to the
requirements specified in Section 8. However, the pud-
Headers shall hold in the heart of the wall the same size dling and compacting of concrete adjacent to the ashlar
shown in the face and shall extend not less than 12 inches masonry facing shall be done in a manner that will insure
into the core or backing. They shall occupy not less than the filling of all spaces around the stones and secure full
one-fifth of the face area of the wall and shall be evenly contact and efficient bond with all stone surfaces.
distributed.
Headers in rubble masonry walls 2 feet or less in thick- 14.4.6.4 Leveling Courses
ness shall extend entirely through the wall.
Headers in ashlar masonry shall be placed in each Stone cores and backing shall be carried up to the ap-
course and shall have a width of not less than 11⁄ 2 times proximate level of the face course before the succeeding
their thickness. In walls having a thickness of 4 feet or course is started.
The construction joints produced in concrete cores or ified shall be of Class A concrete which shall conform to
backing by the intermittent placing of concrete shall be lo- the requirements of Section 8, “Concrete Structures.”
cated, in general, not less than 6 inches below the top bed Concrete copings shall be made in sections extending
of any course of masonry. the full width of the wall, not less than 12 inches in thick-
ness, and from 5 to 10 feet long. The sections may be cast
14.4.7 Facing for Concrete in place or precast and set in place in full mortar beds.
Unless otherwise specified in the Special Provisions, 14.4.9 Dowels and Cramps
the stone masonry shall be constructed before placing
concrete. Where required, coping stone, stone in the wings of
Steel anchors as shown on the plans or specified in the abutments, and stone in piers shall be secured with
Special Provisions shall be used. To improve the bond be- wrought-iron cramps or dowels as indicated on the plans.
tween the stone masonry and the concrete backing, the Dowel holes shall be drilled through each stone before
back of the masonry shall be made as uneven as the stones the stone is placed and, after it is in place, such dowel
will permit. holes shall be extended by drilling into the underlying
After the stone facing has been laid and the mortar has course not less than 6 inches.
attained sufficient strength, all surfaces against which Cramps shall be of the shapes and dimensions shown
concrete is to be placed shall be cleaned carefully and all on the plans or approved by the Engineer. They shall be
dirt, loose material, and accumulations of mortar drop- inset in the stone so as to be flush with the surfaces.
pings removed. Cramps and dowels shall be set in lead, care being
When placing concrete all interstices of the masonry taken to completely fill the surrounding spaces with the
shall be filled and the concrete thoroughly spaded and molten metal, or shall be rigidly anchored by other means
worked until it is brought into intimate contact with every approved by the Engineer.
part of the back of the masonry.
14.4.10 Weep Holes
14.4.8 Copings
All walls and abutments shall be provided with weep
14.4.8.1 Stone holes. Unless otherwise shown on the plans or directed by
the Engineer, the weep holes shall be placed at the lowest
Stones for copings of wall, pier, and abutment bridge points where free outlets can be obtained and shall be
seats shall be carefully selected and fully dimensioned spaced not more than 10 feet center to center. A minimum
stones. On piers, not more than two stones shall be used of 2 cubic feet of permeable material encapsulated with
to make up the entire width of coping. The copings of filter fabric shall be placed at each weep hole.
abutment bridge seats shall be of sufficient width to ex-
tend at least 4 inches under the backwall. Each step form- 14.4.11 Pointing
ing the coping of a wingwall shall be formed by a single
stone which shall overlap the stone forming the step im- Pointing shall not be done in freezing weather or when
mediately below it at least 12 inches. the stone contains frost.
Tops of copings shall be given a bevel cut at least 2 Whenever possible the face joints shall be properly
inches wide, and beds, bevel cuts, and tops shall be fine- pointed before the mortar becomes set. Joints which can-
finished. The vertical joints shall be smooth-finished and not be so pointed shall be prepared for pointing by raking
the copings shall be laid with joints not more than 1⁄ 4 inch them out to a depth of 2 inches before the mortar has set.
in thickness. The undersides of projecting copings, prefer- The face surfaces of stones shall not be smeared with the
ably, shall have a drip bead. mortar forced out of the joints or that used in pointing.
Joints in copings shall be located so as to provide not Joints not pointed at the time the stone is laid shall be
less than a 12-inch bond with the stones of the under thoroughly wet with clean water and filled with mortar.
course and so that no joint will come directly under the su- The mortar shall conform to Article 14.2.3 except that the
perstructure masonry plates. proportion of hydrated lime putty shall be increased to 1⁄ 2
to 2 times the volume of the cement or the cement shall be
14.4.8.2 Concrete all masonry type cement. The mortar shall be well driven
into the joints and finished with an approved pointing tool.
Copings, bridge seats, and backwalls shall be of the The wall shall be kept wet while pointing is being done
material shown on the plans and when not otherwise spec- and in hot or dry weather the pointed masonry shall be
protected from the sun and kept wet for a period of at least Backing may consist of Class B concrete or of large
3 days after completion. stones shaped to fit the arch, bonded to the spandrels, and
After the pointing is completed and the mortar set, the laid in full beds of mortar. The extrados and interior faces
wall shall be thoroughly cleaned and left in a neat and of the spandrel walls shall be given a finished coat of 1:2
1
workmanlike condition. ⁄ 2 cement mortar which shall be trowelled smooth to re-
ceive the waterproofing.
14.4.12 Arches Arch centering, waterproofing, draining, and filling
shall be as specified in Section 3, “Temporary Works,”
The number of courses and the depth of voussoirs Section 8, “Concrete Structures,” and Section 21, “Water-
shall be as shown on the plans. Voussoirs shall be placed proofing.”
in the order indicated, shall be full size throughout, and
shall have bond not less than their thickness of the stone. 14.5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
Beds shall be roughly pointed to bring them to radial
planes. Radial joints shall be in planes parallel to the Stone masonry will be measured by either the cubic
transverse axis of the arch and, when measured at the in- yard or the square yard as listed in the schedule of bid
trados, shall not exceed 3⁄ 4 inch in thickness. Joints items. The volume or area will be that actually placed to
perpendicular to the arch axis shall not exceed 1 inch the limiting dimensions shown on the plans, or the plan
in thickness when measured at the intrados. The intrados dimensions as may have been revised by the Engineer.
face shall be dressed sufficiently to permit the stone Stone masonry, as measured above, will be paid for by
to rest properly upon the centering. Exposed faces of the contract price per cubic yard or square foot. Such pay-
the arch ring shall be rock-faced with edges pitched to ment shall be considered to be full compensation for the
true lines. cost of all labor, tools, materials, and other items inciden-
The work shall be carried up symmetrically about the tal to the satisfactory completion of the work.
crown, the stone being laid in full mortar beds, and the Concrete used in connection with stone masonry shall
joints grouted where necessary. Pinning by the use of be measured and paid for in the same manner as concrete
stone spalls will not be permitted. for structures.
Section 15
CONCRETE BLOCK AND BRICK MASONRY
15.1 DESCRIPTION quirements for uncoated reinforcing in Section 9, “Rein-

forcing Steel.”
Concrete block and brick masonry shall consist of con-
crete blocks or brick laid in cement mortar and may be un- 15.2.4 Mortar
reinforced or reinforced with steel reinforcing. Block or
brick pavements are not included under this designation. Mortar used shall conform, as regards materials, pro-
portions and mixing, to the mortar specified in Articles
15.2 MATERIALS 14.2.3 and 14.4.2.
15.2.1 Concrete Block 15.2.5 Grout
Unless otherwise specified in the special provisions or Grout for filling voids in hollow masonry units shall ei-
approved in writing by the Engineer, all concrete block for ther conform to the requirements of ASTM C 476 or to the
masonry construction shall be Type I moisture controlled requirements of the following paragraph.
units (Grade N-I) that meet the requirements of ASTM C As an alternative to the requirements of ASTM C 476,
90. The value of f9m shall be as shown on the plans or as the materials for grout shall conform to the requirements
specified in the special provisions. of Section 8, “Concrete Structures,” for cement, aggre-
Concrete block units should be protected from rain, gates, water and admixtures and to the requirements of Ar-
snow, or other moisture during storage on or off the job ticle 14.2.3 for lime. Coarse aggregate shall be of either 1⁄ 2-
site to assure that they will meet the Type I moisture re- inch or 3⁄ 8-inch maximum gradation. For fine grout, if
quirements at the time they are placed in the construction. proportioned by volume, the cementitious materials shall
consist of one part Portland cement to no more than 1⁄ 10 part
15.2.2 Brick hydrated lime or lime putty and the aggregates shall con-
sist of sand in the amount of 21⁄ 4 to 3 times the total volume
Brick for masonry construction shall conform to the of cementitious materials. For coarse grout, the propor-
Specification for Building Brick (solid masonry units tions shall be the same as for fine grout except that coarse
made from clay or shale) AASHTO M 114 (ASTM C 62), aggregate in the amount of 1 to 2 times the total volume of
Concrete Building Brick (ASTM C 55), or Solid Load- cementitious materials shall be added. If proportioned by
Bearing Concrete Masonry Units (ASTM C 145). The weight, the weights used shall be equivalent to those which
type and grade of brick to be furnished shall be as shown would be obtained by volumetric methods.
on the plans or as specified in the special provisions. Adjustments in mix proportions, within the limits al-
The bricks shall have a fine-grained uniform, and lowed, shall be made as necessary to satisfy workability
dense structure, free from lumps of lime, laminations, and strength requirements.
cracks, checks, soluble salts, or other defects which may Admixtures shall be used only when specified or ap-
in any way impair their strength, durability, appearance, proved by the Engineer.
or usefulness for the purpose intended. Bricks shall emit
a clear, metallic ring when struck with a hammer. 15.2.6 Sampling and Testing
15.2.3 Reinforcing Steel 15.2.6.1 Mortar
Reinforcing steel used in the construction of concrete Unless otherwise specified in the special provisions,
block or brick masonry structures shall conform to the re- mortar shall have a minimum 28-day compressive
603
strength of 1,800 psi based on the average of three spec- “shove-joint” method; “buttered” or plastered joints will
imens tested in accordance with the requirements of not be permitted. All clay or shale brick must be thor-
ASTM C 780. Field samples shall be obtained as follows: oughly saturated with water before being laid. Dampen-
ing of concrete masonry units before or during construc-
(a) Spread 1⁄ 2 inch or the thickness of the mortar joint tion shall not be permitted unless approved by the
of mortar on masonry units. Engineer. The arrangement of headers and stretchers shall
(b) After 1 minute remove mortar and compress into 2 be such as will thoroughly bond the mass and, unless oth-
3 4 inch cylinder in two layers using flat end of a rod erwise specified, work shall be of alternate headers and
or fingers, being sure to see that mold is solidly filled. stretchers with consecutive courses breaking joints. Other
(c) Lightly tap cylinder immediately and maintain in types of bonding, as for ornamental work, shall be as
damp condition. specified on the plans.
(d) After 48 hours remove mold and store in fog room All joints shall be completely filled with mortar. They
until testing. shall not be less than 1⁄ 4 inch and not more than 5⁄ 8 inch in
thickness and the thickness shall be uniform throughout.
15.2.6.2 Grout All joints shall be finished properly as the work progresses
and on exposed faces they shall be neatly struck, using the
When required by the special provision or requested by “weather” joint.
the Engineer, the Contractor shall manufacture grout No spalls or bats shall be used except for shaping
prisms for testing. Prisms shall be manufactured at the site around irregular openings or when unavoidable to finish
during construction using the following procedure: out a course, in which case full bricks shall be placed at
the corners, the bats being placed in the interior of the
(a) Place masonry units, having same moisture condi- course.
tion as those being placed, on nonabsorptive base to Each masonry unit shall be adjusted to its final position
form a void for a square prism with a height twice the while mortar is still soft and plastic. Units which are dis-
side and a minimum side of 3 inches. turbed after mortar has stiffened shall be removed and re-
(b) Line the side faces of the prism with permeable layed in fresh mortar.
paper or porous separator to allow water passage Vertical cells to be filled with grout shall be aligned to
through liner into masonry units. provide a continuous unobstructed opening.
(c) Fill prism with a fully representative grout sample Piers and walls may be built of solid brick work, or
in two layers. Puddle each layer to eliminate air voids. may consist of a brick or block shell backed with
(d) Level off specimen and maintain in a damp condi- concrete or other suitable material as specified on the
tion. plans. All details of the construction shall be in accor-
(e) Remove prisms from masonry units after 48 hours dance with approved practice and to the satisfaction of
and deliver to Engineer. the Engineer.
Grout prisms will be tested in accordance with the pro-
visions of ASTM C 39. Grout shall have attained a com-
15.3.3 Placement of Reinforcement
pressive strength of 2,000 psi at 28 days unless otherwise
specified in the special provisions.
Prior to and during grouting the reinforcing steel shall
be securely held in position at the top and bottom and
15.3 CONSTRUCTION at intermediate points not exceeding 200 bar diameters
or 10 feet apart. Bars shall be maintained clear of the
15.3.1 Weather Conditions cell walls and within plus or minus 1⁄ 2 inch of their
planned position transverse to the wall and within plus or
Block or brick masonry shall not be constructed in minus 2 inches of their planned position longitudinal to
freezing weather or when the block or brick contains frost, the wall.
except by written permission of the Engineer and subject
to such conditions as he or she may require.
15.3.4 Grouting of Voids
15.3.2 Laying Block and Brick
Grouted masonry shall be constructed in such a man-
The blocks or bricks shall be laid in such manner as ner that all elements of the masonry act together as a struc-
will thoroughly bond them into the mortar by means of the tural element.
Prior to grouting, the grout space shall be clean so that In nonstructural elements, mortar of pouring con-
all spaces to be filled with grout do not contain mortar pro- sistency may be substituted for grout when the masonry
jections greater than 1⁄ 2 inch, mortar droppings or other is constructed and grouted in pours of 12 inches or
foreign material. Grout shall be placed so that all spaces less.
to be grouted do not contain voids. Vertical barriers of masonry may be built across the
Grout materials and water content shall be controlled grout space. The grouting of any section of wall between
to provide adequate fluidity for placement, without segre- barriers shall be completed in 1 day with no interruption
gation. longer than 1 hour.
Size and height limitations of the grout space or cell on
the average shall not be less than shown in Table 15.1.
Higher grout pours or smaller cavity widths or cell size 15.3.5 Copings, Bridge Seats, and Backwalls
than shown in Table 15.1 may be used when approved by
the Engineer, if it is demonstrated that grout spaces are The tops of retaining walls, abutment wingwalls, and
properly filled. similarly exposed brick or block work shall be provided,
When required by Table 15.1, cleanouts shall be pro- in general, with either a stone or concrete coping. The un-
vided in the bottom course at every vertical bar but shall derside of the coping shall have a batter or drip bead, at
not be spaced more than 32 inches on center for solidly least 1 inch beyond the face of the block or brick work
grouted masonry. Cleanouts shall be of sufficient size to wall. The coping upon an abutment backwall will com-
allow removal of debris. monly have no projection beyond its bridge seat face.
Units may be laid to the full height of the grout pour When concrete is used, it shall conform to the require-
and grout shall be placed in a continuous pour in grout ments for Class A concrete specified in Section 8, “Con-
lifts not exceeding 6 feet. If construction joints are used in crete Structures.” For thin copings, mortar of the same
columns of grout, they shall be located at least 11⁄ 2 inches proportions as used for laying the block or brick may be
below the level of a mortar bed joint. used to produce precast sections not less than 3 feet nor
Segregation of the grout materials and damage to more than 5 feet in length. No coping shall be less than 4
the masonry shall be avoided during the grouting process. inches thick.
Grout shall be consolidated before loss of plasticity in Copings of piers and abutment bridge seats shall be of
a manner to fill the grout space. Grout pours greater than Ashlar stone work or of Class A concrete and shall con-
12 inches in height shall be mechanically reconsolidated form to the requirements for “Ashlar Masonry” specified
to minimize voids due to water loss. Grout not mechani- in Section 14, “Stone Masonry,” or for concrete as speci-
cally vibrated shall be puddled. fied in Section 8, “Concrete Structures,” as the plans may
TABLE 15.1 Grouting Limitations
indicate. Unless otherwise shown on the plans, concrete ious types of masonry shall be as listed in the schedule of
shall be used. bid items.
Concrete block and stone masonry, as measured above,
will be paid for by the contract price per cubic yard or
square foot. Such payment shall be considered to be full
15.4 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT compensation for the cost of all labor, equipment, materi-
als, and other expenses incidental to the satisfactory com-
Concrete block and brick masonry will be measured by pletion of the work. Filling material for the interior of the
the number of cubic yards or the number of square feet of wall, reinforcing steel, and concrete or mortar copings,
the type of masonry actually placed in the structure in ac- shall be considered as included in the price paid for num-
cordance with the plans or as modified by written instruc- ber of cubic yards or square feet of block or brick masonry
tions from the Engineer. The units of measure for the var- actually placed.
Section 16
TIMBER STRUCTURES
16.1 GENERAL rate laminations may not exceed 2 inches in net thick-
ness. They may be comprised of pieces end-joined to
This work shall consist of constructing timber struc- form any length, of pieces placed or glued edge to edge
tures and the timber portions of composite structures, in to make wider ones, or of pieces bent to curved form
accordance with these Specifications and in reasonably during gluing. On glued-laminated structural members
close conformity with the details shown on the plans or that are not to be preservatively treated, an approved
established by the Engineer. end sealer shall be applied after end trimming of each
It will include furnishing, preparing, fabricating, erect- completed member.
ing, treating, and painting of timber. All timber, treated or The grades of timber used for various structural
untreated, shall be of the specified species, grades and di- purposes shall be as shown on the plans or in the special
mensions. Also included will be any required yard lumber provisions.
of the sizes and grades specified and all hardware required Structural lumber and timber, solid sawn or glued lam-
for timber connections and ties. inated, in exposed permanent structures, other than run-
ning planks on decks, shall be treated in conformance
with the requirements of Section 17, “Preserved Treat-
16.1.1 Related Work
ment of Wood.” Temporary structures or lumber and tim-
ber of certain species with adequate heartwood require-
Other work involved in the construction of timber
ments, as listed in AASHTO M 168, when permitted by
structures shall be as specified in the applicable sections
the plans or specifications, do not require preservative
of this specification. Some of the sections that frequently
treatment.
apply to timber structures are Section 4, “Driven Foun-
When the special provisions require certification of
dation Piles”; Section 13, “Painting”; Section 17,
quality for timber or lumber, the Contractor shall furnish
“Preservative Treatment of Wood”; and Section 20,
the following certificates of compliance to the Engineer,
“Railings.”
as appropriate, upon delivery of the materials to the job
site:
For timber and lumber, a certification by an agency
16.2 MATERIALS
certified by the American Lumber Standards Committee
that the timber or lumber conforms to the grade, species,
16.2.1 Lumber and Timber (Solid Sawn or Glued
and any other specified requirements.
Laminated)
For glued laminated timber, a certification by a quali-
fied inspection and testing agency that the glued lami-
Sawn lumber and timber shall conform to the Specifi-
nated timber complies with the grade, species, and other
cations for Structural Timber, Lumber, and Piling,
requirements outlined in ANSI/AITC A190.1.
AASHTO M 168.
If the wood is to be treated with a preservative, a cer-
Structural glued laminated timber shall conform to the
tificate of compliance, as specified in Article 17.3.3, shall
American National Standard ANSI/AITC A-190.1, Spec-
be furnished.
ification for Structural Glued Laminated Timber. Struc-
tural glued laminated timber, as employed in ANSI/AITC
A190.1, is an engineered, stress-rated product of a timber 16.2.2 Steel Components
laminating plant, comprising assemblies of suitably se-
lected and prepared wood laminations securely bonded Rods, plates, eyebars, and shapes shall conform to the
together with wet-use adhesives. The grain of all lamina- requirements of AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709) Grade
tions is approximately parallel longitudinally. The sepa- 36 unless otherwise specified.
607
16.2.3 Castings 16.2.6.3 Shear-Plate Connectors
Castings shall be cast steel or gray-iron, as specified, Pressed steel shear-plates of 25⁄ 8-inch diameter shall be
conforming to the requirements of Articles 11.3.5 or manufactured from hot-rolled carbon steel conforming to
11.3.6. the Society of Automotive Engineers Specification SAE-
1010. Each plate shall be a true circle with a flange around
16.2.4 Hardware the edge, extending at right angles to the face of the plate
and extending from one face only, the plate portion hav-
Bolts, nuts, drift-bolts, and dowels may be of mild ing a central bolt hole and two small perforations on op-
steel. Washers may be cast iron ogee or malleable iron posite sides of the hole and midway from the center and
castings, or they may be cut from mild steel plate, as spec- circumference.
ified. Malleable iron shear-plates of 4-inch diameter shall be
Bolts shall have either standard square, hex or dome manufactured according to ASTM A 47, Grade 32510, for
heads, or economy type (washer) heads. Nails shall be cut malleable iron casting. Each casting shall consist of a per-
or round wire of standard form. Spikes shall be cut or wire forated round plate with a flange around the edge extend-
spikes, or boat spikes, as specified. Unless otherwise spec- ing at right angles to the face of the plate and projecting
ified, bolts shall comply with ASTM A 307, and shall have from one face only, the plate portion having a central bolt
coarse threads, Class 2 tolerance conforming to ANSI hole reamed to size with an integral hub concentric to the
Standard Specifications. bolt hole and extending from the same face as the flange.
All fasteners, including nails, spikes, bolts, dowels,
washers, and lag screws shall be galvanized, unless oth- 16.2.6.4 Spike-Grid Connectors
erwise specified or permitted.
Spike-grid timber connectors shall be manufactured
16.2.5 Galvanizing according to ASTM A 47, Grade 32510, for malleable iron
casting.
16.2.5.1 Unless otherwise specified, all hardware for
timber structures shall be galvanized in accordance with
AASHTO M 232 (ASTM A 153) or cadmium plated in ac- TABLE 16.1 Typical Dimensions of Timber
cordance with AASHTO M 299 (ASTM B 696). All steel Connectors (dimensions in inches)
components, timber connectors, and castings, other than
malleable iron, shall be galvanized in accordance with
AASHTO M 111 (ASTM A 123).
16.2.6 Timber Connectors
16.2.6.1 Dimensions
The various types of timber connectors shall generally

conform to the dimensions shown in Table 16.1 and to the
dimensions specified in this Article 16.2.6.
16.2.6.2 Split Ring Connectors
Split rings of 21⁄ 2-inch inside diameter and 4-inch in-

side diameter shall be manufactured from hot-rolled car-
bon steel conforming to the Society of Automotive Engi-
neers Specification SAE-1010. Each ring shall form a
closed true circle with the principal axis of the cross sec-
tion of the ring metal parallel to the geometric axis of the
ring. The metal section shall be beveled from the central
portion toward the edges to a thickness less than the mid-
section. It shall be cut through in one place in its circum-
ference to form a tongue and slot.
TABLE 16.1 (Continued) a central circular fillet which forms a bolt hole opening
of 11⁄ 4 inch. Fillets in cross section shall be diamond
shaped except that the inner circular fillet may be flat-
tened on one side to provide for manufacturer identifi-
cation.
16.3 FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION
16.3.1 Workmanship
Workmanship shall be first class throughout, and all

framing shall be true and exact. Unless otherwise speci-
fied, nails and spikes shall be driven with just sufficient
force to set the heads flush with the surface of the wood.
Deep hammer marks in wood surfaces shall be considered
evidence of poor workmanship and sufficient cause for re-
moval of the workman causing them.
16.3.2 Storage of Material
Lumber and timber stored at the construction site shall

be kept in orderly piles or stacks. Untreated material shall
be open-stacked on supports at least 12 inches above the
ground surface to avoid absorption of ground moisture
and permit air circulation and it shall be so stacked and
stickered as to permit free circulation of air between the
tiers and courses. In particular cases required by the En-
gineer, the Contractor shall provide protection from the
weather by a suitable covering. The ground underneath
and in the vicinity of the timber shall be cleared of weeds
and rubbish. The storage area shall be chosen or con-
structed so that water will not collect under or near the
stored timber.
16.3.3 Treated Timber
16.3.3.1 Handling
Treated timber shall be carefully handled without sud-

den dropping, breaking of outer fibers, bruising, or pene-
trating the surface with tools. It shall be handled with web
slings. Cant hooks, peaveys, pikes, or hooks shall not be
Square grids shall consist of four rows of opposing used. When metal bands are used to bundle members, cor-
spikes forming a 41⁄ 8-inch square grid with 16 teeth that ner protectors shall be provided to prevent damage to the
are held in place by fillets. Fillets for the flat grid in cross treated timber.
section shall be diamond shaped. Fillets for the single
curve grids shall be increased in depth to allow for curva- 16.3.3.2 Framing and Boring
ture and shall maintain a thickness between the sloping
faces of the fillets equal to the width of the fillet. All cutting, framing, and boring of treated timbers shall
Circular grids of 31⁄ 4-inch diameter shall consist of be done before treatment insofar as is practicable. When
eight opposing spikes equally spaced around the outer treated timbers are to be placed in waters infested by ma-
circumference and held in place by connecting fillets rine borers, untreated cuts, borings, or other joint framings
around the outer diameter and radial fillets projecting to below high-water elevation shall be avoided.
16.3.3.3 Cuts and Abrasions ball-bearing washers made for this purpose. The high-
strength bolt will be replaced with specified bolts for the
All cuts and all recesses formed by countersinking in final installation. All connectors of this type at a joint shall
creosote treated piles or timbers, and all abrasions, after be embedded simultaneously and uniformly.
having been carefully trimmed, shall be field treated as Connector grooves in timber shall be cut concentric
specified either in this paragraph or the following para- with the bolt hole, shall conform to the cross-sectional
graph. Cuts and recesses shall be covered with two appli- shape of the rings, and shall provide a snug fit. Inside
cations of a mixture of 60% creosote oil and 40% roofing groove diameter shall be larger than nominal ring diame-
pitch or brush coated with at least two applications of hot ter in order that the ring will expand slightly during in-
creosote oil and covered with hot roofing pitch. Recesses stallation. (See Table 16.1.)
likely to collect injurious materials shall be filled with hot Fabrication of all structural members using connectors
roofing pitch. Unless specified otherwise, hot preserva- shall be done prior to preservative treatment. When pre-
tives shall be heated to a temperature between 150° and fabricated from templates or shop details, bolt holes shall
200°F. Where particularly heavy coatings are required, a not be more than 1⁄ 16 inch from required placement. Bolt
suitable plastic compound can be prepared by mixing holes shall be 1⁄ 16 inch larger than the finished bolt diame-
10% to 20% of creosote and 80% to 90% of coal-tar roof- ter. Bolt holes shall be bored perpendicular to the face of
ing pitch. the timber.
For timbers originally treated with pentachlorophenol, Timber after fabrication shall be stored in a manner
creosote, creosote solutions or water-borne preservatives, that will prevent changes in the dimensions of the mem-
all cuts, abrasions and recesses which occur after treat- bers before assembly. Timber should be cured before fab-
ment shall be field treated by two liberal applications of a rication so that it will remain stable in its dimensions.
compatible preservative in accordance with the require- Timber that shrinks during storage causing predrilled
ments of the American Wood Preservers Association grooves for split rings or plates to become elliptical or
Standard M 4 entitled, “Standard for the Care of Pressure causing bolt hole spacing to change will be sufficient rea-
Treated Wood Products.” son for rejection.
16.3.3.4 Bored Holes 16.3.5 Holes for Bolts, Dowels, Rods, and Lag
Screws
All holes bored after treatment shall be treated by fill-
ing the holes with the preservative used for field treatment. Holes for round drift-bolts and dowels shall be bored
After treatment, any holes not filled with bolts or other with a bit 1⁄ 16 inch less in diameter than the bolt or dowel
items shall be plugged with preservative treated plugs. to be used. The diameter of holes for square drift-bolts or
dowels shall be equal to the least dimension of the bolt or
16.3.3.5 Temporary Attachment dowel.
Holes for machine bolts shall be bored with a bit the
Whenever, with the approval of the Engineer, forms or same diameter as the finished bolt, except as otherwise
temporary braces are attached to treated timber with nails provided for bolts in connectors.
or spikes, the resulting holes shall be treated as required Holes for rods shall be bored with a bit 1⁄ 16 inch greater
for bored holes and shall be filled by driving galvanized in diameter than the finished rod.
nails, spikes, or preservative-treated plugs flush with the Holes for lag screws shall be bored with a bit not larger
surface. than the body of the screw at the base of the thread. To
prevent splitting or stripping the threads, the hole for the
16.3.4 Installation of Connectors shank shall be bored the same diameter and to the same
depth as the shank. The depth of holes for lag screws shall
Timber connectors shall be one of the following types, be approximately 1 inch less than the length under the
as specified on the plans: the split ring, the shear plate, or head.
the spike grid. The split ring and the shear plate types shall
be installed in precut grooves of dimensions as given 16.3.6 Bolts and Washers
herein or as recommended by the manufacturer. Spike
grids shall be forced into the wood so that timbers will be A washer, of the size and type specified, shall be used
in firm contact. Pressure equipment that does not damage under all bolt heads (except for timber bolts with economy
the wood shall be utilized. One acceptable method is to type heads) and nuts which would otherwise come in con-
use high-strength bolts or rods fitted with low friction tact with wood.
The nuts of all bolts shall be effectually locked after 16.3.9.4 Posts
they have been finally tightened.
Posts shall be fastened to pedestals with dowels of not
16.3.7 Countersinking less than 3⁄ 4-inch diameter, extending at least 6 inches into
the posts, or by other types of connectors as detailed on
Countersinking shall be done where smooth or flush the plans.
surfaces are required. All recesses in treated timber, Posts shall be fastened to sills by one of the following
formed for countersinking, shall be treated as specified in methods, as indicated on the plans:
Article 16.3.3.3. Recesses likely to collect injurious ma-
terials shall be filled with hot roofing pitch. (a) By dowels of not less than 3⁄ 4-inch diameter, ex-
tending at least 6 inches into posts and sills.
16.3.8 Framing (b) By drift-bolts of not less than 3⁄ 4-inch diameter driv-
en diagonally through the base of the post and ex-
All lumber and timber shall be accurately cut and tending at least 9 inches into the sill. Drift bolts shall be
framed to a close fit in such manner that the joints will driven in holes as required by Article 16.3.5 at a 45°
have even bearing over the entire contact surfaces. Mor- angle and shall enter the post at least 6 inches above the
tises shall be true to size for their full depth and tenons post base.
shall fit snugly. No shimming will be permitted in making (c) By other types of connectors as detailed on the
joints, nor will open joints be accepted. plans.
16.3.9 Framed Bents 16.3.9.5 Caps
16.3.9.1 Mud Sills Timber caps shall be placed, with ends aligned, in a
manner to secure an even and uniform bearing over the
Mud sills shall be firmly and evenly bedded to solid tops of the supporting posts or piles. All caps shall be se-
bearing and tamped in place. Mud sills shall be pressure cured by drift-bolts of not less than 3⁄ 4-inch diameter, ex-
preservative treated for ground contact. Where untreated tending at least 9 inches into the posts or piles, or by other
timber is permitted for mud sills, it shall be of heart cedar, types of connectors as detailed on the plans. The drift-
heart cypress, redwood, or other durable timber as ap- bolts shall be approximately in the center of the post or
proved by the Engineer. pile.
16.3.9.2 Concrete Pedestals 16.3.9.6 Bracing
Concrete pedestals for the support of framed bents Bracing shall be bolted through the pile, post, or cap
shall be carefully finished so that the sills or posts will at the ends and at all intermediate intersections using a
take even bearing. Dowels for anchoring sills or posts bolt of not less than 5⁄ 8 inches in diameter. Bracing shall
shall be not less than 3⁄ 4 inches in diameter and project at be of sufficient length to provide a minimum distance of
least 6 inches above the tops of the pedestals. These dow- 8 inches between the outside bolt and the end of the
els shall be cast in the concrete pedestals. Concrete and re- brace.
inforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Sec-
tions 8, “Concrete Structures,” and 9, “Reinforcing Steel,” 16.3.10 Stringers
respectively.
Stringers shall be sized at bearings and shall be placed
16.3.9.3 Sills in position so that knots near edges will be in the top por-
tions of the stringers.
Sills shall have true and even bearing on mud sills, Outside stringers may have butt joints with the ends cut
piles, or pedestals. They shall be drift-bolted to mud sills on a taper, but interior stringers shall be lapped to take
or piles with bolts of not less than 3⁄ 4-inch diameter and bearing over the full width of the floor beam or cap at each
extending into the mud sills or piles at least 6 inches, or end. The lapped ends of untreated stringers shall be
by other types of connectors as detailed on the plans. separated at least 1⁄ 2 inch for the circulation of air and shall
When possible, all earth shall be removed from contact be securely fastened by drift-bolting where specified.
with sills so that there will be free air circulation around When stringers are two panels in length the joints shall be
the sills. staggered.
Unless otherwise specified in the contract, cross-bridg- possible to complete the fabrication and drilling of glulam
ing or blocking shall be placed at the center of each span. members for field connections before treating, a preserv-
Cross-bridging between stringers shall be neatly and ac- ative treatment shall be applied to cut or drilled areas in
curately framed and securely toe-nailed with at least two the field, in accordance with Articles 16.3.3.3 and
nails in each end. All cross-bridging members shall have 16.3.3.4.
full bearing at each end against the sides of stringers. Panels shall not be dragged or skidded. Glue laminated
Blocking shall be snug-fit and held in place by either pre- deck panels shall be handled, and transported in a way to
fabricated galvanized steel beam hangers or by tie-rods as prevent bending the panels, especially transverse to the
detailed on the plans. laminated pieces. When lifted, they shall be supported at
a sufficient number of points to avoid overstressing, and
16.3.11 Plank Floors the edges shall be protected from damage.
When dowels are shown on the drawings between deck
Unless otherwise specified, planks for flooring shall be panels, a template or drilling jig shall be used to ensure
surfaced four sides (S 4 S). that dowel holes are accurately spaced. The holes shall be
Single plank floors shall consist of a single thickness drilled to a depth 1⁄ 4 inch greater than one-half the dowel
of plank supported by stringers or joists. The planks shall length and of the same diameter as the dowel unless oth-
be laid heart side down, with 1⁄ 4-inch openings between erwise shown on the drawings. A temporary dowel shall
them for seasoned material and with tight joints for un- be used as a check for snug fit prior to production drilling.
seasoned material. Each plank shall be securely spiked to The dowels shall be of the size shown on the drawings
each joist. The planks shall be carefully graded as to with the tips slightly tapered or rounded. A lubricant may
thickness and so laid that no two adjacent planks shall be used to facilitate the connection process.
vary in thickness by more than 1⁄ 8 inch. The tips of the dowels shall be partially and equally
Two-ply timber floors shall consist of two layers of started into the holes of the two panels being joined. The
flooring supported on stringers or joists. The top course panels shall be drawn together keeping the edges parallel,
shall be laid either diagonal or parallel to the center line until the panels abut tightly. Each panel shall be securely
of roadway, as specified, and each floor piece shall be se- fastened to each stringer or girder as shown on the draw-
curely fastened to the lower course. Joints shall be stag- ings.
gered at least 3 feet. If the top flooring is placed parallel
to the center line of the roadway, special care shall be
16.3.14 Composite Wood-Concrete Decks
taken to securely fasten the ends of the flooring. At each
end of the bridge these members shall be beveled.
Shear connectors needed to resist shear and provide
hold-down capacity between timber and concrete ele-
16.3.12 Nail Laminated or Strip Floors
ments which are designed for composite action shall be
furnished and installed in conformance with the details
The strips shall be placed on edge, at right angles to the
shown on the plans or specified in the special provisions.
center line of roadway. Each strip shall be nailed to the
If no such details are provided and the construction is de-
preceding strip as shown in Figure 16.3. The spikes shall
scribed on the plans as being composite, the Contractor
be of sufficient length to pass through two strips and at
shall submit working drawings for such details and de-
least half-way through the third strip.
vices for approval by the Engineer before the subject work
If timber supports are used, every other strip shall
is begun.
be toe-nailed to every other support. The size of the
spikes shall be as shown on the plans. When specified on
the plans, the strips shall be securely attached to steel 16.3.15 Wheel Guards and Railing
supports by the use of approved galvanized metal clips.
Care shall be taken to have each strip vertical and tight Wheel guards and railing shall be accurately framed in
against the preceding strip, and bearing evenly on all the accordance with the plans and erected true to line and
supports. grade. Unless otherwise specified, wheel guards, rails, and
rail posts shall be surfaced four-sides (S 4 S). Wheel
16.3.13 Glue Laminated Panel Decks guards shall be laid in sections not less than 12 feet long,
except where necessary to match expansion joints or end
Unless otherwise specified, deck panels shall be pres- joints.
sure preservative treated with creosote or pen- Railings shall conform to the requirements in Section
tachlorophenol with Type A, C, or D carrier. When it is not 20, “Railings.”
16.3.16 Trusses the computations even though the actual size is less in the
dimension specified.
Trusses, when completed, shall show no irregularities Timber in wheel guards will be included. Timber in pil-
of line. Chords shall be straight and true from end to end ing, railing, and other items for which separate payment
in horizontal projection and, in vertical projection, shall is provided will not be included.
show a smooth curve through panel points conforming to Measurements for glued laminated girders and beams
the correct camber. All bearing surfaces shall fit accu- will be computed from the applicable finished dimensions
rately. Uneven or rough cuts at the points of bearing shall and actual lengths. Quantities for glue laminated girders
be cause for rejection of the piece containing the defect. and beams to be paid for will be the linear feet for each
size and stress combination.
The measurement of lumber and timber and of glued
16.4 PAINTING
laminated girders and beams will include only such mate-
rial as is a part of the completed and accepted work, and
Rails and rail posts of timber and any other parts des-
will not include materials used for erection purposes, such
ignated on the plan or in the special provisions to be
as falsework, bracing, sheeting, etc.
painted shall be painted with three coats of specification
paint. Paint and its application shall conform to the re-
quirements in Section 13, “Painting.” 16.6 PAYMENT
Metal parts, except for hardware, galvanized or cad-
mium plated metal, and malleable iron, shall be given one Payment for timber, lumber, and glued laminated
coat of shop paint and, after erection, two coats of field girders and beams shall be considered to be full compen-
paint as specified in Section 13, “Painting.” sation for all costs of furnishing of materials, including
hardware and timber connectors, preservative treatment,
16.5 MEASUREMENT equipment, tools, and labor for the fabrication, erection,
and painting necessary to complete all of the work in
The quantities to be paid for will be the number of compliance with the plans and specifications in a satis-
thousand feet board measure (Mbm) of each species and factory manner.
grade of lumber and timber listed in the schedule of bid Metal parts, other than hardware and timber connec-
items, complete in place and accepted. Measurements of tors, will be measured and paid for as provided in Section
lumber and timber will be computed from the nominal di- 23, “Miscellaneous Metal.”
mensions and actual lengths. The cross-sectional dimen- Railings and concrete will be measured and paid for as
sions on the plans will be interpreted as standard sizes. provided in Sections 20, “Railings” and 8, “Concrete
The standard cross-sectional dimensions will be used in Structures,” respectively.
FIGURE 16.3 Nail Placement Pattern
Section 17
PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT OF WOOD
17.1 GENERAL Unless otherwise specified in the Special Provisions

or shown on the design drawings, timber railings
This work shall consist of treating wood, including and posts and timber that are to be painted shall be treated
lumber, timber, piles and poles, with designated preserv- with pentachlorophenol with a Type C solvent or
atives in accordance with these Specifications. It shall in- with a water-borne preservative of either Type CCA or
clude furnishing all materials, preparing, treating, and ACZA.
performing all work to complete treating the wood prod-
ucts required for the project.
The type of preservative treatment required shall be as 17.2.3 Coal-tar Roofing Cement
specified in the special provisions or as noted on the plans.
When a specific type of preservative is not called for, For purposes of these specifications pitch, coal-tar
the kind of preservative to be used shall be adopted for its pitch, coal-tar roofing pitch, or coal-tar roofing compound
suitability to the conditions of exposure to which it will be shall mean coal-tar roofing cement wherever the terms are
subjected and shall be subject to approval of the Engineer. used. Coal-tar roofing cement is a residue of the manu-
The handling and care of treated woods shall conform facturing of coke and creosote from bituminous coal. It
to the requirements of Sections 4, “Driven Foundation shall be a thick, heavy-bodied, and paste-like material.
Piles,” and 16, “Timber Structures.” When called for, it can be mixed with creosote. It may or
may not contain fibrous material.
17.2 MATERIALS
17.2.1 Wood 17.3 IDENTIFICATION AND INSPECTION
Piling shall conform to the requirements of Section 4, 17.3.1 Branding and Job Site Inspection
“Driven Foundation Piles.” Timber and lumber shall con-
form to the requirements of Section 16, “Timber Struc- Each piece of treated timber shall bear a legible
tures.” brand, mark, or tag indicating the name of the treater and
the specification symbol or specification requirements to
17.2.2 Preservatives and Treatments which the treatment conforms. Treated wood products
bearing the quality mark of the American Wood Pre-
Timber preservatives and treatment methods shall con- servers Bureau (AWPB) will be acceptable. The Engi-
form to AASHTO M 133. The type of preservative fur- neer shall be provided adequate facilities and free access
nished shall be in accordance with that specified or as to the necessary parts of the treating plant for inspection
noted on the plans. It should be noted that AASHTO M of material and workmanship to determine that the con-
133 designates the preservatives and retentions recom- tract requirements are met. The Engineer reserves the
mended for Coastal Waters and in marine structures and right to retest all materials after delivery to the job site
further that timber for use in “ground or water contact” and to reject all materials which do not meet the re-
has requirements that differ from timbers for use “not in quirements of the contract; provided that, at the job site
ground or water contact.” In some instances there is a reinspection, conformance within 5% of contract re-
range of retentions offered which provides for different quirements shall be acceptable. Reinspection at the job
degrees of exposure based on climate or degree of insect site may include assay to determine retention of preser-
infestation. Unless the higher retentions are specified, not vatives and extraction and analysis of preservative to de-
less than the minimum retention is required. termine its quality.
615
17.3.2 Inspection at Treatment Plant 17.3.3 Certificate of Compliance
Unless otherwise specified, inspection of materials and Whenever specified or requested by the Engineer, a
preservative treatment shall be the responsibility of the certificate of compliance with copies of the inspection re-
Contractor and the supplier of treated wood products. In- ports attached shall be furnished to the Engineer with each
spections shall be conducted in accordance with shipment of material. Such certificates shall identify the
AASHTO Specification M 133 (AWPA Standards) by the type of preservative used and the quantity in pounds per
treater or an independent commercial inspection agency cubic foot (assay method) and shall be signed by the
approved by the American Wood Preservers Bureau treater or the qualified independent inspection agency.
(AWPB) and the Engineer.
The inspection agency shall be engaged by the Con-
tractor directly or through his or her supplier. No direct 17.4 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
compensation will be made for these inspection costs, it
being understood that the costs of inspection are included No separate measurement and payment will be made
in the contract bid prices for treated wood products or confor preservative treatment as such work is a part of the
struction items of work. work included in furnishing preservative treated materials.
Section 18
BEARINGS
18.1 SCOPE 18.2.2 ASTM Standards
This section covers the construction and installation of The following ASTM Standards are relevant to this
structural bearings that consist of one or more of the fol- section.
lowing component types: metal rocker and roller bearings,
ASTM A 167 Specification for Stainless and Heat-
PTFE sliding bearings (flat and curved), plain elastomeric
Resisting Chromium-Nickel Steel
pads, fiberglass reinforced elastomeric pads, cotton duck
Plate Sheet, and Strip.
reinforced pads, steel reinforced elastomeric bearings, pot ASTM A 240 Specification for Heat-Resisting
bearings, disc bearings, and bronze and copper alloy bear- Chromium and Chromium-Nickel
ings (flat and curved). At the discretion of the Engineer, Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip
other component types may be used, but the construction, for Pressure Vessels
installation and testing requirements must then be agreed ASTM A 307 Specification for Carbon Steel Exter-
by the Engineer before the start of fabrication. nally Threaded Standard Fasteners
The section also covers ancillary items such as ma- ASTM A 781 Standard Specification for Castings,
sonry, sole and load distribution plates, bedding materials, Steel and Alloy, Common Require-
anchor bolts, lubricants and adhesives. ments, for General Industrial Use
ASTM A 788 Specification for Steel Forgings,
General Requirements
18.2 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS ASTM A 802 Practice for Steel Castings, Textures
and Discontinuities, Evaluation and
18.2.1 AASHTO Standards Specifying by Visual Examination
ASTM B 22 Bronze Castings for Bridges and
The following AASHTO Standards are relevant to this Turntables (AASHTO M 107)
section. ASTM B 29 Specification for Pig Lead
ASTM B 36 Specification for Brass Plate, Sheet,
AASHTO M 102 Steel Forgings, Carbon and Alloy Strip, and Rolled Bar
for General Use (ASTM A 668) ASTM B 100 Specification for Rolled Copper
AASHTO M 107 Bronze Castings for Bridges and Alloy Bearing and Expansion Plates
Turntables (ASTM B 22) for Bridge and Other Structural Uses
AASHTO M 108 Rolled Copper-Alloy Bearing and (AASHTO M 108)
Expansion Plates and Sheets for ASTM B 103 Specification for Phosphor-Bronze
Bridges and Other Industrial Uses Plate, Sheet, Strip and Rolled Bar
ASTM B 438 Specification for Sintered Bronze
(ASTM B100)
Bearings (Oil Impregnated)
AASHTO M 164 High-Strength Bolts for Structural
ASTM D 395 Test Methods for Rubber Property—
Steel Joints (ASTM A 325)
Compression Set
AASHTO M 251 Specifications for Plain and Steel ASTM D 412 Test Methods for Rubber Property—
Laminated Bearings for Bridges Tension Test
(ASTM D 4014) ASTM D 429 Test Methods for Rubber Property—
AASHTO M 253 Heat-Treated Steel Structural Peel Test
Bolts 150 Ksi Minimum Tensile ASTM D 518 Test Method for Rubber Deteriora-
Strength (ASTM A 490) tion—Surface Cracking
AASHTO M 270 Structural Steel for Bridges (ASTM ASTM D 573 Test Method for Rubber—Deteriora-
A 709) tion in an Air Oven
617
ASTM D 746 Test Method for Brittleness Temper- 18.4 MATERIALS

ature of Plastics and Elastomers by
Impact 18.4.1 General
ASTM D 792 Test Method for Specific Gravity
18.4.1.1 Steel
(Relative Density) and Density of
Plastics by Displacement 18.4.1.1.1 Rolled steel shall be of the type required
ASTM D 903 Test Method for Peel or Stripping on the plans and shall satisfy the testing requirements of
Strength of Adhesive Bonds the standard to which it conforms. Unless otherwise spec-
ASTM D 1043 Stiffness Properties of Plastics as a ified, it shall conform to AASHTO M 270 (ASTM A 709)
Function of Temperature by Means Grade 36 and shall cause no adverse electrolytic or chem-
of a Torsion Test ical reaction with other components of the bearing. It shall
ASTM D 1149 Test Method for Rubber Deteriora- be free of all rust and mill scale.
tion—Surface Ozone Cracking in a
Chamber. 18.4.1.1.2 Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer,
ASTM D 1777 Method of Measuring Thickness of steel laminates in steel reinforced elastomeric bearings
Textile Materials shall be made from rolled mild steel conforming to M 270
ASTM D 2000 Classification System for Rubber Grade 36, Grade 50 (ASTM A 36, A 572), or equivalent,
Products in Automotive Applications and shall have a nominal thickness not less than 16 gage.
ASTM D 2240 Test Method for Rubber Property— Holes in laminates, not specified on the plans but used for
Durometer Hardness manufacturing purposes, shall be permitted only with the
ASTM D 2256 Test Method for Breaking Load written approval of the Engineer.
(Strength) and Elongation of Yarn by
the Single-Strand Method 18.4.1.1.3 Cast steel shall satisfy the requirements of
ASTM D 3293 Specification for PTFE Resin ASTM A 802 and be free of all blow-holes and impurities
Molded Sheet larger than 1 ⁄ 8 inch. The inside wall of the pot in pot bear-
ASTM D 4014 Specification for Plain and Steel- ings and the contact surface of metal rocker or roller bear-
Laminated Elastomeric Bearings for ings shall be free of blow-holes or impurities of any size.
Bridges (AASHTO M 251)
ASTM D 4894 Specification for Polytetrafluoroeth- 18.4.1.1.4 Forged steel shall satisfy the requirements
ylene (PTFE) Granular Molding and of ASTM A 788.
Ram Extrusion Materials
18.4.1.1.5 Unless otherwise specified by the Engi-
ASTM D 4895 Specification for Polytetrafluoroeth-
neer, stainless steel shall conform to ASTM A 167 or A
ylene (PTFE) Resin Produced from
240 type 304, and have a minimum thickness of 20 gage.
Dispersion
Stainless steel in contact with PTFE sheet shall be pol-
ished to a #8 mirror finish.
18.2.3 Other Standards
18.4.1.1.6 Steel weld metal shall be chosen to be
ANSI/AASHTO/ Bridge Welding Code compatible with the parent materials and the welding
AWS D1.5 process used and shall be approved by the Engineer.
MIL-S-8660C Grease for pot bearing rotational Stainless steel weld used for overlays shall be type 309L.
elements
MMM-A-134 Epoxy (Federal specification) 18.4.1.1.7 Bolts shall conform to AASHTO M 164
QQ-B-626 Brass (Federal specification) (ASTM A 325), AASHTO M 253 (ASTM A 490) or
TT-S-230 Caulk (Federal specification) ASTM A 307 unless specified otherwise.
18.3 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 18.4.2 Special Material Requirements for Metal

Rocker and Roller Bearings
Bearings shall be constructed in accordance with the
details shown on the plans and specifications. When com- The steel at the contact surface of a metal bearing may
plete details are not provided, bearings shall be furnished be hardened provided that, after hardening, it satisfies the
that conform to the limited details shown on the plans and strength and ductility requirements of the contract plans
shall provide the performance characteristics specified. and material specifications.
18.4.3 Special Material Requirements for PTFE specification MMM-A-134, FEP film or equal, as ap-
Sliding Surfaces proved by the Engineer.
18.4.3.1 PTFE 18.4.3.3 Lubricants
18.4.3.1.1 PTFE resin shall be 100% pure new mate- Lubricant, if used, shall consist of a combination of
rial and shall comply with ASTM D 4894 or D 4895. It solids which does not react chemically or electrolytically
shall satisfy the requirements of Table 18.4.3.1-1. No re- with the PTFE and its mating surface and shall remain sta-
claimed material shall be used. ble in the environmental conditions expected at the bridge
Finished PTFE sheet, strip and fabric shall be resistant site.
to acids, alkalis, and petroleum products, stable at tem-
peratures from 2360°F to 1500°F, nonflammable, and 18.4.3.4 Interlocked Bronze and Filled PTFE
nonabsorbing of water. Structures
18.4.3.1.2 Filler material, when used in PTFE, shall The phosphor bronze back plate shall conform to
be milled glass fiber, carbon fiber or other approved fiber. AASHTO M 108 (ASTM B 100) and the porous bronze
The filler shall not react chemically with the PTFE but layer shall conform to ASTM B 103.
shall adhere to it so that the two act compositely.
18.4.4 Special Material Requirements for Pot
18.4.3.1.3 Finished PTFE sheet shall be made from Bearings
virgin PTFE resin or virgin PTFE resin uniformly blended
with approved filler. The maximum filler content shall be 18.4.4.1 The rotational element of the pot bearing
15% for fiberglass and 25% for carbon fibers. The maxi- shall be made from an elastomeric compound, with a hard-
ness of 50 6 10 on the Shore A scale. It shall be made from
mum filler content for other materials shall be determined
all new material. The raw polymer on which it is based
by the Engineer. The PTFE sheet shall satisfy the require-
shall be either polychloroprene (neoprene) or polyisoprene
ments of Table 18.4.3.1-1. Values for intermediate filler
(natural rubber). The compound shall satisfy the physical
contents may be obtained by interpolation. property requirements for a 50 hardness material as speci-
fied in Tables 18.4.5.1-1A or -1B.
18.4.3.1.4 Woven fabric PTFE shall be made from
oriented multi-filament PTFE fibers or from a mixture of 18.4.4.2 The elastomer may be lubricated with a sili-
PTFE fibers made from twisted, slit PTFE tape and other cone grease which does not react chemically with the elas-
fibers. It shall conform to the requirements of Table tomer and which does not alter its properties within the range
18.4.3.1-1. of environmental conditions expected at the bridge site.
18.4.3.2 Adhesives 18.4.4.3 The sealing rings shall be made of brass con-
forming to ASTM B 36 (half hard) for rings of rectangular
Adhesive used for bonding sheet PTFE shall be an cross-section, and to federal specification QQ-B-626, com-
epoxy material satisfying the requirements of federal position 2, for rings of circular cross-section. The Engineer
TABLE 18.4.3.1-1 Physical Properties of PTFE

ASTM Sheet Sheet with 15% Sheet with 25% Woven
Physical Property Test Method (Unfilled) glass fibers carbon fibers fabric
Specific Gravity D 4894, D 4895, 2.16 6 0.03 2.20 6 0.03 2.10 6 0.03 —
or D 5977
Melting point (°F) D 4894, D 4895, .623 6 2 .621 6 18 .621 6 18 —
or D 5977
Tensile Strength (psi) D 4894, D 4895, 28001 20002 13002 24,000
or D 5977
Elongation at Break (%) D 4894, D 4895, 2001 1502 752 24,0351
or D 5977
1 Using Test Method ASTM D 2256
2 Using Test Method ASTM D 638
may, at own discretion, approve other sealing ring materi- laminated bearings shall develop a minimum peel strength
als on the basis of test evidence which demonstrates ade- of 40 lb/in. Peel strength tests shall be performed by
quate sealing properties and durability of the material. ASTM D 429 Method B.
18.4.5 Special Material Requirements for Steel 18.4.6 Special Material Requirements for Bronze
Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings and or Copper Alloy Sliding Surfaces
Elastomeric Pads
18.4.6.1 Bronze and Copper Alloys
18.4.5.1 Elastomer
18.4.6.1.1 Bronze
The raw elastomer shall be either virgin neoprene
(polychloroprene) or virgin natural rubber (polyisoprene). Bronze components shall conform to the requirements of
The elastomer compound shall be classified as being of AASHTO M 107 (ASTM B 22) alloy C90500, C91100 or
low temperature grade 0, 2, 3, 4 or 5. The grades are de- C86300. Alloy C91100 shall be furnished unless otherwise
fined by the testing requirements in Tables 18.4.5.1-1A specified. Components may be cast, rolled or forged. Cast-
and -1B. A higher grade of elastomer may be substituted ings shall be free of blow-holes larger than 1 ⁄ 8 inch and con-
for a lower one. In the absence of more specific informa- tact surfaces shall be free of all blow-holes of any size.
tion, bearings shall be Grade 3, 60 durometer elastomer.
The elastomer compound shall meet the minimum re- 18.4.6.1.2 Rolled Copper-Alloy
quirements of Tables 18.4.5.1-1A and -1B except as oth-
Rolled copper-alloy bearing and expansion plates shall
erwise specified by the Engineer. The nominal hardness of
conform to the Specification for Rolled Copper-Alloy Bear-
the compound shall lie between 50 and 60 for reinforced
bearings and between 50 and 70 for plain pads. Test re- ing and Expansion Plates and Sheets for Bridge and Other
quirements may be interpolated for intermediate hardness. Structural Uses, AASHTO M 108 (ASTM B 100). Alloy No.
If the material is specified by its shear modulus, its mea- C51000 or No. C51100 shall be furnished unless otherwise
sured shear modulus shall lie within 15% of the specified specified.
value. A consistent value of hardness shall also be sup-
plied for the purpose of defining limits for the tests in Ta- 18.4.6.2 Oil Impregnated Metal Powder Sintered
bles 18.4.5.1-1A and -1B. If the hardness is specified, the Material
measured shear modulus must fall within the range of
Table 14.6.5.2.1 in Article 14.6.5.2 of Division I. When Metal powdered sintered material shall conform to ASTM
test specimens are cut from the finished product, the phys- B 438, Grade 1, Type II or Grade 2, Type I.
ical properties shall be permitted to vary from those spec-
ified in Tables 18.4.5.1-1A and -1B by 10%. All material 18.4.7 Special Material Requirements for Disc
tests shall be carried out at 73° 6 4°F unless otherwise Bearings
noted. Shear modulus tests shall be carried out using the
apparatus and procedure described in annex A of ASTM 18.4.7.1 Elastomeric Rotational Element
D 4014, amended where necessary by the requirements of
Tables 18.4.5.1-1A or -1B. The rotational element of the disc bearing shall be
made from an elastomeric compound with a hardness
18.4.5.2 Fabric Reinforcement which lies between 45 and 65 on the Shore D scale. The
raw polymer on which it is based shall be polyether ure-
Fabric reinforcement shall be woven from 100% glass thane. The compound shall satisfy the physical property
fibers of “E” type yarn with continuous fibers. The mini- requirements appropriate to the material’s hardness in
mum thread count in either direction shall be 25 threads Table 18.4.7.1-1.
per inch. The fabric shall have either a crowfoot or an 8
Harness Satin weave. Each ply of fabric shall have a min- 18.4.8 Special Material Requirements for Guides
imum breaking strength of 800 lb/in. of width in each
thread direction. 18.4.8.1 Low-Friction Material
18.4.5.3 Bond The sliding interface shall be made from a material

which is approved by the Engineer and which will provide
The vulcanized bond between fabric and reinforce- a friction coefficient no greater than the one used in the
ment shall have a minimum peel strength of 30 lb/in. Steel design.
TABLE 18.4.5.1-1A Material Tests—polychloroprene
as described in
annex A of
ASTM D 4014
TABLE 18.4.5.1-1B Material Tests—polyisoprene
as described in
annex A of
ASTM D 4014
TABLE 18.4.7.1-1 Physical Properties of 18.4.9.4 Grout and Mortar

Polyether Urethane
ASTM
Grout and mortar used for filling under masonry plates
Test shall conform to Article 8.14.
Physical Property Method Requirements
18.5 FABRICATION
Hardness, Durometer ‘D’ D 2240 45 55 65
Minimum Tensile Stress (psi) D 412
at 100% elongation 1500 1900 2300 18.5.1 General
at 200% elongation 2800 3400 4000
Tensile Strength (psi) D 412 4000 5000 6000 18.5.1.1 Bearings shall be accurately machined to
Elongation at break (%) D 412 350 285 220 the dimensions and tolerances shown on the contract
Maximum Compression Set D 395 40 40 40 plans and shall be free from flaws.
(22 hrs @ 158° F, %)
18.5.1.2 All fabrication from steel plate shall comply
with Section 11.4 of Division II of this specification.
18.4.8.2 Adhesive
All welding shall conform to, and all welders shall be
qualified in accordance with, the requirements of the
Any adhesive used to attach the sliding interface
ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D 1.5 Bridge Welding Code.
material shall be recommended for that purpose by the
manufacturer of the sliding material and approved by
18.5.1.4 If a masonry plate is used, the bearing shall
the Engineer.
be attached to it by a method that permits transfer of all
the specified loads, but also allows replacement of the
18.4.9 Special Requirements for Bedding
bearing. Recessing is recommended.
Materials
18.5.1.5 Unless specified otherwise, the dimensional
18.4.9.1 Fabric-Reinforced Elastomeric
Bedding Pads tolerances and surface finishes of the bearing shall satisfy
the requirements of Table 18.5.1.5-1.
Preformed fabric pads used as bedding shall be com-
posed of multiple layers of 8-ounce cotton duck impreg- 18.5.2 Special Fabrication Requirements for Metal
nated and bonded with high quality natural rubber or of Rocker and Roller Bearings
equivalent and equally suitable materials compressed into
resilient pads of uniform thickness. The number of plies 18.5.2.1 Steel
shall be such as to produce the specified thickness, after
compression and vulcanizing. The finished pads shall Rocker bearings may be made by casting, forging or
withstand compression stress perpendicular to the plane fabricating from plate. Roller bearings more than 9 inches
of the laminations of not less than 10,000 pounds per in diameter shall be forged and annealed. Smaller roller
square inch without detrimental reduction in thickness or bearings may either be forged and annealed or be made
extrusion. from cold-finished carbon steel shafting.
In roller bearings more than 9 inches in diameter, a
18.4.9.2 Sheet Lead hole not less than 2 inches in diameter shall be bored full
length along the axis after the forging has cooled to a tem-
Sheet lead used as bedding shall be common desilver- perature below the critical range and before annealing. It
ized lead conforming to ASTM B 29. The sheets shall be shall be done under conditions which prevent damage by
of uniform thickness and shall be free from cracks, seams, cooling too rapidly.
slivers, scale, and other defects. Unless otherwise speci-
fied, lead sheet thickness shall be 1 ⁄ 8 inch 6 0.03 inch. 18.5.2.2 Lubricant
18.4.9.3 Caulk Lubrication shall be applied to all gear mechanisms

and to all other components of roller bearings for which it
Caulking material used as bedding shall be a nonsag is required. The type of lubricant shall be as specified on
polysulfide or polyurethane material conforming to Fed- the contract plans, and shall be applied in accordance with
eral Specification TT-S-230, Type II. the manufacturer’s recommendations.
TABLE 18.5.1.5-1 Fabrication Tolerances and Surface Finish Requirements
Flatness or
Thickness Dimension out-of-round Surface finish
Item tolerance tolerance tolerance (m-in.) (rms.)
Metal Rocker & Roller Bearings

Single Roller: diameter — 20.0630, 10.0630 20.0010, 10.0010 63
Nested Roller: diameter — 20.0020, 10.0020 20.0010, 10.0010 63
Rockers: diameter — 20.1250, 10.1250 20.0010, 10.0010 125
Pins: diameter — 20.0050, 10.0000 20.0020, 10.0020 32
Bushings: diameter — 20.0000, 10.0050 20.0020, 10.0020 32
Pot Bearings
Overall dimensions 20.0000, 10.2500 20.0000, 10.1250 — —
Pot depth (inside) — 20.0000, 10.0250 — —
Pot wall: thickness & ave. I.D. 20.0000, 10.1250 20.0030, 10.0030 20.0010, 10.0010 32
Pot base: top & bottom surfaces 20.0000, 10.0250 — Class C 63
Piston: rim 20.0000, 10.0630 20.0030, 10.0030 20.0010, 10.0010 32
Piston: top and bottom surfaces 20.0000, 10.0250 — Class C 63
Elastomeric disk (unstressed) 20.0000, 10.1250 20.0630, 10.0000 — —
Disc Bearings
Shear-restricting element — 20.0000, 10.0050 Class A 32
Other machined parts 20.0000, 10.0630 20.0000, 10.0630 Class B 63
Urethane disc 20.0000, 10.0630 20.0000, 10.1250 Class B 63
Flat PTFE Sliding Bearings
PTFE 20.0000, 10.0630 20.0000, 10.0300 Class A —
Stainless steel 20.0000, 10.0630 20.0000, 10.1250 Class A #8 mirror
Flat Bronze and Copper Alloy Sliding Bearings
Sliding surfaces 20.0000, 10.1250 20.0000, 10.1250 Class A 32
Curved PTFE Sliding Bearings
Convex radius — 20.0100, 10.0000 20.0020, 10.0020 #8 mirror
Concave radius — 20.0000, 10.0100 20.0020, 10.0020 125
Steel-reinforced Elastomeric Bearings
Internal rubber layers 20.1250, 10.1250 — — —
& 60.20* design
Cover 20.0000, 10.1250 — — —
Parallelism: top & bot. surfaces 60.005 radians — — —
Parallelism: sides — 60.020 radians — —
Elastomeric Pads
Guides
Contact surface — 20.0000, 10.1250 Class A 32
Distance between guides — 20.0000, 10.0300 — —
Parallelism of guides — 60.005 radians — —
Load Plates
Overall dimensions 20.0630, 10.0630 20.2500, 10.2500 Class A† 125†
Bevel slope 60.002 radians — — —
Notes: Flatness: Class A 5 0.001 3 nominal dimension

Class B 5 0.002 3 nominal dimension
Class C 5 0.005 3 nominal dimension
† only for surfaces in contact with the bearing
18.5.3 Special Fabrication Requirements for PTFE tached to its backing material by seal welding around the
Sliding Bearings entire perimeter so as to prevent entry of moisture be-
tween the stainless steel and the backing material. Welds
18.5.3.1 Fabrication of PTFE shall conform to the American Welding Society require-
ments for stainless steel. After welding, the stainless steel
Each PTFE element shown on the plans as a single sheet shall be flat, free from wrinkles and in continuous
piece shall be so fabricated and supplied. contact with its backing plate.
18.5.3.2 Attachment of PTFE 18.5.3.4 Lubrication
18.5.3.2.1 Flat Sheet PTFE Lubricant shall be applied to the entire PTFE surface if
specified by the Engineer. If the PTFE is dimpled, enough
All flat sheet PTFE attached to a metal backing
plate shall be attached by recessing into the backing plate lubricant shall be used to fill all the dimples.
for one half of the PTFE thickness and bonding. PTFE
attached to other materials, such as elastomers, shall be 18.5.4 Special Fabrication Requirements for
attached by a method approved by the Engineer. Curved Sliding Bearings
The PTFE shall be factory-bonded, using an adhesive
that is approved by the Engineer, in accordance with the in- All mating parts of any bearing shall be furnished by
structions of the adhesive’s manufacturer. Prior to bonding, the manufacturer.
the surface shall be etched by an approved manufacturer Sheet PTFE shall be attached to the metal backing sur-
using the sodium napthalene or sodium ammonia process. face by recessing in accordance with Article 18.5.3.2.2.
When the backing plate is metal, the bonding shall be Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer, the PTFE
conducted under a uniform pressure greater than 100 psi. shall be bonded to its metal backing surface using an ad-
The peel strength of the bond shall be not less than 20 hesive that is recommended by the manufacturer and ap-
lb/in, tested in accordance with ASTM D 429 Method B. proved by the Engineer. While the adhesive sets, the
The finished surface of the PTFE shall be smooth, free PTFE shall be compressed between the two mating
from bubbles and shall conform to the tolerances shown curved metal surfaces under a pressure of at least 100 psi.
in Table 18.5.1.5-1. Filled PTFE sheets shall be polished
after bonding. 18.5.5 Special Fabrication Requirements for
Pot Bearings
18.5.3.2.2 Curved Sheet PTFE
18.5.5.1 Pot
Curved sheet PTFE, such as used in spherical bearings,
shall be attached by recessing for one half of the PTFE The pot shall be made by forging, casting, fabrication
thickness. The dimensions of the PTFE element shall be by welding or machining from a single piece of plate. In
selected so that it fits tightly in the recess even when the pots made by welding a ring to a base plate, the weld shall
bearing is subjected to its lowest design temperature. be a full penetration butt weld.
The piston shall be machined from a single piece of
18.5.3.2.3 Woven PTFE Fabric
steel. The outside diameter of the piston shall be no more
Fabric made from woven PTFE fibers shall be bonded than 0.030 inches less than the inside diameter of the pot
or mechanically fastened to a rigid substrate in such a way at the level of the interface between the piston and elas-
that the fabric can carry a compressive stress of 10,000 psi tomeric rotational element. The sides of the piston shall be
without cold flow. The attachment of the fabric to the sub- beveled to facilitate rotation.
strate shall be capable of withstanding, without delamina- If guides are used, they may be attached to the piston
tion, a shear force equal to (0.1 1 m)P at the same time as by welding or bolting.
the normal load P, where m is the design coefficient of
friction between the PTFE and its mating surface and P is 18.5.5.2 Sealing Rings
the design load acting perpendicularly to the interface.
The sealing rings shall be recessed into the elastomeric
18.5.3.3 Stainless Steel Mating Surface disk and shall fit snugly against the pot wall. Rings of rec-
tangular cross section shall be installed with their gaps
Each stainless steel element shown on the plans as a equally spaced around the circumference. The gap between
single piece shall be so supplied. Each sheet shall be at- the ring and the wall shall nowhere exceed 0.01 inches.
The gap between the cut ends of the ring shall not exceed 18.5.6.4 Plain Elastomeric Pads
0.05 inches.
Plain pads may be molded, extruded, or vulcanized in
18.5.5.3 Elastomeric Rotational Element large sheets and cut to size. Cutting shall not heat the ma-
terial, and shall produce a smooth finish.
The elastomeric pad shall have the same nominal di-
ameter as the pot. It may be individually molded or cut 18.5.7 Special Fabrication Requirements for Bronze
from sheet. It may be made of no more than three separate and Copper Alloy Bearings
layers, of which none may have a nominal thickness of
less than 1 /2 inch. The sealing ring recess depth shall be 18.5.7.1 Bronze Sliding Surfaces
the same as the total ring thickness if rectangular rings are
used. Bronze plates shall be cast according to details shown
on the plans. Unless detailed otherwise, sliding surfaces
18.5.6 Special Fabrication Requirements for Steel shall be machined parallel to the direction of movement
Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings and and polished.
Elastomeric Pads
18.5.7.2 Copper Alloy Plates
18.5.6.1 Requirements for All Elastomeric
Bearings Copper alloy plates shall be furnished according to
details shown on the plans. Rolled plates need not be
Bearings and pads which are designed to act as a sin- finished provided they have a plane, true and smooth
gle unit with a given shape factor shall be manufactured surface.
as a single unit.
Flash tolerance, finish, and appearance shall meet the 18.5.8 Special Fabrication Requirements for Disc
requirements of the latest edition of the Rubber Handbook Bearings
as published by the Rubber Manufacturers Association,
Inc., RMA F3 and T.063 for molded bearings and RMA
F2 for extruded bearings. 18.5.8.1 Steel Housing
18.5.6.2 Steel Laminated Elastomeric Bearings The steel housing of the disc bearing shall be made by
machining from a single piece of plate or by fabrication
Bearings with steel laminates shall be cast as a unit in by welding.
a mold and shall be bonded and vulcanized under heat The shear restriction mechanism shall be connected to
and pressure. The mold finish shall conform to standard the bearing plate by mechanical fastening, welding or
shop practice. The internal steel laminates shall be sand- other means approved by the Engineer.
blasted and cleaned of all surface coatings, rust, mill
scale and dirt before bonding, and shall be free of sharp 18.5.8.2 Elastomeric Rotational Element
edges and burrs. External load plates (sole plates) shall
The polyether urethane rotational element shall be
be protected from rusting by the manufacturer, and
molded as a single piece. The finish of the mold shall be
preferably should be hot bonded to the bearing during
free from burrs and shall conform to good shop practice.
vulcanization.
18.5.9 Special Fabrication Requirements for Guides
18.5.6.3 Fabric Reinforced Elastomeric Pads
18.5.9.1 Guide bars shall be attached to the body of
Fabric-reinforced elastomeric pads may be vulcanized the bearing by a method which minimizes distortion and
in large sheets and cut to size. Cutting shall be performed allows the flatness tolerances on all parts of the bearing to
in such a way as to avoid heating the materials and shall be met after attachment. The sliding surfaces of the guide
produce a smooth finish with no separation of the fabric system shall be flat and parallel.
from the elastomer. Fabric reinforcement shall be at least
single ply for the top and bottom reinforcement layers and 18.5.9.2 Bolts or threaded fasteners used to attach
double ply for internal reinforcement layers. Fabric shall the guide bars to their supporting plates shall have an em-
be free of folds and ripples and shall be parallel to the top bedded thread length adequate to develop their required
and bottom surfaces. strength.
18.5.9.3 If low friction material is used at the contact When bearings are made from a number of compo-
interface, it shall be attached to its backing piece by two nents, each component shall satisfy the testing require-
or more of the following methods simultaneously: bond- ments from the applicable section.
ing, recessing and mechanical attachment with counter- The Engineer, or his or her assigned agents, shall be
sunk fasteners. given free access to inspect the manufacturer of the bear-
If the material is bonded, it shall first be etched by the ings at all times.
method recommended by the manufacturer of the mater-
ial or the bonding agent. Recessing shall be one half of the 18.7.1.2 Definitions
material thickness. Fasteners shall be countersunk to a
depth which ensures that they will not touch the mating Load Range—A load range is a range of load capacities in
material after allowing for wear. which the highest capacity is no more than 2.0 times as
large as the lowest.
18.5.10 Special Requirements for Load Plates Lot—A lot is a group of no more than 25 bearings of the
same type (e.g. elastomeric or pot bearings, and fixed,
Load plates shall be made from a single steel plate or guided or floating), in the same load range.
they may be built up from several steel laminates, each Batch—A batch is a body of material in which the ingre-
oriented in the plane perpendicular to the direction of the dients are uniformly blended together at one time.
load. Built up load plates shall be joined by complete seal Sample—A sample is a piece of material or a complete
welding to prevent ingress of moisture. Such welds shall bearing which is tested in order to infer the properties
also provide sufficient shear strength to resist the applied of the batch of material or group of bearing elements
loads. The load plates shall have no sharp corners or from which it is taken. A sample shall consist of at least
edges. Holes may be formed by drilling, punching, or one bearing chosen randomly from each lot and mater-
accurately controlled oxygen cutting. All burrs shall be ial batch and shall comprise at least 10% of the lot.
removed by grinding.
18.7.1.3 Test Pieces to be Supplied to the
18.5.11 Special Requirements for Anchor Bolts Engineer
Anchor bolts shall be provided with anchorage details If required by the Engineer, the Manufacturer shall
that permit development of the full tension strength of the supply material samples from the batches used in the bear-
bolt. Hooks or end plates are recommended. ings and two finished bearings for inspection and testing
at a site of the Engineer’s choice.
18.6 CORROSION PROTECTION
18.7.1.4 Tapered Sole Plates
After fabrication, steel surfaces exposed to the atmos-
phere, except stainless steel surfaces, shall be cleaned and Each bearing with a tapered sole plate that is selected
coated to protect against corrosion in accordance with the for testing shall be delivered to the test site accompanied
contract plans and specifications. by an unattached plate identical to the tapered sole plate.
Areas to be welded shall be free of all rust, moisture, The single beveled plate shall be so constructed that,
and foreign material at the time of welding. The required when placed in contact with the tapered sole plate, the
final cleaning and coating of these surfaces shall be done two shall form a single body, rectangular in shape and
after the completion of welding. uniform in thickness.
18.7 TESTING AND ACCEPTANCE 18.7.2 Tests
18.7.1 General The tests prescribed in Articles 18.7.2.2-18.7.2.9 shall

be carried out at the manufacturer’s expense. Unless oth-
18.7.1.1 Scope erwise agreed by the Engineer, they shall be supervised
by an independent testing agency.
Testing and acceptance criteria for bearings shall con-
form to the minimum requirements laid out in this section. 18.7.2.1 Material Certification Tests
The Engineer may require more stringent standards.
The tests shall be conducted in accordance with the re- Material certification tests to determine the physical
quirements of Article 18.7.2. The minimum frequency of and chemical properties of all materials shall be con-
testing for different bearing types is set out in Article 18.7.4. ducted in accordance with the appropriate specification
governing the material. The test certificates shall be pro- Flatness shall be checked by placing a precision straight-
vided to the Engineer. edge on the surface to be checked and by inserting feeler
gages between the two. The straight-edge shall be placed
18.7.2.2 Material Friction Test (Sliding Surfaces at different orientations and the worst condition shall be
Only) established. No more than three feeler gages may be
stacked on top of one another. The straight-edge shall be
The coefficient of friction between the two mating sur- as long as the largest dimension of the flat surface. Flat-
faces shall be measured. Samples taken from the same ness shall satisfy the requirements of Table 18.5.1.5-1.
batch of materials as those used in the prototype bearings
shall be used or the tests may, at the manufacturer’s op- 18.7.2.4 Clearance Test
tion, be conducted on finished bearings. Only new mate-
rials shall be used, and no material that has been previ- In a clearance check the components of the bearing
ously tested shall be used. shall be moved through their design displacements or ro-
The surfaces shall first be thoroughly cleaned with a tations in order to verify that the required clearances exist.
degreasing solvent. No lubrication other than that speci- If the test is conducted on a rotational component which
fied for the prototype bearings shall be used. The mating is not under simultaneous full vertical load, allowance
surfaces for the test pieces shall have a common area no shall be made for the displacements which would be
less than the smaller of the bearing area or 7 in2. caused by that load.
The test pieces shall be loaded in compression to a stress
corresponding to their maximum service dead plus live 18.7.2.5 Short-term Compression Proof Load
load, which shall be held constant for 1 hour prior to and Test
throughout the duration of the sliding test. At least 100 cy-
cles of sliding, each consisting of at least 6 1 inch of move- The bearing shall be loaded in compression to 150%
ment, shall then be applied at a temperature of 68°F 6 2°F. of its rated service load. If a rotational element exists, a
The uniform sliding speed shall be 2.5 inches/minute. tapered plate shall be introduced in the load train so that
The breakaway friction coefficient shall be computed the bearing sustains the load at the maximum simultane-
for each direction of each cycle, and its mean and standard ous design rotation. The load shall be held for 5 minutes,
deviation shall be computed for the sixth through twelfth removed, then reapplied for a second period of 5 minutes.
cycles. The initial static breakaway coefficient of friction The bearing shall be examined visually while under the
for the first cycle shall not exceed twice the design coef- second loading. Any defects shall constitute cause for re-
ficient of friction. The maximum coefficient of friction for jection. If the load drops below the required value during
all subsequent cycles shall not exceed the design coeffi- either application, the test shall be restarted from the be-
cient of friction. Failure of a single sample shall result in ginning.
rejection of the entire lot.
Following the 100 cycles of testing, the breakaway co- 18.7.2.6 Long-term Compression Proof Load
efficient of friction shall be determined again and shall not Test
exceed the initial value. The bearing or specimen shall
show no appreciable sign of wear, bond failure or other The test shall be conducted in the same way as the
defects. short-term proof load test except that the second load
shall be maintained for 15 hours. If the load drops below
18.7.2.3 Dimensional Check 90% of its target value during this time, the load shall be
increased to the target value and the test duration shall be
The dimensions of the bearing shall be checked. Two increased by the time for which the load was below the
types of dimensions, standard and critical, shall be mea- required value.
sured. For each component type, the standard and critical
dimensions are defined in the appropriate Article 18.7.3. 18.7.2.7 Bearing Friction Test (for sliding
The values of the critical dimensions shall be recorded surfaces only)
and provided by the manufacturer to the Engineer. Failure
of a critical dimension to satisfy its tolerance shall consti- The purpose of the Bearing Friction Test is to verify
tute absolute cause for rejection. Failure of a standard that the friction values achieved in the material friction
measurement to satisfy its tolerance shall, at the discretion tests are adequate predictors of the friction in the finished
of the Engineer, constitute cause for rejection. bearing.
No lubrication shall be applied except that used for the (2) A coefficient of friction which exceeds two thirds
whole lot of bearings. The bearing shall be loaded in com- the value used in design.
pression with 100% of the full service dead plus live load,
which shall be held constant for one hour prior to and 18.7.2.9 Bearing Horizontal Force Capacity
throughout the duration of the sliding test. At least 12 cy- (Fixed or Guided Bearings Only)
cles of sliding, each consisting of the smaller of the design
displacement and 6 1 inch of movement, shall then be ap- The purpose of the test is to verify that the bearing is
plied. The average sliding speed shall be 2.5 inches/minute. stable and that the guide or restraint system has adequate
When the test is applied to curved sliding bearings, the de- strength under the most severe combination of horizontal
sign rotation shall be used in place of the displacement. and vertical loads.
In flat sliding bearings, the breakaway friction coeffi- One or more loading combinations, consisting of a hor-
cient shall be computed for each direction of each cycle, izontal and vertical service load which could exist simul-
and its mean and standard deviation shall be computed for taneously in the structure, shall be selected. The vertical
the sixth through twelfth cycles. Neither the friction coef- load shall be applied first, at 1.0 times its nominal value.
ficient for the first movement nor the mean plus two stan- The horizontal load shall be applied in stages, up to 1.5
dard deviations for the sixth through twelfth cycles shall times its nominal value. Failure or excessive deflection of
exceed the value used in design, and the mean value for any of the components shall be cause for rejection.
the sixth through the twelfth cycles shall not exceed two
thirds of the value used in design. 18.7.3 Performance Criteria
In curved sliding surfaces, the moment corresponding
to the design rotation shall be established at each peak
If one bearing of the sample fails, all the bearings of
movement (positive and negative) during the first and last
that lot shall be rejected, unless the manufacturer elects to
six full cycles of testing. The corresponding load eccen-
test each bearing of the lot at own expense. In lieu of this
tricity shall be calculated by dividing the moment by the
procedure, the Engineer may require every bearing of the
total compressive load acting. The eccentricity shall be
lot to be tested.
small enough that the allowable stresses on the PTFE used
in design are not violated.
18.7.4 Special Testing Requirements
18.7.2.8 Long-term Deterioration Test
18.7.4.1 Special Test Requirements for Rocker
The purpose of the test is to verify the long-term resis- and Roller Bearings
tance of the materials to creep, wear and deterioration.
The test shall be conducted on samples of the materials Material certification tests shall be performed to estab-
used in the bearings, or, at the option of the manufacturer, lish the material properties of the steel.
it may be conducted on a pair of bearings, placed back-to-
back. The samples shall have an area not less than 7 in2. 18.7.4.2 Special Test Requirements for PTFE
The test piece shall first be loaded in compression to a Sliding Bearings
stress corresponding to 100% of the maximum dead plus
live service load. Flat sliding systems shall then be dis- Inspection of the completed bearings or representative
placed through at least 1000 cycles with an amplitude of samples of bearings with PTFE surfaces in the manufac-
at least 6 1 inch (2 inches peak to peak). Curved sliding turer’s plant may be required by the Engineer. Inspectors,
systems and rotational systems that depend on deforma- if appointed, shall be allowed free access to the necessary
tion of an elastomeric element shall be subjected to dis- parts of the manufacturer’s plant and test facility. When
placements corresponding to 5000 cycles of rotation at testing is performed by the manufacturer, copies of the
6 the design amplitude. The sliding may take place at up test results shall be submitted to the Engineer.
to 10 inches/minute, except when readings are taken of The manufacturer is required to perform material tests
the coefficient of friction, when the sliding speed shall be on the materials used in the sliding surface in accordance
2.5 inches/minute. The following shall be cause for rejec- with Article 18.7.2.2. A minimum of one test must be per-
tion of the bearing: formed for each lot of bearings.
If requested by the Engineer and available test facilities
(1) Damage visible to the naked eye on disassembly of permit, complete bearings shall be tested for complete bear-
the bearing, such as excessive wear, cracks or splits in ing friction as defined in Article 18.7.2.7. If the test facility
the material. does not permit testing complete bearings, at the direction
of the Engineer, extra bearings may be manufactured by the For quality assurance testing, the Engineer may select
Contractor and samples of at least 100-kips capacity at at random the required sample bearing(s) and the mater-
normal working stresses prepared by sectioning the bear- ial samples from completed lots of bearings or from stock.
ings. As soon as all bearings have been manufactured for a A minimum of 30 days shall be allowed for inspection,
given project, notification shall be given to the Engineer sampling, and quality assurance testing of production
who will select the prescribed test bearings at random from bearings and component materials.
the lot. Manufacturer’s certification of the steel, elastomeric
pads, preformed fabric pads, PTFE, and other materials 18.7.4.4.3 Bearing Tests
used in the construction of the bearings shall be furnished
along with notification of fabrication completion. Critical dimensions shall include the clearance be-
tween the piston and pot, and shall be verified by the
Clearance Test described in Article 18.7.2.4.
18.7.4.3 Special Test Requirements for Curved A Long-term Deterioration Test as described in Article
Sliding Bearings 18.7.2.8 shall be performed on one bearing of each lot of
pot bearings with sealing rings other than rings with rec-
Curved PTFE sliding surfaces shall satisfy all of the tangular cross-sections satisfying Article 14.6.4.5.1 and
test requirements specified for PTFE sliding surfaces in circular cross-sections satisfying Article 14.6.4.5.2. The
Article 18.7.4.2, except that, when the prototype bearing test shall be performed at the maximum design rotation
is too large to test, a test bearing may be especially man- combined with maximum dead plus live load. If size lim-
ufactured using materials and fabrication methods that are itations prevent testing of the full size bearing, a special
identical to those used for the prototype, in lieu of sec- bearing with the same sealing rings, the same rotational
tioning a bearing. capacity and no less than 200 kips compressive load ca-
Critical dimensions shall include the difference be- pacity may be tested in its place.
tween the average radii of the two elements and the vari- A Long-term Compression Proof Load Test as de-
ation of the actual curved surface from the average one. scribed in Article 18.7.2.6 may be required by the Engineer.
The Engineer may require verification of these critical di-
mensions through a dimensional check as described in Ar- 18.7.4.5 Test Requirements for Elastomeric
ticle 18.7.2.3. Bearings
18.7.4.4 Special Test Requirements for Pot 18.7.4.5.1 Scope

Bearings
Materials for elastomeric bearings and the finished
18.7.4.4.1 Material Certification Tests bearings themselves shall be subjected to the tests de-
scribed in this section. Material tests shall be in accor-
The manufacturer shall select, at random, samples for dance with the appropriate Table 18.4.5.1-1A or Table
material certification tests as defined in Article 18.7.2.1. 18.4.5.1-1B.
The tests shall be performed, and certifications shall be
delivered to the Engineer. 18.7.4.5.2 Frequency of Testing
Certification shall be provided for all elastomeric ele-
ments. Their material properties shall satisfy the require- The ambient temperature tests on the elastomer de-
ments of the design documents and the tests described in scribed in Article 18.7.4.5.3 shall be conducted for the
Article 18.7.4.5. Additional tests may be required by the materials used in each lot of bearings. In lieu of perform-
Engineer. ing a shear modulus test for each batch of material, the
manufacturer may elect to provide certificates from tests
18.7.4.4.2 Testing by the Engineer performed on identical formulations within the preceding
year, unless otherwise specified by the Engineer. Test cer-
When quality assurance testing is called for by the spe- tificates from the supplier shall be provided for each lot of
cial provisions, the manufacturer shall furnish to the En- reinforcement.
gineer the required number of complete bearings and The three low temperature tests on the elastomer de-
component samples to perform quality assurance testing. scribed in Article 18.7.4.5.4 shall be conducted on the ma-
At least one elastomeric element shall be tested per lot of terial used in each lot of bearings for grades 3, 4, and 5
bearings. All exterior surfaces of sampled production material and the instantaneous thermal stiffening test shall
bearings shall be smooth and free from irregularities or be conducted on material of grades 0 and 2. Low temper-
protrusions that might interfere with testing procedures. ature brittleness and crystallization tests are not required
for grades 0 and 2 materials, unless especially requested of manufacture. In steel reinforced bearings, the edges of
by the Engineer. the steel shall be protected everywhere from corrosion.
For grade 3 material, in lieu of the low temperature
crystallization test, the manufacturer may choose to pro- 18.7.4.5.6 Short-Duration Compression Tests on
vide certificates from low-temperature crystallization Bearings
tests performed on identical material within the last year,
Each finished bearing shall be subjected to a short-term
unless otherwise specified by the Engineer. compression test as described in Article 18.7.2.5. If the
Every finished bearing shall be visually inspected in bulging pattern suggests laminate parallelism or a layer
accordance with Article 18.7.4.5.5. thickness that is outside the specified tolerances, or poor
Every steel reinforced bearing shall be subjected to the laminate bond, the bearing shall be rejected. If there are
short-term load test described in Article 18.7.4.5.6. three or more separate surface cracks that are greater than
From each lot of bearings either designed by the pro- 0.08 inches wide and 0.08 inches deep, the bearing shall
visions of Article 14.6.5 of Division I of this specification be rejected.
or made from grade 4 or grade 5 elastomer, a random sam-
ple shall be subjected to the long-term load test described 18.7.4.5.7 Long-Duration Compression Tests on
in Articles 18.7.2.7 and 18.7.4.5.7. The sample shall con- Bearings
sist of at least one bearing chosen randomly from each
size and material batch and shall comprise at least 10% of The bearing shall be subject to a long-term compres-
the lot. If one bearing of the sample fails, all the bearings sion test as described in Article 18.7.2.6. The bearing shall
of that lot shall be rejected, unless the manufacturer elects be examined visually at the end of the test while it is still
to test each bearing of the lot at own expense. In lieu of under load. If the bulging pattern suggests laminate paral-
lelism or a layer thickness that is outside the specified tol-
this procedure, the Engineer may require every bearing of
erances, or poor laminate bond, the bearing shall be re-
the lot to be tested.
jected. If there are three or more separate surface cracks
The Engineer may require shear stiffness tests on ma-
that are greater than 0.08 inches wide and 0.08 inches
terial from a random sample of the finished bearings in ac-
deep, the bearing shall be rejected.
cordance with Article 18.7.4.5.8.
18.7.4.5.8 Shear Modulus Tests on Materials from
18.7.4.5.3 Ambient Temperature Tests on the
Bearings
Elastomer
The shear modulus of the material in the finished bear-
The elastomer used shall at least satisfy the limits pre- ing shall be evaluated by testing a specimen cut from it
scribed in the appropriate Table 18.4.5.1-1A or -1B for using the apparatus and procedure described in Annex A
durometer hardness, tensile strength, ultimate elongation, of ASTM D 1014, amended where necessary by the re-
heat resistance, compression set, and ozone resistance. quirements of Table 18.4.5.1-1A or -1B, or, at the discre-
The bond to the reinforcement, if any, shall also satisfy tion of the Engineer, a comparable nondestructive stiff-
Article 18.4.5.3. The shear modulus of the material shall ness test may be conducted on a pair of finished bearings.
be tested at 73°F 6 2°F using the apparatus and procedure The shear modulus shall fall within 15% of the specified
described in Annex A of ASTM D 4014, amended where value, or within the range for its hardness given in Table
necessary by the requirements of Table 18.4.5.1-1A or 14.6.5.2.1 of Division I if no shear modulus is specified.
-1B. It shall fall within 15% of the specified value, or If the test is conducted on finished bearings, the material
within the range of its hardness given in Article 14.6.5.2 shear modulus shall be computed from the measured
of Division I if no shear modulus is specified. shear stiffness of the bearings, taking due account of the
influence on shear stiffness of bearing geometry and com-
18.7.4.5.4 Low Temperature Tests on the Elastomer pressive load.
The tests shall be performed in accordance with the re-
18.7.4.7 Test Requirements for Bronze and
quirements of Tables 18.4.5.1-1A and -1B and the com-
Copper Alloy Bearings
pound shall satisfy all limits for its grade. The testing fre-
quency shall be in accordance with Article 18.7.4.5.2.
Material certification tests for the bronze or copper
shall be performed to verify the properties of the metal.
18.7.4.5.5 Visual Inspection of the Finished Bearing
Bearing friction tests as defined in Article 18.7.2.7 or
Each finished bearing shall be inspected for compli- material friction tests as defined in Article 18.7.2.2 may
ance with dimensional tolerances and for overall quality be required by the Engineer.
18.7.4.8 Test Requirements for Disc Bearings 18.7.6 Use of Tested Bearings in the Structure
18.7.4.8.1 Material Certification Tests Bearings which have been satisfactorily tested in ac-
cordance with the requirements of this section may be
The manufacturer shall select, at random, samples for
used in the structure provided that they are equipped with
material certification tests as defined in Article 18.7.2.1. new deformable elements, sliding elements and seals, as
The tests shall be performed, and certifications shall be required by the Engineer.
delivered to the Engineer.
Certification shall be provided for all polyether ure-
thane elements. Their material properties shall satisfy the 18.8 PACKING, SHIPPING AND STORING
requirements of the design documents and the tests de-
scribed in Article 18.4.8.1. Additional tests may be re- For transportation and storage, bearings shall be pack-
quired by the Engineer. aged in a way that prevents relative movement of their
components and damage by handling, weather, dust, or
18.7.4.8.2 Testing by the Engineer other normal hazards. They shall be stored only in a clean,
protected environment. When installed, bearings shall be
When quality assurance testing is called for by the spe- clean and free from all foreign substances.
cial provisions, the manufacturer shall furnish to the En- Bearings shall not be opened or dismantled at the site
gineer the required number of complete bearings and except under the direct supervision of, or with the written
component samples to perform quality assurance testing. approval of, the manufacturer or its assigned agents.
At least one set of material property tests in accordance
with Article 18.4.8.1 shall be conducted per lot of bear- 18.9 INSTALLATION
ings. All exterior surfaces of sampled production bearings
shall be smooth and free from irregularities or protrusions 18.9.1 General Installation Requirements
that might interfere with testing procedures.
For quality assurance testing, the Engineer may select Bearings shall be installed by qualified personnel at the
at random the required sample bearing(s) and the mater- locations shown on the plans. Bearings shall be set to the
ial samples from completed lots of bearings. dimensions and offsets prescribed by the manufacturer,
A minimum of 30 days shall be allowed for inspection, the Engineer, and the plans and shall be adjusted as nec-
sampling, and quality assurance testing of production essary to take into account the temperature and future
bearings and component materials. movements of the bridge due to temperature changes, re-
lease of falsework, shortening due to prestressing and
18.7.4.8.3 Bearing Tests other bridge movements.
Critical dimensions shall include the clearance between Each bridge bearing shall be located within 6 1 ⁄ 8 inch
of its correct position in the horizontal plane and oriented
the upper and lower parts of the steel housing, and shall be
to within an angular tolerance of 0.02 radians. Guided
verified by the Clearance Test described in Article
Bearings shall also satisfy the requirements of Article
18.7.2.4.
18.9.2.3. All bearings except those which are placed in op-
A Long-term Deterioration Test as described in Article
posing pairs shall be set horizontal to within an angular
18.7.2.8 shall be performed on one disc bearing of each tolerance of 0.005 radians, and must have full and even
lot. The test shall be performed at the maximum design ro- contact with load plates, where these exist. The super-
tation combined with a maximum dead plus live load. If structure supported by the bearing shall be set on it so that,
size limitations prevent testing of the full size bearing, a under full dead load, its slope lies within an angular toler-
special bearing with the same rotational capacity and no ance of 0.005 radians of the design value. Any departure
less than 200 kips compressive load capacity may be from this tolerance shall be corrected by means of a ta-
tested in its place. pered plate or by other means approved by the Engineer.
A Long-term Compression Proof Load Test as de- If shim stacks are needed to level the bearing they shall be
scribed in Article 18.7.2.6 may be required by the removed after grouting and before the weight of the super-
Engineer. structure acts on the bearing.
Metallic bearing assemblies not embedded in the con-
18.7.5 Cost of Transporting crete shall be bedded on the concrete with a filler or fab-
ric material conforming to Article 18.4.10.
The Contractor shall assume the cost of transporting all Bearings seated directly on steel work require the sup-
samples from the place of manufacture to the test site and porting surface to be machined so as to provide a level and
back, or if applicable, to the project site. planar surface upon which the bearing is placed.
Bearings or masonry plates that rest on a steel support 18.10 DOCUMENTATION

may be installed directly on it, provided that it is flat to
within a tolerance of 0.002 times the nominal dimension, 18.10.1 Working Drawings
and is sufficiently rigid that it will not deform under the
specified loads to exceed that flatness tolerance. The manufacturer shall submit to the Engineer shop
drawings and design calculations which are sufficiently
18.9.2 Special Installation Requirements detailed to permit proper review of the bearings. The
drawings shall show all details of the bearings and of the
18.9.2.1 Installation of Rocker and Roller materials proposed for use and must be approved by the
Bearings Engineer before fabrication of the bearings is begun. Such
approval shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsi-
Just before placing roller bearings, the Contractor shall bility under the contract for the successful completion of
coat all contact surfaces thoroughly with oil and graphite. the work. The drawings shall include, but not be limited
to the following information:
18.9.2.2 Installation of Elastomeric Bearings
(1) Plan, elevations and sections including all nominal
dimensions and material designations.
Elastomeric bearings without external load plates may
(2) Vertical and horizontal load capacities, horizontal
be placed directly on a concrete or steel surface provided
movement capacities and rotation capacities about two
that it is flat to within an tolerance of 0.005 of the nominal horizontal and one vertical axes.
dimension for steel reinforced bearings and 0.01 of the (3) Design calculations for all items not completely
nominal dimension for others. Bearings shall be placed on covered in Section 14 of Division I of this specifi-
surfaces that are horizontal to within 0.01 radians. Any lack cation.
of parallelism between the top of the bearing and the un- (4) Material designations and specifications.
derside of the girder that exceeds 0.01 radians shall be cor- (5) A schedule of bearing offsets, if any are required.
rected by grouting or as otherwise directed by the Engineer. (6) Shop painting or coating requirements.
Exterior plates of the bearing shall not be welded un- (7) Any special installation requirements.
less at least 1.5 inches of steel exists between the weld and
the elastomer. In no case shall the elastomer or the bond 18.10.2 Marking
be subjected to temperatures higher than 400° F.
Each bearing shall be marked in indelible ink or flexi-
18.9.2.3 Installation of Guideways and ble paint. The marking shall consist of the location, orien-
Restraints tation, order number, lot number, bearing identification
number, and elastomer type and grade number. Unless oth-
Guided bearings and bearings which rotate about only erwise specified in the contract documents, the marking
one axis shall be oriented in the direction specified on shall be on a face which is visible after erection of the
the contract plans to within an angular tolerance of 0.005 bridge.
radians.
18.10.3 Certification
18.9.2.4 Installation of Anchorages
The manufacturer shall supply certification data for all
materials used. This shall consist of at least test reports for
Load plates shall be set level to within an angular tol-
the bearing performance tests and for any forgings, castings
erance of 0.005 radians and shall have a uniform bearing
or hardened material, mill certificates for all other steels
over their whole area. When plates are to be embedded in used, and a certificate of compliance for the bearing as a
concrete, provision shall be made to keep the plates in the whole and for any anchor bolts, dowels or other accessories.
correct position while the concrete is being placed. If the manufacturer designed the bearing, he shall certify
A bedding layer may be used to achieve level, uniform that each bearing satisfies the Engineer’s requirements,
bearing. This may consist of grout or a ductile metal such given under Division I, Section 14, “Bearings.”
as a thin lead sheet. The bedding material shall be able to The manufacturer shall also supply a separate sheet
support the specified vertical and horizontal loads without showing the materials, critical dimensions and clear-
undergoing displacements or deformations detrimental to ances for each bearing other than elastomeric pads. The
the bearing or structure. precise information to be supplied shall be agreed be-
Anchor bolts embedded in concrete shall either be cast tween the Engineer and the manufacturer prior to start-
into the concrete or shall be grouted into drill holes. ing production.
18.11 MEASUREMENT 18.12 PAYMENT
Bearing devices will be measured either by the pound Bearing devices will be paid for at the contract price
as determined from scale weights or by a unit basis for per pound or per unit. Such payment shall include full
each type of bearing assembly listed in the schedule of compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools,
bid items. Scale weights are not required when calculated equipment and incidentals, and for doing all the work in-
weights are shown on the plans, in which case the volved in furnishing, testing and installing said bearing
weights shown on the plans will be used as the basis of devices, complete in place, as shown on the plans, and as
payment. specified in these Specifications and the special provi-
sions, and as directed by the Engineer.
Section 19
BRIDGE DECK JOINT SEALS
19.1 GENERAL Preformed elastomeric joint seals of multiple web de-

sign shall conform to AASHTO M 220 (ASTM D 2628).
This work shall consist of the furnishing and installing Lubricant-adhesive for use with preformed elastomeric
of joint sealing systems in bridge decks of the types used seals shall conform to ASTM D 4070.
where significant movements are expected across the Deck joint seal assemblies shall be of an approved type
joint. These include compression seal joints consisting of for each size required and shall conform to the specifica-
preformed elastomeric material compressed and installed tions provided by the manufacturer at the time of ap-
in specially prepared joints and joint seal assemblies con- proval.
sisting of assemblies of metal and elastomeric materials Steel and fabricated steel components shall conform to
installed in recesses in the deck surface. the requirements of Section 23, “Miscellaneous Metal.”
Joint seals described in the plans or the specifications
as poured joint seals shall conform to the requirement of
Article 8.9, “Expansion and Contraction Joints.” 19.4 MANUFACTURE AND FABRICATION
The type and dimensions or movement rating for
bridge deck joint seals at each location shall be as shown 19.4.1 Compression Seal Joints
on the plans or ordered by the Engineer.
All joint seals shall prevent the intrusion of material Preformed elastomeric joint seals shall not be field
and water through the joint system. spliced except when specifically permitted by the Engi-
neer.
19.4.2 Joint Seal Assemblies

Expansion joint assemblies shall be fabricated by the
If not given on the plans, calculations showing the joint
manufacturer and delivered to the bridge site completely
settings for their installation will be required before ap-
assembled, unless otherwise shown on the plans or spec-
proval to install joints in any bridge deck can be given.
ified in the special provisions.
The Contractor will submit working drawings to the En-
gineer showing the installation procedure and joint as-
sembly for bridge decks using proprietary joint systems. 19.5 INSTALLATION
Also, shop drawings shall be submitted to the Engineer
for approval for joints having a total movement of more 19.5.1 General
than 13⁄ 4 inches.
Working drawings must be approved by the Engineer All joint materials and assemblies, when stored at the
prior to performance of the work involved and such ap- job site, shall be protected from damage and assemblies
proval shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibil- shall be supported so as to maintain their true shape and
ity under the contract for the successful completion of the alignment. Deck joint seals shall be constructed and in-
work. stalled to provide a smooth ride. Bridge deck joints shall
be covered over by protective material after installation
until final cleanup of the bridge deck.
19.3 MATERIALS After installation and prior to final acceptance, deck
joint seals shall be tested in the presence of the Engineer
Bridge deck joint seal materials and assemblies shall for leakage of water through the joint. Any leakage of the
conform to the following specifications: joint seal will be cause for rejection.
635
19.5.2 Compression Seal Joints be compressed to the thickness specified on the plans or
as approved by the Engineer for the rated opening and am-
Joints in the roadway area of bridge decks which are to bient temperature at the time of installation. Loose fitting
be sealed with compression seals shall be cast to a nar- or open points between the seal and the deck will not be
rower width than required for the preformed material. permitted.
Such joints in curbs and sidewalks may be cast to full
width. Prior to installation of compression seals in joints
19.5.3 Joint Seal Assemblies
whose width is narrower than needed, a groove of proper
width and depth to receive the preformed material shall be
Expansion joint seal assemblies shall be constructed to
saw cut along the top of the joint.
provide absolute freedom of movement through a range
When making saw cuts into the bridge deck, spalling
consistent with that prescribed by the Engineer or as
shall be minimized. Both sides of a groove shall be cut si-
shown on the design plans. Installation shall be in accor-
multaneously to the proper depth and alignment as shown
dance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. Final
on the plans. The alignment of the saw shall be controlled
settings of the deck joint seal assembly at the time of cast-
at all times by a rigid guide. The width of the groove will
ing in the anchorages of the unit depend on the relation-
depend on the temperature and age of the concrete and
ship of the current temperature of the superstructure to its
shall be as directed by the Engineer. Lip of saw cut should
expected mean temperature, and shall be as specified by
be bevelled to avoid later breakage. After saw cutting, any
the manufacturer or Engineer or as shown on the plans.
spalls, popouts or cracks shall be repaired prior to instal-
lation of the lubricant sealant. Saw cuts are not required
where armor plates are used. 19.6 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
At the time of installation the joint shall be clean and
dry and free from spalls and irregularities which might Deck joint seals will be measured by the linear foot of
impair a proper joint seal. Concrete or metal surfaces shall acceptable joint seal completely installed by measure-
be clean, free of rust, laitance, oils, dirt, dust, or other ments made along the slope of the centerline of the joint
deleterious materials. Premolded elastomeric compres- seal.
sion joint seals shall be installed without damage to the Payment of linear feet of joint seal as measured, for
seal by suitable hand methods or machine tools. The lu- each type of seal for which separate payment is provided,
bricant-adhesive shall be applied to both faces of the joint shall include full compensation for the cost of labor,
prior to installation and in accordance with the manufac- equipment and materials to furnish and install the deck
turer’s instructions. The preformed elastomeric seal shall joint seal.
Section 20
RAILINGS
20.1 GENERAL Structures,” except that formed sections may be fabri-

cated from mild steel, and pipe sections shall be of stan-
20.1.1 Description dard steel pipe. Nuts and bolts not designated as high
strength shall conform to the requirements of ASTM A
This work consists of furnishing all materials and con- 307 and steel tubing shall conform to the requirements of
structing railings on structures. The types of railings in- ASTM A 500, Grade B.
cluded in this work consist of handrailings, pedestrian
railings, traffic railings which are sometimes called barri-
ers, and railings for other such purposes. Railings con- 20.2.1.2 Aluminum Railing
structed at each location shall conform to the type and de-
tails shown on the plans for that location. The work For aluminum railings or portions of railings, cast alu-
includes the furnishing and placing of mortar or concrete, minum posts shall conform to the requirements of
anchor bolts, reinforcing steel dowels or other devices AASHTO M 193; and extruded components shall con-
used to attach the railing to the structure. form to the requirements of ASTM B 221.
20.1.2 Materials
20.2.1.3 Metal Beam Railing
All materials not otherwise specified shall conform to
Metal beam rail, posts and hardware shall conform to
the requirements of the applicable AASHTO Standard
the requirements in Section 606 of the AASHTO Guide
Specifications for Transportation Materials.
Specifications for Highway Construction.
20.1.3 Construction
20.2.1.4 Welding
Unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer, railing
shall not be placed until the centering or falsework for the All exposed welds shall be finished by grinding or fil-
span has been released, rendering the span self-supporting. ing to give a smooth surface. Welding of aluminum mate-
rials shall be done by an inert gas shielded, electric arc
20.1.4 Line and Grade welding process using no welding flux. Torch or flame
cutting of aluminum will not be permitted.
The line and grade of the railing shall be true to that
shown on the plans and may include an allowance for
camber in each span but shall not follow any unevenness 20.2.2 Installation
in the superstructure. Unless otherwise specified or shown
on the plans, railings on bridges, whether super-elevated Metal railings shall be carefully adjusted prior to fix-
or not, shall be vertical. ing in place to ensure proper matching at abutting joints,
correct alignment, and camber throughout their length.
20.2 METAL RAILING Holes for field connections shall be drilled with the rail-
ing in place on the structure at proper grade and align-
20.2.1 Materials and Fabrication ment.
Where aluminum alloys come in contact with other
20.2.1.1 Steel Railing metals or concrete, the contacting surfaces shall be thor-
oughly coated with a dielectric aluminum-impregnated
Materials and fabrication of steel railings shall con- caulking compound, or a synthetic rubber gasket may be
form to the applicable requirements of Section 11, “Steel placed between the two surfaces.
637
20.2.3 Finish faces of all elements of treated wooden railings that are lo-
cated where contact with people could occur shall be
Unless otherwise specified, anchor bolts, nuts and all sealed with two coats of an acceptable sealer. Acceptable
steel portions of railings shall be galvanized and alu- sealers are urethane, shellac, latex epoxy, enamel and var-
minum portions shall be unpainted. Galvanizing of rail el- nish.
ement shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M
111 (ASTM A 123) and galvanizing of nuts and bolts shall
20.5 STONE AND BRICK RAILINGS
conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 232 (ASTM
A 153). Minor abrasions to galvanized surfaces shall be
Stone and brick railings shall conform to the require-
repaired with zinc rich paint. After erection, all sharp pro-
ments of Section 14, “Stone Masonry,” and Section 15,
trusions shall be removed and the railing cleaned of dis-
“Concrete Block and Brick Masonry.”
coloring foreign materials.
When painting is specified, the type and coating shall
conform to the requirements of Section 13, “Painting,” or 20.6 TEMPORARY RAILING
the special provisions.
Temporary railings shall be constructed of materials
and to the details shown on the plans or specified. Railings
20.3 CONCRETE RAILING
shall be properly joined and aligned at the required loca-
tions. Temporary precast barriers shall be installed on a
20.3.1 Materials and Construction
solid base. The temporary railing shall be maintained in
first class condition and shall not be removed until all
Concrete railings, depending on the design, may be
work requiring the railing has been completed. Previously
constructed by the cast-in-place, precast or, when ap-
used units may be employed provided they are in a clean
proved by the Engineer, the slip form method.
and undamaged condition. After removal, temporary rail-
All materials and construction shall conform to the re-
ing shall continue to be the property of the Contractor.
quirements in Section 8, “Concrete Structures” and Sec-
tion 9, “Reinforcing Steel.” Unless otherwise specified,
concrete shall conform to Class AE except that Class A 20.7 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
may be used in areas where freezing seldom occurs. When
the minimum thickness of the railing at any point is less 20.7.1 Measurement
than 4 inches, Class C (AE) or, where freezing seldom oc-
curs, Class C concrete may be used. Forms for cast-in- Railings will be measured by the linear foot between
place railing shall not be removed until adequate mea- the ends of the railing or the outside ends of end posts,
sures to protect and cure the concrete are in place and the whichever is greater. Measurement will be made along
concrete has sufficient strength to prevent surface or other the slope of the railing and no deductions will be made
damage caused by form removal. Finish for railings confor electrolier or other small openings called for on the
structed with fixed forms shall be Class 2-Rubbed Finish. plans.
Finish for railings constructed with slip forms and for
temporary railings shall be Class I-Ordinary Finish.
20.7.2 Payment
20.4 TIMBER RAILING Railings will be paid for by the contract prices per lin-
ear foot for the various types listed in the schedule of bid
Unless otherwise stated in the special provisions, items. Such payment shall include full compensation for
posts, rails, and other timber for wood railings shall be furnishing all labor, materials, equipment and incidentals
constructed according to the requirements of Section 16, and for doing all work involved in constructing the rail-
“Timber Structures,” and Section 17, “Preservative Treat- ings or barriers complete in place, including the furnish-
ment of Wood.” When treated wood is called for, the ing and installation of reinforcing steel and steel dowels
preservative treatment shall conform to the requirements or anchor bolts which are either placed or drilled and
of Section 17, “Preventive Treatment of Wood.” The sur- bonded into the structure for attachment of the railing.
Section 21
WATERPROOFING
21.1 GENERAL stances for Use in Waterproofing, AASHTO M 117

(ASTM D 173) or the Specifications for Woven Glass
This work shall consist of furnishing and installing ma- Fabric Treated with Asphalt, ASTM D 1663.
terials to waterproof or dampproof concrete or masonry The Fabric shall be stored in a dry, protected place. The
surfaces. The surfaces to be waterproofed or dampproofed rolls shall not be stored on end.
and the type of system to be installed shall be as shown on
the plans or otherwise specified. 21.2.2 Preformed Membrane Waterproofing
Systems
21.1.1 Waterproofing
Waterproofing shall consist of either a constructed-in- 21.2.2.1 Primer

place asphalt membrane system or a preformed membrane
system, both of which include appropriate priming mate- Primer for use with the rubberized asphalt membrane
rials and, when required, protective coverings. Unless a shall be a neoprene based material, and the primer for use
specific type of waterproofing system is shown on the with the modified bitumen membrane shall be a resin or
plans or specified, the type of system to be used will be at solvent based material. Primers shall be of a type recom-
the option of the Contractor. mended by the manufacturer.
21.1.2 Dampproofing 21.2.2.2 Preformed Membrane Sheet
Dampproofing shall consist of a coating of primer and Preformed membrane sheet shall be of either the rub-
two moppings of waterproofing asphalt. berized asphalt type or the modified bitumen type. The
rubberized asphalt type shall consist of a rubberized as-
21.2 MATERIALS phalt sheet reinforced with a polyethylene film or mesh.
The modified bitumen sheet type shall consist of a poly-
21.2.1 Asphalt Membrane Waterproofing System mer modified bitumen sheet reinforced with a stitch-
21.2.1.1 Asphalt bonded polyester fabric or a fiberglass mesh. The mem-
brane sheet shall conform to the following requirements:
Waterproofing asphalt shall conform to the Specifica-
tion for Asphalt for Dampproofing and Waterproofing,
AASHTO M 115 (ASTM D 312). Type I shall be used For Surfaces Other Than Bridge Decks
below ground and Type II used above ground.
21.2.1.2 Primer
Primer for use with waterproofing asphalt shall con-

form to the Specification for Primer for Use With Asphalt
in Dampproofing and Waterproofing, AASHTO M 116
(ASTM D 41).
21.2.1.3 Fabric
The fabric shall conform to either the Specification for

Woven Cotton Fabrics Saturated with Bituminous Sub- (continued on next page)
639
For Bridge Deck Surfaces 21.2.5 Inspection and Delivery
All waterproofing and dampproofing materials shall be

tested before shipment. Unless otherwise ordered by the
Engineer, they shall be tested at the place of manufacture,
and, when so tested, a copy of the test results shall be sent
to the Engineer by the chemist or inspection bureau which
has been designated to make the tests, and each package
shall have affixed to it a label, seal, or other mark of iden-
tification, showing that it has been tested and found ac-
ceptable, and identifying the package with the laboratory
tests.
Factory inspection is preferred, but, in lieu thereof, the
Engineer may order that representative samples, properly
identified, be sent to him or her for test prior to shipment
of the materials. After delivery of the materials, represen-
tative check samples shall be taken which shall determine
the acceptability of the materials.
21.2.2.3 Mastic All materials shall be delivered to the work in original
containers, plainly marked with the manufacturer’s brand
The mastic for use with preformed rubberized sheets or label.
shall be a rubberized asphalt cold applied joint sealant.
The mastic for use with modified bitumen sheet shall be a
21.3 SURFACE PREPARATION
blend of bituminous and synthetic resins.
All concrete surfaces which are to be waterproofed or
21.2.3 Protective Covers dampproofed shall be reasonably smooth and free of for-
eign material that would prevent bond and from pro-
Materials for protective covers shall conform to the jections or holes which might cause puncture of the
following unless another type is shown or specified. membrane or dampproofing. The surface shall be dry and,
For surfaces against which backfill will be placed, the immediately before the application of the primer the
protective cover shall consist of 1⁄ 8-inch hardboard or other surface shall be thoroughly cleaned of dust and loose
material that will furnish equivalent protection from materials.
damage due to sharp coarse backfill material or from No waterproofing or dampproofing shall be done in
construction equipment. wet weather, nor when the surface temperature is below
For roadway surfaces of bridge decks, the protective 35°F, or that recommended by the manufacturer, without
cover shall consist of a layer of special asphalt concrete as special authorization from the Engineer. Should the sur-
specified in the special provisions. face of the concrete become temporarily damp, it shall be
For horizontal surfaces above which reinforced con- covered with a 2-inch layer of hot sand, which shall be al-
crete structures are to be constructed, the protective cover lowed to remain in place from 1 to 2 hours, or long enough
shall consist of a 2-inch course of concrete mortar con- to produce a warm and surface-dried condition, after
forming to the requirements of Article 8.14 except that the which the sand shall be swept back, uncovering sufficient
proportions shall consist of 1 part Portland cement to 3 surface for beginning work, and the operation repeated as
parts of fine aggregate. This mortar course shall be rein- the work progresses.
forced midway between its top and bottom surfaces with
6 3 6—W1.4 3 W1.4 welded wire fabric, or its equiva-
21.4 APPLICATION
lent. The top surface shall be finished smooth and true to
grade.
Waterproofing shall not be applied to any surface until
the Contractor is prepared to follow its application with
21.2.4 Dampproofing the placing of the protective covering and backfill within
a sufficiently short time that the membrane will not be
The primer and asphalt used for dampproofing shall damaged by men or equipment, exposure to weathering,
conform to that specified in Article 21.2.1. or from any other cause. Damaged membrane or protec-
tive covering shall be repaired or replaced by the Con- with at least two layers of fabric. The entire surface shall
tractor at own expense. then be given a final mopping of hot asphalt.
Care shall be taken to confine all materials to the areas The completed waterproofing shall be a firmly bonded
to be waterproofed or dampproofed and to prevent disfig- membrane composed of two layers of fabric and three
urement of any other parts of the structure by dripping or moppings of asphalt, together with a coating of primer.
spreading of the primer or asphalt. Under no circumstances shall one layer of fabric touch an-
other layer at any point or touch the surface, as there must
21.4.1 Asphalt Membrane Waterproofing be at least three complete moppings of asphalt.
In all cases the mopping on concrete shall cover the
21.4.1.1 General surface so that no gray spots appear, and on cloth it shall
be sufficiently heavy to completely conceal the weave. On
Asphalt membrane waterproofing shall consist of a horizontal surfaces not less than 12 gallons of asphalt
coat of primer applied to the prepared surface and a firmly shall be used for each 100 square feet of finished work,
bonded membrane composed of two layers of saturated and on vertical surfaces not less than 15 gallons shall be
fabric and three moppings of waterproofing asphalt and, used. The work shall be so regulated that, at the close of a
when required, a protective cover. day’s work, all cloth that is laid shall have received the
final mopping of asphalt. Special care shall be taken at all
21.4.1.2 Installation laps to see that they are thoroughly sealed down.
Asphalt shall be heated to a temperature between 300

21.4.1.3 Special Details
and 350°F. The heating kettles shall be equipped with
thermometers.
At the edges of the membrane and at any points where
In all cases, the waterproofing shall begin at the low
it is punctured by such appurtenances as drains or pipes,
point of the surface to be waterproofed, so that water will
suitable provisions shall be made to prevent water from
run over and not against or along the laps.
getting between the waterproofing and the waterproofed
The first strip of fabric shall be of half-width; the sec-
surface.
ond shall be full-width, lapped the full-width of the first
All flashing at curbs and against girders, spandrel
sheet; and the third and each succeeding strip shall be full-
walls, etc., shall be done with separate sheets lapping the
width and lapped so that there will be two layers of fabric
main membrane not less than 12 inches. Flashing shall be
at all points with laps not less than 2 inches wide. All end
closely sealed either with a metal counter-flashing or by
laps shall be at least 12 inches.
embedding the upper edges of the flashing in a groove
Beginning at the low point of the surface to be water-
poured full of joint filler.
proofed, a coating of primer shall be applied and allowed
Joints which are essentially open joints but which are
to dry before the first coat of asphalt is applied. The wa-
not designed to provide for expansion shall first be
terproofing shall then be applied as follows.
caulked with oakum and lead wool or other material ap-
Beginning at the low point of the surface to be water-
proved by the Engineer, and then filled with hot joint filler.
proofed, a section about 20 inches wide and the full length
Expansion joints, both horizontal and vertical, shall be
of the surface shall be mopped with the hot asphalt, and
provided with sheet copper or lead in “U” or “V” form in
there shall be rolled into it, immediately following the
accordance with the details. After the membrane has been
mopping, the first strip of fabric, of half-width, which
placed, the joint shall be filled with hot joint filler. The
shall be carefully pressed into place so as to eliminate all
membrane shall be carried continuously across all expan-
air bubbles and obtain close conformity with the surface.
sion joints.
This strip and an adjacent section of the surface of a width
At the ends of the structure the membrane shall be car-
equal to slightly more than half of the width of the fabric
ried well down on the abutments and suitable provision
being used shall then be mopped with hot asphalt, and a
made for all movement.
full width of the fabric shall be rolled into this, completely
covering the first strip, and pressed into place as before.
This second strip and an adjacent section of the concrete 21.4.1.4 Damage Patching
surface shall then be mopped with hot asphalt and the
third strip of fabric “shingled” on so as to lap the first strip Care shall be taken to prevent injury to the finished
not less than 2 inches. This process shall be continued membrane by the passage over it of workpersons or equip-
with each strip of fabric lapping at least 2 inches over the ment, or by throwing any material on it. Any damage
second previous strip so that the entire surface is covered which may occur shall be repaired by patching. Patches
shall extend at least 12 inches beyond the outermost dam- inches. After being laid, the membrane sheets shall be
aged portion and the second ply shall extend at least 3 rolled with hand rollers or other apparatus as necessary
inches beyond the first. to develop a firm and uniform bond with the primed con-
crete surfaces. Procedures shall be used which minimize
21.4.2 Preformed Membrane Waterproofing wrinkles and air bubbles. Any tears, cuts, or narrow over-
Systems laps shall be patched, using a satisfactory adhesive and
by placing sections of membrane sheet over the defective
21.4.2.1 General area in such a manner that the patch extends at least 6
inches beyond the defect. On modified bitumen sheets
Preformed membrane waterproofing systems shall with a permanent polyester film, a propane torch shall be
consist of a primer applied to the prepared surface, a sin- used to melt the polyester film on the section to be
gle layer of adhering preformed membrane sheet and, patched. The patch shall then be placed over the heated
when required, a protective cover. surface. All patches shall be rolled or pressed firmly onto
the surface.
21.4.2.2 Installation on Bridge Decks At all open joints, deck bleeder pipes and at other lo-
cations when ordered by the Engineer, the membrane
Prior to applying the primer, an oil resistant construc- sheet shall be cut and turned into the joint or bleeder as
tion paper mask shall be taped or held with an adhesive to membrane sheet is laid.
any deck areas which will later be covered by expansion For rubberized asphalt sheets and modified bitumen
dams or headers. sheets, mastic shall be applied as a bead along the exposed
The membrane seal and asphalt concrete shall be edge of the membrane sheet which extends up the barrier
placed continuously across such paper masks; however, railing or curb face, and which terminates in the high side
the mask and the preformed sheet shall be cut at or near gutter after the sheets have been installed.
the expansion joint when ordered by the Engineer.
The neoprene based primer shall be applied in one coat
21.4.2.3 Installation on Other Surfaces
at a rate of approximately 300 square feet per gallon. The
resin or solvent based primer shall be applied, in one coat,
Installation of preformed membranes on surfaces other
at a rate of approximately 120 square feet per gallon.
than bridge decks shall conform to the applicable require-
Primer shall be applied to the entire area to be sealed by
ments for bridge decks and the following:
spray or squeegee methods.
Preformed membrane material shall be placed verti-
All primers shall be thoroughly mixed and continu-
cally with each successive sheet lapped to the preceding
ously agitated during application.
by a minimum of 3 inches. Horizontal splices shall be
Primers shall be allowed to dry to a tack free condition
lapped by a minimum of 6 inches.
before placing membrane sheets.
Exposed edges of membrane sheets shall have a trow-
Should membrane sheets not be placed over sol-
eled bead of manufacturer’s recommended mastic or seal-
vent based primed surfaces within 24 hours, or neoprene
ing tape applied after the membrane is placed.
based primed surfaces within 36 hours, or resin based
All projecting pipe, conduits, sleeves or other facilities
primed surfaces within 8 hours, the surfaces shall be
passing through the preformed membrane waterproofing
reprimed.
shall be flashed with prefabricated or field-fabricated
The preformed membrane sheets shall be applied to
boots, fitted coverings or other devices as necessary to
the primed surfaces either by hand methods or by me-
provide watertight construction.
chanical applicators. The membrane sheet shall be placed
in such a manner that a shingling effect is achieved in the
direction that water will drain. First, a 12-inch minimum 21.4.3 Protective Cover
width membrane stripe shall be placed along the juncture
of deck and base of barrier railing or curb face at the low Protective covers shall be installed sufficiently soon
side of the deck with the sheet extending up the face 3 after the application of waterproofing to prevent any dam-
inches. Next, starting at the gutter line, sheets shall be age to the waterproofing from exposure to sunlight or the
laid longitudinally and side lapped with adjacent sheets weather or damage from traffic or subsequent construc-
by not less than 21⁄ 2 inches and end lapped by not less than tion operations.
6 inches. A 12-inch minimum width strip shall then be Hardboard protective covering shall be placed on a
placed at the juncture of deck and base of curb or railing coating of adhesive of a type recommended by the water-
at the high side of the deck extending up the face 3 proofing manufacturer. The adhesive shall be applied at a
rate sufficient to hold the protective covering in position 21.5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
until the backfill is placed.
Waterproofing and dampproofing will be measured by
21.4.4 Dampproofing the square yard complete in place and accepted.
Payment will be made on the basis of the number of
Concrete, brick, or other surfaces that are to be pro- square yards of waterproofing or dampproofing measured.
tected by dampproofing shall be thoroughly clean before Payment for waterproofing includes full compensation
the primer is applied. The surface to be dampproofed shall for the cost of furnishing all equipment, materials, and
be primed and then thoroughly mopped with waterproof- labor necessary for the satisfactory completion of the wa-
ing asphalt. When the first mopping of asphalt has set suf- terproofing membrane and the protection cover.
ficiently, the entire surface shall be mopped with the sec- Payment for dampproofing includes full compensation
ond coating of hot asphalt. Special care shall be taken to for the cost of furnishing all equipment, materials, and
see that there are no skips in the coatings and that all sur- labor necessary for the satisfactory completion of the
faces are thoroughly covered. dampproofing.
Section 22
SLOPE PROTECTION
22.1 GENERAL shall include the sequence and rate of placement. Suffi-
cient copies shall be furnished to meet the needs of the En-
22.1.1 Description gineer and other entities with review authority. The work-
ing drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in advance of
This work shall consist of the construction of bank and proposed use to allow for their review, revision, if needed,
slope protection courses in accordance with these Speci- and approval without delay to the work.
fications and in reasonably close conformity with the The Contractor shall not start the construction of any
lines, grades, and thicknesses shown on the plans or es- slope protection system for which working drawings are
tablished by the Engineer. required until the drawings have been approved by the En-
gineer. Such approval will not relieve the Contractor of re-
22.1.2 Types sponsibility for results obtained by use of these drawings
or any other responsibilities under the contract.
Types of slope protection are designated as follows:
22.3 MATERIALS
(1) Riprap
Hand-Placed Riprap—hand-placed stones on earth 22.3.1 Aggregate
or gravel bedding.
Machine-Placed Riprap—machine-placed stones on Aggregate for riprap shall conform to the requirements
earth or gravel bedding. of Subsection 703.16 of the AASHTO Guide Specifica-
Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions)—stones placed in tions for Highway Construction.
wire fabric enclosures. Aggregate for underdrains and filter blankets shall
Grouted Riprap—hand-placed riprap as described conform to Sections 704 and 705, respectively, of the
above with voids filled with sand-cement grout. AASHTO Guide Specifications for Highway Construction.
Sacked Concrete Riprap—hand-placed sacked con-
crete. 22.3.2 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions)
(2) Concrete Slope Paving Gabions shall be constructed of wire mesh. The wire
Cast-in-Place Slope Paving—Portland cement con- mesh shall be made of galvanized steel wire having a min-
crete, pneumatically applied mortar or, when per- imum size of 0.120-inch diameter (U.S. Wire Gage No.
mitted, fabric forms filled with structural concrete 11). The tensile strength of the wire shall be in the range
grout. of 60,000 to 85,000 psi, determined in accordance with
ASTM A 392. The minimum zinc coating of the wire shall
(3) Precast Concrete Slope Paving—Portland cement be 0.80 oz/sq ft of uncoated wire surface as determined in
concrete slabs, blocks, or shapes precast prior to place- accordance with ASTM A 90.
ment. Selvedge, tie, and connection wire shall meet the same
strength and coating requirements specified above for
22.2 WORKING DRAWINGS wire used in the wire mesh.
Whenever specified or requested by the Engineer, the 22.3.3 Filter Fabric

Contractor shall provide working drawings with design
calculations and supporting data in sufficient detail to per- Filter fabric shall meet the requirements of Subsection
mit a structural review of the proposed design of a slope 705.03 of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Highway
protection system. When concrete is involved, such data Construction.
645
22.3.4 Grout The manufactured core shall be a preformed grid of

embossed plastic, a mat of random shapes of plastic fibers,
Grout shall consist of one part Portland cement and a drainage net consisting of a uniform pattern of poly-
three parts of sand, thoroughly mixed with water to pro- meric strands forming two sets of continuous flow chan-
duce a workable mix. nels, a system of plastic pillars and interconnections form-
ing a semi-rigid mat, or other system approved by the
22.3.5 Sacked Concrete Riprap Engineer, which will conduct the flow of water designated
on the plans or in the special provisions.
Concrete for sacked concrete riprap shall consist of a Filter fabric shall conform to the requirements of Arti-
mixture of clean pitrun or washed sand and gravel, cement cle 22.3.3 and shall be integrally bonded to the core ma-
and water. The mixture shall contain not less than 376 terial.
pounds of Portland cement per cubic yard and sufficient The Contractor shall furnish to the Engineer a signed
water to obtain a slump of 3 to 5 inches. Sacks for sacked certification from the manufacturer stating that the
concrete riprap shall be made of 10-ounce burlap or other geocomposite drain proposed for use is capable of
fabric having equal or greater strength. Sacks shall be withstanding design loadings at all planned locations
approximately 191⁄ 2 inches by 36 inches measured inside without appreciably decreasing the carrying capacity of
the seams when the sack is laid flat, with an approximate the designed drainage voids for the entire height or length
capacity of 1.25 cubic feet. Sound, reclaimed sacks may be of the drain.
used.
22.3.6 Portland Cement Concrete 22.4 CONSTRUCTION
Portland cement concrete for cast-in-place slope 22.4.1 Preparation of Slopes

paving shall conform to the provisions in Section 8, “Con-
crete Structures,” for Class B or Class B (AE) concrete Slopes shall be shaped to allow the full thickness of
using the 1-inch maximum combined grading. the specified slope protection and any bedding or filter
Expansion joint filler shall conform to the provisions gravel, where required. Slopes shall not be steeper than
in Article 8.9.2.1. the natural angle of repose of the slope specified in
the contract. Where the slopes cannot be excavated to
22.3.7 Pneumatically Applied Mortar undisturbed material, the underlying material shall
be compacted to 95% standard density per AASHTO
Materials for pneumatically applied mortar shall con- T 99.
form to the requirements of Section 24, “Pneumatically
Applied Mortar.” 22.4.2 Bedding
22.3.8 Precast Portland Cement Concrete Blocks When called for on the plans, a layer of filter gravel or
and Shapes filter fabric shall be placed on the slope immediately prior
to placement of the riprap or slope paving. The layer of fil-
Precast Portland cement concrete blocks and shapes ter gravel shall be shaped to provide the minimum thick-
shall meet the requirements of ASTM C 129, C 139, or C ness specified.
145, grade as specified. Materials for precast Portland ce-
ment concrete slabs shall conform to the requirements in
Article 8.13, “Precast Concrete Members.” 22.4.3 Filter Fabric
22.3.9 Reinforcing Steel When specified in the contract, filter fabric shall be
spread uniformly over the prepared slope or surface. The
Reinforcement shall conform to the provisions in Sec- fabric shall be unrolled directly on the surface to the lines
tion 9, “Reinforcing Steel.” and dimensions shown. The filter fabric shall be lapped a
minimum of 12 inches in each direction and shall be an-
22.3.10 Geocomposite Drain chored in position with approved anchoring devices. The
Contractor shall place the riprap in a manner that will not
Geocomposite drain shall consist of a manufactured tear, puncture, or shift the fabric. Tracked or wheeled
core with one or both sides covered with a layer of filter equipment will not be permitted on the fabric covered
fabric. slopes.
22.4.4 Geocomposite Drain work, the footing trench shall be filled with excavated ma-
terial, and compaction will not be required.
Geocomposite drains shall be installed at locations
shown on the plans, described in the special provisions, 22.4.6.2 Underwater Placement
and where directed by the Engineer. Collection and dis-
charge systems shall be installed as shown on the plans or When placed under water, free dumping will not be
as directed by the Engineer. permitted without written permission of the Engineer.
Core material manufactured from impermeable plastic Placement shall be by controlled methods using bottom
sheeting having connecting corrugations shall be placed dump buckets or wire rope baskets lowered through the
with the corrugations approximately perpendicular to the water to the point of placement.
drainage collection system.
When only one side of the geocomposite drain is cov- 22.4.7 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions)
ered with filter fabric, the drain shall be installed with the
filter fabric side facing the embankment. The fabric fac- 22.4.7.1 Fabrication
ing the embankment side shall overlap a minimum of 3
inches at all joints and wrap around the exterior edges a The wire mesh shall be twisted to form hexagonal
minimum of 3 inches beyond the exterior edge. If addi- openings of uniform size. The maximum linear dimension
tional fabric is needed to provide overlap at joints and of the mesh opening shall not exceed 41⁄ 2 inches and the
wrap-around at edges, the added fabric shall overlap the area of the mesh opening shall not exceed 8 square inches.
fabric on the geocomposite drain at least 6 inches and be The mesh shall be fabricated in such a manner as to be
attached thereto. nonravelling. Nonravelling is defined as the ability to re-
Should the fabric on the geocomposite drain be torn or sist pulling apart at any of the twists or connections form-
punctured, the damaged section shall be replaced coming the mesh when a single wire strand in a section is cut.
pletely or repaired by placing a piece of fabric that is large Gabions shall be fabricated so the sides, ends, lid, and
enough to cover the damaged area and provide a 6-inch diaphragms can be assembled at the construction site into
overlap all around the damaged area. rectangular baskets of the specified size. Gabions shall be
of single unit construction—base, lid, ends, and sides
shall be either woven into a single unit or one edge of
22.4.5 Hand Placing Stones
these members connected to the base section of the gabion
in a manner that strength and flexibility at the point of
Where hand placing of stones is specified, the larger
connection is at least equal to that of the mesh.
stones shall be placed first with close joints. The larger
Where the length of the gabion exceeds its horizontal
stones shall be placed in the footing trench. Stones shall
width, the gabion shall be equally divided by diaphragms
be placed with their longitudinal axis normal to the em-
of the same mesh and gauge as the body of the gabions,
bankment face and arranged so that each stone above the
into cells the length of which does not exceed the hori-
foundation course has a three-point bearing on the under-
zontal width. The gabion shall be furnished with the nec-
lying stones. The foundation course is the course placed
essary diaphragms secured in proper position on the base
on the slope in contact with the ground surface. Bearing
in a manner that no additional tying at this junction will
on smaller stones that may be used for chinking voids will
be necessary.
not be acceptable. Placing of stones by dumping will not
All perimeter edges of the mesh forming the gabion
be permitted. Interstices shall be filled with smaller stones
shall be securely clip bound or selvedged so that the joints
and spalls.
formed by tying the selvedges have at least the same
strength as the body of the mesh.
22.4.6 Machine-Placed Stones Selvedge wire used through all the edges (perimeter
wire) shall not be less than 0.148-inch diameter (U.S.
22.4.6.1 Dry Placement Wire Gage No. 9) and shall meet the same strength and
coating specifications as the wire mesh.
Machine-placed stones shall be so placed so as to pro- Tie and connection wire shall be supplied in sufficient
vide a minimum of voids, and the larger stones shall be quantity to securely fasten all edges of the gabion and di-
placed in the toe course and on the outside surface of the aphragms and to provide for at least four cross connecting
slope protection. The stone may be placed by dumping wires in each cell whose height is equal to the width and
and may be spread in layers by bulldozers or other suit- at least two cross-connecting wires in each cell whose
able equipment. At the completion of slope protection height is one-half the width of the gabion. Cross-connect-
ing wires will not be required when the height of the cell wet rugs or curing blankets for at least 3 days after grout
is one-third the width of the gabion. Tie and connection placement.
wire shall meet the same strength and coating specifica- Weep holes shall be provided through the riprap as
tions as the wire used in the mesh, except that it may be shown on the plans or as directed by the Engineer.
as much as two gages smaller.
In lieu of tie wire, two gauge galvanized hog rings may 22.4.9 Sacked Concrete Riprap
be used to connect adjacent baskets and to secure basket
lids. Spacing of the hog rings shall not exceed 6 inches. Sacks shall be filled with approximately 1 cubic foot of
Vertical joints in the completed work shall be staggered concrete, leaving room at the top to fold the sacks and re-
at approximately 1⁄ 3 or 1⁄ 2 the length of the full baskets. tain the concrete during placement. Immediately after
being filled, the sacks shall be placed and lightly trampled
22.4.7.2 Installation to conform with the earth face and with adjacent sacks.
The first two courses shall provide a foundation of dou-
The gabions shall be placed on a smooth foundation. ble thickness. The first foundation course shall consist of
Final line and grade shall be approved by the Engineer. a double row of stretchers (long dimension of sack paral-
Each gabion unit shall be assembled by binding to- lel to contour of slope) laid level and adjacent to each
gether all vertical edges with wire ties on approximately other in a neatly trimmed trench. The trench shall be lo-
6-inch spacing or by a continuous piece of connecting cated as shown on the plans, or as directed by the Engi-
wire stitched around the vertical edges with a coil about neer, cut to the proper depth and width to accommodate
every 4 inches. Empty gabion units shall be set to line and placement of the first two foundation courses, and cut
grade as shown on the plans or as directed by the Engi- back into the slope a sufficient distance to enable proper
neer. Wire ties, hog rings, or connecting wire shall be subsequent placement of the riprap. The second founda-
used to join the units together in the same manner as de- tion course shall consist of a row of headers (long dimen-
scribed above for assembling. Internal tie wires shall be sion at right angles to the stretchers) placed directly above
uniformly spaced and securely fastened in each cell of the the double row of stretchers. The remaining courses shall
structure. consist of stretchers and shall be placed with staggered
A standard fence stretcher, chain fall, or iron rod may joints.
be used to stretch the wire baskets and hold alignment. Dirt and debris shall be removed from the top of the
The gabions shall be filled with stone carefully placed sacks before the next course is placed. Stretchers shall be
by hand or machine to assure alignment and avoid bulges placed so that the folded ends are not adjacent. Headers
with a minimum of voids. Alternate placing of rock and shall be placed with the folds toward the earth face. Not
connection wires shall be performed until the gabion is more than four vertical courses of sacks shall be placed in
filled. After a gabion has been filled, the lid shall be bent any tier until initial set has taken place in the first course.
over until it meets the sides and edges. The lid shall then When there will not be proper bearing or bond for the
be secured to the sides, ends and diaphragms with the wire concrete because of delays in placing succeeding layers of
ties or connecting wire in the manner described above for sacks, a small trench shall be excavated back of the row
assembling. of sacks and filled with fresh concrete before the next
layer of sacks is laid. Header courses may be required at
22.4.8 Grouted Riprap any level to provide additional stability.
Sacked concrete riprap shall be cured with a blanket of
Stones shall be placed on the slope as specified in Ar- wet earth or by sprinkling with a fine spray of water every
ticle 22.4.5 and shall be thoroughly moistened with water 2 hours during the daytime for 4 days.
after placement. Grout shall be applied while the stone is Weep holes shall be provided through the riprap as
moist and shall be worked into the interstices to com- shown on the plans or as directed by the Engineer.
pletely fill the voids.
Where the depth is in excess of 12 inches, the stone 22.4.10 Concrete Slope Paving
shall be placed in 12-inch lifts and each lift grouted prior
to placement of the next lift. Succeeding lifts shall be 22.4.10.1 General
constructed and grouted before grout in the previous lift
has set. This work shall consist of constructing cast-in-place
Grout shall be placed only when the weather is suitable and precast portland cement concrete slope paving. At the
and shall be protected from freezing for at least 4 days. option of the Contractor, the cast-in-place slope paving
The surface shall be cured by covering with moist earth, shall be constructed of either Portland cement concrete or
pneumatically applied mortar. Where specified or permit- 22.4.10.3 Precast Slope Paving
ted by the Engineer, this work shall also include woven
fabric forms filled with fine aggregate Portland cement Precast slabs, blocks, and shapes shall be laid on a 3-
concrete grout. inch bed of cushion sand in the pattern shown on the
plans. Blocks and shapes shall be thoroughly rammed in
place to provide a uniformly even surface and solid bed-
22.4.10.2 Cast-in-Place Slope Paving ding under each block or shape.
In the areas where grouting is called for, the blocks
Concrete shall be mixed and placed in conformance shall be laid in running bond with the length parallel
with the provisions in Section 8, “Concrete Structures,” to the slope and with 1⁄ 4-inch joints. Following the laying
and shall be spread and tamped until it is thoroughly com- of the blocks, in the area to be grouted, sufficient
pacted and mortar flushes to the surface. If the slope is too mortar sand shall be spread over the surface and
steep to permit the use of concrete sufficiently wet to flush swept into the joints to fill the latter to 4 inches from
with tamping, the concrete shall be tamped until consoli- the surface. The blocks shall be wetted to the satisfac-
dated and a mortar surface 1⁄ 4-inch thick, troweled on im- tion of the Engineer before any grout is placed. The
mediately. The mortar shall consist of one part Portland joints shall be filled with grout flush with the top of the
cement and three parts of fine aggregate. The mortar sur- block.
face shall be considered as a part of the concrete and no After grouting has been completed and the grout has
separate payment will be made therefore. sufficiently hardened, the blocks shall be wetted, covered
After striking off to grade, the concrete shall be hand and cured with curing blankets or covers for the first 7
floated with wooden floats. The entire surface shall be days after grouting. Grout shall not be poured during
broomed with a fine texture hair push broom to produce a freezing weather.
uniform surface with the broom marks parallel to the
edges of the panel. Edges and joints shall be edged with a
1
⁄ 4-inch radius edger prior to the brooming. 22.5 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
Pneumatically applied mortar shall be placed and fin-
ished in accordance with the provisions in Section 24, 22.5.1 Method of Measurement
“Pneumatically Applied Mortar.”
Expansion joints shall be installed transversely at in- 22.5.1.1 Stone Riprap and Filter Blanket
tervals of 20 feet. Longitudinal expansion joints shall be
installed at the locations shown on the plans. Expansion Hand-placed riprap, machine-placed riprap, grouted
joints shall be filled with expansion joint filler 1⁄ 2-inch riprap, and filter blanket aggregate will be measured by
thick. the square yard, cubic yard, or ton, as listed in the sched-
Cast-in-place concrete and pneumatically applied ule of bid items. The area will be that actually placed to
mortar shall be cured as provided in Sections 8 and 24, re- the limiting dimensions shown on the plans, or the plan di-
spectively. mensions as may have been revised by the Engineer, mea-
Weep holes shall be provided through the slope paving sured along the upper surface. If measured by the cubic
as shown on the plans or as directed by the Engineer. yard, the volume will be computed on the basis of the
When permitted or specified, the Contractor may use measured area and the thickness specified on the plans. If
woven fabric forms filled with pumpable fine aggregate measured by the ton, the quantity shall be the number of
Portland cement concrete grout as the slope protection tons, loose measure, incorporated into the work.
system. The request by the Contractor to use a particular
system must be in writing accompanied by working draw-
22.5.1.2 Sacked Concrete Riprap
ings and complete information as to the materials, con-
struction and performance characteristics of the proposed
Sacked concrete riprap will be measured by the cubic
system.
yard of concrete placed. Measurement will be based on
Pervious backfill material, if required by the plans,
mixer volumes.
shall be placed as shown. Two cubic feet of pervious back-
fill material wrapped in filter fabric shall be placed at each
weep hole and drain hole. 22.5.1.3 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions)
At the completion of the work, footing trenches shall
be filled with excavated material and compaction will not Wire-enclosed riprap (gabions) will be measured as the
be required. number of square yards of surface area.
22.5.1.4 Cast-in-Place Concrete Slope Paving 22.5.2.4 Wire-Enclosed Riprap (Gabions)
Cast-in-place concrete or pneumatically applied mor- Wire-enclosed riprap (gabions) measured in accor-
tar slope paving will be measured on a square yard or dance with Article 22.5.1.3 will be paid for at the price bid
cubic yard basis. The area will be that actually placed to per square yard. Such price shall include wire baskets, con-
the limiting dimensions shown on the plans, or the plan nection hardware, anchors, aggregate filling, and any other
dimensions as may have been revised by the Engineer, materials, labor, and equipment necessary to complete the
measured along the upper sloped surface. If measured by work in accordance with the plans and specifications.
the cubic yard, the volume will be computed on the basis
of the measured area and the thickness shown on the
plans. No additional compensation will be allowed for ad- 22.5.2.5 Cast-in-Place Concrete Slope Paving
ditional concrete or pneumatically applied mortar placed
by reason of low foundation. Cast-in-place concrete or pneumatically applied
mortar slope paving measured in accordance with Art-
22.5.1.5 Precast Concrete Slope Paving icle 22.5.1.4 will be paid for at the price bid per square
yard or per cubic yard as set forth in the schedule of bid
Precast concrete slabs, blocks, or shapes placed as items.
slope paving will be measured in square yards computed
from the payment lines shown on the plans, or as directed
by the Engineer. 22.5.2.6 Precast Concrete Slope Paving
22.5.1.6 Filter Fabric Precast concrete slope paving measured in accordance

with Article 22.5.1.5 will be paid for at the price bid per
Filter fabric will be measured by the square yard on the square yard. Such price shall include cushion sand and
ground surface, excluding overlaps, complete in place. shall include Portland cement grout or mortar, if required
by the plans or specifications.
22.5.2 Payment
22.5.2.1 General
22.5.2.7 Filter Blanket
Payment for slope protection of the various classes at
the unit prices bid will include full compensation for all Filter blanket or filter gravel measured in accordance
labor, materials, equipment, or other incidentals in con- with Article 22.5.1.1 will be paid for at the price bid per
nection with the preparation of subgrade (except for the square yard, per cubic yard, or per ton as set forth in the
furnishing and placement of filter blanket material and fil- schedule of bid items.
ter fabric), excavating and backfilling toe trenches where
required, furnishing and placing the stones, slabs, blocks,
shapes, grout, mortar, Portland cement concrete, pneu- 22.5.2.8 Filter Fabric
matically applied mortar, reinforcing steel, expansion
joint filler, if required, and all other work and incidental Filter fabric measured in accordance with Art-
material required to complete the work in accordance with icle 22.5.1.6 will be paid for at the price bid per square
the plans and specifications. yard.
22.5.2.2 Stone Riprap 22.5.2.9 Geocomposite Drain System

Hand-placed riprap, machine-placed riprap, and
Geocomposite drain system will be paid for on the
grouted riprap measured in accordance with Article
basis of a contract lump sum price. Such lump sum price
22.5.1.1 will be paid for at the price bid per square yard,
shall include full compensation for furnishing all labor,
per cubic yard, or per ton as set forth in the schedule of
bid items. materials, tools, equipment, and incidentals, and for doing
all the work involved in constructing geocomposite drain
22.5.2.3 Sacked Concrete Riprap systems complete in place including geocomposite drain,
collection and discharge systems as shown on the plans,
Sacked concrete riprap measured in accordance with Art- as specified in the special provisions and as directed by the
icle 22.5.1.2 will be paid for at the price bid per cubic yard. Engineer.
Section 23
MISCELLANEOUS METAL
23.1 DESCRIPTION practice in modern commercial shops. Burrs, rough and

sharp edges, and other flaws shall be removed. Warped
This work shall consist of furnishing and installing pieces shall be straightened after fabrication and galva-
metal items in structures which are not otherwise pro- nizing.
vided for. Such work includes but is not limited to the fol-
lowing items:
23.4 GALVANIZING
(1) Expansion joint armor in bridge decks, and sliding
plate and finger type expansion joints.
Unless otherwise specified all steel items, which are
(2) Manhole frames and covers, drainage pipes,
not embedded at least 2 inches in concrete, and all cast
frames and grates, ladders or ladder rungs, access
iron sidewalk frames and covers shall be galvanized in ac-
opening covers, and access door assemblies.
cordance with Articles 11.3.2.4 and 11.3.7 of Section 11,
(3) Other items specifically identified as miscella-
“Steel Structures.” Assemblies shall be galvanized after
neous metal on the plans or in the specifications.
fabrication.
23.2 MATERIALS
23.5 MEASUREMENT
Miscellaneous metal items shall be constructed of ma-
terials conforming to the following AASHTO (or ASTM)
Measurement of miscellaneous metal shall be by
material specifications:
the scale weight. When requested by the Engineer,
each delivery shall be accompanied with a certified
weighmaster’s weight ticket. Scale weights are not re-
quired when calculated weights are shown on the plans, in
which case these weights shall be used as the basis of
payment.
23.6 PAYMENT
Miscellaneous metal will be paid for by the contract

unit price per pound. Such payment shall include full
compensation for furnishing all labor, materials, tools,
equipment and incidentals, and for doing all the work in-
23.3 FABRICATION volved in furnishing and installing miscellaneous metal,
complete in place, as shown on the plans, and as specified
Fabrication of miscellaneous metal items shall be per- in these specifications and the special provisions, and as
formed in a workmanlike manner in conformance with the directed by the Engineer.
651
Section 24
PNEUMATICALLY APPLIED MORTAR
24.1 DESCRIPTION 24.2.3 Anchor Bolts or Studs
This work shall consist of the furnishing and placing Anchor studs used to support reinforcing wire fabric or
of pneumatically applied mortar for the construction of bars when placing mortar against existing concrete or
portions of structures, repairing concrete structures, rock shall consist of 1⁄ 4-inch minimum diameter expansion
texturing concrete surfaces, encasement of structural hook bolts placed in drilled holes. Each bolt shall have
steel members, lining ditches and channels, paving slopes sufficient engagement in sound masonry to resist a pull-
and for other miscellaneous work, all as shown on the out force of 150 lbs.
plans. When permitted by the Engineer, driven steel studs of
This work also includes the preparation of surfaces to not less than 1⁄ 8-inch diameter and a minimum length of 2
receive the mortar and the furnishing and placing of any inches may be used. The equipment used for driving such
reinforcing steel and anchors for reinforcement. studs shall be of the type which uses an explosive for the
Pneumatically applied mortar shall consist of either driving force, and shall be capable of inserting the stud or
dry mixed fine aggregate and Portland cement pneumati- pin to the required depth without damage to the surround-
cally applied by a suitable mechanism, to which mixture ing concrete.
the water is added immediately previous to its expulsion
from the nozzle, or mortar premixed by mechanical meth- 24.3 PROPORTIONING AND MIXING
ods and pneumatically applied through a nozzle onto the
prepared surface. 24.3.1 Proportioning
The Contractor shall submit the proposed mix design

to the Engineer for approval prior to start of the work.
24.2 MATERIALS
Unless otherwise specified, the mix design shall pro-
vide a cement to aggregate ratio, based on dry loose vol-
24.2.1 Cement, Aggregate, Water and
umes, of not less than 1:3.5 for the construction and repair
Admixtures
of concrete structures and for encasing steel members, or
not less than 1:5 for lining ditches and channels and for
Cement, aggregate, water and admixtures, when used,
paving slopes.
shall conform to the requirements of Section 8, “Concrete
The water content shall be as low as practical and shall
Structures.” Aggregate shall be fine aggregate, except that
be adjusted so that the mix is sufficiently wet to adhere
up to 30% coarse aggregate, conforming to AASHTO M
properly and sufficiently dry so that it will not sag or fall
43 for size 3⁄ 8 inch to No. 8 or No. 16, may be substituted
from vertical or inclined surfaces or separate in horizon-
for fine aggregate. tal work.
Recovered rebound which is clean and free of foreign
material may be reused as fine aggregate in quantities 24.3.2 Mixing
not to exceed 20% of the total fine aggregate require-
ments. Mixing shall be done either by the dry mix or wet mix
process. Before being charged into the placing equipment,
the materials shall be thoroughly and uniformly mixed
24.2.2 Reinforcing Steel using a mixer designed for use with pneumatic applica-
tion. It may be either a paddle type or drum type mixer.
Reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Transit mix equipment and methods may be used for the
Section 9, “Reinforcing Steel.” wet process.
653
24.4 SURFACE PREPARATION center to center, on overhead surfaces; 18 inches, center to

center, on vertical surfaces; and 36 inches, center to cen-
24.4.1 Earth ter, on top horizontal surfaces. At least three anchors shall
be used in each individual patch area.
When pneumatically applied mortar is to be placed The Engineer shall be notified in advance of the date
against earth, the area shall be accurately graded to the when installation of anchor studs is to begin. The loca-
plan dimensions and shall be thoroughly compacted, with tions of the studs shall be such that damage will not occur
sufficient moisture to provide a firm foundation and to to prestressing tendons or conduits embedded in the con-
prevent absorption of water from the mortar, but shall not crete.
contain free surface water. Unless otherwise shown or specified, for repair work,
When shown on the plans, joints, side forms, headers all areas where the thickness of the mortar exceeds 11⁄ 2
and shooting strips shall be provided for backing or pan- inches shall be reinforced with a single layer of either 2 3
eling. Ground or gaging wires shall be used where neces- 2 2 W1 3 W1 or 3 3 3 2 W1.5 3 W1.5 welded wire fab-
sary to establish thicknesses, surface planes, and finish ric. For areas where the thickness of the mortar exceeds 4
lines. inches, a single layer of wire fabric shall be used to rein-
force each 4-inch thickness of patch or fractional part
24.4.2 Forms thereof. All fabric shall be placed parallel to the proposed
finished surface. Each layer of fabric shall be completely
When mortar is to be placed against forms, the forms encased in mortar which has taken its initial set, before the
shall conform to the requirement of Section 3, “Tempo- succeeding layer of fabric is installed. Fabric supported
rary Works.” adjacent to the prepared masonry surface shall be no
closer than 1⁄ 2 inch to said surface. Fabric shall be carefully
prebent before installation to fit around corners and into
24.4.3 Concrete or Rock
re-entrant angles, and shall in no case be sprung into
place.
When mortar is to be placed against concrete or rock,
All steel items, including anchors, reinforcing bars and
all deteriorated or loose material shall be removed by
wire fabric, shall be no closer than 1 inch to the finished
chipping with pneumatic or hand tools. Square or slightly
surface of the mortar.
undercut shoulders shall be cut approximately 1-inch deep
along the perimeter of repair areas. The surface shall be
24.5.2 Placement of Mortar
sandblasted as necessary to clean all rust from exposed
steel and to produce a clean rough-textured surface on the
Only experienced foremen, gunmen, nozzlemen, and
concrete or rock. The surface against which mortar is to
rodmen shall be employed, and satisfactory evidence of
be placed shall be kept wet for at least 1 hour and then al-
such experience shall be furnished when requested by the
lowed to dry to a surface dry condition just prior to
Engineer.
application of the mortar.
The mortar shall be applied by pneumatic equipment
that sprays the mix onto the prepared surface at a high
24.5 INSTALLATION velocity as needed to produce a compacted dense homo-
geneous mass. The air compressor and delivery hose lines
24.5.1 Placement of Reinforcing shall be of adequate capacity and size to provide a mini-
mum pressure of 35 psi at the nozzle for 1-inch nozzles
Reinforcing steel, when required, shall be installed in and proportionally greater for larger nozzles. The veloc-
conformance with the requirements of Section 9, “Rein- ity of the material as it leaves the nozzle must be main-
forcing Steel.” tained uniform at a rate determined for the given job con-
Reinforcement in new construction shall be placed as ditions to produce minimum rebound.
specified in the plans and secured to insure no displace- Water which is added at the nozzle shall be supplied at
ment from impact of the pneumatically placed mortar dur- a uniform pressure of not less than 15 psi greater than the
ing application. air pressure at the nozzle.
For repair work, the reinforcing steel shall be sup- The mortar shall be applied as dry as practicable to pre-
ported by anchor studs installed in the existing masonry vent shrinkage cracking. Shooting strips shall be em-
except where existing reinforcing steel in the repair area ployed to insure square corners, straight lines, and a plane
is considered by the Engineer to be satisfactory for this surface of mortar, except as otherwise permitted by the
purpose. Anchors shall be spaced no more than 12 inches, plans or approved by the Engineer. They shall be so placed
as to keep the trapping of rebound at a minimum. At the colored, stained, or otherwise damaged by overspray, dust
end of each day’s work, or similar stopping periods re- or rebound, shall be adequately protected and, if con-
quiring construction joints, the mortar shall be sloped off tacted, shall be cleaned by early scraping, brushing, or
to a thin edge. Before placing an adjacent section, con- washing, as the surroundings permit.
struction joints shall be thoroughly cleaned and wetted as
required under Article 24.4. In shooting all surfaces, the 24.5.3 Finishing
stream of flowing material from the nozzle shall impinge
as nearly as possible at right angles to the surface being After mortar has been placed to desired thickness, all
covered, and the nozzle shall be held from 2 to 4 feet from high spots shall be cut off with a sharp trowel, or screeded
the working surface. to a true plane as determined by shooting strips or by
A sufficient number of mortar coats shall be applied to the original masonry surface, or as directed. Cutting
obtain the required thickness. On vertical and overhead screeds, where used, shall be lightly applied to all
surfaces, the thickness of each coat shall be not greater surfaces so as not to disturb the mortar for an appreciable
than 1 inch, except as approved by the Engineer, and shall depth, and they shall be worked in an upward direction
be so placed that it will neither sag nor decrease the bond when applied on vertical surfaces. Unless otherwise
of the preceding coat. The time interval between succes- directed, the finished mortar surface shall be given a final
sive layers in sloping, vertical or overhanging work shall flash coat of about 1⁄ 8 inch of mortar. Special care shall be
be sufficient to allow initial but not final set to develop. At taken to obtain a uniform appearance on all exposed
the time the initial set is developing, the surface shall be surfaces.
cleaned to remove the thin film of laitance in order to pro-
vide for a bond with succeeding applications.
24.5.4 Curing and Protecting
Rebound or accumulated loose sand shall be removed
from the surface to be covered prior to placing of the orig-
Pneumatically placed mortar shall be water cured in
inal or succeeding layers of mortar and shall not be em-
conformance with the requirements of Article 8.11.3.2.
bedded in the work.
The minimum water curing duration shall be 96 hours.
Materials that have been mixed for more than 45 min-
The mortar shall be protected from freezing during the
utes and have not been incorporated in the work shall not
curing period.
be used, unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer.
After curing and before final acceptance, all repaired
areas shall be sounded. All unsound and cracked areas 24.6 MEASUREMENT AND PAYMENT
shall be removed and replaced.
The quantity of pneumatically applied mortar will be
24.5.2.1 Weather Limitations measured either by the square foot or by the cubic foot as
indicated in the schedule of bid items.
Pneumatically placed mortar shall not be placed on a Square foot measurements will be based on measure-
frozen surface nor when the ambient temperature is less ments of the surface area of acceptable mortar placed in
than 40°F; nor shall it be placed when it is anticipated that the work made along the plane or curve of each surface.
the temperature during the following 24 hours will drop Cubic foot measurement will be based on the dimensions
below 32°F. of such work shown in the plans or ordered by the
The application of pneumatically placed mortar shall Engineer.
be suspended if high winds prevent proper application, or Pneumatically applied mortar will be paid for by the
rain occurs which would wash out the pneumatically contract price per square foot or cubic yard. Such payment
placed mortar. shall be considered to be full compensation for the cost of
furnishing all labor, materials, equipment, incidentals, and
24.5.2.2 Protection of Adjacent Work for doing all work involved in preparing the surface and
installing the mortar, reinforcing steel, anchor studs, head-
During progress of the work, where appearance is im- ers, joint fillers, and other items as shown on the plans or
portant, adjacent facilities which may be permanently dis- specified.
Section 25
STEEL AND CONCRETE TUNNEL LINERS
25.1 SCOPE All steel plates shall be connected by bolts on both lon-
gitudinal and circumferential seams or joints and shall be
These specifications are intended to cover the installa- so fabricated as to permit complete erection from the
tion of tunnel liner plates in tunnels constructed by con- inside of the tunnel. Bolt sizes and properties shall be in
ventional tunnel methods. For the purposes of these Spec- accordance with the manufacturer’s standard but not less
ifications, tunnels excavated by full face, heading and than those specified in Division 1, Article 16.7.
bench, or multiple drift procedures are considered con- Grout holes 2 inches or larger in diameter shall be
ventional methods. Liner plates used with any construc- provided as shown on the plans to permit grouting as the
tion procedure utilizing a full or partial shield, a tunneling erection of tunnel liner plates progresses.
machine, or other piece of equipment which will exert a Precast concrete tunnel liner plates shall conform to the
force on the liner plates for the purpose of propelling, details shown on the plans and the requirements of
steering, or stabilizing the equipment are considered spe- Section 8, “Concrete Structures.” If such details are not
cial cases and are not covered by these Specifications. provided and the plans or the specifications allow the
Contractor to propose the use of concrete liner plates, the
Contractor shall submit working drawings and specifica-
25.2 DESCRIPTION tions to the Engineer for approval. Such drawings and
specifications shall describe materials to be used, plate
25.2.1 This work shall consist of furnishing cold-formed dimensions, reinforcement details, connecting details, and
steel tunnel liner plates or precast concrete plates con- erection procedures. The fabrication of Contractor
forming to these specifications and of the sizes and di- proposed types of concrete tunnel liner plates shall not
mensions required on the plans, and installing such plates begin until the working drawings have been approved.
at the locations designated on the plans by the Engineer, Such approval shall not relieve the Contractor of any
and in conformity with the lines and grades established by responsibility under the contract for the successful
the Engineer. The completed liner shall consist of a series completion of the work.
of liner plates assembled with staggered longitudinal
joints.
Steel tunnel liner plates shall preferably be of a type 25.3.2 Forming and Punching of Steel Liner Plates
which is commercially available. Precast concrete tunnel
liner plates shall be such that their size and shape suits the All plates shall be formed to provide circumferential
method and equipment being used to install them. flanged joints. Longitudinal joints may be flanged or of
the offset lap seam type. All plates shall be punched for
bolting on both longitudinal and circumferential seams or
25.3 MATERIALS AND FABRICATION joints. Bolt spacing in circumferential flanges shall be in
accordance with the manufacturer’s standard spacing and
Liner plates shall be fabricated to fit the cross section shall be a multiple of the plate length so that plates hav-
of the tunnel. ing the same curvature shall be interchangeable and will
permit staggering of the longitudinal seams. Bolt spacing
25.3.1 General at flanged longitudinal seams shall be in accordance with
the manufacturer’s standard spacing. For lapped longi-
Steel liner plates herein described must meet the Sec- tudinal seams, bolt size and spacing shall be in accordance
tional Properties of thickness, area, and moment of iner- with the manufacturer’s standard but not less than that
tia shown on the plans. If not shown on the plans, the required to meet the longitudinal seam strength require-
properties shall be as listed in Division I, Article 16.3. ments of Division I, Article 16.3.2.
657
25.4 INSTALLATION 25.4.3 Grouting
25.4.1 Steel Liner Plates When directed by the Engineer, voids occurring be-
tween the liner plate and the tunnel wall shall be force-
All steel liner plates for the full length of a specified grouted. The grout shall be forced through the grouting
tunnel shall be of one type only, either the flanged or the holes in the plates with such pressure that all voids will be
lapped seam type of construction. completely filled. Full compensation for back packing or
Liner plates shall be assembled in accordance with the grouting shall be considered as included in the contract
manufacturer’s instruction. price paid for tunnel and no separate payment will be
Coated steel plates shall be handled in such a manmade therefore.
ner as to prevent bruising, scaling, or breaking of the
coating. Any plates that are damaged during handling 25.5 MEASUREMENT
or placing shall be replaced by the Contractor at own
expense, except that small areas with minor damage The length of tunnel liner to be paid for will be the
may be repaired by the Contractor as directed by the length measured along the tunnel liner plate invert.
Engineer.
25.6 PAYMENT
25.4.2 Precast Concrete Liner Plates
Payment for the length of each size of tunnel as deter-
Installation of precast concrete tunnel liner plates shall mined under measurement shall be at the contract unit
not start prior to receipt of approval of working drawings prices per linear foot bid for the various sizes, which pay-
and specifications submitted as required by Article 25.3.1. ment shall include full compensation for furnishing all
Installation shall conform to the specified or approved labor, materials, tools, equipment, and incidentals to com-
erection procedures. plete this item, including the force-grouting of voids.
Section 26
METAL CULVERTS
26.1 GENERAL 26.3 MATERIALS
26.1.1 Description 26.3.1 Corrugated Metal Pipe
This work shall consist of furnishing, fabricating, and Steel pipe shall conform to the requirements of
installing metal pipe, metal structural plate pipe, arches, AASHTO M 36.
pipe arches, and box structures in conformance with these Aluminum pipe shall conform to the requirements of
specifications, the special provisions, and the details AASHTO M 196.
shown on the plans. As used in this specification, long-
span structures are metal plate horizontal ellipse, inverted 26.3.2 Structural Plate
pear and multiple radius arch shapes as well as special
shape culverts as defined in Division I, Section 12, “Soil- Steel structural plate shall conform to the requirements
Corrugated Metal Structure Interaction Systems.” The of AASHTO M 167.
terms “metal pipe” and “metal structural plate pipe” shall Aluminum alloy structural plate shall conform to the
include both circular pipe arch, underpass and elliptical requirements of AASHTO M 219.
shapes. “Metal structural plate arches” consist of a metal
plate arch supported on reinforced concrete footings at its
base (ends) with or without a paved invert slab. “Pipe 26.3.3 Nuts and Bolts
arches” are constructed to form a pipe having an arch-
shaped crown and a relatively flat invert. “Metal structural Nuts and bolts for steel structural plate pipe, arches,
plate box structures” are conduits, rectangular in cross pipe arches, and box structures shall conform to the re-
section, constructed of metal plates. quirements of AASHTO M 167. Nuts and bolts for alu-
minum structural plate shall be aluminum conforming to
ASTM F 468 or standard strength steel conforming to
26.2 WORKING DRAWINGS ASTM A 307.
Whenever specified or requested by the Engineer, the

Contractor shall provide manufacturer’s assembly in- 26.3.4 Mixing of Materials
structions or working drawings with supporting data in
sufficient detail to permit a structural review. Sufficient Aluminum and steel materials shall not be mixed in
copies shall be furnished to meet the needs of the Engi- any installation unless they are adequately separated or
neer and other entities with review authority. The working protected to avoid galvanic reactions. Hot-dip galvanizing
drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in advance of provides such protection. Hot-dip galvanized steel and
proposed use to allow for their review, revision, if needed, stainless steel bolts and nuts are acceptable for aluminum
and approval without delay to the work. structural plate.
The Contractor shall not start the construction of any
metal culvert for which working drawings are required 26.3.5 Fabrication
until the drawings have been approved by the Engineer.
Such approval will not relieve the Contractor of responsi- Plates at longitudinal and circumferential seams shall
bility for results obtained by use of these drawings or any be connected by bolts with the seams staggered so that not
of his or her other responsibilities under the contract. more than three plates come together at any one point.
659
26.3.6 Welding A-2-5, or A-3. Minimum backfill requirements for struc-

tures with 12.0 feet or more cover shall meet AASHTO M
Welding of steel, if required, shall conform to the 145 requirements for A-1 or A-3.
ANSI/AASHTO/AWS Bridge Welding Code D1.5. All
welding of steel plates, other than fittings, shall be per- 26.3.8.3 Box Culverts
formed prior to galvanizing.
Welding of aluminum, if required, shall conform to the Bedding and backfill materials shall meet the general
AWS D1.2, “Structural Welding Code.” requirements of Article 26.3.8.1. As a minimum, backfill
shall meet the requirements of AASHTO M 145 for A-1,
26.3.7 Protective Coatings A-2-4, A-2-5, or A-3.
When required by the plans or the special provisions, 26.4 ASSEMBLY

metal pipes and structural plate shall be protected with bi-
tuminous coating or have the invert paved with bitumi-
26.4.1 General
nous material. Bituminous coatings shall be applied as
provided in AASHTO M 190, Type A, unless otherwise
Corrugated metal pipe and structural plate pipe shall be
specified. Bituminous pavings, if required, shall be ap- assembled in accordance with the manufacturer’s instruc-
plied over the bituminous coatings to the inside bottom tions. All pipe shall be unloaded and handled with rea-
portion of pipe as provided in AASHTO M 190, Type C, sonable care. Pipe or plates shall not be rolled or dragged
unless otherwise specified. The portion of all nuts and over gravel or rock and shall be prevented from striking
bolts used for assembly of coated structural plate project- rock or other hard objects during placement in trench or
ing outside the pipe, shall be coated after installation. The on bedding.
portions of the nuts and bolts projecting inside the pipe Corrugated metal pipe shall be placed in the bed start-
need not be coated. ing at the downstream end. Pipes with circumferential
Polymeric coatings, when called for on the plans or in seams shall be installed with their inside circumferential
the special provisions, shall conform to the requirements sheet laps pointing downstream.
of AASHTO M 246. The polymeric coating shall be ap- Bituminous coated pipe, polymer coated pipe, and
plied to the galvanized sheet prior to corrugating and, unpaved invert pipe shall be installed in a similar manner to
less otherwise specified, the thickness shall be not less corrugated metal pipe with special care in handling to
than 0.010 inch. Any pinholes, blisters, cracks, or lack of avoid damage to coatings. Paved invert pipe shall be in-
bond shall be cause for rejection. Polymeric coatings will stalled with the invert pavement placed and centered on
not be permitted on structural plate pipes. the bottom.
Structural plate shall be assembled and installed in ac-
26.3.8 Bedding and Backfill Materials cordance with the plans and detailed erection instructions.
Copies of the manufacturer’s assembly instructions shall
26.3.8.1 General be furnished as specified in Article 26.2. Bolted longitu-
dinal seams shall be well fitted with the lapping plates
Bedding material shall be loose native or granular ma- parallel to each other. The applied bolt torque for 3 ⁄ 4-inch
terial with a maximum particle (or clump) size not to ex- diameter high-strength steel bolts (A 449) for the assem-
ceed one-half the corrugation depth. Backfill for metal bly of steel structural plate shall be a minimum of 100 ft-
culverts shall be granular material as specified in the plans lbs and a maximum of 300 ft-lbs. Aluminum structural
and specifications and shall be free of organic material, plate shall be assembled using 3⁄ 4-inch diameter aluminum
stones larger than 3 inches in the greatest dimension, bolts (F 468) or standard strength steel bolts (A 307)
frozen lumps, or moisture in excess of that permitting which shall be torqued to a minimum of 100 ft-lbs and a
thorough compaction. As a minimum, backfill materials maximum of 150 ft-lbs. When seam sealant tape or a shop
shall meet the requirements of AASHTO M 145 for A-1, applied asphalt coating is used, bolts should be retight-
A-2, or A-3. ened no more than once. Generally, retightening is done
within 24 hours. There is no structural requirement for
26.3.8.2 Long-Span Structures residual torque; the important factor is the seam fit-up.
Bedding and backfill materials shall meet the general 26.4.2 Joints
requirements of Article 26.3.8.1. As a minimum backfill
materials for structures with less than 12 feet of cover shall Joints for corrugated metal culvert and drainage pipe
meet the requirements of AASHTO M 145 for A-1, A-2-4, shall meet the following performance requirements.
26.4.2.1 Field Joints 26.4.2.3 Soil Conditions
Transverse field joints shall be of such design that the (a) The requirements of the joints are dependent on the
successive connection of pipe sections will form a con- soil conditions at the construction site. Pipe backfill which
tinuous line free from appreciable irregularities in the is not subject to piping action is classified as “nonerodi-
flow line. In addition, the joints shall meet the general per- ble.” Such backfill typically includes granular soil (with
formance requirements described in Articles 26.4.2.2 and grain sizes equivalent to coarse sand, small gravel, or
26.4.2.3. Suitable transverse field joints, which satisfy the larger) and cohesive clays.
requirements for one or more of the subsequently defined (b) Backfill that is subject to piping action, and would
joint performance categories can be obtained with the fol- tend to either infiltrate the pipe or to be easily washed by
lowing types of connecting bands furnished with the suit- exfiltration of water from the pipe, is classified as “Erodi-
able band-end fastening devices: ble.” Such backfill typically includes fine sands and silts.
(c) Special joints are required when poor soil conditions
(a) Corrugated bands. are encountered such as when the backfill or foundation
(b) Bands with projections. material is characterized by large soft spots or voids. If
(c) Flat bands. construction in such soil is unavoidable, this condition can
(d) Bands of special design that engage factory re- only be tolerated for relatively low fill heights, because the
formed ends of corrugated pipe. pipe must span the soft spots and support imposed loads.
(e) Other equally effective types of field joints may be Backfills of organic silt, which are typically semi-fluid dur-
used with the approval of the Engineer. ing installation, are included in this classification.
26.4.2.2 Joint Types 26.4.2.4 Joint Properties
Applications may require either “Standard” or “Spe- The requirements for joint properties are divided into
cial” joints. Standard joints are for pipe not subject to the six categories given on Table 26.4. Properties are de-
large soil movements or disjointing forces; these joints are fined and requirements are given in the following para-
satisfactory for ordinary installations, where simple slip graphs (a) through (f). The values for various types of pipe
type joints are typically used. Special joints are for more can be determined by a rational analysis or a suitable test.
adverse requirements such as the need to withstand soil (a) Shear Strength—The shear strength required of the
movements or resist disjointing forces. Special designs joint is expressed as a percent of the calculated shear
must be considered for unusual conditions as in poor strength of the pipe on a transverse cross-section remote
foundation conditions. Downdrain joints are required to from the joint.
resist longitudinal hydraulic forces. Examples of this are (b) Moment Strength—The moment strength required
steep slopes and sharp curves. of the joint is expressed as a percent of the calculated mo-
TABLE 26.4 Categories of Pipe Joints
ment capacity of the pipe on a transverse cross section re- except for horizontal ellipse shapes having a ratio of top
mote from the joint. to side radii of 3 or less where only the 2% restriction shall
(c) Tensile Strength—Tensile strength is required in a apply. The rise of arches with a ratio of top to side radii of
joint when the possibility exists that a longitudinal load three or more should not deviate from the specified di-
could develop which would tend to separate adjacent pipe mensions by more than 1% of the span.
sections. Reinforcing ribs, when required to satisfy the structural
(d) Joint Overlap—Standard joints which do not meet design, shall be attached to the structural plate corrugation
the moment strength alternatively shall have a minimum crown prior to backfilling using a bolt spacing of not more
sleeve width overlapping the abutting pipes. The mini- than 12 inches. Legible identifying letters or numbers
mum total sleeve width shall be as given in Table 26.4. shall be placed on each rib to designate its proper position
Any joint meeting the requirements for a special joint may in the finished structure.
be used in lieu of a standard joint. Reinforcing ribs, when required only as a means of con-
(e) Soiltightness—Soiltightness refers to openings in trolling structure shape during installation, shall be spaced
the joint through which soil may infiltrate. Soil tightness and attached to the corrugated plates at the discretion of the
is influenced by the size of the opening (maximum di- manufacturer with the approval of the Engineer.
mension normal to the direction that the soil may infil-
trate) and the length of the channel (length of the path 26.5 INSTALLATION
along which the soil may infiltrate). No opening may ex-
ceed 1 inch. In addition, for all categories, if the size of 26.5.1 Placing Culverts—General
the opening exceeds 1⁄ 8 inch, the length of the channel
must be at least four times the size of the opening. Fur- For trench conditions, the trench shall be excavated to
thermore, for nonerodible or erodible soils, the ratio of D85 the width, depth, and grade shown on the plans and ap-
soil size to size of opening must be greater than 0.3 for proved by the Engineer.
medium to fine sand or 0.2 for uniform sand; these ratios Proper preparation of foundation, placement of foun-
need not be met for cohesive backfills where the plastic- dation material where required, and placement of bedding
ity index exceeds 12. As a general guideline, a backfill material shall precede the installation of all culvert pipe.
material containing a high percentage of fine grained soils This shall include necessary leveling of the native trench
requires investigation for the specific type of joint to be bottom or the top of the foundation material as well as
used to guard against soil infiltration. Alternatively, if a placement and compaction of required bedding material
joint demonstrates its ability to pass a 2-psi hydrostatic to a uniform grade so that the entire length of pipe will be
test without leakage, it will be considered soil tight. supported on a uniform base. The backfill material shall
NOTE: Joints that do not meet these requirements may be placed and compacted around the pipe in a manner to
be made soil tight by wrapping with a suitable geotextile. meet the requirements specified.
(f) Watertightness—Watertightness may be specified All pipes shall be protected by sufficient cover before
for joints of any category where needed to satisfy other permitting heavy construction equipment to pass over
criteria. The leakage rate shall be measured with the pipe them during construction.
in place or at an approved test facility. The adjoining pipe Soil migration can weaken or destroy the support ca-
ends in any joint shall not vary more than 0.5 inch in di- pabilities of the soils around the pipe. Materials used for
ameter or more than 1.5 inches in circumference for wa- foundation improvements, bedding and structure backfill
tertight joints. These tolerances may be attained by proper must have gradations compatible with adjacent soils to
production controls or by match-marking pipe ends. avoid migration. Where material gradations can not be
properly controlled, adjacent materials must be separated
26.4.3 Assembly of Long-Span Structures with a suitable geotextile.
Long-span structures may require deviation from the 26.5.2 Foundation

normal good practice of loose bolt assembly. Unless held
in shape by cables, struts, or backfill, longitudinal seams The foundation under the pipe and structure backfill
should be tightened when the plates are hung. Care must shall be investigated for its ability to support the loads. A
be taken to align plates to ensure properly fitted seams foundation shall be provided such that the structure back-
prior to bolt tightening. This may require temporary fill does not settle more than the pipe to avoid dragdown
shoring. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions. The vari- loads on the pipe.
ation before backfill shall not exceed 2% of the span or The foundation must provide uniform support for the
rise, whichever is greater, but shall not exceed 5 inches pipe invert. Boulders or rock under the pipe or soft spots
FIGURE 26.5 Typical Cross-Section Showing Materials Around the Pipe
shall be excavated to a suitable depth and filled with back- principal foundation support must be provided in the areas
fill material compacted sufficiently to provide uniformity extending radially outward from the smaller radius areas.
as shown in Figure 26.5.2A. The larger radius inverts exert proportionately lower
Where the natural foundation is judged inadequate by pressures. When corrective measures are necessary, provid-
the Engineer to support the pipe or structure backfill, it ing less support under the invert allows the pipe to maintain
shall be excavated to a suitable depth and replaced by its shape as minor settlements occur. (See Figure 26.5.2C.)
backfill material as shown in Figure 26.5.2B. Under high fills, where pipe settlements will not main-
For shapes such as pipe arches, horizontal ellipses or tain the necessary grade, pipe may be cambered to an
underpasses, where relatively large radius inverts adjoin amount sufficient to prevent excessive sag or back slope.
small radius corners or sides, the foundation must support The amount of camber must be determined by the Engi-
the radial pressures exerted by the smaller radius portions neer based on considerations including the flow line gra-
of the pipe. These pressures, quantified in Division I, Sec- dient, fill height, the compressive characteristics of the
tion 12, “Soil-Corrugated Metal Structure Interaction Sys- foundation materials and the depth to rock or other in-
tems,” may be two to five times the loading pressures on compressible materials. A camber detail is provided in
top of the pipe, depending on the specific pipe shape. The Figure 26.5.2D.
FIGURE 26.5.2 A-D: Foundation Improvement Methods When Required
26.5.3 Bedding with a minimum thickness of twice the corrugation depth

shall be provided.
The pipe bedding is a relatively thin layer of loosely Pipe arch, horizontal ellipse and underpass shapes with
placed material to cushion the pipe invert and allow the spans exceeding 12 feet should be placed on a shaped bed.
corrugation to rest or seat into it, thus supporting the cor- The shaped area, centered beneath the pipe should have a
rugation. When, in the opinion of the Engineer, the natural minimum width of 1⁄ 2 the span for pipe arch and under-
soil does not provide a suitable bed, a bedding blanket pass shapes and 1⁄ 3 the span for horizontal ellipse shapes.
Preshaping may consist of a simple “V” graded into the Where single or multiple structures are installed at a
soil as shown in Figure 26.5.3. skew to the embankment (i.e. cross the embankment at
other than 90°), proper support for the pipe must be pro-
vided. This may be done with a rigid, reinforced concrete
head wall or by warping the embankment fill to provide the
necessary balanced side support. Figure 26.5.4 provides
guidelines for warping the embankment.
26.5.4.2 Arches
Arches may require special shape control considera-

tions during the placement and compaction of structure
backfill. Pin connections at the footing restrict uniform
shape change. Arches may peak excessively and experi-
FIGURE 26.5.3 “V” Shaped Bed (Foundation) ence curvature flattening in their upper quadrants. Using
for Larger Pipe Arch, Horizontal Ellipse lighter compaction equipment, more easily compacted
and Underpass Structures structure backfill, or top loading (placing a small load of
structure backfill on the crown) will aid installation.
26.5.4 Structural Backfill
26.5.4.3 Long-Span Structures
26.5.4.1 General
Backfill requirements for long-span structural-plate
Correct placement of materials of the proper quality structures are similar to those for smaller structures. Their
and moisture content is essential. Sufficient field testing size and flexibility require special control of backfill and
must be used to verify procedures, but is no substitute for continuous monitoring of structure shape. Prior to begin-
inspection that ensures that the proper procedures are fol- ning construction, the manufacturer shall provide a pre-
lowed. This is of extreme importance because the struc- construction conference to advise the Contractor(s) and
tural integrity of the corrugated metal structure is vitally Engineer of the more critical functions to be performed.
affected by the quality of construction in the field. Equipment and construction procedures used to back-
Backfill material shall meet the requirements of Arti- fill long-span structural plate structures shall be such that
cle 26.3.8 and shall be placed as shown in Figure 26.5.1D excessive structure distortion will not occur. Structure
in layers not exceeding 8-inch loose lift thickness to a shape shall be checked regularly during backfilling to ver-
minimum 90% standard density per AASHTO T 99. ify acceptability of the construction methods used. Mag-
Equipment used to compact backfill within 3 feet from nitude of allowable shape changes will be specified by the
sides of pipe or from edge of footing for arches and box manufacturer (fabricator of long-span structures). The
culverts shall be approved by the Engineer prior to use. manufacturer shall provide a qualified shape control in-
Except as provided below for long-span structures, the spector to aid the Engineer during the placement of all
equipment used for compacting backfill beyond these lim- structural backfill to the minimum cover level over the
its may be the same as used for compacting embankment. structure (as required by the design to carry full highway
The backfill shall be placed and compacted with care loads). The Inspector shall advise the Engineer on the ac-
under the haunches of the pipe and shall be brought up ceptability of all backfill material and construction meth-
evenly on both sides of the pipe by working backfill op- ods and the proper monitoring of the shape. Structure
erations from side to side. The side to side backfill differ- backfill material shall be placed in horizontal uniform
ential shall not exceed 24 inches or 1⁄ 3 of the size of the layers not exceeding an 8-inch loose lift thickness and
structure, whichever is less. Backfill shall continue to not shall be brought up uniformly on both sides of the struc-
less than 1 foot above the top for the full length of the ture. Each layer shall be compacted to a density not less
pipe. Fill above this elevation may be material for em- than 90% per AASHTO T 180. The structure backfill
bankment fill or other materials as specified to support the shall be constructed to the minimum lines and grades
pavement. The width of trench shall be kept to the mini- shown on the plans, keeping it at or below the level of
mum width required for placing pipe, placing adequate adjacent soil or embankment. Permissible exceptions to
bedding and sidefill, and safe working conditions. Pond- required structure backfill density are: the area under the
ing or jetting of backfill will not be permitted except upon invert, the 12-inch to 18-inch width of soil immediately
written permission by the Engineer. adjacent to the large radius side plates of high-profile
FIGURE 26.5.4 End Treatment of Skewed Flexible Culvert
arches and inverted pear shapes, and the lower portion of For long-span structures which require temporary
the first horizontal lift of overfill carried ahead of and bracing or cabling to hold the structure in shape, the sup-
under the small, tracked vehicle initially crossing the ports shall not be removed until backfill is placed to an ad-
structure. equate elevation to provide the necessary support. In no
case shall internal braces be left in place when backfilling
26.5.4.4 Box Culverts reaches the top quadrant of the pipe or the top radius arc
portion of a long span.
Metal box culverts are not long-span structures in that
they are relatively stiff, semi-rigid frames. They do not re- 26.5.5 Arch Substructures and Headwalls
quire a preconstruction conference or shape control con-
siderations beyond those of a standard metal culvert. Substructures and headwalls shall be designed in ac-
Structural backfill material shall be placed in uniform cordance with the requirements of Division I.
horizontal layers not exceeding an 8-inch maximum loose The ends of the corrugated metal arch shall rest in a
lift thickness and compacted to a density not less than keyway formed into continuous concrete footings, or shall
90% per AASHTO T 180. The structural backfill shall be rest on a metal bearing surface, usually an angle or chan-
constructed to the minimum lines and grades shown on nel shape, which is securely anchored to or embedded in
the plans, keeping it at or below the level of the adjacent the concrete footing.
soil or embankment. The metal bearing when specified may be a hot-rolled
or cold-formed galvanized steel angle or channel, or an
26.5.4.5 Bracing extruded aluminum angle or channel. These shapes shall
be not less than 3⁄ 16 inch in thickness and shall be se-
When required, temporary bracing shall be installed curely anchored to the footing at a maximum spacing of
and shall remain in place as long as necessary to protect 24 inches. When the metal bearing member is not com-
workmen and to maintain structure shape during erection. pletely embedded in a groove in the footing, one vertical
leg shall be punched to allow the end of the corrugated cover installations should be inspected prior to and im-
plates to be bolted to this leg of the bearing member. mediately after vehicular load is applied.
Where an invert slab is provided which is not integral
with the arch footing, the invert slab shall be continuously
26.6 CONSTRUCTION PRECAUTIONS
reinforced.
These structures can carry legal highway loads once
26.5.6 Inspection Requirements for CMP
the backfill is placed and compacted to the minimum
cover level over the pipe as defined by Division I, Section
All pipe shall undergo inspection during and after in-
12, “Soil-Corrugated Metal Structure Interaction.” For
stallation to ensure proper performance. Inspections at the
heavier construction loads, additional cover may be re-
appropriate times during installation will detect and allow
quired. Table 26.6 provides guidance for smaller struc-
early correction of line and grade, jointing and shape
tures. Consult the Engineer or the manufacturer for guid-
change problems. CMP installation can be properly mon-
ance on structures or axle loads not listed.
itored and evaluated by visual inspection. The timing and
The structure must be protected from hydraulic forces
number of inspections required will vary with the signifi-
during construction, prior to the completion of permanent
cance of the installation.
erosion control and end protection. Hydraulic forces may
Pipes shall be inspected by entering the pipe, or by in-
cause erosion, shape distortion, flotation or washout.
spection from both the inlet and outlet (or other access
Backfill and other earth loads must be kept balanced.
points) by visual means or through the use of video
(See Article 26.5.4.)
equipment.
CMP shall be inspected after placement in the trench,
and as required during backfilling to ensure that final in- 26.7 MEASUREMENT
stallation conditions allow the pipe to perform as de-
signed. Construction inspection during early stages of the Corrugated metal and structural plate pipe, pipe arches,
project will allow the contractor to evaluate and, if nec- arches and box culverts shall be measured in lineal feet in-
essary, modify construction and quality control practices. stalled in place, completed and accepted. The number of
This is particularly important in deep installations. lineal feet shall be the average of the top and bottom cen-
The inspector will verify that bedding, backfill and ter line lengths for pipe, the bottom center line length for
compaction requirements are followed during installa- pipe arches and box culverts, and the average of springing
tion. The pipe shall be checked for alignment, joint sep- line lengths for arches.
aration, cracking at bolt holes, localized distortions,
bulging, flattening, or racking. Minimum or near-minimum
26.8 PAYMENT
Separate pay items or provision for including excava-

TABLE 26.6 Minimum Cover for tion, backfill, and concrete for arches must be provided for
Construction Loads in the contract.
The lengths as measured above will be paid for at the
contract prices per lineal foot bid for corrugated metal and
structural plate pipe, pipe-arch, arch or box culvert of the
sizes specified. Such price and payment shall constitute
full compensation for furnishing, handling, erecting, and
installing the pipe, pipe-arches, arches or box culverts,
and for all materials, labor, equipment, tools and inciden-
tals necessary to complete this item. Such price and pay-
ment shall also include excavation, bedding material,
backfill, concrete headwalls, endwalls and foundations for
pipe, pipe-arches and box culverts. Separate payment will
be made for excavation, backfill, and concrete or masonry
headwalls and foundations for arches.
Section 27
CONCRETE CULVERTS
27.1 GENERAL
This work shall consist of fabricating, furnishing, and

installing buried precast concrete culverts conforming to
these Specifications, the special provisions and the details
shown on the plans. Precast reinforced concrete pipe shall
be circular, arch or elliptical, as specified. Precast rein-
forced concrete box sections shall be of the dimensions
specified or shown on the plans.
When complete details are not provided in the plans, or

when required or permitted by provisions in the contract,
the Contractor shall prepare and submit to the Engineer
27.3.2 Joint Sealants
working drawings of the structure or installation system
proposed for use. Fabrication or installation of the struc-
27.3.2.1 Cement Mortar
ture shall not begin until the Engineer has approved the
drawings. The working drawings shall show complete de-
Mortar shall be composed of one part Portland cement
tails and substantiating calculations of the structure, the
and two parts sand by volume. Sand shall be well graded
materials, equipment and installation methods the Con-
and of such size that all will pass a No. 8 sieve. The ma-
tractor proposes to use.
terials shall be mixed to a consistency suitable for the pur-
Working drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in
pose intended and used within 30 minutes after the mix-
advance of the start of the affected work to allow time for
ing water has been added. Admixtures, if any, shall be
review by the Engineer and correction of the submittal by
approved by the Engineer prior to use.
the Contractor without delaying the work. Approval by
the Engineer shall not relieve the Contractor of any re-
27.3.2.2 Flexible Watertight Gaskets
sponsibility under the contract for the successful comple-
tion of this work.
Flexible watertight gasketed joints shall conform to the
requirements of AASHTO M 198 and shall be flexible and
27.3 MATERIALS capable of withstanding expansion, contraction, and set-
tlement of the pipeline.
27.3.1 Reinforced Concrete Culverts All rubber gaskets shall be stored in as cool a place as
practicable, preferably at 70°F or less.
The materials for reinforced concrete culverts shall Rubber gaskets, of the type requiring lubrication, shall
meet the requirements of the following specifications for be lubricated with the lubricant recommended and sup-
the classes and sizes specified above. plied by the manufacturer of the pipe.
669
27.3.2.3 Other Joint Sealant Materials cracks 0.01 inch or less in width are considered acceptable
without repair. Cracks determined to be detrimental shall be
Other joint sealant materials shall be submitted for test- sealed by a method approved by the Engineer.
ing in advance of their use and shall not be used prior to
receiving approval by the Engineer. 27.4.2 Joints
27.3.3 Bedding, Haunch, Lower Side and Backfill Joints for reinforced concrete pipe and precast rein-
or Overfill Material forced concrete box sections shall comply with the details
shown on the plans, the approved working drawings, and
27.3.3.1 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular, the requirements of the special provisions. Each joint shall
Arch, and Elliptical Pipe be sealed to prevent infiltration of soil fines or water as re-
quired by the contract documents. Joint sealant materials
Bedding, haunch, lower side and overfill material shall shall comply with the provisions of Article 27.3.2.
conform to Figures 27.5A, 27.5B, 27.5C, and 27.5D The Contractor shall furnish to the Engineer a certifi-
which define soil areas and critical dimensions, and Ta- cate of compliance that the material being furnished con-
bles 27.5A and 27.5B, which list generic soil types and forms to the joint property requirements. Field tests may
minimum compaction requirements, and minimum bed- be required by the Engineer whenever there is a question
ding thicknesses for the four Standard Installation Types. regarding compliance with contract requirements.
The AASHTO Soil Classifications and the USCS Soil
Classifications equivalent to the generic soil types in the
27.5 INSTALLATION
Standard Installations are presented in Table 27.5C.
27.5.1 General
27.3.3.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete
Box Sections
Trenches shall be excavated to the dimensions and
grade specified in the plans or ordered by the Engineer.
For precast reinforced concrete box sections, bedding
The Contractor shall make such provisions as required to
and backfill material shall conform to Figure 27.5E with
insure adequate drainage of the trench to protect the bed-
the following exceptions. Bedding material may be sand
ding during construction operations. Proper preparation of
or select sandy soil all of which passes a U.S. Standard
3
foundation, placement of foundation material where re-
⁄ 8-inch sieve and not more than 10% of which passes a
quired, and placement of bedding material shall precede
U.S. Standard No. 200 sieve. Backfill may be select ma-
the installation of the culvert. This shall include necessary
terial and shall be free of organic material, stones larger
leveling of the native trench bottom or the top of founda-
than 3 inches in the greatest dimension, frozen lumps, or
tion materials as well as placement and grading of re-
moisture in excess of that permitting the specified com-
quired bedding material to a uniform grade so that the en-
paction.
tire length of pipe will be supported on a uniform slightly
yield bedding. The backfill material shall be placed
27.4 ASSEMBLY around the culvert in a manner to meet the requirements
specified.
27.4.1 General
27.5.2 Bedding
Precast concrete units or elements shall be assembled
in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. All 27.5.2.1 General
units or elements shall be handled with reasonable care
and shall not be rolled or dragged over gravel or rock. If rock strata or boulders are encountered under the
Care shall be taken to prevent the units from striking rock culvert within the limits of the required bedding, the rock
or other hard objects during placement. or boulders shall be removed and replaced with bedding
Cracks in an installed precast concrete culvert that ex- material. Special care may be necessary with rock or other
ceed 0.01-inch width will be appraised by the Engineer con- unyielding foundations to cushion pipe from shock when
sidering the structural integrity, environmental conditions, blasting can be anticipated in the area. Where, in the opin-
and the design service life of the culvert. Generally in non- ion of the Engineer, the natural foundation soil is such as
corrosive environments, cracks 0.10 inch or less in width are to require stabilization, such material shall be replaced by
considered acceptable; in corrosive environments, those a layer of bedding material. Where an unsuitable material
27.5.2.1
DIVISION II—CONSTRUCTION
FIGURE 27.5A Standard Embankment Installations

671
672
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
FIGURE 27.5B Standard Trench Installations

27.5.2.1
FIGURE 27.5C Trench Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes
(peat, muck, etc.) is encountered at or below invert eleva- 27.5.2.3 Precast Reinforced Concrete
tion during excavation, the necessary subsurface explo- Box Sections
ration and analysis shall be made and corrective treatment
shall be as directed by the Engineer. A bedding shall be provided for the type of installation
specified conforming to Figure 27.5E unless in the opin-
27.5.2.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular ion of the Engineer, the natural soil provides a suitable
Arch and Elliptical Pipe bedding.
A bedding shall be provided for the type of installation 27.5.3 Placing Culvert Sections
specified conforming to Figures 27.5A, 27.5B, 27.5C, and
27.5D which define soil areas and critical dimensions, and Unless otherwise authorized by the Engineer, the lay-
Tables 27.5A and 27.5B, which list generic soil types and ing of culvert sections on the prepared foundation shall be
minimum compaction requirements, and minimum bed- started at the outlet and with the spigot or tongue end
ding thicknesses for the four Standard Installation Types. pointing downstream and shall proceed toward the inlet
FIGURE 27.5D Embankment Beddings, Miscellaneous Shapes
end with the abutting sections properly matched, true to Multiple installations of reinforced concrete culverts
the established lines and grades. Where pipe with bells is shall be laid with the center lines of individual barrels par-
installed, bell holes shall be excavated in the bedding to allel at the spacing shown on the plans. Pipe and box
such dimensions that the entire length of the barrel of the sections used in parallel installations require positive
pipe will be supported by the bedding when properly in- lateral bearing between the sides of adjacent pipe or box
stalled. Proper facilities shall be provided for hoisting and sections. Compacted earth fill, granular backfill, or grout-
lowering the sections of culvert into the trench without ing between the units are considered means of providing
disturbing the prepared foundation and the sides of the positive bearing.
trench. The ends of the section shall be carefully cleaned
before the section is jointed. The section shall be fitted and 27.5.4 Haunch, Lower Side and Backfill or Overfill
matched so that when laid in the bed it shall form a
smooth, uniform conduit. When elliptical pipe with circu- 27.5.4.1 Precast Reinforced Concrete Circular
lar reinforcing or circular pipe with elliptical reinforcing Arch and Elliptical Pipe
is used, the pipe shall be laid in the trench in such position
27.5.4.1.1 Haunch Material
that the markings “Top” or “Bottom,” shall not be more
than 5° from the vertical plane through the longitudinal Haunch material shall be installed to the limits shown
axis of the pipe. on Figure 27.5A, 27.5B, 27.5C, and 27.5D.
TABLE 27.5A Standard Embankment Installation Soils and Minimum

Compaction Requirements
Haunch and Outer

Installation Type Bedding Thickness Bedding Lower Side
Type 1 Bc /2499 minimum, 95% SW 90% SW, 95% ML
not less than or
399. If rock 100% CL
foundation, use
Bc /1299 minimum,
not less than 699
not less than or or
(See Note 3.) 399. If rock 95% ML 95% CL
foundation, use
Bc /1299 minimum,
not less than 699
Type 3 Bc /2499 minimum, 85% SW, 90% ML, or 85% SW, 90% ML
not less than 95% CL or
(See Note 3.) 399. If rock 95% CL
foundation, use
Bc /1299 minimum,
not less than 699
Type 4 No bedding required, No compaction No compaction

except if rock foundation, required, except if CL, required, except if
use Bc /1299 minimum, use 85% CL CL, use 85% CL
not less than 699
NOTES:
.11. Compaction and soil symbols—i.e. “95% SW” refers to SW soil material with a minimum standard proc-
tor compaction of 95%. See Table 27.5C for equivalent modified proctor values.
.12. Soil in the outer bedding, haunch, and lower side zones, except within Bc /3 from the pipe springline, shall
be compacted to at least the same compaction as the majority of soil in the overfill zone.
.13. Only Type 2 and 3 installations are available for horizontal elliptical, vertical elliptical and arch pipe.
.14. SUBTRENCHES
4.1 A subtrench is defined as a trench with its top below finished grade by more than 0.1H or, for roadways, its
top is at an elevation lower than 19 below the bottom of the pavement base material.
4.2 The minimum width of a subtrench shall be 1.33 Bc, or wider if required for adequate space to attain the
specified compaction in the haunch and bedding zones.
4.3 For subtrenches with walls of natural soil, any portion of the lower side zone in the subtrench wall should
be at least as firm as an equivalent soil placed to the compaction requirements specified for the lower side
zone and as firm as the majority of soil in the overfill zone, or shall be removed and replaced with soil com-
pacted to the specified level.
TABLE 27.5B Standard Trench Installation Soils and Minimum Compaction Requirements
Haunch and Outer
Installation Type Bedding Thickness Bedding Lower Side
not less than 100% CL, or
399. If rock natural soils of
foundation, use equal firmness
Bc /1299 minimum,
not less than 699
not less than or 95% CL, or
(see Note 3) 399. If rock 95% ML natural soils of
Bc /1299 minimum,
not less than 699
Type 3 Bc /2499 minimum, 85% SW, 90% ML, or 85% SW, 90% ML
not less than 95% CL 95% CL, or
(see Note 3) 399. If rock natural soils of
Bc /1299 minimum,
not less than 699
Type 4 No bedding required, No compaction 85% SW, 90% ML
except if rock foundation, required, except if CL, 95% CL, or
use Bc /1299 minimum, use 85% CL natural soils of
not less than 699 equal firmness
NOTES:
1. Compaction and soil symbols—i.e. “95% SW” refers to SW soil material with a minimum standard proctor
compaction of 95%. See Table 27.5C for equivalent modified proctor values.
2. The trench top elevation shall be no lower than .0.1H below finished grade or, for roadways, its top shall be
no lower than an elevation of 19 below the bottom of the pavement base material.
4. Soil in bedding and haunch zones shall be compacted to at least the same compaction as specified for the ma-
jority of soil in the backfill zone.
5. The trench width shall be wider than shown if required for adequate space to attain the specified compaction
in the haunch and bedding zones.
6. For trench walls that are within 10 degrees of vertical, the compaction or firmness of the soil in the trench
walls and lower side zone need not be considered.
7. For trench walls with greater than 10-degree slopes that consist of embankment, the lower side shall be com-
pacted to at least the same compaction as specified for the soil in the backfill zone.
TABLE 27.5C Equivalent USCS and AASHTO Soil Classifications for SIDD Soil Designations
Representative Soil Types Percent Compaction
Standard Modified
SIDD Soil USCS AASHTO Proctor Proctor
Gravelly SW, SP A1, A3 100 95
Sand GW, GP 95 90
(SW) 90 85
85 80
80 75
61 59
Sandy GM, SM, ML A2, A4 100 95
Silt Also GC, SC 95 90
(ML) with less than 20% 90 85
passing No. 200 sieve 85 80
80 75
49 46
Silty GL, MH A5, A6 100 90
Clay GC, SC 95 85
(CL) 90 80
85 75
80 70
45 40
CH A7 100 90
95 85
90 80
45 40
27.5.4.1.2 Lower Side Material 27.5.4.3 Placing of Haunch, Lower Side and
Backfill or Overfill
Lower side material shall be installed to the limits
shown on Figures 27.5A, 27.5B, 27.5C, and 27.5D.
Generally, compaction of fill material to the required
density is dependent on the thickness of the layer of fill
27.5.4.1.3 Overfill being compacted, soil type, soil moisture content, type of
compaction equipment, and amount of compactive force
Overfill material shall be installed to the limits shown and the length of time the force is applied. Fill material
on Figures 27.5A, 27.5B, 27.5C, and 27.5D. shall be placed in layers with a maximum thickness of
8 inches and compacted to obtain the required density. The
fill material shall be placed and compacted with care under
27.5.4.2 Precast Reinforced Concrete the haunches of the culvert and shall be brought up evenly
Box Sections and simultaneously on both sides of the culvert. For the
lower haunch areas of Type 1, 2, and 3 Standard Installa-
27.5.4.2.1 Backfill tions, soils requiring 90% or greater Standard Proctor den-
sities shall be placed in layers with a maximum thickness
Backfill material shall be installed to the limits shown of 4 inches and compacted to obtain the required density.
on Figure 27.5E for the embankment or trench condition. The width of trench shall be kept to the minimum required
Trenches shall have vertical walls and no over-excavating for installation of the culvert. Ponding or jetting will be
or sloping sidewalls shall be permitted. only by the permission of the Engineer.
FIGURE 27.5E
27.5.4.4 Cover Over Culvert During Construction 27.7 PAYMENT
Culverts shall be protected by a minimum of 3 feet of The length determined as herein given shall be paid for
cover to prevent damage before permitting heavy con- at the contract unit prices per linear foot bid for culverts
struction equipment to pass over them during construction. of the several sizes and shapes, as the case may be, which
prices and payments shall constitute full compensation for
27.6 MEASUREMENT furnishing, handling, and installing the culvert and for all
materials, labor, equipment, tools, and incidentals neces-
Culverts shall be measured in linear feet installed in sary to complete this item. Such price and payment shall
place, completed, and accepted. The number of feet shall also include excavation, bedding material, backfill, rein-
be the average of the top and bottom center line lengths forced concrete headwalls and endwalls, and any required
for pipe and box sections. foundations.
Section 28
WEARING SURFACES
28.1 DESCRIPTION If not otherwise shown on the plans, the minimum

thickness of latex modified concrete wearing surfaces
This work shall consist of placing a wearing surface of shall be 1 1 ⁄ 4 inches.
durable and impervious material on the roadway surface
of bridge decks. It also includes the preparation of the sur- 28.2.2 Materials
faces of either existing or new decks to receive such an
overlay of surfacing material. 28.2.2.1 Portland Cement
The type and thickness of the wearing surface shall be
as designated on the plans. The materials and installation Portland cement shall conform to the requirement of
requirements for wearing surfaces of types other than Article 8.3.1 of Section 8, “Concrete Structures,” except
latex modified concrete shall be as specified in the special that only Types I or II shall be used.
provisions. Latex modified concrete wearing surfaces
shall be furnished and installed in accordance with these 28.2.2.2 Aggregate
Specifications.
Aggregate shall conform to the requirements of
28.2 LATEX MODIFIED CONCRETE TYPE AASHTO M 6 for fine aggregate and to AASHTO M 80
WEARING SURFACE for coarse aggregate. Coarse aggregate shall be graded
1 ⁄ 2 inch to No. 4 per AASHTO M 43.
28.2.1 General
28.2.2.3 Water
All equipment used to prepare the surface and to pro-
portion, mix, place and finish the latex concrete shall be
Water for mixing concrete shall conform to the
subject to approval by the Engineer prior to use. This ap-
requirements of Article 8.3.2.
proval will be contingent on satisfactory performance and
will be rescinded in the event such performance is not
being achieved. Equipment shall be on hand sufficiently 28.2.2.4 Latex Emulsion
ahead of the start of construction operations to be exam-
ined and approved. Any equipment leaking oil or any Formulated latex emulsion admixture shall be a non-
other containment onto the deck shall be immediately hazardous, film forming, polymeric emulsion in water to
removed from the job site until repaired. which all stabilizers have been added at the point of
A technician who is well experienced in the propor- manufacture and shall be homogeneous and uniform in
tioning, mixing, placing and finishing of latex modified composition.
concrete shall be employed by the Contractor and shall be Physical Properties—The latex modifier shall conform
present and in technical control of the work whenever to the following requirements:
these operations are underway. The qualifications of this
technician which includes a list of projects on which the Polymer Type Stabilizers Styrene Butadiene
technician was employed and the technician’s level of re- (a) Latex .............................. Nonionic Surfactants
sponsibility on each shall be submitted to and approved (b) Portland Cement
by the Engineer prior to the start of these operations. Composition ............... Polydimethyl Siloxane
Approval by the Engineer of equipment or technicians Percent Solids ................................................. 46.0–49.0
shall not relieve the Contractor of any responsibility under Weight per Gallon (lbs at 25°C) ..................................8.4
the contract for the successful completion of the work. Color .......................................................................White
679
A Certificate of Compliance signed by the manufac- walls, etc., up to a height of 1 inch above the top elevation
turer of the latex emulsion certifying that the material con- of the overlay shall be blast cleaned to a bright, clean ap-
forms to the above specifications shall be furnished for pearance which is free from laitance, curing compound,
each shipment used in the work. dust, dirt, oil, grease, bituminous material, paint, and all
Latex admixture to be stored shall be kept in suitable foreign matter. The blast cleaning of an area of the deck
enclosures which will protect it from freezing and from shall normally be performed within the 24-hour period
prolonged exposure to temperatures in excess of 85°F. preceding placement of the overlay on the area. The blast
Containers of latex admixture may be stored at the bridge cleaning may be performed by either wet sandblasting,
site for a period not to exceed 10 days. Such stored con- high pressure water blasting, blasting grits, shrouded dry
tainers shall be covered completely with suitable insulat- sandblasting with dust collectors, or other method ap-
ing blanket material to avoid excessive temperatures. proved by the Engineer. Water blasting equipment shall
operate with a minimum pressure of 3,500 psi. The
28.2.2.5 Latex Modified Concrete method used shall be performed so as to conform to ap-
plicable air and water pollution regulations and to applic-
The latex modified concrete for use on this project able safety and health regulations. All debris, including
shall be a workable mixture and meet the following dirty water, resulting from the blast cleaning operations
requirements. shall be immediately and thoroughly cleaned from the
blast-cleaned surfaces and from other areas where debris
may have accumulated. The blast cleaned areas shall be
protected, as necessary, against contamination prior to
placement of the overlay. Contaminated areas and areas
exposed more than 36 hours after cleaning shall be blast
cleaned again as directed by the Engineer at the Contrac-
tor’s expense.
Just prior to placement of the overlay, all dust and other
debris shall be removed by flushing with water or blow-
ing with compressed air. The prepared surface shall then
be soaked with clean water for not less than 1 hour prior
to the placement of the latex overlay. Before the overlay
NOTES: is applied, all free water shall be blown out and off, and
this procedure shall continue until the surface appears dry
1. Following sampling of the discharged, normally or barely damp.
mixed material, the commencement of the slump The air supply system for blast cleaning and blowing
test shall be delayed from 4 to 5 minutes. shall be equipped with an oil trap in the air line, and pro-
2. Water may be added to obtain slump within the pre- visions shall be made to prevent oil or grease contamina-
scribed limits. tion of the surface by any equipment prior to placement of
3. The dry weight ratios are approximate and should the overlay.
produce good workability, but due to gradation
changes may be adjusted within limits by the Engi- 28.2.3.2 Existing Decks
neer. The parts by weight of sand may be increased
by as much as 0.2 if the coarse aggregate is reduced The surface of existing decks that have become conta-
by an equivalent volume. minated by traffic usage or by deicing salts shall be scar-
ified to the depth shown on the plans or specified. If no
28.2.3 Surface Preparation depth is shown or specified, a minimum of 1⁄ 4 inch of ma-
terial shall be removed by scarification.
28.2.3.1 New Decks Prior to beginning scarification and until operations are
completed, all deck drains, expansion joints and other
The surfaces of new decks upon which a wearing sur- openings where damage could result, as determined by the
face overlay is to be placed shall be finished to a rough Engineer, shall be temporarily covered or plugged to pre-
texture by coarse brooming or other approved methods. vent entry of debris.
After curing of the deck concrete is complete and be- Scarifying shall be done with power-operated mechan-
fore placing the overlay, the entire area of the deck surface ical scarifiers, or other approved devices, capable of uni-
and the vertical faces of curbs, concrete parapets, barrier formly removing the existing surface to the depths re-
quired without damaging the underlying concrete. Ma- the Engineer deems necessary to ensure proper propor-
chine scarifiers shall not be operated so as to damage hard- tioning of the ingredients. Continuous type mixers which
ware such as drain grates and expansion joint armor. In entrap unacceptable volumes of air in the mixture shall
areas where machine scarifying cannot reach and in areas not be used.
of spalling and where steel reinforcement is exposed, The mixer shall be kept clean and free of partially dried
scarifying and the removal of deteriorated or unsound or hardened materials at all times. It shall consistently pro-
concrete shall be accomplished with hand tools. Pneu- duce a uniform, thoroughly blended mixture within the
matic hammers heavier than nominal 45 pounds shall not specified air content and slump limits. Malfunctioning
be used. mixers shall be immediately repaired or replaced with ac-
No scarifying or chipping will be allowed within 6 feet ceptable units.
of a new overlay until 48 hours after its placement. Aggregate stockpiles being used should be of uniform
In areas where deteriorated or unsound concrete is en- moisture content.
countered, as determined by the Engineer, the concrete Mixing capability shall be such that finishing opera-
shall be removed to a depth of 3 ⁄ 4-inch below the top mat tions can proceed at a steady pace with final finishing
of reinforcing steel. A minimum of 3 ⁄ 4-inch clearance shall completed before the formation of the plastic surface film.
be required around the reinforcing steel except where
lower bar mats make this impractical. Care shall be exer- 28.2.5 Installation
cised to prevent damaging the exposed reinforcing steel.
All reinforcing steel shall be blast-cleaned. The repair 28.2.5.1 Weather Restrictions
areas are to be filled during the overlay operation.
After scarification and removal of unsound concrete The placement of latex modified concrete shall not be
has been completed, the deck surface shall be blast started when the temperature is, or is expected to fall
cleaned and prepared as specified for new decks. below 45°F or rise above 80°F, or when high winds, rain
or low humidity conditions are expected prior to final set
28.2.4 Proportioning and Mixing of the concrete. If any of these conditions occur during
placement, the placement shall be terminated and a
The Contractor shall submit to the Engineer for ap- straight construction joint formed. Placement at night may
proval, 14 calendar days prior to date of placement, the be necessary when daytime conditions are not favorable.
proposed mix design in writing and samples of all mix If placement is performed at night, adequate lighting shall
materials in sufficient quantity to produce a minimum of be provided by the Contractor.
3 cubic feet of concrete for laboratory mix design testing.
Proportioning and mixing equipment shall be of a self- 28.2.5.2 Equipment
contained, mobile, continuous-mixing, volumetric pro-
portioning type mixer. Placing and finishing equipment shall include hand
Continuous-type mixers shall be equipped so that the tools for placement and brushing-in freshly mixed latex
proportions of the cement, natural sand, and coarse ag- modified concrete and for distributing it to approximately
gregate can be fixed by calibration of the mixer and can- the correct level for striking-off with the screed. Hand-op-
not be changed without destroying a seal or other indicat- erated vibrators, screeds and floats shall be used for con-
ing device affixed to the mixer. In addition to being solidating and finishing small areas.
equipped with a flow meter for calibrating the water sup- An approved finishing machine complying with the
ply portion of the mixer, the mixer shall also be equipped following requirements shall be used for finishing all large
with a cumulative-type water meter which can be read to areas of work:
the nearest 0.1 gallon. The water meters shall be readily
accessible, accurate to within 1%, and easy to read. Both The finishing machine shall be self-propelled and ca-
water meters shall be subject to checking by the Engineer pable of forward and reverse movement under
each time the mixer is calibrated. Approved methods for positive control. The length of the screed shall be
adding the admixture shall be provided. The admixtures sufficient to extend at least 6 inches beyond the
shall be added so as to be kept separated as far as is prac- edge of both ends of the section being placed. The
ticable. The continuous type mixer shall be calibrated to finishing machine shall also be capable of consoli-
the satisfaction of the Engineer prior to starting the work. dating the concrete by vibration and of raising all
Yield checks normally will be made for each screeds to clear the concrete for traveling in reverse.
50 cubic yards of mix. Recalibration will be necessary The machine shall be either a rotating roller type or
when indicated by the yield checks, and at any other times an oscillating screed type.
Rotating roller-type machines shall have one or more the rate of progress is limited so that the material brushed
rollers, augers, and 1,500 to 2,500 vpm vibratory on does not become dry before it is covered with the full
pans. depth of latex modified concrete.
Oscillating screed-type machines shall have vibra- The latex modified concrete shall be placed on the pre-
tors on the screeds whose frequency of vibration pared and grout-coated surface immediately after being
can be varied between 3,000 and 15,000 vpm. The mixed. The mixture shall be placed and struck off ap-
bottom face of the screeds shall be not less than 4 proximately 1 ⁄ 4 inch above final grade then consolidated
inches wide and shall be metal. by vibration and finished to final grade with the approved
finishing machine. Spud vibrators will be required in deep
Rails will be required for the finishing machine to travel pockets, along edges, and adjacent to joint bulkheads.
on. Rails shall be sufficiently rigid to support the weight of Supplemental vibration shall be provided along the meet
the machine without appreciable deflection and shall be lines where adjacent pours come together and along curb
placed outside of the overlay area. Rail anchorages shall lines. Hand finishing with a float may be required along
provide horizontal and vertical stability and shall not be the edge of the pour or on small areas of repair.
ballistically shot into concrete that will not be overlaid. Screed rails and construction bulkheads shall be sepa-
A suitable portable lightweight or wheeled work bridge rated from the newly placed material by passing a pointing
shall be furnished for use behind the finishing operation. trowel along their inside face. Expansion dams shall not be
separated from the overlay. Care shall be exercised to en-
28.2.5.3 Placing and Finishing sure that this trowel cut is made for the entire depth and
length of rails after the mixture has stiffened sufficiently.
28.2.5.3.1 Construction Joints
28.2.5.3.3 Finishing
Planned construction joints shall be formed by bulk-
heads set to grade. Before placing concrete against previ- The finishing equipment shall be operated so as to pro-
ously placed overlay material, the construction joint shall duce a uniform, smooth, and even-textured surface. The
final surface shall not vary more than 1 ⁄ 8 inch from a
be sawed to a straight vertical edge. Sawing of joints may
10-foot straightedge placed longitudinally thereon. Before
be omitted if the bulkhead produces a straight, smooth,
the plastic film forms, the surface shall be textured by tin-
vertical surface. The face of the joint shall be sand or
ing in accordance with the requirements of Article 8.10.2.3.
water blasted to remove loose material.
Longitudinal construction joints will be permitted only
at the center line of roadway or at lane lines unless other- 28.2.6 Curing
wise shown on the plans or permitted by the Engineer.
In case of delay in the placement operation exceeding 1 The surface shall be promptly covered with a single
hour in duration, an approved construction joint shall be layer of clean, wet burlap as soon as the surface will sup-
formed by removing all material not up to finish grade and port it without deformation.
sawing the edge in a straight line. During minor delays of Within 1 hour of covering with wet burlap, the burlap
1 hour or less, the end of the placement may be protected shall be rewet if necessary and a layer of 4-mil polyethyl-
from drying with several layers of clean, wet burlap. ene film, or wet burlap-polyethylene sheets, shall be
placed on the wet burlap, and the surface cured for 24
hours. The curing material shall then be removed for an
28.2.5.3.2 Placing
additional 72 hours of air cure. If the temperature falls
The finishing machine shall be test run over the entire below 45° during curing, the duration of the wet cure shall
area to be overlayed each day before placement is started be extended as directed by the Engineer.
to ensure that the required overlay thickness will be The overlay shall be protected from freezing during the
achieved. cure period.
Immediately ahead of placing the overlay mixture, a Traffic will not be permitted on the overlay while it is
thin coating of the polymer modified concrete mixture to curing.
be used for the overlay shall be thoroughly brushed and
scrubbed onto the surface as a grout-bond coat for the 28.2.7 Acceptance Testing
overlay. Coarser particles of the mixture which cannot be
scrubbed into contact with the surface shall be removed After curing is completed, the overlay will be visually
and disposed of in a manner approved by the Engineer. inspected for cracking or other damage, and inspected for
Care shall be taken to insure that all vertical as well as hor- delaminations and bond failures by the use of a chain drag
izontal surfaces receive a thorough, even coating and that or other suitable device.
Surface cracks not exceeding 3 ⁄ 8 inch in depth shall be Wearing surfaces will be paid for at the contract price
sealed with an epoxy penetrating sealer followed by an per square foot. Except as otherwise provided, the
application of approved sand. payment per square foot for wearing surfaces shall be
Any cracks exceeding 3 ⁄ 8 inch in depth shall be considered to be full compensation for the cost of
repaired by methods approved by the Engineer, or the furnishing all labor, materials, equipment, incidentals,
affected portions of the wearing surface shall be removed and for doing all work involved in preparing the surface
and replaced. Any delaminated or unbonded portions of and constructing the wearing surface as shown on the
the wearing surface or portions damaged by rain or freez-
plans and specified.
ing shall be removed and replaced.
When a separate item is included in the bid schedule
After completion of the wet cure, the surface shall be
tested for flatness and corrected, if necessary, as provided for scarifying bridge decks, scarifying will be paid for by
in Article 8.10.2.4. the contract price per square foot. Such payment shall be
All corrective work will be at the Contractor’s ex- considered to be full compensation for all costs involved
pense. with the scarifying work including removal and disposal
of debris.
28.2.8 Measurement and Payment The removal of unsound concrete which is encoun-
Wearing surfaces and areas requiring scarification will tered below the depth specified for scarifying will be paid
be measured by the square foot based on dimensions of for as extra work.
the completed work.
Section 29
EMBEDMENT ANCHORS
29.1 DESCRIPTION 29.4 CONSTRUCTION METHODS
This specification covers installation and field testing Provide adequate edge distance, embedment depth and
of cast-in-place, grouted, adhesive-bonded, expansion spacing to develop the required strength of the embed-
and undercut steel anchors. ment anchors. Use the correct drill hole diameter as per
manufacturer’s instructions. Use rotary impact drilling
equipment unless diamond core drilling has been speci-
29.2 PREQUALIFICATION fied and tested. If reinforcing bar is encountered during
the drilling operation, move to a different location, or drill
Prequalify all concrete anchors, including cast-in-
through the reinforcing steel using a diamond core bit as
place, all bonded anchor systems (including grout, chem-
directed by the Engineer. Patch abandoned holes with an
ical compounds, and adhesives), and undercut by univer-
approved bonding material. Clean holes thoroughly as
sal test standards designed to allow approved anchor
recommended by the manufacturer. Remove all loose dust
systems to be employed for any construction attachment
and concrete particles from hole. Prepare bonding mater-
use.
ial and install anchors according to instructions provided
Conduct test for adhesive-bonded and other bonding
by the manufacturer or approved by the Engineer.
compounds in accordance with ASTM E 1512 (Standard
Embedded anchors which are improperly installed or
Test Methods for Testing Bond Performance of Adhesive-
which do not have the required strength shall be removed
Bonded Anchors).
Test expansion types to ASTM E 488 (Standard Test and replaced to the satisfaction of the Engineer at the
Methods for Strength of Anchors in Concrete and Ma- Contractor’s expense.
sonry Elements).
Comply with ACI 349-85 (Code Requirements for 29.5 INSPECTION AND TESTING
Nuclear Safety Related Concrete Structures—Appendix
B, Steel Embedments). Where specified, conduct sacrificial tests of the anchor
Provide certified test reports prepared by an indepen- system on the job site to ultimate loads to document the
dent laboratory documenting that the system (except me- capability of the system to achieve pullout loads equaling
chanical expansion anchors) is capable of achieving the the full minimum tensile value of the anchor employed.
minimum tensile strength of the embedment steel. Test the anchor on fully cured concrete samples. Unless
specified otherwise, test no fewer than three (3) anchors by
29.3 MATERIALS ASTM E 488 methods. The Contractor may use any pre-
qualified anchor systems meeting the above requirements.
Provide mill test reports certifying physical properties, Provide, without delay in progress, for an alternate sys-
chemistry, and strengths. tem that will reach the designated pull-out requirement if
The chemical compounds acceptable for adhesive an- the job site proofloading proves incapable of achieving
chors may include epoxies, polyesters, or vinylesters. Ad- minimum tensile values (or the designer’s required load if
hesive compounds which are moisture-insensitive, high- too little concrete exists in which to develop full ductile
modulus, high-strength, and low-shrinkage should be loads).
used. After installing the curing of bonding material, torque
The use of additives to grout, and bonding materials each anchor system to values specified. If torque values
which will be corrosive to steel or zinc/cadmium coatings are not specified, use values recommended by the manu-
is prohibited. facturer or provided by the Engineer.
685
29.6 MEASUREMENT 29.7 PAYMENT
Count and summarize each embedment anchor type Payment for the quantity of embedment anchors deter-
satisfactorily installed for the Contract, according to an- mined under measurement for each embedment anchor
chor system, orientation (vertical, diagonal, and horizon- type, shall include full compensation for furnishing all
tal), and size (diameter). labor, materials, tools, equipment, testing, and incidentals
necessary to place each anchor type.
Section 30
THERMOPLASTIC PIPE
30.1 GENERAL 30.3 MATERIALS
30.1.1 Description 30.3.1 Thermoplastic Pipe
This work shall consist of furnishing and installing Polyethylene pipe shall conform to the requirements of
thermoplastic pipe in conformance with these Specifica- AASHTO M 294, or ASTM F 714, or ASTM F 894.
tions, any special provisions, and the details shown on the Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) pipe shall conform to the
plans. As used in this specification, thermoplastic pipe is requirements of AASHTO M 278 or M 304; or ASTM F
defined in Division I, Section 18, “Soil-Thermoplastic 679 or F 794.
Pipe Interaction Systems.”
30.1.2 Workmanship and Inspection 30.3.2 Bedding Material and Structural Backfill
All thermoplastic pipe materials shall conform to the Bedding and structural backfill shall meet the re-
workmanship and inspection requirements of AASHTO quirements of AASHTO M 145, A-1, A-2-4, A-2-5, or A-
M 278, M 294, or M 304; or ASTM F 679, F 714, F 794, 3. Bedding material shall have a maximum particle size
or F 894 as applicable. of 1.25 inch. Backfill for thermoplastic pipe shall be free
of organic material, stones larger than 11⁄2 inch in great-
30.2 WORKING DRAWINGS est dimension, or frozen lumps. Moisture content shall
be in the range of optimum (typically 23% to 12%) per-
Whenever specified or requested by the Engineer, the mitting thorough compaction. Consideration should be
Contractor shall provide manufacturer’s installation in- given to the potential for migration of fines from adja-
structions or working drawings with supporting data in cent materials into open-graded backfill and bedding
sufficient detail to permit a structural review. Sufficient materials.
copies shall be furnished to meet the needs of the Engi- For pipe types that are not smooth on the outside (cor-
neer and other entities with review authority. The work- rugated or profile walls), backfill gradations should be se-
ing drawings shall be submitted sufficiently in advance lected that will permit the filling of the corrugation or pro-
of proposed installation and use to allow for their review, file valleys.
revision, if needed, and approval without delay of the Flowable fills, such as controlled low strength mortar
work. The Contractor shall not start construction of any (CLSM) or controlled density fill (CDF), may be used
thermoplastic pipe installations for which working draw- for backfill and bedding provided adequate flotation re-
ings are required until the drawings have been approved sistance can be achieved by restraints, weighting, or
by the Engineer. Such approval will not relieve the Con- placement technique. With CLSM backfill, trench width
tractor of responsibility for results obtained by use of can be reduced to a minimum of the outside diameter
these drawings or any of the other responsibilities under plus 12 inches. When CLSM is used all joints shall have
the contract. gaskets.
687
30.4 ASSEMBLY (a) Corrugated bands (with or without gaskets)

(b) Bell and spigot pipe ends (with or without gaskets)
30.4.1 General (c) Double bell couplings (with or without gaskets)
Thermoplastic pipe shall be assembled in accordance

with the manufacturer’s instructions. All pipe shall be un- 30.5 INSTALLATION
loaded and handled with reasonable care. Pipe shall not be
rolled or dragged over gravel or rock and shall be pre- 30.5.1 General Installation Requirements
vented from striking rock or other hard objects during
placement in trench or on bedding. Trenches must be excavated in such a manner as to in-
Thermoplastic pipe shall be placed in the bed starting sure that the sides will be stable under all working condi-
at the downstream end. tions. Trench walls shall be sloped or supported in con-
formance with all standards of safety. Only as much
30.4.2 Joints trench as can be safely maintained shall be opened. All
trenches shall be backfilled as soon as practicable, but not
Joints for thermoplastic pipe shall meet the perfor- later than the end of each working day.
mance requirements for soiltightness unless watertight- Trench details, including foundation, bedding, haunch-
ness is specified. ing, initial backfill, final backfill, pipe zone, and trench
width are shown in Figure 30.5.1.
30.4.2.1 Field Joints
30.5.2 Trench Widths
Joints shall be so installed that the connection of pipe
sections will form a continuous line free from irregulari- Trench width shall be sufficient to ensure working
ties in the flow line. Suitable field joints can be obtained room to properly and safely place and compact haunching
with the following types of connections: and other backfill materials. The space between the pipe
FIGURE 30.5.1
and trench wall must be wider than the compaction equip- jetting the structural backfill to achieve compaction shall
ment used in the pipe zone. Minimum trench width shall not be permitted without written permission from the
not be less than 1.5 times the pipe outside diameter plus Engineer.
12 inches. Trench width in unsupported, unstable soils Backfill materials more than one foot above the pipe to
will depend on the size of the pipe, the stiffness of the final grade shall be selected, placed, and compacted to sat-
backfill and in situ soil, and the depth of cover. The trench isfy the loading, pavement, and other requirements above
shall be excavated to the width, depth, and grade as indi- the pipe.
cated on the plans and/or given by the Engineer.
30.5.5 Minimum Cover
30.5.3 Foundation and Bedding
A minimum depth of cover above the pipe should be
Foundation and bedding shall meet the requirements of maintained before allowing vehicles or heavy construc-
Article 30.3.2 and shall be installed as required by the En- tion equipment to traverse the pipe trench. The minimum
gineer according to conditions in the trench bottom. A sta- depth of cover should be established by the Engineer
ble and uniform bedding shall be provided for the pipe based on an evaluation of specific project conditions. For
and any protruding features of its joint and/or fittings. The embedment materials installed to the minimum density
middle of the bedding equal to one-third the pipe O.D. given in Article 30.5.4, cover of at least 24 inches shall be
should be loosely placed, while the remainder shall be provided before allowing vehicles or construction equip-
compacted to a minimum 90% of maximum density per ment to cross the trench surface. Hydrohammer type com-
AASHTO T 99. A minimum of 4 inches of bedding shall pactors shall not be used over the pipe.
be provided prior to placement of the pipe unless other-
wise specified. 30.5.6 Installation Deflection
When rock or unyielding material is present in the
trench bottom, a cushion of bedding of 6 inches minimum The internal diameter of the barrel shall not be reduced
thickness shall be provided below the bottom of the pipe. by more than 5% of its base inside diameter when measured
When the trench bottom is unstable, material shall be not less than 30 days following completion of installation.
excavated to a depth as required by the Engineer and re-
placed with a suitable foundation. A suitably graded ma-
30.6 MEASUREMENT
terial shall be used where conditions may cause migration
of fines and loss of pipe support.
Pipe installations shall be measured in linear feet in-
stalled in place, completed, and accepted. The number of
30.5.4 Structural Backfill feet shall be the centerline lengths of the pipe.
Structural backfill shall meet the requirements of Arti-

cle 30.3.2. Structural backfill shall be placed and com- 30.7 PAYMENT
pacted in layers not exceeding an 8 inch loose lift thick-
ness and brought up evenly and simultaneously on both The length as measured above will be paid for at the
sides of the pipe to an elevation not less than one foot contract prices per lineal foot bid for thermoplastic pipe
above the top of the pipe. Structural backfill must be of the sizes specified. Such price and payment shall con-
worked into the haunch area and compacted by hand. stitute full compensation for furnishing, handling, and in-
A minimum compaction level of 90% standard density stalling the pipe and for all materials, labor, equipment,
per AASHTO T 99 shall be achieved. Special compaction tools, and incidentals necessary to complete this item.
means may be necessary in the haunch area (See Figure Such price and payment shall also include excavation,
30.5.1). All compaction equipment used within 3 feet of bedding material, backfill, headwalls, endwalls, and foun-
the pipe shall be approved by the Engineer. Ponding or dations for pipe.
APPENDIX A
691
692 HIGHWAY BRIDGES App. A
App. A HIGHWAY BRIDGES 693
694 HIGHWAY BRIDGES App. A
APPENDIX B
695
APPENDIX C
696
APPENDIX C (Continued)
EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR, K dom comply fully with idealized restraint against rotation
and translation, the recommended values suggested by the
The Effective Length of a column, KL, has been used Column Research Council are higher than the idealized
in the equations for allowable compression stress in the values.
column. K is the ratio of the effective length of an ideal- Columns in continuous frames unbraced by adequate
ized pin-end column to the actual length of a column with attachment to shear walls, diagonal bracing, or adjacent
various other end conditions. KL represents the length be- structures depend on the bending stiffness of the rigidly
tween inflection points of a buckled column. Restraint connected beams for lateral stability. The effective length
against rotation and translation of column ends influences factor, K, is dependent on the amount of bending stiffness
the position of the inflection points in a column. Theoret- supplied by the beams at the column ends. If the amount
ical values of K for some idealized column end conditions of stiffness supplied by the beams is small, the value of K
are given in Table C-1. Since column end conditions sel- could exceed 2.0.
697
698 HIGHWAY BRIDGES App. C
App. C HIGHWAY BRIDGES 699
If it is assumed that elastic action occurs and that all Lc 5 unbraced length of column;
columns buckle simultaneously in a frame, it can be ra- Ig 5 moment of inertia of beam or other restraining
tionally shown that* member;
GaGb(p/K)2 2 36 p/K Lg 5 unsupported length of beam or other restraining
}} 5} (C-1)
6(Ga 1 Gb) tan(p/K) member;
K 5 effective length factor.
where subscripts a and b refer to the two ends of the
column.
Table C-2 is a graphical representation of the relationship
S(Ic /Lc) between K, Ga, and Gb, and can be used to obtain the value
G5 } (C-2)
S(Ig/Lg) of K easily. In frames which have columns that fall in the
S 5 summation of all members rigidly connected to inelastic buckling range, (i.e., KL/r , Cc 5 (2p2 E/Fy
an end of the column in the plane of bending; 1/2), K may often be reduced. The procedure for reducing
Ic 5 moment of inertia of column; K can be found in “Effective Length of Columns in Un-
braced Frames” by Joseph A. Yura, AISC Engineering
Journal, published by the American Institute of Steel
*See “Steel Structures Design and Behavior” by Charles G. Salmon
and John E. Johnson, published by International Text Book Company, Construction, 101 Park Avenue, New York, New York
1971. 10017.
APPENDIX D
COMPUTATION OF PLASTIC SECTION
MODULUS Z*
The plastic modulus Z is the statical first moment of

one half-area of the cross section about an axis through the
centroid of the other half area.
When a section is built up from plates or shapes of
more than one yield point, the plastic moment should be
computed on the basis of equilibrium on the cross section
with all fibers stressed to the appropriate yield point in
either tension or compression.
*Information in this Appendix is obtained from the Commentary of

AISI Bulletin 15. Values of Z for rolled sections are listed in the Man-
ual of Steel Construction, Eighth Edition, 1980, American Institute of
Steel Construction.
700
APPENDIX E
701
702 HIGHWAY BRIDGES App. E
App. E HIGHWAY BRIDGES 703
704
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
705
710
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
711
712
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
713
714
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
715
716
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
717
720
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
723
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
729
730
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
731
732
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
733
734
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
735
736
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
737
738
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
739
740
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
741
742
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
746
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
747
748
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
749
750
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
751
Note: Please refer to Division I for the most current list of “Notations.”
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
759
760
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
761
762
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
763
764
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
765
766
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
767
768
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
769
770
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
771
772
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
773
774
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
775
776
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
777
778
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
779
780
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
781
782
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
783
784
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
785
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
789
792
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
App. E
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
795
796
HIGHWAY BRIDGES
App. E
Index
A for flanges, 294–296

for girders, 294–299
Abrasion, protection against, for driven piles, 74 for lacing bars, 300
Abrasive conditions for malleable castings, 293
in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems, 341, for masonry bearings, 294
345 for orthotropic-deck superstructures, 314–316
in soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems, 409 for perforated cover plates, 300–301
in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, 432 for plate girders, 294–299
Abutments for prestressed concrete, 232–233
design of, 184–187 for reinforced concrete, 197
forces on, for seismic performance categories C and D, 468 for retaining walls
loading on, 185 mechanically stabilized earth, 157–158
on mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls, 185–186 prefabricated modular, 174
on modular systems, 186–187 for riveted girders, 295
requirements for for rolled beam(s), 294
for seismic performance category A, 457–458 for shear connectors, 304
for seismic performance category B, 460, 461–462 for solid rib arches, 302–303, 331
for seismic performance categories C and D, 468–471 for steel, 287, 288t–289t
types of, 184–185 under compressive bending stress, 295
Abutting joints, for steel, 571 for steel bars, 293, 293t
Acceleration coefficient, in seismic design, 447–449, 447f, for steel forgings, 293, 293t
448f for trusses, 300–301
Admixtures unit stress for, percentage increase of, 291
for concrete, 526–527 for web plates, 303
for grout, in prestressing, 560 for weld metal, 287
for pneumatically applied mortar, 653 for welded plate girders, 294–295
Aggregate Allowable stress design
for concrete, 526 for reinforced concrete, 197–202
storage of, 528 scope of, 287
for latex modified concrete type wearing surface, 679 Aluminum conduits, in soil-corrugated metal structure
for pneumatically applied mortar, 653 interactions systems
for slope protection, 645 for corrugated metal pipe, 344
Air-entraining admixtures, for concrete, 526–527 for spiral rib metal pipe, 346
Alaska, acceleration coefficients for, in seismic design, 448f for structural plate pipe, 347
Allowable stress Aluminum design, 337
for bending members, in wood structures, 377, 379–380 Aluminum pipes, in soil-corrugated metal structure
for bolted girders, 295 interactions systems, requirements for
for bronze castings, 293 corrugated, 345
for cast iron, 293 spiral rib corrugated, 346
for cast steel, 293, 294t structural plate, 348
combined stresses in, 301 Aluminum railings, 637
for composite box girders, 307–312 Analysis requirements, for seismic design, 453–456
for composite girders, 295, 303–307 Anchor bolts
for compression members, 300–301 for bearings, 627
in wood structures, 381 for pneumatically applied mortar, 653
for copper-alloy castings, 293 for structural steel, 286
design for. See Allowable stress design Anchorage(s)
in driven piles, 73 for bearings, 402
for driving piles, maximum, 74 installation of, 633
for ductile iron, 293, 294t for ground anchors, 509
for fasteners, 290–292, 290t installation of, 510
for flange plates, 295 mechanical, for reinforced concrete, 222
797
798 INDEX
multiple slab. See Multiple slab anchorages for non-compact sections, braced, 318
post-tensioning, 554–556 Axial load
post-tensioning for, for prestressed concrete, 248–249 on compression members, 330
in prestressing, 554 on drilled shafts, deformation under, 86–88
testing samples of, 558
for spread footings, 49, 93–94
for steel structures, erection of, 583 B
Anchorage devices, definition of, 227
Anchorage hardware, placement of, in prestressing, 557 Backfill, 477–479
Anchorage seating, definition of, 227 for abutments, 185
Anchorage spacing, definition of, 227 for concrete culverts, 670
Anchorage zone installation of, 677–678
definition of, 227 for earth retaining systems, 516–517
post-tensioned, for prestressed concrete, 240–247 materials for, 477
design of, strut-and-tie models in, 243–244 for metal culverts, 660
Anchored retaining walls, 113–114, 114f installation of, 665–666
corrosion protection for, 138 for precast reinforced concrete three-sided structures, in
design of, 133–138, 133f soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems,
drainage for, 136 428
earth pressure loading in, 133–136, 134f, 135f preparation of, 478–479
seismic pressure on, 136 for retaining walls, 179, 179f
stability of, 136 gravity and semi-gravity, 129
structural design of, 136–138, 137t for soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems
structural dimensions for, 136 protection of, for hydraulic long-span structural plate
surcharge loading in, 133–136 structures, 352
water pressure on, 136 for structural plate box culverts, 354
Angles, in structural steel for thermoplastic pipes, 687, 689
effective area of, 265–266 Backing, for stone masonry, 600–602
outstanding legs of, 266 Backwalls
Annealing, of structural members, 573–574 for brick masonry, 605–606
Applied load, calculating, 292 for concrete block masonry, 605–606
Applied tension, allowable stress for fasteners subject to, 292 Bar(s)
Appurtenances, for pile driving, 492–493 bundled. See Bundled bars
Arch headwalls, for metal culverts, installation of, 666–667 deformed. See Deformed bars
Arch ring stones, manufacture of, 598–599 identification for, 557
Arch substructures, for metal culverts, installation of, 666–667 lacing. See Lacing bars
Arches splices in, 551–552
concrete, placement of, 533 for reinforced concrete, 223
for metal culverts, backfill for, 665 testing of, 557–558
reinforced concrete, 196–197 Bar lists, for reinforcing steel, 549–550
in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems, 340 Base slabs, for retaining walls, gravity and semi-gravity, 126
pipe, 340 Basic anchorage device, definition of, 227
structural plate, 348 Batching, of concrete, 529
in stone masonry, 602 Batter, of bents, for structural steel, 271
Ashlar masonry, 597 Batter piles, 69, 92
construction of, 599–602 Batter shafts, 78
Ashlar stone, 597 Beam(s)
manufacture of, 598–599 bearing stiffeners for, in strength design, 321
selection and placement of, 600 for composite sections, strength design for, 323
Asphalt membrane waterproofing floor. See Floor beams
application of, 641–642 longitudinal, load distribution to, 32–33, 33t
materials for, 639 in orthotropic-deck superstructures
Assembly deck plates for, 314
of concrete culverts, 670 fatigue stress in, 315
of metal culverts, 660–662 Beam stability factor, for bending members in wood structures,
of steel grid flooring, 588 378–379
of steel structures, 576–583 Bearing(s)
of thermoplastic pipes, 688 acceptance of, 627–632
Axial capacity allowable stress in, for bolts, 290t, 291
of drilled shafts, 80–86, 107 anchorage for, 402
of driven piles, 70, 102–103 for bending members in wood structures, in compression
Axial compression, maximum perpendicular to grain, 380
for compact sections, 317 characteristics required of, 387, 389f
INDEX 799
construction of, 617–634 Bearing strength

corrosion protection for, 402, 627 for prestressed concrete, in post-tensioned anchorage zones,
design of, 385–402 246–247
special provisions for, 390–402 for reinforced concrete, 212
documentation for, 633 Bearing stress, on reinforced concrete, 197
fabrication of, 623–627, 624t Bearing-type connections
installation of, 617–634, 632–633 definition of, 290
load on, 386–387 limits on, 291
load plates for, 402 Bedding factor, for reinforced concrete pipe, in soil-reinforced
materials for, 618–623 concrete structure interaction systems, 415, 416f, 419t
measurement for, 634 Bedding material
movement of, 386–387 for bearings, 623
notations for, 385–386 for concrete culverts, 670, 671f–673f, 675t–677f
parallel to grain, in compression members for wood installation of, 670, 673
structures, 382 for metal culverts, 660
payment for, 634 installation of, 664, 665f
requirements for, 387–390, 388f for slope protection, 646
selection of, 385–402 for thermoplastic pipes, 687
standards for, 617–618 installation of, 689
for steel structures, erection of, 583 Bell(s), construction of, 503
stiffeners for, 294 Bell footings
for structural steel measurement for, 504
expansion type, 285–286 payment for, 505
fixed type, 285–286 Bend(s), for reinforced concrete, 217–218
masonry type, 286 Bending, of reinforcing steel, 550
surface finish of, for steel, 571 Bending diagrams, for reinforcing steel, 549–550
testing of, 627–632 Bending members, in wood structures, 369, 377–382
performance criteria for, 629 allowable stress for, 377
requirements for, 629–635 beam stability factor for, 378–379
in transfer of force, to spread footings, 68 bracing for, 377
in wood structures, for bending members, in compression compression perpendicular to grain in, 380
perpendicular to grain, 380 form factor for, 379
Bearing area factor, for bending members in wood structures, notching, 377
in compression perpendicular to grain, 380 shear parallel to grain in, 379–380
Bearing capacity size factor for, 377–378
of driven piles, 102 span for, 377
of foundation soils, 97–98 volume factor for, 378
of foundations, 43 Bending moment
for pile driving, determination of, 494–496 for bearings, 390
of retaining walls, 115 for composite box girders, 307, 327
failure of, 177 for compression members, 330–331
mechanically stabilized earth type, 143–144, 144f for decks, prestressed concrete type, 231
prefabricated modular type, 173–174 for longitudinal beams, 32–33
of spread footings for spread box girders, load distribution for, 41
on rock, 62–63, 63t, 98–100, 99t, 101t for stringers, 32–33
on soil, 49–50 wheel load distribution in
eccentric loading in, 50–51, 52f, 53f for composite wood-concrete members, 40
embedment depth in, 51 for glued laminated timber longitudinal flooring, 39
factors in, 50, 50t Bending strength
factors of safety for, 57 for composite sections
ground surface slope in, 51, 54f compact type, 324–325
ground water in, 55, 55f negative moment type, 325–326
with inclined base, 57, 57f for longitudinally stiffened girders, 321
inclined loading in, 51 for transversely stiffened girders, 320
layered soil in, 55–57, 56f Bending stress
shape in, 51 for grades of glued laminated timber, 370t–374t
Bearing pressure for grades of sawn lumber, 360
distribution of, to spread footings, 45 in hybrid girders, 313
from drilled shafts, presumptive values for, 80 in non-compact composite sections, 325
Bearing stiffeners in orthotropic-deck superstructures, 314–315
in allowable stress design, 299 in web, 336
for hybrid girders, 314 in wood structures, 370t–376t
strength design for, 321 Bent(s)
800 INDEX
with multiple columns, design forces for, for seismic for reinforced concrete, special provisions for, 201–202,
performance categories C and D, 466–467 211–212
for structural steel, 271–272 Brick masonry, 603–606
Bent caps, 75 construction of, 604–606
Bent piers, 184 grouting, 604–605
Bevel ends, for long-span structural plate structures, 351–352, materials for, 603–604
353f measurement for, 606
Biaxial loading, in compression members, reinforced concrete payment for, 606
type, 205 Brick railings, 638
Bicycle railings, highway clearances for, 11–12, 12f, 14f Bridge(s)
Blanketing, definition of, 227 aluminum, 337
Blast cleaning, of metal, before painting, 592–593 highway clearances for, 8, 8f
Blast protection, for railroad overpasses, 4–5 location of, 3
Bolt(s) Bridge deck joint seals, 635–636
allowable stress for, in structural steel, 290, 290t Bridge seats
anchor type for brick masonry, 605–606
for bearings, 627 for concrete block masonry, 605–606
for pneumatically applied mortar, 653 Bronze alloy bearings
for structural steel, 286 sliding surfaces of, 400
for metal culverts, 659 fabrication requirements for, 626
prying action on, strength design for, 333 material requirements for, 620
steel, holes for, 571–573 testing requirements for, 631
steel for, 257 Bronze castings, allowable stress for, 293
for steel structure assembly, 577–583 Buckling
for steel tunnel liner plates, 406 of compression flanges, 336
strength design for, 331–333 of corrugations, in soil-corrugated metal structure
for structural steel, 281–284 interactions systems
tensile stress on, 292 load factor design for, 342
for timber structures, 610–611 service load design for, 341
Bolt threads, in shear planes, 290 of drilled shafts, 109
Bolted girders of driven piles, 105
allowable stress for, 295 in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems
bearing stiffeners for, 299 load factor design for, 433
Bolting, in steel structure assembly, 576 in plastic pipe, 434
Bond service load design for, 432–433
for concrete slabs, 36 of steel tunnel liner plates, 405
for concrete structures, 535 of web, 336
Bond length, for ground anchors, 508 Bundled bars, development of, for reinforced concrete, 220
Bonded tendon Buoyancy
definition of, 227 design provisions for, 30
post-tensioning, 554 in driven pile design, 74
Bottom struts, of towers, for structural steel, 271–272 Bursting forces, on anchorage devices for prestressed concrete,
Box culverts 245
concrete, placement of, 533 Butt welds, allowable stress for, 287
metal, backfill for, 666 Buttresses, for gravity and semi-gravity retaining walls, design
slabs of, for reinforced concrete, special provisions for, 201, of, 128
211
structural plate. See Structural plate box culverts
Box girders C
composite. See Composite box girders
for prestressed concrete Camber
diaphragms for, 230 for glued laminated timber, 377
effective flange width for, 229–230 for heat curved rolled beams, 267–268
flange and web thickness for, 230 for heat curved welded plate girders, 267–268
for reinforced concrete, 194 for steel grid flooring, 588
segmental precast, epoxy bonding agents for, 544–546 for structural composite lumber, 377
Braced non-compact sections, strength design for, 318 for structural steel, 267
singly symmetric type, 323 for trusses, for structural steel, 269
Bracing Camber diagram, for steel structures, 566
for metal culverts, backfill for, 666 Cantilevered retaining walls, definition of, 174
for timber structures, 611 Cantilevered slabs, load distribution to, 36–37
of towers, for structural steel, 271–272 Cap(s)
Bracket(s) for steel H-piles, 77
definition of, 192 for timber structures, 611
INDEX 801
Capacity, of foundations, 43 Cohesionless soil, settlement on, of spread footings, 97

Capacity modification factor, for plastic pipe, in soil- Cohesive soil, settlement on, of spread footings, 97
thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, 434 Collision, protection against, for piers, 184
Casings, for drilled piles and shafts, 500, 501–502 Collision walls, for piers, 184
Cast-in-place concrete piles, 76 Column(s)
manufacture of, 490 compression in, 696f
Cast-in-place post-tensioned bridges, 228–229 for compression members, in wood structures, 382
Cast-in-place reinforced concrete arch, in soil-reinforced construction joints in, requirements for, for seismic
concrete structure interaction systems, 423–424 performance categories C and D-, 474
Cast-in-place reinforced concrete box, in soil-reinforced design forces for, for seismic performance categories C and
concrete structure interaction systems, 424–426 D, 466–467
Cast iron effective length factors for, 697, 697t, 698t, 699
allowable stress for, 293 forces on, transfer of, 67–68
material requirements for, 257 non-rectangular, spread footing support of, 45
Cast steel requirements for, for seismic performance categories C and
allowable stress for, 293, 294t D-, 471–473
material requirements for, 257 splices in, in structural steel, 272
Castings Column action, in tubular steel piles, 77
iron and steel, for steel structures, 569 Column bracing, for compression members, in wood
for timber structures, 608 structures, 380
CDP (cotton duck elastomeric pads), rotation in, 399 Column connections, requirements for, for seismic
Cellular walls, for earth retaining systems performance categories C and D-, 474
backfill for, 516, 521 Column stability factor, for compression members, in wood
construction of, 520–521 structures, 381–382
Cements Combination end-bearing and friction pile, definition of, 92
for concrete structures, 525–526 Combined stresses
for grout in allowable stress design, 301
in prestressing, 559 compression members with, in wood structures, 381
storage of, 528–529 Combined tension, fasteners subject to
for latex modified concrete type wearing surface, 679 allowable stress for, 292
for pneumatically applied mortar, 653 slip-resistance of, 292
Centrifugal forces, in load, 25 Compact sections
Channels, excavation within, 478 composite, strength design for, 324–325, 329
Charpy v-notch impact requirements, for structural steel, 259, negative moments in, reduction of, 317–318
265t strength design for, 317–318
Chemical admixtures, for concrete, 526–527 Compaction, monitoring, for shallow foundations, 100
Chemical treatment, for wood structures, 359 Composite box girders
Cleaning, of metal, before painting, 592–593 allowable stress for, 307–312
Clear distance, between holes, for structural steel, 283 bending moment for, 307
Clearances compression flanges for, 308–312, 327–328
for driven piles, 75 stiffeners for, 312
for falseworks, 484 diaphragms for, 312
highway, 8–15 flange plates for, bottom, 308
for bridges, 8, 8f lateral bracing for, 312
for curbs and sidewalks, 8 secondary bending stress in, 308
for depressed roadways, 10 strength design for, 326–328
navigational, 7 web plates for, 307–308
for railings, 10–15 Composite concrete flexural members, horizontal shear design
for tunnels, 8–10, 9f for, 200, 210
for underpasses, 8 Composite flexural members
for railroad overpasses, 4 for prestressed concrete, 231–232
Closed ribs, in orthotropic-deck superstructures, 316 horizontal shear design for, 239–240
Closed sections, in structural steel, 280 for reinforced concrete, 196
Coal-tar roofing cement, for preservative treatment of wood, 615 Composite girders
Coarse aggregate, for concrete, 526 allowable stress for, 295, 303–307
Coating creep in, 303
definition of, 227 deflection for, 307
for metal culverts, 660 effective flange width for, 304
slip coefficient of, 291, 335 shear connectors for, 304
for steel tunnel liner plates, 406 shear in, 305–307
Coefficient of friction stresses in, 304–305
of bronze or copper alloy sliding surfaces, 400 Composite place drawings, for prestressing, 554
of PTFE sliding surfaces, 391–392, 392t Composite sections
Cofferdams, for temporary works, 487 overload for, 334
802 INDEX
strength design for, 323–326 handling and placing, 532–534

compact, 324–325 underwater, 534–535
hybrid, 329 manufacture of, 528–530
non-compact, 325 measurement of materials for, 529
web of, strength design for, 324–325 mixing of, 529
Composite wood-concrete decks, for timber structures, 612 painting, 595–596
Composite wood-concrete members plastic, finishing, 537–539
design of, 40 pneumatically applied mortar and, 654
wheel load distribution and, 40 prestressed. See Prestressed concrete
Comprehensive strength, of concrete, definition of, 192 proportioning of, 527–528
Compression protection of, 531–532
in columns, concentrically loaded, 696f reinforced. See Reinforced concrete
for compression members, in wood structures, 381–382 sampling, 529–530
perpendicular to grain, in bending members, for wood shear strength provided by, in prestressed concrete,
structures, 380 238–239
on steel reinforced elastomeric bearings, 397–398 shear stress carried by, in reinforced concrete, 199
Compression flanges shrinkage of, definition of, 227
for compact sections, 317 for slope protection, 646
for composite box girders, 308–312, 327–328 for steel grid flooring, 587, 588–589
local buckling of, 336 for stone masonry
longitudinal stiffeners for, 308–312 for copings, 601
for non-compact sections, braced, 318 as cores and backing, 600
for partially-braced members, 320 strength of. See Concrete strength
for reinforced concrete, width of, 194 structural lightweight, definition of, 192
stiffeners for, 312 testing, 529–530
support of, 294 unreinforced, footings of, 68
transverse stiffeners for, 310–312 Concrete arches, placement of, 533
Compression members Concrete beams, precast
allowable stress for, 300–301 in multi-beam decks, 34–35
axial load on, 330 prestressed, effective flange width for, 230
bearing-type connections limited to, 291 Concrete block, for slope protection, 646
fastener pitch in ends of, for structural steel, 271 Concrete block masonry, 603–606
point of support for, 301 construction of, 604–606
for reinforced concrete, 197–198, 203–206, 206f grouting, 604–605
reinforcement of, 215–216 materials for, 603–604
seismic requirements for, 216 measurement for, 606
slenderness effects in, 206–207 payment for, 606
splices in, in structural steel, 277 Concrete box culverts, placement of, 533
strength design for, 330–331 Concrete culverts, 669–678
for wood structures, 380–382 assembly of, 670
Compressive deflection, on steel reinforced elastomeric installation of, 670–678
bearings, 397 materials for, 669–670
and elastomeric pads, 399 measurement for, 678
Compressive load, for metal rockers and rollers, 390–391 payment for, 678
Compressive stresses reinforced, 669
on anchorage devices, for prestressed concrete, approximate working drawings for, 669
methods for analyzing, 245 Concrete deck(s)
on steel, allowable stress for, 295 curing, 541
on steel reinforced elastomeric bearings, 396–397 protection of, 532
and elastomeric pads, 399 Concrete deck panels, for structural steel, 287
Concrete, 192–193. See also Reinforced concrete Concrete facings, design of, for retaining walls, mechanically
allowable stresses for, 197 stabilized earth, 161
batching of, 529 Concrete gravity walls, for earth retaining systems,
classes of, 525 construction of, 518
compressive strength of, definition of, 192 Concrete gutters, for earth retaining systems, 517
creep of, definition of, 227 Concrete members, precast, for concrete structures, 543–546
curing, 539–541 Concrete pedestals, for timber structures, 611
delivery of, 529 Concrete piles, 489
for drilled piles and shafts, 500 deterioration of, protection against, 75
placement, curing, and protection of, 503 manufacture of, 490
for earth retaining systems, 515–516 measurement for, 497
elastic shortening of, definition of, 227 splicing, 496
facing for, in stone masonry, 601 Concrete railings, 638
INDEX 803
Concrete slabs Construction tolerances, for drilled piles and shafts, 503–504
bending moment of, 35–36 Contact stress
load distribution to, 35–37 in bearing guides and restraints, 401
Concrete slope paving, for slope protection, 648–649 for PTFE sliding surfaces, in bearings, 391, 392t
measurement and payment for, 649 Continuous construction, for prestressed concrete, 228–229
Concrete strength Continuous flooring, wheel load distribution to, 40
evaluation of, 530 Contraction
in prestressing, 560 of prestressed concrete, 228
at stress transfer, in prestressed concrete, 247 of reinforced concrete, 193
Concrete structures, 525–548 of structural steel, 266
finishing, 537–539 floor expansion joints for, 286
grout for, 546–547 Contraction joints
joints for, 535–537 for concrete structures, 535–537
manufacture of concrete for, 528–530 in gravity and semi-gravity retaining walls, 129
materials for, 525–527, 526t Contractors, for drilled piles and shafts, 499
measurement for, 547–548 Conversion factors, 701–702
mortar for, 546–547 Copings
payment for, 548 for brick masonry, 605–606
plastic concrete in, finishing, 537–539 for concrete block masonry, 605–606
surface finishes for, 541–542 for stone masonry, 601
Concrete superstructures, placement of, 533 Copper alloy bearings
Concrete tunnel liners, 657–658 sliding surfaces of, 400
Connection(s). See also specific types fabrication requirements for, 626
bolted, for steel structure assembly, 577–583 material requirements for, 620
forces for, for seismic performance categories C and D, testing requirements for, 631
467 Copper-alloy castings, allowable stress for, 293
mechanical Corbels
for reinforced concrete, 222–223 definition of, 192
for wood structures, 383 for reinforced concrete, special provisions for, 201–202,
preassembly of, for steel structures, 576 211–212
of steel grid flooring, 588 Cores, for stone masonry, 600–602
strength design of, 331–333 Corrosion
strength of, in structural steel, 278–279 cross-section adjustment for, in driven pile sections, 73–74
welded, in steel structure assembly, 573 of mechanically stabilized earth retaining wall facings,
Connectors, for timber structures, 608–609 161
installation of, 610 protection against
Consolidation settlement, of spread footings, on soil, 58–61, for bearings, 402, 627
60f for driven piles, 74
Constructibility, in strength design, 336 for ground anchors, 508, 510
Construction for mechanical connections, in wood structures, 383
of brick masonry, 604–606 for prestressing steel, 558
of concrete block masonry, 604–606 for reinforced concrete, 217
of drilled piles, 500–504 for retaining walls, anchored, 138
of drilled shafts, 78, 500–504 in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems, 341,
of earth retaining systems, 518–522 345
of embedment anchors, 685 in soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems,
for excavation and backfill, 477–479 409
for existing structure removal, 481–482 in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, 432
of falseworks, 484 Corrugated metal pipe
of formwork, 485 for metal culverts, 659
of slope protection, 646–649 inspection of, 667
staged, seismic design requirements for, 452 in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems,
of stone masonry, 599–602 342–345
of temporary works, 483 Corrugated metal structures, soil interaction with. See Soil-
of timber structures, 609–613 corrugated metal structure interactions systems
Construction joints Cotton duck elastomeric pads (CDP), rotation in, 399
for concrete structures, 535 Counterforts, for gravity and semi-gravity retaining walls,
requirements for, for seismic performance categories C and design of, 128
D-, 474 Countersinking, in timber structures, 611
Construction loads, on concrete structures, application of, Couplers
547 definition of, 227
Construction requirements, for soil envelope design, for long- post-tensioning of, 554–556
span structural plate structures, 350 for prestressed concrete, 248–249
804 INDEX
in prestressing, testing samples of, 558 D

Courses, in stone masonry, leveling, 600–601
Cover plates Dampproofing, 639
for flanges, 295 application of, 643
perforated materials for, 640
allowable stress for, 300–301 Dead load, 19–20
for trusses, for structural steel, 269 concentrated, on mechanically stabilized retaining walls,
solid, allowable stress for, 300 165–169, 166f, 167f, 168f, 169f
for structural steel, 266–267 on culverts, 181
Coverage, minimum. See Minimum coverage Dead load moments, in soil-corrugated metal structure
Crack control, in soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction interactions systems, for structural plate box culverts,
systems 355
for precast reinforced concrete three-sided structures, Debonding, definition of, 227
428 Deck(s)
for reinforced concrete boxes concrete
cast-in-place, 424 curing, 541
precast, 427 protection of, 532
reinforcement for, for precast reinforced concrete circular multibeam, precast concrete beams in, 34–35
pipe, 418–419, 422 timber, deflection of, in wood structures, 360
Cramps, for stone masonry, 601 Deck forms, stay-in-place, for structural steel, 287
Creep of concrete Deck panels
in composite girders, 303 concrete, for structural steel, 287
definition of, 227 glue laminated, for timber structures, 612
Creep test, for ground anchors, 512 for prestressed concrete, 231, 247
Crib walls, for earth retaining systems Deck plates, in orthotropic-deck superstructures
backfill for, 516, 521 bending stress in, 314–315
construction of, 520–521 thickness of, 315
Critical bridges, seismic analysis requirements for, 454 width of, 314
Cross frames, for structural steel, 279–280 Deep foundation, definition of, 92
end connections of, 279 Deflection(s)
in floor systems, 286 for composite girders, 307
Cross section(s), lateral-torsional stress in, 336 computations of, for reinforced concrete, 195
Cross-section adjustment, for corrosion, in driven pile sections, control of
73–74 for precast reinforced concrete three-sided structures, in
Crown moments, in soil-corrugated metal structure soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems,
interactions systems, for structural plate box culverts, 428
355–356 for reinforced concrete, 194
Culverts, 181 for falseworks, 484
box. See Box culverts for glued laminated timber longitudinal flooring, 40
concrete. See Concrete culverts for orthotropic-deck superstructures, 315
ends of, protection for, in soil-corrugated metal structure for prestressed concrete, 230–231
interactions systems, 341 in steel tunnel liner plates, 405
location of, 4 in strength design, 335
metal. See Metal culverts in structural steel, 260, 263
Curbs for thermoplastic pipes, 689
clearances for, 8 for wood structures, 359–360
for tunnels, 10 Deflection limitations, for superstructures
load for, 26 of prestressed concrete, 231
Curing of reinforced concrete, 194
of concrete, 539–541 Deformations
of latex modified concrete, 682 resistance to, of steel reinforced elastomeric bearings, and
for pneumatically applied mortar, 655 elastomeric pads, 400
for precast concrete members, 543 tolerable, of retaining walls, 116
Curvature friction, definition of, 227 Deformed bars
Curved bridges, seismic analysis requirements for, 453–454 development of, for reinforced concrete, 219–220
Curved girders, steel, fabrication of, 574 splices of, for reinforced concrete, 223
Curved sliding bearings Deformed reinforcement, definition of, 192
fabrication requirements for, 625 Deformed wire
testing requirements for, 630 development of, for reinforced concrete, 219
Curved sliding surfaces, of bearings, 392–393 splices of, for reinforced concrete, 223
Cut-off walls, protection of, in hydraulic long-span structural Depressed roadways, highway clearances for, 10
plate structures, 352, 354 Depth, minimum. See Minimum depth
INDEX 805
Depth limitations, for superstructures, of reinforced concrete, end connections of, in structural steel, 279
194, 194t for orthotropic-deck superstructures, 315
Depth ratios, for structural steel, 260 in post-tensioned anchorage zones, for prestressed concrete,
Design 242–243
of composite wood-concrete members, 40 for prestressed concrete, 230
expressions for, 704t–705t for reinforced concrete, 195
features of, 7–15 for structural steel, 279–280
of formwork, 485 in trusses, for structural steel, 268
notations for, 7, 703 Disc bearings
of precast reinforced concrete three-sided structures, in soil- design of, 400–401
reinforced concrete structure interaction systems, fabrication requirements for, 626
428–429 material requirements for, 620
of reinforced concrete boxes testing requirements for, 632
cast-in-place, in soil-reinforced concrete structure Displacements
interaction systems, 424–426 in multimode spectral analysis method for seismic analysis,
precast, in soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction 456
systems, 426–427 in seismic design, determination of, 450
of soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, 431 for seismic performance category B, 460
structural. See Structural design Disposal, in existing structure removal, 482
of temporary works, 483 Distance
Design analysis, 3 clear, between holes, for structural steel, 283
Design displacements edge, of fasteners, for structural steel, 284
for seismic performance category A, 457 Distribution, of loads. See Load distribution
for seismic performance categories C and D, 468 Documentation, for bearings, 633
Design force Double wall piers, design of, 183–184
for flange splice plates, in structural steel, 272 Dowels
for seismic performance category A, 457 for concrete structures, 535
for seismic performance category B, 459–460 for stone masonry, 601
for seismic performance categories C and D, 465–468 in transfer of force, to spread footings, 68
Design life requirements, for retaining walls, mechanically Drain(s), placement of, in prestressing, 556
stabilized earth, 152–157, 156t Drainage
Design load for abutments, 185
definition of, 92, 192 for retaining walls
for falseworks, 484 anchored, 136
for guides, for bearings, 401 mechanically stabilized earth, 164–165
maximum, 317 non-gravity cantilevered, 132
for restraints, for bearings, 401 prefabricated modular, 174
Design methods, for reinforced concrete, 195–196 rigid gravity and semi-gravity, 176
Design pile capacity, selection of, 70–73 of roadways, 4
Design strength Drainage elements
definition of, 92, 192 for earth retaining systems, 517–518
for reinforced concrete, 202 of earth retaining systems, 516
for splices, in structural steel, 272 Dressed lumber, dimensions of, 358
Design stress, for structural steel, 316 Drift conditions, forces from, on piers, 28
Design values Drilled piles, 499–505
for glued laminated timber, with bending stress, 370t–374t construction of, 500–504
for laminated veneer lumber, with bending stress, 375t construction tolerances for, 503–504
for parallel strand lumber, with bending stress, 376t materials for, 500
for sawn lumber, 360–369 measurement for, 504–505
adjustment to, for preservative treatments, 369 payment for, 505
Detailing, strength design of, 331–333 Drilled shafts, 78–91, 499–505
Deterioration axial capacity of, 80–86, 107
protection against, for driven piles, 74–75 axial load on, deformation under, 86–88
of spreading footings, 94–95 buckling of, 109
Detour bridges, 488 construction of, 78, 500–504
Development length construction tolerances for, 503–504
definition of, 192 definition of, 92
in transfer of force, to spread footings, 68 design of, 105–109
Development of reinforcement, in spread footings, 67 terminology for, 80, 81f
Diaphragms diameter of, 78
for composite box girders, 312, 328 embedment of, 78
definition of, 227 enlarged bases for, 90–91
806 INDEX
factors of safety for, 86 E

geotechnical design of, 80–90, 106–108
laterally loaded, 88–89 Earth, pneumatically applied mortar against, 654
load testing of, 91 Earth loads
load tests for, 504 on concrete structures, application of, 547
materials for, 500 in soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems,
measurement for, 504–505 modification of, in reinforced concrete boxes
notations for, 79–80, 105–106 cast-in-place, 425
payment for, 505 precast, 426
reinforcement of, 90 Earth pressure
seismic design of, 90 design provisions for, 30
service limit states for, movement under, 107 on retaining walls, rigid gravity and semi-gravity, 175–176
spacing of, 91 Earth pressure loading, in retaining wall design
strength limit states for, resistance at, 107–108 anchored, 133–136, 134f, 135f
structural design of, 90–91, 108–109 gravity and semi-gravity, 121–123, 122f, 124f, 125f
Driven piles, 489–497 non-gravity cantilevered, 129–132, 129f, 130f, 131f
abrasion protection for, 74 Earth retaining systems, 515–523
allowable stress in, 73 construction of, 518–522
axial capacity of, 70 drainage for, 517–518
buckling of, 105 materials for, 515–517
clearances for, 75 measurement for, 522
construction considerations for, 105 payment for, 522
corrosion protection for, 74 Earth walls, for earth retaining systems
design of, 68–78, 100–105 backfill for, 516–517
materials for, 68 construction of, 521
terminology for, 70, 71f Earthquakes. See also Seismic design
design pile capacity for, 70–73, 102–105 design provisions for, 30
deterioration of, protection against, 74–75 Eccentric loading, compression members with, in wood
dynamic monitoring of, 74 structures, 381
embedment of, 75 Edge distance
horizontal loads on, 72 definition of, 227
lateral tip restraint on, 69 for fasteners, for structural steel, 284
length of, estimated, 69 of wheel loads, 35
materials for, 489 Edge-tension forces, on anchorage devices, for prestressed
notations for, 69–70, 101–102 concrete, approximate methods for analyzing, 245–246
penetration by, 68 Effective flange width
penetration of, 68 in composite girder construction, allowable stress for, 304
scour and, 74 for prestressed concrete, 229–230
seismic design of, 73 Effective length factors, for columns, 697, 697t, 698t, 699
service limit states for, movement under, 103 Effective prestress, definition of, 227
spacing of, 75 Effective span length, for structural steel, 259–260
strength limit states for, resistance at, 103–105 Elastic forces, in seismic design, determination of, 450
structural design of, 105 Elastic seismic response coefficient, in seismic design, 450
tip elevation of, 69 Elastic settlement, of spread footings, on soil, 58, 59t
types of, 69 Elastic shortening, of concrete, definition of, 227
Driving points, for precast concrete piles, 75 Elastic stress analysis, for anchorage zones, for prestressed
Driving stresses, maximum allowable, 74 concrete, 244
Dry construction method, for drilled piles and shafts, 500 Elasticity, modulus of, for reinforced concrete, 193
Duct(s) Elastomer, in steel reinforced elastomeric bearings
definition of, 227 material requirements for, 620, 621t, 622t
in prestressing, 558–559 properties of, 395–398
area of, 559 Elastomeric bearings
fittings for, 559 installation requirements for, 633
grouting of, 562 steel reinforced, 395–398
placement of, 556 elastomeric pads and, design of, 398–400
Ductile iron material requirements for, 620
allowable stress for, 293, 294t testing requirements for, 630–631
material requirements for, 257 Elastomeric disc
Ductility limits, for prestressed concrete, 237–238 in disc bearings, 401
Dynamic design, of spread footings, 66 in pot bearings, maximum average stress on, 394
Dynamic load tests, for bearing capacity determination, for Elastomeric pads
pile driving, 494–495 design of, 398–400
Dynamic monitoring, of driven piles, 74 fabrication requirements for, 626
INDEX 807
material requirements for, 620 Expansion rockers, steel for, 257

Electric railway loads, 26 Expansion rollers, for structural steel, 285–286
Embankments Expansive soil, external loading from, on driven piles, 72
drilled shafts through, 79 External load
driven piles through, 69 on driven piles, from ground movement, 72
in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems, 340 on steel tunnel liner plates, 403–404
spread footings in, 45 Eyebars
Embedment fabrication of, 573
of drilled shafts, 78 for structural steel, 285, 567
of driven piles, 75 packing of, 285
Embedment anchors, 685–686 thickness of, 285
Embedment length, definition of, 192
Empirical pile formulas, for bearing capacity determination,
for pile driving, 494 F
End anchorage, definition of, 227
End-bearing pile, definition of, 92 Fabric, for asphalt membrane waterproofing system, 639
End bearing piles, 69 Fabrication
End block, definition of, 227 of bearings, 623–627, 624t
End floor beams, concrete, for structural steel, 287 of deck joint seals, 635
End panels, of skew bridges, for structural steel, 287 of ground anchors, 508–509
End returns, in fillet welds, in structural steel, 281 of metal, miscellaneous, 651
End slopes, protection of, in soil-corrugated metal structure of metal culverts, 659
interactions systems, 341 of reinforcing steel, 550
End structures, in soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction of steel, 570–576
systems, 409 of tunnel liners, steel and concrete, 657
End treatments Facing(s)
design of, for long-span structural plate structures, 351–354 for concrete, in stone masonry, 601
in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, 432 for earth retaining systems, construction of, 521–522
End walls, in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions for piers, 184
systems, 341 Facing connection strength design, for retaining walls,
Enlarged bases, for drilled shafts, 90–91 mechanically stabilized earth, 158–160
Environment, protection of concrete from, 531–532 Facing elements, design of, for retaining walls, mechanically
Epoxy, mixing and installation of, for concrete structures, stabilized earth, 160–161, 164
546 Factored load, definition of, 92, 192
Epoxy bonding agents, for precast segmental box girders, Factors of safety. See Safety factors
544–546 Falsework, for temporary works
Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel design and construction of, 484–485
damaged, 551 removal of, 486
materials for, 549 Fastener(s)
Equivalent loading, 695f allowable stress for, 290, 290t
Erection drawings, for steel structures, 566 for flange angles, 295–296
Excavation, 477–479 high-strength, for steel structures, 567–568
for drilled piles and shafts, 501 for structural steel, 281–284
inspection of, 502 edge distance for, 284
for earth retaining systems, 517 proportioning, 290
measurement of, and payment, 479 sealing, 283
monitoring, for shallow foundations, 100 size of, 283
for spread footings, 49 spacing of, 283
Existing structures for timber structures, 608
foundations placed adjacent to, 95 for wood structures, 383
removal of, 481–482 Fatigue
Expansion fasteners subject to, allowable stress of, 292
of prestressed concrete, 228 in hybrid girders, 314
of reinforced concrete, 193 in strength design, 335
in structural steel, floor expansion joints for, 286 FGP. See Fiberglass reinforced elastomeric pads
of structural steel, 266 Fiberglass reinforced elastomeric pads (FGP), rotation in,
Expansion bearings, for structural steel 399–400
requirements for, 285–286 Field joints
sliding, 285 for metal culverts, assembly of, 661
Expansion joints for thermoplastic pipes, assembly of, 688
for concrete structures, 535–537 Field treatment, for wood structures, 359
in floor systems, for structural steel, 286 Fill, minimum. See Minimum fill
in retaining walls, gravity and semi-gravity, 129 Filled joints, installation of, in concrete structures, 537
808 INDEX
Fillers, for structural steel splices, 272 Floor beams

Fillet welds bending moments in, 34
allowable stress for, 287 for structural steel
for structural steel, 280–281 end, 287
effective length of, 281 end connections of, 279
effective size of, 280–281 requirements for, 286
end returns in, 281 Floor surfaces, design provisions for, 5
Filter fabric, for slope protection, 645, 646 Floor system, for structural steel, 286–287
measurement for, 650 Flooring
payment for, 650 steel grid, 587–589
Fine aggregate, for concrete, 526 timber, wheel load distribution on, 38–40
Finishing, of latex modified concrete wearing surface, 682 for timber structures
Fire retardant treatments, for wood structures, 359 nail laminated, 612
Fixed bearings, for structural steel, requirements for, plank and nail, 612
285–286 strip, 612
Flange(s) Followers, for pile driving, 492
allowable stress for, 294–296 Footing(s)
compression type. See Compression flanges for culverts, 181
cover plates for, 295 depth of, for excavation and backfill, 477–478
reinforcement of, for prestressed concrete, 247 design of, for long-span structural plate structures, 350
splices in, in structural steel, 273–275 in precast reinforced concrete three-sided structures, in soil-
Flange angles reinforced concrete structure interaction systems, 428
fasteners for, 295–296 for reinforced concrete, special provisions for, 200–201,
on girders, 295 210–211
Flange plates for reinforced concrete arches, cast-in-place, in soil-
for bolted girders, 295 reinforced concrete structure interaction systems, 424
for composite box girders, 308 for retaining walls, gravity and semi-gravity, 126
for hybrid girders, 314 spread type. See Spread footings
for riveted girders, 295 Footing reactions, in soil-corrugated metal structure
for solid rib arches, 303, 331 interactions systems
Flange width, in composite girder construction, allowable of long-span structural plate structures, 350
stress for, 304 of structural plate box culverts, 356
Flanged sections, of prestressed concrete, flexural strength of, Forces
236 conversion factors for, 701
Flattening, and steel tunnel liner plates, 405 in multimode spectral analysis method for seismic analysis,
Flexibility factor 456
in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems on piers, 28–30
for corrugated metal pipe, 343 on substructure, 27
for spiral rib metal pipe, 346 transfer of, to spread footings, 67–68
for structural plate pipe, 347 Forked ends, for structural steel, 285
in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, for plastic Form(s)
pipe, 434 at concrete joints, 535
Flexible wall facings, design of, for mechanically stabilized pneumatically applied mortar and, 654
earth retaining walls, 160–161 stay-in-place, 486
Flexible watertight gaskets, for concrete culverts, 669 for temporary works, 484, 485–487
Flexural members Form factor, for bending members, in wood structures, 379
composite. See Composite flexural members Foundation(s). See also Substructures
composite concrete, horizontal shear design for, 200, 210 approval of, 478
deflection limited by, in wood structures, 359 capacity of, 43
reinforcement of, for reinforced concrete, 203, 213–215, deep, definition of, 92
218–219 design forces for, for seismic performance categories C and
splices in, in structural steel, 273 D, 465–466
strength design for, 317–322 for earth retaining systems, 517
of structural steel, 266 expressions for, 720t, 723t
Flexural strength for falseworks, 484
of prestressed concrete, 236–237 footings. See Footing(s)
reinforcement for, of precast reinforced concrete circular for metal culverts, installation of, 662
pipe, in soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction for metropolitan area, 664f
systems, 417–423 notations for, 719, 721–722
Flexure preparation of, for excavation and backfill, 478
of reinforced concrete, 197, 203–204 for retaining walls, stability of
stress grades in, for wood structures, 360 mechanically stabilized earth, 143–144
Floating, of concrete structures, 538 prefabricated modular, 173–174
INDEX 809
settlement of, 43 allowable stress for, 294–299

shallow bearing stiffeners for, in strength design, 321
construction considerations for, 100 bolted, allowable stress for, 295
definition of, 92 box. See Box girders
substructure exploration for, 43–45, 44t as compact sections, 317
for substructures, 183 composite, allowable stress for, 295, 303–307
for thermoplastic pipes, 689 for composite sections, strength design for, 323
types of, selection of, 43 curved steel, fabrication of, 574
Foundation design flange angles on, 295
forces for, for seismic performance categories C and D, hybrid. See Hybrid girders
467–468 longitudinally stiffened
limit states for, 92–93 strength design for, 321
for long-span structural plate structures, 349–350 in symmetric sections, 323
for seismic performance category A, 457–458 transverse stiffeners for, 299
for seismic performance category B, 459–461 web thickness for, 321
for seismic performance categories C and D, 468–471 in orthotropic-deck superstructures
Foundation piles, driven, 489–497 deck plates for, 314
Foundation soils, bearing capacity of, 97–98 fatigue stress in, 315
Frames, for prestressed concrete, 228–229 plate elements of, 315
Framing, for timber structures, 611 prestressed. See Prestressed girders
Friction riveted, allowable stress for, 295
coefficient of. See Coefficient of friction spread box. See Spread box girders
definition of, 227 with transverse stiffeners
Friction losses, in prestressed concrete, 233 longitudinally stiffened, 320–321
Friction piles, 69 in symmetric sections, 323
definition of, 92 strength design for, 320–321
Frost action, on spread footings, 93 web plate thickness for, 296
Full bevel ends, for long-span structural plate structures, web thickness of, for reinforced concrete, 194–195
351–352, 353f welded plate. See Welded plate girders
Full-depth abutment, design of, 184 Girder spans, end floor beams for, for structural steel, 287
Full-sawn lumber, dimensions of, 358 Glue-laminated panel decks, for timber structures, 612
Full-sized tests, for steel, 576 Glued laminated timber, for wood structures, 358–359
with bending stress, design values for, 360, 370t–374t
camber for, 377
G wet service factor for, 368
Glued laminated timber longitudinal flooring, wheel load
Gage, of fasteners, for structural steel, 283 distribution on, 39
Galvanized surfaces, painting, 594 Granite, allowable stress for, 294
Galvanizing Gravity axes, for trusses, for structural steel, 269
of metal, 651 Gravity retaining walls, 111–112, 112f, 113f, 114f
of steel grid flooring, repair of, 588 definition of, 174
for steel structures, 569 Grid floors, steel. See Steel grid floors
for timber structures, 608–609 Ground anchor(s), 507–513
Gaskets, flexible watertight, for concrete culverts, 669 drilling for, 509–510
General zone installation of, 509–513
definition of, 227 load testing for, 510–513
in post-tensioned anchorage zones, for prestressed concrete, materials for, 507–508
240–243 measurement for, 513
Geocomposite drainage systems payment for, 513
for earth retaining systems, 516, 517 Ground anchor tendons
for slope protection, 646, 647 encapsulation protected, 509
payment for, 650 grout protected, 508–509
Geosynthetic reinforcement, connection strength for, for Ground movement, vertical, load from, on driven piles, 72
mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls, 158–160, Ground stability, dynamic, of spread footings on soil, 61
158t, 159f Ground water, pressure from. See Water pressure
Geotechnical design Groundwater table, in spread footing design, 94, 98
of drilled shafts, 80–90, 106–108 Group pile capacity, 71–72
of spread footings, 49–62 Grout
Geotechnical strength, limit states. See under Limit states for brick masonry, 603
Geotextiles, in drainage systems, for earth retaining systems, for concrete block masonry, 603
516 for concrete structures, 546–547
Girder(s) for ground anchors, 507
anchored, for structural steel, 286 installation of, 510
810 INDEX
in prestressing, 559–560 development of, 220–221, 221f

for slope protection, 646 Horizontal force
Grout opening, definition of, 227 on bearings, 387, 390
Grouted riprap, for slope protection, 648 transfer of, to spread footings, 67
measurement for, 649 Horizontal shear
Grouting in composite concrete flexural members, 200, 210
of brick masonry, 604–605 in composite girders, 305–307
of concrete block masonry, 604–605 Horizontal shear design, for composite flexural members, for
in prestressing, 562–563 prestressed concrete, 239–240
of tunnel plates, steel and concrete, 658 HS loading, 21, 24f, 694t
Guides, for bearings, 401–402 Hybrid girders
fabrication requirements for, 626–627 allowable stress for, 312–314
installation requirements for, 633 bearing stiffeners for, 314
material requirements for, 620 bending stress in, 313
Gusset plates, for trusses, for structural steel, 270 fatigue in, 314
Gutters, concrete, for earth retaining systems, 517 strength design for, 335
flange plate for, 314
shear stress in, 313–314
H strength design for, 328–330
Hydraulic structures, long-span structural plate, protection of,
H loading, 21, 22f, 691t–693t 352, 354
Half-through truss spans, for structural steel, 270 Hydraulic studies, 4
Hammer(s), for pile driving, 491–492 Hydraulic uplift, protection of, in hydraulic long-span
Hammer cushions, for pile driving, 492 structural plate structures, 352, 354
Hand cleaning, of metal, before painting, 593 Hydrologic analysis, 4
Handling strength Hydrostatic pressures, on mechanically stabilized retaining
in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems, walls, 170–171
341–342
in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, 432–433
Handling stress, on precast concrete piles, 76 I
Hangers, for structural steel, 284–285
Haul bridges, 488 Ice, forces from, on piers, 29–30
Haunch material, for concrete culverts, 670 Impact, in load, 21–23
installation of, 674, 677–678 Importance classification (IC), in seismic design, 449
Haunch moments, in soil-corrugated metal structure Inclined surfaces, bearing on, for bending members in wood
interactions systems, for structural plate box culverts, structures, 380
355–356 Inspection
Hawaii, acceleration coefficients for, in seismic design, 448f of corrugated metal pipe, for metal culverts, 667
Headers, for stone masonry, 600 of embedment anchors, 685
Heat-curved rolled beam(s), for structural steel, 267–268 of steel structures, 565–566
High-strength bolts, for steel structure assembly, 577–583 of waterproofing, 640
High-strength fasteners, for steel structures, 567–568 Installation strength
Highway clearances, 8–15 in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems,
for bridges, 8, 8f 341–342
for curbs and sidewalks, 8 in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, 432–433
for depressed roadways, 10 Integral abutment, design of, 185
navigational, 7 Integrity testing, of drilled piles and shafts, 504
for railings, 10–15 Interior stringers, bending moments in, 32
for tunnels, 8–10, 9f Intermediate anchorage
for underpasses, 8, 9f definition of, 227
Highway loads, 20–21 in post-tensioned anchorage zones, for prestressed concrete,
Highway signs, structural support for, 337 242–243
Hold-down devices, forces for, for seismic performance Iron castings, for steel structures, 569
categories C and D, 467
Holes
for structural steel J
clear distance between, 283
types of, 282 Jacking force, definition of, 227
for timber structures, 610 Jets, for pile driving, 493
Hollow cylinder piles, 78 Joint(s)
Hollow rectangular compression members, reinforcement of, abutting, for steel, 571
for reinforced concrete, 214–215 for concrete culverts, assembly of, 670
Hooks, for reinforced concrete, 217 contraction
INDEX 811
for concrete structures, 535–537 Load(s)

in gravity and semi-gravity retaining walls, 129 on bearings, resistance of, 386–387
expansion. See Expansion joints for bicycle railings, 11–12
for metal culverts, assembly of, 660–662 on bronze or copper alloy sliding surfaces, 400
for steel tunnel liner plates, strength of, 404–405, 405t centrifugal forces in, 25
for thermoplastic pipes, assembly of, 688 combinations of, 30–32, 31t
Joint sealants, for concrete culverts, 669 concentrated, distribution of, in precast reinforced concrete
three-sided structures, 428
on concrete structures, application of, 547
for curbs, 26
L dead. See Dead load
definition of, 316
Lacing bars design. See Design load
allowable stress for, 300 distribution of. See Load distribution
for trusses, for structural steel, 270 expressions for, 710t–717t
Laminated veneer lumber, for wood structures, 359 factored, definition of, 92, 192
with bending stress, design values for, 375t for falseworks, 484
Lane loads, 20, 23f highway, 20–21
on continuous spans, 25 horizontal. See Horizontal loads
Lap splices lane, 20, 23f
for reinforced concrete, 222 on continuous spans, 25
for reinforcing steel, 551 live, 20
Lateral bracing application of, 25
for compact sections, 317 location of, in bearing guides and restraints, 401
for composite box girders, 312 longitudinal forces in, 23
for non-compact sections, braced, 318 nominal, definition of, 92
for structural steel, 280 notations for, 17–19, 707–709
Lateral load(s) for pedestrian railings, 13
on driven piles, 72 for railings, 26
on pot bearings, 395 on reinforced concrete pipe, in soil-reinforced concrete
resistance to, in bearings, with curved sliding surfaces, structure interaction systems, 411–412, 413f
392–393 indirect design method for, 412, 415
Lateral loading, of drilled shafts, 88–89 for sidewalks, 26
Lateral reinforcement on soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems,
of compression members, for reinforced concrete, 215 409
of flexural members, for reinforced concrete, 214 on soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, 431
Lateral slenderness, in rib arches, 302 on spread footings, 66–67
Lateral stress, in cross sections, 336 on steel tunnel liner plates, 403–404
Lateral tip restraint, on driven piles, 69 on substructures, 183
Lateral wall displacement, determination of, for mechanically for vehicular railings, 11
stabilized earth retaining walls, 164, 165f wind, 26–27
Latex emulsion, 679 Load combinations
Latex modified concrete wearing surface, 679–683 in foundation design, 93
installation of, 681 in retaining wall design, 175
materials for, 679–680 Load cycles, on structural steel, 259, 265t
measurement for, 683 Load distribution, 32–41. See also Stress distribution; Wheel
payment for, 683 load distribution
proportioning and mixing for, 681 to concrete slabs, 35–37
surface preparation for, 680–681 to floor beams, 34
Leads, for pile driving, 492 to longitudinal beams, 32–33
Lightweight aggregate, for concrete, 526 reinforcement for, 37
Limestone, allowable stress for, 294 to spread box girders, 41
Limit states to stringers, 32–33
definition of, 92 Load duration factor, for wood structures, 369
for foundation design, 92–93 Load effect
service. See Service limit states concentrated, distribution of, in precast reinforced concrete
Links, for structural steel, 284–285 three-sided structures, 428
Liquid membrane method, for curing concrete, 540 definition of, 92
Live load, 20 Load factor
application of, 25 definition of, 92
Live load moments, in soil-corrugated metal structure in foundation design, 93
interactions systems, for structural plate box culverts, for prestressed concrete, 232
355–356 for retaining walls, 175
812 INDEX
Load factor design Longitudinal reinforcement

definition of, 92 of composite girders, 305
for reinforced concrete, 202–213 of compression members, for reinforced concrete, 215
scope of, 316 of negative moment sections, composite, 326
in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems, 342 Longitudinal ribs
for corrugated metal pipe, 342 maximum slenderness of, 315
for spiral rib metal pipe, 345 in orthotropic-deck superstructures, 315
for structural plate box culverts, 355 Longitudinal stiffeners
for structural plate pipe, 347 in allowable stress design, 298–299
in soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems, compression flanges with, 308–312
409 in composite box girders, 327–328
in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, 432–433 girders with
for plastic pipe, 434 strength design for, 321
Load impact, 21–23 transverse stiffeners for, 299, 328
Load intensity, reduction of, 25 singly symmetric sections with, strength design for,
Load plates, for bearings, 402 322–323
fabrication requirements for, 627 thickness of, 299
Load testing Loss of prestress
of drilled shafts, 91, 504 definition of, 227
of ground anchors, 510–513 in prestressed concrete, 233–236, 235f
measurement for, 505 Low-friction material, attachment of, in bearing guides and
payment for, 505 restraints, 401
Loading(s) Lower side material, for concrete culverts, 670
on abutments, 185 installation of, 677–678
classes of, 21 Lumber
eccentric, compression members with, in wood structures, size factor for, for bending members in wood structures, 377
381 storage of, 609
equivalent, 695f for timber structures, 607
H type, 21, 22f, 691t–693t for wood structures
HS type, 21, 24f, 694t sawn, 358
lateral, of drilled shafts, 88–89 structural composite, 359
for maximum stress, 25 Luminaries, structural support for, 337
minimum, 21
tire contact area for, 42
truck train, 695f M
Local buckling, in plastic pipe, in soil-thermoplastic pipe
interactions systems, 434 Maintenance, of temporary bridges, 488
Local zone Malleable castings
definition of, 227 allowable stress for, 293
in post-tensioned anchorage zones, for prestressed concrete, material requirements for, 257
240 Masonry. See Brick masonry; Concrete block masonry; Stone
design of, 246–247 masonry
Location, of bridges, 3 Masonry bearings
Lock off, for ground anchors, 512 allowable stress for, 294
Long rivets, for structural steel, 284 for structural steel, 286
Long-span structural plate structures Masonry gravity walls, for earth retaining systems,
in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems, construction of, 518
348–354 Masonry plates, for structural steel, requirements for, 286
foundation design for, 349–350 Mastic, for preformed membrane waterproofing system, 640
hydraulic protection of, 352, 354 Match marking, in steel structure assembly, 577
multiple, 354 Material factors, for reinforced concrete pipe, 417
structure design for, 348–349 Mathematical model, for multimode spectral analysis method
standard terminology for, 349f for seismic analysis, 456
Long-span structures, for metal culverts Mating surface
assembly of, 662 for bronze or copper alloy sliding surfaces, 400
backfill for, 665 for PTFE sliding surfaces, in bearings, 391
Longitudinal beams Maximum strain, for plastic pipe, in soil-thermoplastic pipe
bending moment in, 32–33 interactions systems, 434
distribution of wheel loads in, 33t Maximum stress
Longitudinal edge beams, load distribution and, 37 on elastomeric disc, in pot bearings, 394
Longitudinal forces, in load, 23 loading for, 25
Longitudinal linkage, forces for, for seismic performance zone of, location of, for retaining walls, 147–148
categories C and D, 467 Measurement
INDEX 813
for bearings, 634 Metal culverts, 659–667

for brick masonry, 606 installation of, 661–667, 663f
for concrete block masonry, 606 materials for, 659–660
for concrete culverts, 678 measurement for, 667
for concrete structures, 547–548 payment for, 667
for deck joint seals, 636 placing, 662
for drilled shafts, 504–505 working drawings for, 659
for earth retaining systems, 522 Metal ducts, in prestressing, 559
for embedment anchors, 686 Metal railings, 637–638
for excavation, 479 Metal rocker bearings
for existing structure removal, 482 design provisions for, 390–391
for ground anchors, 513 fabrication requirements for, 623
for latex modified concrete wearing surface, 683 installation requirements for, 633
for metal, miscellaneous, 651 material requirements for, 618
for metal culverts, 667 testing requirements for, 629
for painting Metal stay-in-place forms, for structural steel, 287
of concrete, 596 Metal structures, painting, 591–594
of metal structures, 594 measurement for, 594
for pile driving, 497 payment for, 594
for pneumatically applied mortar, 655 Metric conversion, 701–702
for preservation of wood, 616 Mill test reports, for reinforcing steel, 549
for prestressing, 563 Mineral admixtures, for concrete, 526–527
for railings, 638 Minimum coverage
for reinforcing steel, 552 for foundation substructure, 45
for slope protection, 649–650 in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems
for steel grid flooring, 589 for corrugated metal pipe, 343
for steel structures, 584–585 for spiral rib metal pipe, 346
for stone masonry, 602 for structural plate pipe, 347
of stress, in prestressing, 561 in soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems
for temporary works, 488 for precast reinforced concrete three-sided structures, 427,
for thermoplastic pipes, 689 428
for timber structures, 613 for reinforced concrete arches, 424
for tunnel liners, steel and concrete, 658 for reinforced concrete boxes, 424, 426
for waterproofing, 643 in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, for plastic
Mechanical anchorage, for reinforced concrete, 222 pipe, 434
Mechanical connections for subsurface exploration, for retaining walls, 117
for reinforced concrete, 222–223 for thermoplastic pipes, 689
for wood structures, 383 Minimum depth
Mechanical splices, for reinforcing steel, 551–552 for foundation substructure, 44–45
Mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls (MSE), 112f, for subsurface exploration, for retaining walls, 117
114–115 Minimum fill, for reinforced concrete pipe, in soil-reinforced
abutments on, 185–186 concrete structure interaction systems, 412
bearing capacity of, 143–144, 144f Minimum loading, 21
design of, 138–161 Minimum reinforcement
drainage for, 164–165 of flexural members, for reinforced concrete, 213
facing connections of, strength design of, 158–160 of reinforced concrete boxes, in soil-reinforced concrete
facing elements of, design of, 160–161 structure interaction systems, 426, 427
foundation stability of, 143–144 Mixing, of concrete, 529
lateral wall displacements of, determination of, 164, 165f Mode shapes, in multimode spectral analysis method for
reinforcement length for, determination of, 147–149 seismic analysis, 456
reinforcements for, strength design of, 149–158, 153f, 154f Modular systems, abutments on, 186–187
seismic design for, 161–164 Modulus of elasticity
soil reinforcements for, strength design of, 158–160 for bending members, in wood structures, 377
special loading conditions for, 165–171 for reinforced concrete, 193
stability of, 138–143, 140f, 141f, 142f, 143f Moment(s)
calculation of loads for, 144–147, 145f, 147f for compact composite sections, strength design for, 324
structural dimensions for, 138, 139f conversion factors for, 701
Median slabs, load distribution and, 37 maximum, in loading, 41, 691t–694t
Metal(s) in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems, for
minimum thickness of, in structural steel, 265 structural plate box culverts, 355–356
miscellaneous, 651 on spread footings, 67
Metal beam railings, 637 Moment amplification, in solid rib arches, allowable stress
Metal box culverts, backfill for, 666 and, 302, 331
814 INDEX
Moment capacity structural design of, 132–133

for composite sections, strength design for, 323 structural dimensions for, 132
in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems, for water pressure on, 132
structural plate box culverts, 356 Non-prestressed reinforcement, for prestressed concrete, 228,
Moment of inertia, for transverse stiffeners 238
in allowable stress design, 298 Notching, of bending members, in wood structures, 377
in strength design, 320 Nuts
Mortar for metal culverts, 659
for brick masonry, 603 self-locking, 290
for concrete block masonry, 603 for steel tunnel liner plates, 406
for concrete culverts, 669
for concrete structures, 546–547
pneumatically applied. See Pneumatically applied mortar O
for stone masonry, 597–598
mixing, 599 Open joints, installation of, in concrete structures, 537
Movement Orientation angle, for precast reinforced concrete circular pipe,
bearing accommodation of, 386–387 in soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction
criteria for, for spread footings, 97 systems, 417–418
tolerable. See Tolerable movement Orthogonal seismic forces, combination of, in seismic design,
MSE. See Mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls 450–451
Mud sills, for timber structures, 611 Orthotropic-deck superstructures
Multi-beam decks, precast concrete beams in, 34–35 allowable stress in, 314–316
Multimodal analysis, elastic seismic response coefficient for, steel, fabrication of, 575–576
in seismic design, 450 in strength design, 335
Multimode spectral analysis method, for seismic analysis, Outside roadway stringers, bending moments in, 32–33
455–456 Overfill material, for concrete culverts, 670
Multiple slab anchorages, in post-tensioned anchorage zones, installation of, 677–678
for prestressed concrete, 242–243 Overload
provisions for, 20
strength design for, 333–335
N Overpasses, railroad, 4–5
Overturning, of retaining walls, 177
Nail laminated floors, for timber structures, 612 Overturning forces, in wind load, 27
Navigational highway clearance, 7
Negative moment
reduction of, in compact sections, 317–318 P
reinforcement for, in flexural members, for reinforced
concrete, 218–219 Paint
Negative moment sections, strength design for application of, to metal, 593–594
compact, 326 protection of, 591
composite, 325–326 slip coefficient for, 291–292, 335
non-compact, 326 for steel piles, 489
Negative skin friction, external loading from, on driven piles, 72 Painting, 591–596
Net section, for structural steel, 284 of galvanized surfaces, 594
for eyebars, 285 of metal structures, 591–594
Nodes, in anchorage zones, for prestressed concrete, 244 measurement for, 594
Nominal load, definition of, 92 payment for, 594
Nominal resistance, definition of, 92 of timber, 595
Nominal strength, definition of, 192 of timber structures, 613
Non-compact sections, strength design for Parallel strand lumber, for wood structures, 359
braced, 318 with bending stress, design values for, 376t
singly symmetric, 323 Partial-depth abutment, design of, 184
composite, 325 Partially braced members, strength design for, 319–320
hybrid, 329 for hybrid sections, 329
Non-composite sections for singly symmetric sections, 323
hybrid Payment
strength design for, 329 for bearings, 634
overload for, 334 for brick masonry, 606
Non-gravity cantilevered retaining walls, 112, 114f for concrete block masonry, 606
design of, 129–133 for concrete culverts, 678
drainage for, 132 for concrete structures, 548
seismic pressure on, 132 for deck joint seals, 636
stability of, 132 for drilled piles and shafts, 505
INDEX 815
for earth retaining systems, 522 cutoff for, 496

for embedment anchors, 686 defective, 496
for excavation, 479 definition of, 92
for existing structure removal, 482 drilled. See Drilled piles
for ground anchors, 513 driven. See Driven piles
for latex modified concrete wearing surface, 683 manufacture of, 490
for metal, miscellaneous, 651 requirements for
for metal culverts, 667 for seismic performance category B, 461
for painting for seismic performance categories C and D, 469–470
of concrete, 596 splicing, 496
of metal structures, 594 test type. See Test piles
of timber, 595 wood, 359
for pile driving, 497 Pile cushion, 492
for pneumatically applied mortar, 655 Pile drive head, 492
for preservation of wood, 616 Pile driving, 491–496
for prestressing, 563 accuracy of, 494
for railings, 638 appurtenances for, 492–493
for reinforcing steel, 552 equipment for, 491–493
for slope protection, 649–650 measurement for, 497
for steel grid flooring, 589 payment for, 497
for steel structures, 584–585 preparation for, 493
for stone masonry, 602 of tubular steel piles, 77
for temporary works, 488 Pile footings, 75
for thermoplastic pipes, 689 Pile sections, structural capacity of, 73–74
for timber structures, 613 Pin(s)
for tunnel liners, steel and concrete, 658 bearing area of, 292–293
for waterproofing, 643 steel
Pedestals, for structural steel, requirements for, 286 fabrication of, 573
Pedestrian railings, clearances for, 12–13, 12f, 13f material for, 257
Pedestrian walkways, surface finish for, 539 for structural steel
Penetration, by driven piles, 68 location of, 284
PEP (Plain elastomeric pads), rotation in, 399 requirements for, 285
Perforated cover plates size of, 284
allowable stress for, 300–301 Pin holes
for trusses, for structural steel, 269 boring, 573
Perforated pipe, in drainage systems, for earth retaining for structural steel, in webs, 286
systems, 516 Pin nuts, for structural steel, requirements for, 285
Performance factors Pin plates, for structural steel, 284–285
definition of, 92 Pipe(s)
in foundation design, 93, 94t, 95t, 96t in earth retaining systems, for drainage systems, 516
for retaining walls, 175 in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems
Performance test, for ground anchors, 511 seam strength of, 341, 342
Periods, in multimode spectral analysis method for seismic smooth-lined, requirements for, 345
analysis, 456 in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, plastic,
Permanent casing construction method, for drilled piles and 433–436
shafts, 501 Pipe arches, in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions
Permeable material, in drainage systems, for earth retaining systems, 340
systems, 516 of spiral rib metal pipe, 345
Piers Piping. See also Drainage
design of, 183–184 definition of, 92
forces on and spread footings, 49
from ice, 28 Pistons, in pot bearings, 394–395
from stream current, 28 Pitch, of fasteners, for structural steel, 283
transfer of, 67–68 Plain elastomeric pads (PEP), rotation in, 399
non-rectangular, spread footing support of, 45 Plain reinforcement, definition of, 192
protection of, 184 Plank and nail laminated longitudinal flooring, wheel load
for seismic performance categories C and D distribution on, 39
construction joints in, 474 Plank floors, for timber structures, 612
design forces for, 466–467 Plastic concrete, finishing, 537–539
requirements for, 473 Plastic hinging, design forces from, for seismic performance
types of, 183–184 categories C and D, 466–467
Pile(s) Plastic pipe, in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems,
combination end-bearing and friction, 92 433–436
816 INDEX
Plastic section Z, computation of, 700 Precast concrete beams

Plate(s) in multi-beam decks, 34–35
apron, for structural steel, 286 prestressed, effective flange width for, 230
flange Precast concrete blocks, for reinforcing steel, 550–551
allowable stress for, 303 Precast concrete members, for concrete structures, 543–546
thickness of, 295 Precast concrete piles, 75–76
masonry, for structural steel, 286 manufacture of, 490
sole, for structural steel, 286 Precast reinforced concrete circular pipe, direct design method
steel for, 415–423, 420f
in disc bearings, 401 Precast reinforced concrete three-sided structures, in soil-
fabrication of, 570–571 reinforced concrete structure interaction systems,
web 427–429
allowable stress for, 303 Precast segmental box girders, epoxy bonding agents for,
thickness for, 296–297 544–546
Plate girders Precompressed zone, definition of, 227
allowable stress for, 294–299 Prefabricated modular retaining wall, 113f, 115
welded, heat-curved, for structural steel, 267–268 allowable stress for, 174
Plug welds, allowable stress for, 287 bearing capacity of, 173–174
Pneumatically applied mortar, 653–655 design of, 171–174
installation of, 654–655 drainage for, 174
materials for, 653 foundation stability of, 173–174
measurement for, 655 stability of, 171–172, 172f, 173f
mixing, 653 structural dimensions for, 171
payment for, 655 Preformed membrane waterproofing
placement of, 654–655 application of, 642
proportioning, 653 materials for, 639–640
for slope protection, 646 Preservative treatments
surface preparation for, 654 for wood, 615–616
Pockets, in structural steel, 280 for wood structures, 359
Point attachments, for steel H-piles, 77 adjustment for, in design values, 369
Point of support, for compression members, 301 Prestress
Pointing, in stone masonry, 601–602 for concrete piles, 490
Poisson’s ratio, for reinforced concrete, 193 effective, definition of, 227
Poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) for ground anchors, 507
plastic pipes of, in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions loss of, definition of, 227
systems, 435–436 Prestressed concrete, 225–249
waterstops of, for concrete structures, 536–537 allowable stress for, 232–233
Polyethylene ducts, in prestressing, 559 anchorage zones for, 240–247, 247
Polyethylene pipes, in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions anchorages for, post-tensioning of, 248–249
systems, 435 box girders for, flange and web thickness for, 230
Polytetrafluorethylene. See PTFE composite flexural members for, 231–232
Portal bracing, for trusses, for structural steel, 269 concrete strength in, at stress transfer, 247
Positive moment reinforcement, in flexural members, for continuous construction for, 228–229
reinforced concrete, 218 contraction of, 228
Positive moment sections, composite, strength design for, couplers for, post-tensioning of, 248–249
324–325 deck panels for, 247
Post(s), for timber structures, 611 decks for, 231
Post-tensioning definition of, 227
of anchorages, 554–556 deflections for, 230–231
for prestressed concrete, 248–249 design for, 231–249
bonded tendon, 554 diaphragms for, 230
couplers, 554–556 ductility limits for, 237–238
of couplers, for prestressed concrete, 248–249 effective flange width for, 229–230
definition of, 227 expansion of, 228
prestressing steel in, placement of, 557 expressions for, 746t–751t
requirements for, 562 flange reinforcement for, 247
of tendons, testing samples of, 558 flexural strength of, 236–237
of unbonded tendons, 554–555 frames for, 228–229
Pot, in pot bearings, 394 load factor for, 232
Pot bearings loss of prestress in, 233–236, 235f
design of, 393–395 non-prestressed reinforcement for, 238
fabrication requirements for, 625–626 notations for, 225–226, 743–745
material requirements for, 619 prestressed strand in, embedment of, 249
testing requirements for, 630 reinforcement for, non-prestressed, 238
INDEX 817
shear on, 238–240 R

shear strength provided for, by concrete, 238–239
span length for, 228 Radial stirrups, reinforcement of, for precast reinforced
steel for, cover and spacing for, 247–248 concrete circular pipe, 418–419, 422
Prestressed concrete beams, precast, effective flange width for, Radiant heat method, for curing concrete, 541
230 Railing(s), 637–638
Prestressed concrete piles, 77–78 aluminum, 337
Prestressed girders, simple-span precast, made continuous, bicycle, 11–12, 12f
229 highway clearances for, 10–15
Prestressed strands, embedment of, for prestressed concrete, load for, 26
249 pedestrian, 12–13, 12f
Prestressing, 553–563. See also Post-tensioning; Pretensioning structural specifications for, 13–15
composite place drawings for, 554 for timber structures, 612
ducts in, 558–559 vehicular, 10–11
equipment for, 560–561 Railing loads, distribution of, to cantilevered concrete slabs,
grout in, 559–560 36–37
identification of components for, 557–558 Railroad overpasses, design provisions about, 4–5
materials for, 554–556 Railways, electric, load for, 26
measurement for, 563 Reactions
payment for, 563 in loading, 41, 691t–694t
sequence for, 560–561 on spread footings, 66–67
stress measurement in, 561 Rectangular sections, of prestressed concrete, flexural strength
testing samples for, 557–558 of, 236
working drawings for, 553–554 Reinforced concrete, 189–224
Prestressing steel allowable stresses on, 197
in post-tensioning, placement of, 557 anchorage for, mechanical, 221
for prestressed concrete, 228 bearing strength of, 212
allowable stress for, 232 bends for, 217–218
maximum, 237 bundled bars for, development of, 220
minimum, 237–238 compression members for, 197–198, 203–206, 206f
protection of, 557, 558 reinforcement of, 215–216
Pretensioned anchorage zone, for prestressed concrete, 247 contraction of, 193
Pretensioning corrosion protection for, 217
definition of, 227 deformed bars for, development of, 219–220
prestressing steel in, placement of, 556–557 deformed wire for, development of, 219
requirements for, 561–562 design, 195–213
of tendons, testing samples of, 558 design requirements for
Primer, for waterproofing systems, 639 for seismic performance category A, 458
Process and material factors, for precast reinforced concrete for seismic performance category B, 462–463
circular pipe, in soil-reinforced concrete structure for seismic performance categories C and D, 471–474
interaction systems, 417 expansion of, 193
Process factors, for reinforced concrete pipe, 417 expressions for, 729t–742t
Proof test, for ground anchors, 511–512 flexural members for, reinforcement of, 203, 213–215,
Protective cover, for waterproofing 218–219
application of, 642–643 flexure in, 197, 203–204
materials for, 640 hooks for, 217
Prying action, on bolts, strength design for, 333 development of, 220–221, 221f
PTFE (polytetrafluorethylene), in sliding surfaces, of bearings, load factor design for, 202–213
391–392 maximum stress for, 197
fabrication requirements for, 625 mechanical anchorage for, 221
material requirements for, 619 notations for, 189–192, 725–728
testing requirements for, 629–630 reinforcement in, 213–224
Puerto Rico, acceleration coefficients for, in seismic design, spacing limits for, 216–217
448f splices of, 222–224
Pull-out shear, in bearing-type connections, 290 service load design for, 197–202
PVC. See Poly (vinyl chloride) serviceability requirements for, 212–213
shear in, 198–202, 207–212
shear reinforcement in
Q development of, 220
limits for, 216
Quadrant mat reinforcement, of precast reinforced concrete shear stress carried for, by concrete, 199
circular pipe, in soil-reinforced concrete structure shrinkage reinforcement for, 216
interaction systems, 423 stiffness of, 193
Quality assurance requirements, of seismic design, 440–441 strength design for, 202–213
818 INDEX
strength requirements for, 202 of reinforced concrete, splices of, 222–224

temperature stress reinforcement for, 216 of reinforced concrete pipe, 418–423
welded wire fabric for, development of, 221–222 of retaining walls, gravity and semi-gravity, 128
Reinforced concrete arch(es), 196–197 shear. See Shear reinforcement
cast-in-place, in soil-reinforced concrete structure of soil. See Soil reinforcement
interaction systems, 423–424 of steel reinforced elastomeric bearings, and elastomeric
Reinforced concrete box, in soil-reinforced concrete structure pads, 400
interaction systems for temperature stresses, in abutments, 185
cast-in-place, 424–426 in transfer of force, to spread footings, 68
precast, 426–427 of wingwalls, 187
Reinforced concrete culverts, 669 Reinforcement length, determination of, for retaining walls,
Reinforced concrete pipe 147–149
design of Reinforcement loads, maximum, for retaining walls, 146–147,
direct method for, 415–423, 420f 147f
indirect method for, 412–415 Reinforcement strength design, for retaining walls, 149–158
load on, 411–412, 413f Reinforcement tensile loads, determination of, for retaining
material factors for, 417 walls, 147, 147f
orientation angle for, 417–418 Reinforcing steel, 549–552
precast, circular, direct design method for, 415–423, 420f adjustment for, 551
process factors for, 417 for brick masonry, 603, 604
reinforcement of, 418–423 for concrete block masonry, 603, 604
in soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems for drilled piles and shafts, 500
design for, 410–412 for earth retaining systems, 517
installations of, 410, 414f fabrication of, 550
materials for, 409–410 fastening, 550–551
strength reduction factors for, 417 handling of, 550
Reinforced concrete retaining walls, for earth retaining materials for, 549
systems, construction of, 518 measurement for, 552
Reinforced concrete structures, soil interaction with. See Soil- payment for, 552
reinforced concrete structure interaction systems placing, 550–551
Reinforced concrete three-sided structures, precast, in soil- for pneumatically applied mortar, 653, 654
reinforced concrete structure interaction systems, for slope protection, 646
427–429 splicing, 551–552
Reinforced soil zone, for mechanically stabilized retaining storage of, 550
walls, obstructions in, 170f, 171 surface condition of, 550
Reinforcement Reinforcing steel cage, construction and placement of, for
allowable stresses for, 197 drilled piles and shafts, 502–503
of cast-in-place concrete piles, 76 Relaxation of tendon stress, definition of, 227
of concrete, 193, 197 Removal
cover for, for concrete piles, 76 of existing structures, 481–482
deformed, definition of, 192 of falseworks and forms, 486–487
development of, in spread footings, 67 of temporary works, 483–484
distribution of Repetitive loading, in structural steel, 259, 260t, 261t–263t,
for culverts, 181 264f
for flexural members, reinforced concrete, 213–214 Required strength, definition of, 192
of drilled shafts, 90 Response modification factors, in seismic design, 450
of flexural members, in reinforced concrete, 213–215 Restraints, for bearings, 401–402
lateral. See Lateral reinforcement installation requirements for, 633
for load distribution, 37 Retaining walls, 111–179. See also Gravity retaining walls;
longitudinal. See Longitudinal reinforcement Semi-gravity retaining walls
minimum. See Minimum reinforcement bearing capacity of, 115
plain, definition of, 192 capacity of, 115–116
of precast concrete piles definition of, 174
spiral, 75 forces on, for seismic performance categories C and D, 468
vertical, 75 load combinations for, 175
of precast reinforced concrete circular pipe, in soil- load factors for, 175
reinforced concrete structure interaction systems, notations for, 117–121, 174–175
417–423 performance factors for, 175
of prestressed concrete, 228 requirements for, for seismic performance category B, 460
non-prestressed, 228 service limit states for, 175
of prestressed concrete piles, 77 settlement of, 115
in reinforced concrete, 213–224 stability of, 115–116
spacing limits for, 216–217 strength limit states for, 175
INDEX 819
strength requirements for, 175 selection of

for substructures, 183 in drilled shaft design, 80
subsurface exploration for, 116–117 in driven pile design, 70
testing programs for, 117 in spread footing design, 48
tolerable deformations for, 116 spread footings on
types of, 111–115, 112f, 113f, 114f bearing capacity of, 62–63, 63t
Rib(s), in orthotropic-deck superstructures settlement of, 63–64, 65t, 66f, 97
closed, 316 Rocker bearings. See Metal rocker bearings
deck plates for, 314 Rolled beam(s)
fatigue stress in, 315 allowable stress for, 294
Rib arches, solid, allowable stress for, 302–303 heat-curved, for structural steel, 267–268
Ribbed bolts, for steel structure assembly, 577–578 Rolled beam spans, anchored, for structural steel, 286
Rigid connections, strength design for, 333 Roller(s)
Rigid gravity retaining walls, 111–112, 112f expansion, for structural steel, 285–286
backfill for, 179 steel
bearing capacity of, failure of, 177 fabrication of, 573
design of, 121–129, 175–179 material for, 257
dimensions of, 126 Roller bearings
drainage for, 176 design provisions for, 390–391
earth pressure loading in, 121–123, 122f, 124f, 125f fabrication requirements for, 623
earth pressure on, 175–176 installation requirements for, 633
overturning of, 177 material requirements for, 618
seismic pressure on, 126, 176 testing requirements for, 629
service limit states for, movement under, 176 Rotation
sliding of, 177 in elastomeric pads, 399–400
soil failure and, safety against, 176–177, 177f, 178f in steel reinforced elastomeric bearings, 397–398
stability of, 126, 127f, 128t, 177–179 and elastomeric pads, 399
structural design of, 126–129 Rough-sawn lumber, dimensions of, 358
structural failure of, safety against, 179, 179f Round columns, for compression members, in wood structures,
surcharge loadings in, 121–123, 123f 382
water pressure on, 176 Rubbed finish, for concrete structures, 542
Riprap, for slope protection Rubber waterstops, for concrete structures, 536
grouted, 648 Rubble masonry, 597
measurement for, 649 construction of, 599–602
measurement for, 649–650 Rubble stone, 597
payment for, 650 for masonry, manufacture of, 598
sacked concrete, 646, 648 selection of, 599–600
measurement for, 649
payment for, 650
wire-enclosed, 645 S
fabrication of, 647–648
installation of, 648 Sacked concrete riprap, for slope protection, 646, 648
measurement for, 649 measurement for, 649
payment for, 650 payment for, 650
Rivet(s) Safety factors
allowable stress for, 290, 290t for bearing capacity, of spread footings, 57
steel for, 257 for design pile capacity, 71
strength design for, 331–333 for drilled shafts, 86
for structural steel, 281–284 for plastic pipe, in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions
tensile stress on, 292 systems, 434
Riveted girders for spread footings, 57
allowable stress for, 295 for steel tunnel liner plates, 406
bearing stiffeners for, 299 Salvage, in existing structure removal, 481
Roadway Sampling
drainage of, 4 for brick masonry, 603–604
surface finish for, 538 for concrete block masonry, 603–604
Rock Sandblasted finish, for concrete structures, 542
foundations on Sandstone, allowable stress, 294
bearing capacity of, 98–100, 99t, 101t Sawn lumber, for wood structures, 358
excavation and, 478 bending members in, size factor for, 378
pneumatically applied mortar against, 654 design values for, 360, 361t–368t
problems with, in foundation design, 43, 44t adjustment to, for preservative treatments, 369
and retaining walls, 116 wet service factor for, 360, 366t, 368
820 INDEX
Scope, of allowable stress design, 287 for staged construction, 452

Scour steps in, 442f, 443f
depth of, from subsurface exploration support length in, minimum, 450
for foundations, 45 for temporary bridges, 452
for retaining walls, 117 Seismic forces, orthogonal, combination of, in seismic design,
and driven piles, 74 450–451
protection from Seismic performance categories (SPC), 449
for footings, in precast reinforced concrete three-sided category A
structures, 428 design requirements for, 457–468
for hydraulic long-span structural plate structures, 352, seismic analysis requirements for, 453
354 category B, design requirements for, 459–463
for piers, 184 categories C and D, design requirements for, 465–474
for spread footings, 49, 93 in seismic design, 449
in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems, Seismic pressure, on retaining walls
invert slabs for, 340 anchored, 136
Scrubbed finish, for concrete structures, 542 gravity and semi-gravity, 126, 176
Seal welds, for structural steel, 281 non-gravity cantilevered, 132
Sealed joints, installation of, in concrete structures, 537 Self-locking nuts, 290
Sealing fasteners, for structural steel, 283 Semi-gravity retaining walls, 111–112, 114f
Sealing rings, in pot bearings, 394 backfill for, 179
Seam strength bearing capacity of, failure of, 177
in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems definition of, 174
for corrugated metal pipe, 343–344 design of, 121–129, 121f, 175–179
load factor design for, 342 dimensions of, 126
service load design for, 341 drainage for, 176
for structural plate pipe, 347 earth pressure loading in, 121–123, 122f, 124f, 125f
for steel tunnel liner plates, 404–405, 405t earth pressure on, 175–176
Seat-width, minimum, in seismic design, 450 overturning of, 177
Secondary bending stress, in composite box girders, 308 seismic pressure on, 126, 176
Secondary members, bearing-type connections limited to, 291 service limit states for, movement under, 176
Secondary settlement, of spread footings, on soil, 61 sliding of, 177
Section properties, for plastic pipe, in soil-thermoplastic pipe soil failure and, safety against, 176–177, 177f, 178f
interactions systems, 434 stability of, 126, 127f, 128t, 177–179
Segmental box girders structural design of, 126–129
precast, epoxy bonding agents for, 544–546 structural failure of, safety against, 179, 179f
for prestressed concrete, 229 surcharge loadings in, 121–123, 123f
deflections for, 231 water pressure on, 176
Seismic design Service limit states, movement under
acceleration coefficient in, 447–449, 447f, 448f for drilled shafts, 107
analysis requirements for, 453–456 for driven piles design, 103
multimode spectral analysis method for, 455–456 for foundation design, 92
single mode spectral analysis method for, 454–455 for retaining walls, 175, 176
time history method for, 456 for spread footings, 97
uniform load method for, 454 Service load
background on, 439–440 definition of, 192, 316
basic concepts of, 440 requirements for, for soil envelope design, in long-span
displacements in, determination of, 450 structural plate structures, 350–351, 351f
for drilled shafts, 90 Service load design
for driven piles, 73 for plastic pipe, in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions
elastic forces in, determination of, 450 systems, 434
elastic seismic response coefficient in, 450 for reinforced concrete, 197–202
importance classification in, 449 in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems, 341
notations for, 445–446 for corrugated metal pipe, 342
purpose of, 439 for spiral rib metal pipe, 345
quality assurance requirements of, 440–441 for structural plate pipe, 347
requirements of, 447–452 in soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems, 409
response modification factors in, 450 in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, 432–433
for retaining walls, 161–164, 162f, 163f Serviceability requirements, for reinforced concrete,
seismic performance categories in, 449 212–213
for single span bridges, 451 Settlement
site coefficient in, 449–450 consolidation. See Consolidation settlement
soil profile in, 449 elastic. See Elastic settlement
for spread footings, 66 of foundations, 43
INDEX 821
of long-span structural plate structures, 349 Shear stress

of retaining walls, 115 in hybrid girders, 313–314
secondary. See Secondary settlement in web, 336
of spread footings Shear stress factors, for sawn lumber, 367t
on rock, 63–64, 65t, 66f, 97 Sheathing, definition of, 228
on soil, 57–61 Sheet pile walls, for earth retaining systems
of substructures, 183 anchored, construction of, 519–520
Settlement analyses, for spread footings, 97 construction of, 518–519
Shaft(s) Shells, of cast-in-place concrete piles, 76
batter, 78 Shoes, for structural steel, requirements for, 286
drilled. See Drilled shafts Shop drawings, for steel structures, 566
test. See Test shafts Shoring, for temporary works, 487
Shafting, steel, for steel structures, 569 Shrinkage, of concrete, definition of, 227
Shallow foundations Shrinkage reinforcement, for reinforced concrete, 216
construction considerations for, 100 Sidewalk
definition of, 92 clearances for, 8
Shear load for, 26
on bending members, for wood structures, 379–380 Sidewalk brackets, for structural steel, requirements for, 287
on concrete slabs, 36 Sills, for timber structures, 611
fasteners subject to Single bents, for structural steel, 271–272
allowable stress for, 292 Single-column piers, design of, 184
slip-resistance of, 292 Single mode analysis, elastic seismic response coefficient for,
tensile stress of, 292 in seismic design, 450
on hybrid girders, 329–330 Single mode spectral analysis method, for seismic analysis,
in loading, 41, 691t–694t 454–455
on longitudinally stiffened girders, 321 Single span bridges
on prestressed concrete, 238–240 seismic analysis requirements for, 453
on reinforced concrete, 198–202, 207–212 seismic design requirements for, 451
on spread footings, 67 Singly symmetric sections, strength design for, 322–323
on steel reinforced elastomeric bearings, 397 Site coefficient, in seismic design, 449–450
and elastomeric pads, 399 Size factor, for bending members, in wood structures, 377–378
in strength design, 321–322 Skew bridges, end panels of, for structural steel, 287
on structural steel, 259 Skew spans, end floor beams for, for structural steel, 287
transfer of, in precast reinforced concrete three-sided Skewed ends, for long-span structural plate structures,
structures, 428 351–352, 353f
on transversely stiffened girders, 320 Skid resistance, for steel grid flooring, 587
wheel load distribution in, 40 Slab(s)
Shear connections base, for retaining walls, gravity and semi-gravity, 126
fatigue in, strength design for, 335 of box culverts, for reinforced concrete, special provisions
as slip-critical connections, 290 for, 201, 211
strength design for, 328 concrete. See Concrete slabs
welded stud, for steel structures, 568–569 for reinforced concrete, special provisions for, 200–201,
Shear connectors 210–211
allowable stress for, 304 reinforcement of, in strength design, 335
for composite girders, 304–307 thickness of, for reinforced concrete, 194–195
Shear friction, in reinforced concrete, 199–200, 209–210 Slab anchorages, multiple, in post-tensioned anchorage zones,
Shear lag, definition of, 227 for prestressed concrete, 242–243
Shear planes, bolt threads in, 290 Slenderness, of longitudinal ribs, maximum, 315
Shear-plate connectors, for timber structures, galvanizing of, Slenderness effects, in compression members, reinforced
608 concrete, 206–207
Shear reinforcement Sliding
in reinforced concrete foundation failure by, on rock, 100
development of, 220 of retaining walls, 177
limits for, 216 Sliding expansion bearings, for structural steel, 285
shear stress carried by, in reinforced concrete, 199 Sliding surfaces
Shear-resisting mechanism, in disc bearings, 401 of bearings
Shear strength curved, 392–393
in prestressed concrete PTFE for, 391–392, 619
provided by concrete, 238–239 of steel reinforced elastomeric bearings, and elastomeric
provided web reinforcement, 239 pads, 400
reinforcement for, of precast reinforced concrete circular Slip coefficient
pipe, in soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction coatings, provided by, 291, 335
systems, 418–419, 422 for paint, 291–292, 335
822 INDEX
Slip-critical connections design of, 340

allowable stress for, unit stress increase for, percentage of, end treatments in, 341
291 load factor design in, 342
definition of, 290 long-span structural plate structures in, 348–354
force on, limit on, 291 materials for, 340
slip-resistance of, 292 minimum spacing in, 341
Slip-critical joints, strength design for, 333 notations for, 339
for overload, 334–335 scope of, 339
Slip-force, on slip-critical connections, allowable, 291, 291t service load design in, 341–342
Slip-resistance spiral rib metal pipe in, 345–346
per unit area, 291 structural plate pipe in, 347–348
for slip-critical joints, 292 Soil design
Slope paving, concrete, for slope protection, 648–649 in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems, 340
measurement for, 650 for spiral rib metal pipe, 345
payment for, 650 in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, 431–432
Slope protection, 645–650 Soil envelope, design of, for long-span structural plate
construction of, 646–649 structures, 350–351
materials for, 645–646 Soil failure, safety against
measurement for, 649–650 for retaining walls, 176–177, 177f, 178f
payment for, 650 in spread footing design, 97–100
working drawings for, 645 Soil-metal plate interaction, in aluminum design, 337
Slurry, for drilled piles and shafts, 502 Soil profile, in seismic design, 449
Smooth-lined pipes, in soil-corrugated metal structure Soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems,
interactions systems, requirements for, 345 407–429
Soil design for, 409
cohesionless, settlement on, of spread footings, 97 expressions for, 795t–796t
cohesive, settlement on, of spread footings, 97 load factor design for, 409
corrugated metal structure and. See Soil-corrugated metal load on, 409
structure interactions systems notations for, 407–409, 793–794
expansive, external loading from, on driven piles, 72 reinforced concrete pipe in, 409–423
as foundation, bearing capacity of, 97–98 service load design for, 409
joints and, for metal culverts, 661 soil in, 409
problems with, in foundation design, 43–44, 44t Soil reinforcement connections, design of, for retaining walls,
reinforced concrete structures and. See Soil-reinforced 164
concrete structure interaction systems Soil reinforcement pullout design, for retaining walls,
requirements for, for long-span structural plate structures, 148–149, 150f, 151f
350 Soil reinforcement strength design, for retaining walls,
and retaining walls, 116 158–160
selection of Soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, 431–436
in drilled shaft design, 80 Soldier pile walls, construction of, for earth retaining systems,
in driven piles design, 70 518–519
in spread footing design, 48 anchored, 519–520
in soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems, 409 Sole plates, for structural steel, requirements for, 286
in installation of reinforced concrete pipe, 410 Solid cover plates, allowable stress for, 300
spread footings on Solid rib arches
bearing capacity of, 49–57 allowable stress for, 302–303
eccentric loading in, 50–51, 52f, 53f strength design for, 331
embedment depth in, 51 Solid wall piers, design of, 183
factors in, 50, 50t Solvent cleaning, of metal, before painting, 593
factors of safety for, 57 Spacing
ground surface slope in, 51, 54f of drilled shafts, 91
ground water in, 55, 55f of driven piles, 75
with inclined base, 57, 57f in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, 432
inclined loading in, 51 Span length
layered soil in, 55–57, 56f for bending members, in wood structures, 377
shape in, 51 in loading, 41, 691t–694t
design for, 49 for precast reinforced concrete three-sided structures, 428
settlement of, 57–61 for prestressed concrete, 228
support of, for long-span structural plate structures, 352 for reinforced concrete, 193–194
thermoplastic pipes and, 431–436 factors in, 196t
Soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems, 339–356 for reinforced concrete boxes
buckling in, 341, 342 cast-in-place, 425
corrugated metal pipe in, 342–345 precast, 427
INDEX 823
Special anchorage device ground stability of, dynamic, 61

acceptance test for, 555–556 settlement of, 57–61
definition of, 227 soil failure and, 97–100
in post-tensioned anchorage zones, for prestressed concrete, stability of, 64–66
246–247 structural design of, 66–68
Spike-grid connectors, for timber structures, galvanizing of, terminology for, 48f
608–609 transfer of forces to, 67–68
Spiral reinforcement uplift on, 94
definition of, 192 Square ends, for long-span structural plate structures, 351–352,
for precast concrete piles, 75 353f
Spiral rib metal pipe, in soil-corrugated metal structure Stability
interactions systems, 345–346 of abutments, 185
Splices of foundations, 43
in cast-in-place concrete piles, 76 of ground, dynamic, of spread footings on soil, 61
in flanges, in structural steel, 273–275 of retaining walls, 115–116
lap anchored, 136
for reinforced concrete, 222 gravity and semi-gravity, 126, 177–179
for reinforcing steel, 551 mechanically stabilized earth, 138–143, 140f, 141f, 142f,
in piles, 496 143f, 161–164, 162f, 163f
measurement for, 497 calculation of loads for, 144–147, 145f, 147f
in precast concrete piles, 76 non-gravity cantilevered, 132
in prestressed concrete piles, 78 prefabricated modular, 171–172, 172f, 173f
of reinforcement, for reinforced concrete, 222–224 of spread footings, 64–66
in spread footings, 68 loss of, 100
in steel H-piles, 76–77 of steel reinforced elastomeric bearings, 398
strength design of, 331–333 and elastomeric pads, 400
in structural steel, 272–278 Staged construction, seismic design requirements for, 452
in tubular steel piles, 77 Stainless steel reinforcing bars, materials for, 549
web, in structural steel, 275–277 Standard hooks, for reinforced concrete, development of,
welded. See Welded splices 220–221, 221f
Split ring connectors, for timber structures, galvanizing of, 608 Standard shell end types, for long-span structural plate
Splitting tensile strength, definition of, 192 structures, 351–352
Spread box girders, load distribution for bending moment of, Static load tests, for bearing capacity determination, for pile
41 driving, 495–496
Spread footings Stay-in-place deck forms, for structural steel, 287
anchorage for, 93–94 Stay-in-place forms, 486
depth of, 48–49, 93 Stay plates, for trusses, structural steel, 269–270
design requirements for, 45, 93–100 Steam
deterioration of, 94–95 for curing concrete, 541
frost action on, 93 for metal cleaning, before painting, 593
groundwater and, 94 Steel
moments on, 67 allowable stress for, 287, 288t–289t
notations for, 45–48, 95, 97 for bearings, 618
on rock bundling of, for prestressed concrete, 247–248
bearing capacity of, 62–63, 63t, 98–100, 99t, 101t under compressive bending stress, allowable stress for, 295
design of, 61–64 for concrete structures, 526–527
settlement of, 63–64, 65t, 66f cover for, for prestressed concrete, 247–248
scour protection for, 49, 93 fabrication of, 570–576
service limit states for, movement under, 97 in ground anchors, 508
shear in, 67 identification of, during fabrication, 570
on soil prestressing type. See Prestressing steel
bearing capacity of, 49–50 reinforcing, for drilled piles and shafts, 500
eccentric loading in, 50–51, 52f, 53f spacing of, for prestressed concrete, 247–248
embedment depth in, 51 for steel grid flooring, 587
factors in, 50, 50t storage of, 570
factors of safety for, 57 straightening, 571
ground surface slope in, 51, 54f structural type. See Structural steel
ground water in, 55, 55f in timber structures, 607
with inclined base, 57, 57f Steel bars, allowable stress for, 293, 293t
inclined loading in, 51 Steel castings, for steel structures, 569
layered soil in, 55–57, 56f Steel conduits, in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions
shape in, 51 systems
design of, 49–61 for corrugated metal pipe, 344
824 INDEX
for spiral rib metal pipes, 346 for glued laminated timber longitudinal flooring,
Steel facings, design of, for mechanically stabilized earth arrangement of, 40
retaining walls, 161 longitudinal, in allowable stress design, 298–299
Steel forgings transverse. See Transverse stiffeners
allowable stress for, 293, 293t transverse intermediate. See Transverse intermediate
for steel structures, 569 stiffeners
Steel grid floors, 587–589 Stiffness
wheel load distribution to, 41 of reinforced concrete, 193
Steel H-piles, 76–77 of steel tunnel liner plates, minimum, 406
Steel piles, 489 Stirrups
deterioration of, protection against, 74 definition of, 192
measurement for, 497 radial, reinforcement for, of precast reinforced concrete
splicing, 496 circular pipe, 418–419, 422
tubular, unfilled, 77 Stitch fasteners, for structural steel, 283–284
Steel pipes, in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions Stone(s)
systems, requirements for as copings, 601
corrugated, 345 as cores and backing, 600
spiral rib corrugated, 346 for masonry
structural plate, 348 manufacture of, 598–599
Steel plates placement of, 599–600
in disc bearings, 401 selection of, 599–600
fabrication of, 570–571 storage of, 597
Steel railings, 637 for slope protection, placement of, 647
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings Stone masonry, 597–602
design of, 395–398 beds for, 600
elastomeric pads and, design of, 398–400 construction of, 599–602
fabrication requirements for, 626 joints in, 600
material requirements for, 620 measurement for, 602
materials for, 395 payment for, 602
Steel shafting, for steel structures, 569 Stone railings, 638
Steel soil reinforcements, connection strength for, for Straightedging, of concrete structures, 538
mechanically stabilized earth retaining walls, 158 Straightening, of steel, 571
Steel stress, of prestressed concrete, flexural strength of, 237 Strand
Steel structures, 565–585 identification for, 557
assembly of, 576–583 testing of, 557–558
bolting, 576 Stream current, forces from, 28
connection preassembly, 576–577 Strength
match marking, 577 for reinforced concrete, 202
welded connections in, 576 requirements for
welding, 583 in foundation design, 93
erection of, 583–584 in retaining wall design, 175
inspection of, 565–566 Strength design
materials for, 566–569 assumptions of, 316
measurement for, 584–585 for braced non-compact sections, 318
payment for, 585 for compact sections, 317–318
working drawings for, 566 for composite box girders, 326–328
Steel tunnel liner(s), 657–658 for composite sections, 323–326
Steel tunnel liner plates, 403–406 for flexural members, 317–322
chemical requirements for, 406 for hybrid girders, 328–330
coatings for, 406 for partial-braced members, 319–320
design of, 404–405 for positive moment sections, composite, 324–325
expressions for, 792t for reinforced concrete, 202–213
loads on, 403–404 for shear connections, 328
mechanical requirements for, 406 for singly symmetric sections, 322–323
notations for, 403, 791 for structural steel, scope of, 316
safety factors for, 406 theory of, 316
section properties for, 406 Strength limit states
Step bevel ends, for long-span structural plate structures, for drilled shafts, resistance at, 107–108
351–352, 353f for driven piles, resistance at, 103–105
Stiffeners for foundation design, 92–93, 94t, 95t, 96t
bearing, 294, 299 for retaining walls, 175
for compression flanges, 312 Strength-reduction factors
fit of, for steel, 571 for reinforced concrete pipe, 417
INDEX 825
in soil-reinforced concrete structure interaction systems Structural steel, 251–336

for precast reinforced concrete circular pipe, 417 allowable stress for, 288t–289t
in precast reinforced concrete three-sided structures, 428 bents for, 271–272
for reinforced concrete arches, cast-in-place, 424 bolts for, 281–284
Stress(es) camber for, 267
allowable, design for. See Allowable stress design closed sections in, 280
combined connections in, strength of, 278–279
in allowable stress design, 301 contraction of, 266
compression members with, in wood structures, 381 cover plates for, 266–267
in composite girders, 304–305 cross frames for, 279–280
conversion factors for, 701 deflections in, 260, 263
maximum. See Maximum stress depth ratios for, 260
measurement of, in prestressing, 561 design requirements for
in non-compact composite sections, 325 for seismic performance category A, 458
in shear parallel to grain, on bending members, in wood for seismic performance category B, 462
structures, 379 for seismic performance categories C and D, 471
Stress distribution, on spread footings, on soil, 57, 58f design stress for, 316
Stress grades, in flexure, for wood structures, 360 diaphragms for, 279–280
Stress relieving, in structural members, 573–574 for earth retaining systems, 517
Stress transfer, concrete strength at, in prestressed concrete, 247 effective span length for, 259–260
Striking off, of concrete structures, 538 expansion of, 266
Stringers expressions for, 759t–785t
bending moments in, 32–33 fasteners for, 281–284
end connections of, in structural steel, 279 fillet welds for, effective size of, 280–281
in floor system, for structural steel, 286 flexural members of, 266
for timber structures, 611–612 lateral bracing for, 280
Strip floors, for timber structures, 612 materials in, 257, 258t
Structural capacity members of, limiting lengths for, 263–265
of driven pile sections, 73–74 notations for, 251–257, 753–758
of driven piles, 102 painting, 591–592
of spread footings, 100 pockets in, 280
Structural composite lumber, for wood structures, 359 repetitive loading in, 259, 260t, 261t–263t, 264f
bending members in, size factor for, 378 requirements for, for steel structures, 566–567
camber for, 377 rivets for, 281–284
design values for, 360 splices in, 272–278
wet service factor for, 368 thickness of metal in, 265
Structural design toughness in, 259, 260t, 261t–263t, 264f
of drilled shafts, 90–91, 108–109 towers for, 271–272
of driven piles, 105 welding of, 280–281
of retaining walls Structure(s), existing, removal of, 481–482
anchored, 136–138 Structure design, for long-span structural plate structures,
gravity and semi-gravity, 126–129 348–349
non-gravity cantilevered, 132–133 Strut(s), in anchorage zones, for prestressed concrete, 244
of spread footing, 66–68 Strut-and-tie models, in anchorage zone design, 243–244
Structural failure, of retaining walls, safety against, 179, 179f Stub abutments, design of, 184
Structural integrity, 3 Stud(s), for pneumatically applied mortar, 653
Structural lightweight concrete, definition of, 192 Substructures, 183–187. See also Foundation(s)
Structural members definition of, 183
design forces for, for seismic performance categories C and design of, for wind loads, 27
D, 465 design requirements for, for seismic performance category
design requirements for, for seismic performance category B, 459
B, 459 forces on, 27
Structural plate, for metal culverts, 659 foundation for, 183
Structural plate arches loads on, 183
in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems, 348 mathematical model of, for multimode spectral analysis
standard terminology for, 349f method for seismic analysis, 456
Structural plate box culverts notations for, 183
installation of, 356 retaining walls for, 183
manufacture of, 356 settlement of, 183
in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems, Subsurface exploration
354–356 in foundation design, 43–45, 44t
Structural plate pipes, in soil-corrugated metal structure in retaining wall design, 116–117
interactions systems, 347–348 Superelevation, design provisions for, 5
826 INDEX
Superstructure fasteners subject to, tensile stress of, 292

concrete for, placement of, 533 for tension members, in wood structures, 382–383
design of, for wind loads, 26–27 Tension flange
design requirements for, for seismic performance category for composite box girders, 327
B, 459 transverse intermediate stiffeners in bearing with, 298
forces from, 27 Tension members
mathematical model of, for multimode spectral analysis splices in, in structural steel, 277
method for seismic analysis, 456 for structural steel, riveted or high-strength bolted, net
orthotropic-deck, allowable stress in, 314–316 section of, 271
for prestressed concrete, deflection limitations for, 231 for wood structures, 382–383
reinforced concrete, limitations for, 194 Tension tie member, definition of, 192
reinforcement of, at junction with pile, 76 Tensioning, of prestressing steel, 560–562
Support attachments, for bending members, in wood Test(s) and testing
structures, 377 of bearings, 627–632
Support length, minimum of brick masonry, 603–604
in seismic design, 451 of concrete block masonry, 603–604
for seismic performance category B, 460 of embedment anchors, 685
for seismic performance categories C and D, 468 full-sized, for steel, 576
Support systems, for reinforcing steel, 550 in retaining wall design, 117
Surcharge loadings, in retaining wall design of substructure, 45
anchored, 133–136 Test bells
gravity and semi-gravity, 121–123, 123f measurement for, 505
non-gravity cantilevered, 129–132 payment for, 505
Surface finishes Test piles, 69
for concrete structures, 541–542 driving, 493–494
of stone, 598 Test shafts
Sway bracing, for trusses, for structural steel, 269 construction of, 503
Symmetric sections, singly, strength design for, 322–323 measurement for, 505
payment for, 505
Texturing, of concrete structures, 538–539
T Thermal forces, design provisions for, 28
Thermoplastic pipes, 687–689
T-beams assembly of, 688
diaphragms for, for prestressed concrete, 230 installation of, 688–689
effective flange width for, for prestressed concrete, 229 materials for, 687
T-girder flange, width of, for reinforced concrete, 194 measurement for, 689
Tapered piles, precast concrete, minimum diameter of, 75 payment for, 689
Tapered plates, for bearings, 402 soil interaction with. See Soil-thermoplastic pipe
Tee sections, effective area of, for structural steel, 265–266 interactions systems
Temperature, grouting and, in prestressing, 563 working drawings for, 687
Temperature stresses, reinforcement for, for reinforced Thread length, of bolts, calculation of, 290
concrete, 216 Thrust, of walls, in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions
Temporary bridges, 488 systems, 340
seismic design requirements for, 452 Ties
Temporary casing construction method, for drilled piles and in anchorage zones, for prestressed concrete, 244
shafts, 501 for compression members, for reinforced concrete, 215–216
Temporary railings, 638 definition of, 192
Temporary works, 483–488 Timber
Tendon(s) for earth retaining systems, 517
definition of, 228 glued laminated. See Glued laminated timber
of ground anchors painting of, 595
encapsulation protected, 509 storage of, 609
grout protected, 508–509 for timber structures, 607
insertion of, 510 treated, 609–610
storage and handling of, 509 Timber decks, deflection of, in wood structures, 360
prestressing, testing samples of, 558 Timber facings, design of, for mechanically stabilized earth
Tendon bond length, for ground anchors, 508 retaining walls, 161
Tensile strength, splitting, definition of, 192 Timber flooring, wheel load distribution on, 38–40
Tensile stress, on fasteners, subject to shear and tension, 292 Timber piles, 78, 489
Tension cutoff for, 496
allowable stress in, for bolts, 290t, 291 deterioration of, protection against, 75
applied, fasteners subject to, allowable stress for, 292 measurement for, 497
combined, fasteners subject to, allowable stress for, 292 splicing, 496
INDEX 827
Timber railings, 638 for structural steel, 268–271

Timber structures, 607–613 in floor system, 286
construction of, 609–613 for timber structures, 613
fabrication of, 609–613 Truss chords, splices in, in structural steel, 272
materials for, 607–609 Truss spans, for structural steel
measurement for, 613 end floor beams for, 287
painting of, 613 half-through, 270
payment for, 613 Tubes, for formwork, 485–486
Time history method, for seismic analysis, 456 Tubular piers, design of, 184
Tire contact area, for loading, 42 Tubular steel piles, unfilled, 77
Tolerable deformations, of retaining walls, 116 Tunnel(s), highway clearances for, 8–10, 9f
Tolerable movement Tunnel liners
of driven piles, 74 concrete, 657–658
of spread footings, on soil, 61 steel, 657–658
Tooled finish, for concrete structures, 542 Turned bolts, for steel structure assembly, 577
Torsional stress, in cross sections, 336
Toughness, in structural steel, 259, 260t, 261t–263t, 264f
Towers, for structural steel, 271–272 U
Traffic barriers, on mechanically stabilized retaining walls,
169–170 Unbonded length, for ground anchors, 509
Traffic lane(s), in live load, 25 Unbonded tendons, post-tensioning, 554–555
Traffic lane loads. See Lane loads Uncoated reinforcing steel, materials for, 549
Traffic loads Underpasses, highway clearances for, 8, 9f
on concrete structures, application of, 547 Uniform load method, for seismic analysis, 454
on mechanically stabilized retaining walls, 169–170 Unit stress, percentage increase of, for allowable stress, 291
Traffic railings, highway clearances for, 10–11, 13f United States, acceleration coefficients for, in seismic design,
Traffic signals, structural support for, 337 447f
Transfer, definition of, 228 Unreinforced concrete footings, structural design of, 68
Transfer length, definition of, 228 Untreated timber piles, limits on use of, 78
Transfer of force, to spread footings, 67–68 Uplift
Transitions, strength design for, 318–319 design provisions for, 28
Transverse beams on driven piles, 103
in orthotropic-deck superstructures, 315 on spread footings, 94
unsupported edges of, load distribution and, 37 Uplift loads, on driven piles, 72
Transverse intermediate stiffeners Upset ends, for structural steel, 285
in allowable stress design, 297–298 U.S. customary conversion, 701–702
in bearing with tension flange, 298 Utilities, design provisions for, 5
in strength design, 322
Transverse reinforcement, in reinforced concrete design
requirements, for seismic performance category B, V
462–463
Transverse stiffeners Vehicular railings, highway clearances for, 10–11, 13f, 14f
for bending members, in wood structures, 377 Vents
for girders, strength design for, 320–321 definition of, 227
for longitudinally stiffened box girders, 310–312, 328 placement of, in prestressing, 556
for longitudinally stiffened girders, 299 Vertical ground movement, load from, on driven piles, 72
moment of inertia for, 298 Vertical reinforcement, for precast concrete piles, 75
singly symmetric sections with, strength design for, 322 Vertical shear, in composite girders, 307
in strength design, 322 Vibrations, in orthotropic-deck superstructures, 315
Transverse timber flooring, wheel load distribution on, 38–39 Volume factor, for bending members, in wood structures, 378
Treated timber, 609–610, 615–616
Treated timber piles, limits on use of, 78
Treatment, preservative, for wood structures, 359 W
Trenches
in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems, 340 Wall(s)
for thermoplastic pipes, width of, 688–689 for earth retaining systems, backfill for, 516–517
Truck loads, 20, 22f, 23f in soil-corrugated metal structure interactions systems
distribution of, to cantilevered concrete slabs, 36 area of
Truck train loading, 695f load factor design for, 342
Trumpets, for ground anchors, 509 service load design for, 341
installation of, 510 thrust in, 340
Truss(es) in soil-thermoplastic pipe interactions systems, area of
in allowable stress design, 300–301 load factor design for, 433
828 INDEX
service load design for, 432 for reinforced concrete, 194–195

Wall stems, for gravity and semi-gravity retaining walls, 126 Weep holes
Washers for earth retaining systems, 517
for structural steel, 282–283 for stone masonry, 601
for timber structures, 610–611 Weld(s)
for wood structures, 383 flange to web, in composite box girders, 312, 328
Water seal, for structural steel, 281
for concrete structures, 526 strength design for, 331
control of Weld metal
for excavation and backfill, 478 allowable stress for, 287
for temporary works, 487 material requirements for, 257
for grout, in prestressing, 560 Welded connections, in steel structure assembly, 576
for latex modified concrete type wearing surface, 679 Welded plate girders
for pneumatically applied mortar, 653 allowable stress for, 294–295
Water method, for curing concrete, 540 bearing stiffeners for, 299
Water pressure, on retaining walls heat-curved, for structural steel, 267–268
anchored, 136 Welded splices
non-gravity cantilevered, 132 for reinforced concrete, 222–223
rigid gravity and semi-gravity, 176 for reinforcing steel, 551
Waterproof cover method, for curing concrete, 540–541 in structural steel, 277–278
Waterproofing, 639–643 Welded stud shear connectors, for steel structures, 568–569
application of, 640–643 Welded wire fabric
inspection of, 640 for reinforced concrete
materials for, 639–640 development of, 221–222
measurement for, 643 splices of, 223–224
payment for, 643 splicing, 552
surface preparation for, 640 Welding
Waterstops, for concrete structures, 536–537 of metal culverts, 660
Watertight gaskets, flexible, for concrete culverts, 669 of railings, 637
Waterways, design provisions about, 3–4 of steel grid flooring, 588
Wave equation of steel structures, 583
applied to piles, for bearing capacity determination, of structural steel, 280–281
494–495 Wet construction method, for drilled piles and shafts, 500–501
driven piles evaluated with, 74 Wet service factor, for wood structure materials, 360, 366t,
Wearing surface(s), 679–683 368
latex modified concrete type, 679–683 Wheel guards, for timber structures, 612
for orthotropic-deck superstructures, 316 Wheel load(s)
Weather conditions distribution of, for culverts, 181
brick masonry and, 604 edge distance of, 35
concrete block masonry and, 604 in orthotropic-deck superstructures, 314
paint and, 591–592 Wheel load distribution, 33t, 34t
and pneumatically applied mortar, 655 on steel grid floors, 41
stone masonry and, 599 on timber flooring, 38–40
Web(s) on transverse timber flooring, 38–39
bending stress in, in strength design, 336 Wind loads, 26–27
for composite sections Wingwalls, design of, 187
compact, 324–325 Wire
strength design for, 323 deformed
shear stress in, 336 development of, for reinforced concrete, 219
for structural steel, requirements for, 286 splices of, for reinforced concrete, 223
Web plates identification for, 557
for composite box girders, 307–308, 327 testing of, 557–558
for solid rib arches, 331 Wire bar supports, for reinforcing steel, 551
allowable stress for, 303 Wire brushed finish, for concrete structures, 542
thickness of, 296–297 Wire-enclosed riprap, for slope protection, 645
Web reinforcement, shear strength provided by, in prestressed fabrication of, 647–648
concrete, 239 installation of, 648
Web splices, in structural steel, 275–277 measurement for, 649
Web thickness payment for, 650
for compact sections, 317 Wire fabric, welded. See Welded wire fabric
for longitudinally stiffened girders, 321 Wobble friction, definition of, 228
for non-compact sections, braced, 318 Wood, preservative treatment for, 615–616
for partially-braced members, 323 Wood structures, 357
INDEX 829
bending members for, 369, 377–382 for ground anchors, 507

compression members for, 380–382 for metal culverts, 659
expressions for, 789t for precast concrete members, 543
materials for, 358–359 for prestressing, 553–554
mechanical connections in, 383 for slope protection, 645
notations for, 357–358, 787–788 for steel grid flooring, 587
tension members for, 382–383 for steel structures, 566
wet service factors for, 366t for temporary works, 483
Work(s), temporary, 483–488 for thermoplastic pipes, 687
Working drawings Working lines, for trusses, for structural steel, 269
for bearings, 633 Wrapping, definition of, 228
for concrete culverts, 669
for deck joint seals, 635
for drilled piles and shafts, 499–500 Y
for earth retaining systems, 515
for excavation and backfill, 477 Yield point, definition of, 192
for existing structure removal, 481 Yield strength, definition of, 192
COMMENTARIES
1996 Commentary to
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges
INTRODUCTION C5.8.1 Structure Dimensions
Note: The 16th Edition of Standard Specifications of The existing specifications regarding embedment depth
Highway Bridges includes a Commentary to offer further are based on latent physical characteristics of the ground.
explanation of the revisions provided in 1996. Because of this, most cases are overly conservative, but
extreme cases could be equally unconservative. Embed-
DIVISION I ment depths should be based on engineering calculations
for stability, bearing capacity, and settlement. Frost heave,
C5.2.1.4 MSE Walls scour and proximity to slopes are special considerations.
The existing specification is restrictive because it refers C5.8.2 External Stability and Figure 5.8.4.1A
only to modular precast facing. The proposed wording al-
lows the use of other kinds of facings which are available The existing specification requires the designer to use
today. Equation (5.8.2.1) to determine the lateral earth pressure
coefficient needed for external stability calculations for
C5.2.2.3 Overall Stability MSE walls. However, for all other gravity walls, the de-
signer is required to use Figure 5.5.2B. Since the lateral
The existing specification implies that it is acceptable
to proceed with a wall design without soil/rock data by earth pressure coefficient is not dependent on wall type,
using a slightly higher factor of safety. It is clearly un- there should not be two methods in the specification. In
acceptable and dangerous to proceed with a wall design addition, for current practice, it is generally assumed that
without adequate data; and, it conflicts with minimum no wall friction is generated at the back of the wall for
standards of safety for site investigations already con- overturning and sliding calculations for MSE walls. This
tained in AASHTO Bridge Specifications. The proposed can be easily accommodated by setting d 5 b. This pro-
revision requires that site data be obtained for all wall posal eliminates Equation (5.8.2.1) and requires the use of
designs, but still distinguishes between normal wall in- Figure 5.5.2.B.
stallations and those supporting bridge abutments, build- Additional revisions in this Article include the elimi-
ings or critical utilities. nation of the reference to 0.7 as the minimum reinforce-
ment ratio in the fifth paragraph and in Figures 5.8.2A,
C5.5.5 Structure Dimensions and External Stability 5.8.2B, and 5.8.2C. Also revised is Figure 5.8.4.1A for the
same reason.
Existing Article 5.5.5 requires the same factor of safety In Figure 5.8.2A, the term V2, which is the weight of
for seismic loads as for static loads. However, Article the traffic surcharge above the reinforced soil mass, con-
5.8.10.1 allows a reduced factor of safety for seismic loads. flicts with V2, as defined in the Notations Section, which
It is reasonable to use a lower factor of safety for seismic is the weight of the sloping soil surcharge on top of the re-
loads because it is an infrequent and temporary load. For
inforced soil mass. Rather than introduce another V term,
static loads, we reserve some capacity for unknown loads,
it is believed that the “q” load symbol above the rein-
fabrication, and workmanship. The proposed revision al-
forced soil mass is adequate to give direction to the de-
lows the designer to use judgment for the specific site and
signers. Also revised is the formula for factor of safety
also brings this article in line with MSE wall criteria.
against sliding, which should not include the traffic sur-
C5.6.2 Earth Pressure and Surcharge Loading charge above the reinforced soil mass since this would
provide a higher factor of safety than is realistic. It should
This revision is to correct an error in the formula for include the traffic surcharge behind the soil mass.
embedment in rock in Figure 5.6.2A. See also C5.8.2 (1998).
C-3
C-4 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
C5.8.3 Bearing Capacity and Foundation Stability vertical shear reinforcement in the girders, to be extended
into the cast-in-place deck. This extended reinforcement
The existing specification is conservative for locations is often shaped in the configuration of a bent stirrup.
in rock and is not consistent with Article 4.4.8. The pro- The purpose of this reinforcement is to provide addi-
posed revision to Article 5.5.5 covers this issue ade- tional composite action between the girder and the deck.
quately, so this revision to Article 5.8.3 is to eliminate the The primary design mechanism for the horizontal shear
sentence and refer to Article 5.5.5 for guidance on loca- at the interface, is the shear friction theory. Other design
tion of the resultant force. criteria include the control of slippage at service load and
fatigue strength. The parameters for shear friction design
are outlined in the AASHTO Specifications.
C5.8.7.1 Allowable Stresses, Steel Reinforcements
The amount of steel crossing the interface using cur-
rent provisions, may in some cases be much larger than
The existing specification requires transverse and lon-
that required by the shear friction theory.
gitudinal grid members to be the same size. Since welded
In regards to bridge construction, this provision has
wire is generally not manufactured with these bars being
been shown to increase the amount of time required to re-
the same size, the revision allows the bars to be sized
move the bridge deck from the top of the girders. Clean-
properly and refers to ASTM A-185, the most widely ac-
ing the concrete deck from around the extended shear
cepted standard for welded wire.
stirrups is a labor intensive process, and includes the pos-
sibility of damage to the top flange of the girder, especially
C8.15.5.5.5, C8.27.1, C8.16.6.5.5, and C9.20.4.5 when small stirrups at narrow spacing are used.
This revision is intended to permit decreasing the num-
Since the implementation of reinforced concrete and ber of extended shear stirrups into the deck slab provided
prestressed concrete into the AASHTO Specification, a the beam shear reinforcement is adequately anchored to
provision in both respective design sections calls for all provide full beam design shear capacity.
Section 17 General The Concrete Pipe Technology Handbook presents

historical and current state-of-the-art design and method-
Section 17 has been revised to incorporate new ologies from the development of the Marston-Spangler
Standard Installations for concrete pipe, replacing the theories, through the Olander and Paris methods to the
historical B, C, and D beddings as explained later in development of the Standard Installations, the associated
this Commentary. The earth loads and pressure distribution earth loads and pressure distribution (named Heger distri-
associated with the new beddings are also incorporated as bution), and the direct design method. The handbook also
described in the appropriate commentary articles. presents example design calculations done by hand and by
Direct design for pipe installed in the new Stan- using SIDD.
dard Installations, using the design equations that have The new Standard Installations and associated direct
been a part of Section 17 since 1983, is facilitated using design method were extensively considered by a new
the Federal Highway Administration Computer pro- ASCE Standards Committee comprised of consulting en-
gram PIPECAR. This program has recently been updated gineers and technical representatives of user agencies and
to include analysis and design procedures for the earth the pipe industry. The proposed Standard Installations and
loads and pressure distribution associated with the new direct design procedure that is essentially the same as that
Standard Installation types. A version of this program proposed for direct design of buried concrete pipe in Sec-
known as SIDD is also available for direct design of tion 17 were accepted in 1993 as ASCE 15-93, Standard
concrete pipe using only the earth loads and pressure Practice for Direct Design of Buried Precast Concrete
distribution associated with the new Standard Installations. Pipe Using Standard Installations (SIDD).
An alternate indirect design procedure for pipe in- See also C Section 17 (1997).
stalled in one of the new Standard Installations is also in-
cluded in this revision of Section 17 to facilitate the use of C17.1.2 Notations
these installations for indirect pipe design procedures that
related field strength requirements to equivalent three- Seven new parameters are defined as required for de-
edge bearing strengths. sign using the new Standard Installations.
1996 COMMENTARY C-5
C17.4.3 (existing) has been renumbered The new Standard Installations offer the following ad-
vantages for design of concrete pipe:
C17.4.2.3 Concrete Cover for Reinforcement—as a • Specify more quantitative requirements for soil type
subsection under 17.4.2 Materials and level of compaction than the historic B, C, and D
beddings. Thus, design is more rational using them.
• Provide a quantitative and rational basis for direct
design of concrete pipe for the installed condition,
C17.4.3 Installations (new) based on state-of-the-art soil-structure interaction
analyses.
• Do not preclude the use of the more traditional indi-
C17.4.3.1 Standard Installations rect design procedure for engineers who wish to re-
late field strength requirements to equivalent three-
This new section defines the four new Standard Instal- edge bearing test requirements.
lations, Types 1, 2, 3, and 4, for trench and embankment • Allow the use of both select embedment soils (which
installations. See Figure 17.4A for schematic drawings for may have to be imported), or potentially less expen-
various kinds of installation. Specific soil and dimensional sive soils from the site excavations, with proper ac-
requirements for the four Standard Installation types in count of relative properties for supporting the pipe.
trench and embankment configurations are given in Fig- The cost-benefit relationship of pipe strength versus
ures 17.4B and 17.4C and in Tables 17.4A and 17.4B. installation quality can take into consideration more
The four new Standard Installations are recommended easily the use of better quality installations for high
to replace the historic standard installation or bedding fill heights.
classes A, B, and C. This recommendation is based on an • Recognize the benefit of maintaining a lower com-
extensive research program performed by Simpson, paction level below the invert region (middle third
Gumpertz and Heger, Inc. under the direction of Dr. Frank of diameter) relative to the outer third.
J. Heger. Dr. Ernest Selig, Professor of Geotechnical En- • After review by the Technical Committee of the
gineering at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, ACPA and the AASHTO Rigid Culvert Committee,
Massachusetts, was geotechnical consultant for the re- the Rigid Culvert Committee recommended accep-
search team. A comprehensive soil-structure interaction tance of these new Standard Installations and their
analysis and design program named SPIDA was devel- associated direct and indirect design procedures by
oped and used to perform many soil-structure interaction the AASHTO Bridge Committee for inclusion in
analyses for the various soil and installation parameters Section 17 of the AASHTO Bridge Specification.
investigated by the research team. Based on these results, Specific earth loads and earth pressure distributions
and numerous consultations with engineers having exten- are associated with these new Standard Installations.
sive experience with design, construction, and perfor- These are discussed in later sections of this Com-
mance of concrete pipe, the research team recommended mentary.
the four new Standard Installations for concrete pipe to
the Technical Committee of the American Concrete Pipe
Association. C17.4.3.2 Soils
The SPIDA studies used to develop the Standard In-
stallations were conducted for positive projection em- The soil classifications used to define the minimum re-
bankment conditions, which are the worst-case vertical quirements for soil type are given in Table 17.4C.
load conditions for pipe and which provide conservative
results for other embankment and trench conditions. C17.4.4.2.1 Earth Load and Pressure Distribution
These studies also conservatively assumed a hard foun-
dation and bedding existed beneath the invert of the pipe, The earth load for designing pipe in a Standard Instal-
plus void and/or poorly compacted material in the haunch lation is obtained by multiplying the weight of the col-
areas, 15° to 40° each side of the invert, resulting in a umn of earth above the outside diameter of the pipe by
load concentration such that calculated moments, thrusts the soil-structure interaction factor, Fe, for the design in-
and shears were increased. The modeling of the soil pres- stallation type. Fe accounts for the transfer of some of the
sure distribution presented in Figure 17.4A, while an ac- overburden soil above the regions at the sides of the pipe
curate presentation, is additionally conservative by because the pipe is more rigid than the soil at the side of
10–20 percent as compared to the exact SPIDA results. the pipe for pipe in embankment and wide trench instal-
C-6 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
lations. Because of the difficulty of controlling maximum vert installation methods and materials suggests that the
trench width in the field with the widespread use of design for Type 1 installations be modified. This revision
trench boxes or sloped walls for construction safety, the reduces soil-structure interaction for Type 1 installations
potential reduction in earth load for pipe in trenches of by 10 percent until additional performance documentation
moderate to narrow width is not taken into account in the on installation in the field is obtained.
determination of earth load and earth pressure distri-
bution on the pipe. Both trench and embankment in- C17.4.5.1.1 Design D-Load
stallations are to be designed for embankment (positive
projecting) loads and pressure distribution in direct This section specifies how to calculate the required
design, or bedding factors in indirect design. The soil design D-Load for the loads that are specified in Article
structure interaction factor, Fe, is the vertical arching 17.4.4. In Equation (I7-4) the design D-Load, D, is the
factor VAF given for the Heger Pressure Distribution in three-edge bearing test load at the occurrence of a 0.01-
Figure 17.4A. inch crack that produces the same structural effects (bend-
For direct design, the earth pressure distribution and ing moments) as the field load divided by the inside pipe
lateral earth force for a unit vertical load is the Heger pres- diameter in feet.
sure distribution and horizontal arching factor, HAF,
given in Figure 17.4A. The normalized pressure distribu-
C17.4.5.1.2 Ultimate D-Load
tion and HAF values were obtained for each Standard In-
stallation type from the results of soil-structure interaction
The cited material specifications for circular arch, and
analyses using SPIDA together with the minimum soil
elliptical concrete pipe specify the minimum ultimate
properties for the soil types and compaction levels speci-
strength in terms of D-Load required to maintain a mar-
fied in various parts of the installations, as shown in Fig-
gin of safety against ultimate failure of the pipe.
ures 17.4B and C and Tables 17.4A and B.
Equation (17-2) for Fe, with maximum Fe 5 1.2 for
compacted sidefills for embankment installations in the C17.4.5.2 Bedding Factor
previous edition of Section 17, was not found to be con-
sistent with the research results that are the basis of The bedding factors for earth loads on pipe in the four
design with the new Standard Installations. Research Standard Installation types are approximately the ratios of
has indicated values for Fe in the range of 1.35 to 1.45, the maximum bending moments causing tension in the in-
as a function of sidefill compaction, are appropriate for side reinforcing at the pipe invert for installed condition
embankment installations. Evaluation of the soil-structure to the maximum bending moment causing tension in the
interaction factor (also known as arching factor) from the inside reinforcing at the pipe invert for the three-edge
SPIDA studies shows the factor approaches a value of bearing test condition.
1.45 as an upper limit for any of the Standard Installation
types. C17.4.5.2.1 Earth Load Bedding Factor of Circular
Equation (17-3) for Fe2 for trench installation is elimi- Pipe
nated because reduced earth loads for some trench instal-
lations are no longer considered in Section 17. The bedding factors for circular pipe given in Table
17.5A are obtained using the bending moments produced
C17.4.4.2.2 Pipe Fluid Weight by the Heger pressure distributions given in Figure 17.4A
for each of the four standard embankment installations.
The weight of fluid in a full pipe must be considered in The bedding factors for the embankment condition
both the direct and indirect design procedures. Previously, are conservative for each installation. This conservatism
indirect design procedures sometimes neglected the fluid is a result of using worst-case Sol scenarios, voids and
weight. poor compaction in the haunch areas, and a hard bedding
beneath the pipe in determining the moments, thrusts, and
C17.4.5.1 Loads shears used to calculate the bedding factors. The model-
ing of the soil pressure distribution used to determine mo-
The SIDD Standard Installations were developed ments, thrusts, and shears is also conservative by 10-20%,
based on extensive parameter studies using the soil- as compared with the actual SPIDA analysis.
structure interaction program, SPIDA. Although past The indirect design procedure subjects the pipe to se-
research validates that SPIDA soil-structure models vere test load concentrations (three-edge bearing), requir-
correlate well with field measurements, variability in cul- ing service load and ultimate strength to be verified.
1996 COMMENTARY C-7
The net effect of the test requirements and the conser- free ends of loop type stirrups need only be anchored in
vative factors used in determining the magnitude of the the compression zone of the concrete cross section to de-
field moments, thrusts, and shears assure the factors of velop the full tensile strength of the stirrup wire. Stirrup
safety are maintained for each type installation. loop lengths equivalent to 70% of the wall thickness will
provide adequate anchorage.
C17.4.5.2.2 Earth Load Bedding Factor for Arch C17.8 General

and Elliptical Pipe
This proposed specification revision to Section 17 for
The procedure for calculating bedding factors speci- precast three-sided structures was developed in accor-
fied in this article is the traditional procedure of the dance with the survey results of the AASHTO Bridge En-
Marston-Spangler Method modified to use the soil-struc- gineers. The proposed specification was formatted in a
ture interaction factor, Fe, for each Standard Installation similar manner to the current precast box and arch provi-
type. In this procedure, Type 2 bedding is considered sim- sions of Section 17. The proposal is applicable to all the
ilar to Class B, Type 3 bedding is considered similar to known precast three-sided structures and is generic to per-
Class C. Type 1 installations are not given any advantage mit the inclusion of additional structures as they are
and Type 4 installations are not permitted. developed. All the design criteria used in this proposed
specification are consistent with those required for pre-
cast, prestressed, and cast-in-place concrete structures as
C17.4.5.2.3 Live Load Bedding Factor
specified in the AASHTO Bridge Standards.
For pipe installed with 6 feet, or less, of overfill and
C17.8.5.12 Scour Protection
subjected to live loads, the controlling maximum moment
may be at the crown rather than the invert. Consequently,
Specific scour protection was not included in the
the use of an earth load bedding factor, BFe may produce
specification in order to permit each state the option to
unconservative designs. Live load bedding factors, BFLL,
provide the degree of scour protection they deem nec-
determined from an evaluation of the effects of HS20 live
essary.
loads, pipe diameters, burial depths, bedding angles, and
live load angles are presented in Table 17.5B. These live
load bedding factors are satisfactory for a Type 4 Standard C18.1.6.1(b)(1), C18.1.6.1(b)(2), C18.2.3 and C18.3.3
Installation, and are increasingly conservative for Types
3, 2, and 1. When a live load is applied to the pipe, use the Revisions to Article 18.1.6.1(b)(1) are made to agree
live load bedding factor, BFLL, in Table 17.5B unless the with similar wording in the LRFD specification and with
earth load bedding factor, BFe, is of lesser value, in which specifications for similar installations described in Sec-
case, use the lower BFe value in place of BFLL. tion 12.
Revisions to Article 18.1.6.1(b)(2) are made to agree
C17.4.6.2 Strength-Reduction Factors with similar wording in the LRFD specification and with
specifications for similar installations described in Sec-
The SIDD Standard installations were developed tion 12.
based on extensive parameter studies using the soil-struc- Revision to Articles 18.2.3 and 18.3.3 clarify that the
ture interaction program, SPIDA. Although past research initial modulus of elasticity is to be used since handling
validates that SPIDA soil-structure models correlate well and installation strengths are functions of the initial, not
with field measurements, variability in culvert installation sustained, conditions of loading and strain.
methods and materials suggests that the design for Type 1
installations be modified. This revision reduces soil-
structure interaction for Type 1 installations by 10% until
additional performance documentation on installation in Section 27 General
the field is obtained.
The major revisions to Section 27 are due to the revi-
C17.4.6.4.6.3 Stirrup Reinforcement Anchorage sion of the Direct Design Method for circular precast
reinforced concrete pipe to include the Heger Pressure
Stirrup reinforcement anchorage development re- Distribution and Standard Installations, and the revision
search by pipe manufacturers have demonstrated that the of the Indirect Design Method for precast reinforced
C-8 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
concrete circular pipe based on pipe D-Load strength to re- Table 17.4C. The existing Figures 27.5A and 27.5B have
place the historical B, C, and D beddings with the Standard been deleted.
Installations for the embankment and trench conditions.
The SPIDA computer design runs with Standard In- C27.5.2 Bedding
stallations were made with medium compaction of the
bedding under the middle-third of the pipe, and with some This Article has been modified to present the bedding
compaction of the overfill above the springline of the requirements for the pipe and box section products as
pipe. This middle-third area under the pipe in the Standard specified in Section 17. The existing second paragraph,
Installations has been designated as loosely placed, un- which covers all products, has been relabeled as Article
compacted material. The intent is to maintain a slightly 27.5.1, General.
yielding bedding under the middle-third of the pipe so that
the pipe may settle slightly into the bedding and achieve C27.5.4 Backfill
improved load distribution. Compactive efforts in the mid-
dle-third of the bedding with mechanical compactors is This Article has been modified to present the embed-
undesirable, and could produce a hard flat surface, which ment soil and backfill requirements for the pipe and box
would result in highly concentrated stresses in the pipe in- section products as specified in Section 17. The Standard
vert similar to those experienced in the three-edge bearing Installations for precast concrete pipe divide backfill into
test. The most desirable construction sequence is to place three distinct areas labeled haunch, lower side, and overfill.
the bedding to grade; install the pipe to grade; compact the
bedding outside of the middle-third of the pipe; and then
C27.5.4.3 Placing Backfill
place and compact the haunch area up to the springline of
the pipe. The bedding outside of the middle-third of the
The title of this Article has been revised, because the
pipe may be compacted prior to placing the pipe.
Standard Installations for pipe divide backfill into three
Details of the revisions for each article are discussed in
distinct areas labeled haunch, lower side, and overfill.
the following paragraphs.
The word “backfill” in the Article has been changed to “fill”
for the same reason. A new first sentence has been added to
C27.3.3 Bedding Material and Backfill
clarify the parameters on which the compactive process is
dependent. A new sentence has been added after the orig-
This Article has been modified to present the material
inal second sentence to require fill to be placed in 4-inch
requirements for the pipe and box section products as
layers in the lower haunch areas of Types 1, 2, or 3 Stan-
specified in Section 17.
dard Installations for soils requiring 90% or greater
For pipe, the four new Standard Installations were de-
Standard Proctor densities to facilitate compaction of the
veloped for both embankment and trench conditions and
haunch soil under the pipe to at least the specified levels.
are presented in Figures 27.5A, 27.5B, 27.5C, and 27.5D,
which define soil areas and critical dimensions. Generic
soil types and minimum compaction requirements, and Section 29
minimum bedding thicknesses are listed in Tables 27.5A
and 27.5B. The AASHTO Soil Classifications and the The use of embedment anchors is prevalent but stan-
USCS soil classifications equivalent to the generic soil dardized installation and field testing is not. Therefore, a
types in the Standard Installation tables are presented in new Section to Division II—Construction was created.
1997 Commentary to
DIVISION I stress ranges for over 1 million cycles of loading given in

the table in Article 8.32.2.5 are based on statistical tolerance
Commentary to “Section 8—Reinforced Concrete” limits to constant amplitude staircase test data, such that
there is a 95% level of confidence that 95% of the data
C8.32.2.2 would exceed the given values for 5 million cycles of load-
ing. These values may therefore be regarded as a fatigue
The limitation of a “full welded splice” to only butt limit below which fatigue damage is unlikely to occur dur-
welded bars that was included in previous editions of the ing the design lifetime of the structure. This is the same
Specification was deleted. The purpose of this require- basis used to establish the fatigue design provisions for un-
ment is unknown, but it may have been an indirect con- spliced reinforcing bars in Article 8.16.8.3, which is based
sequence of concern about fatigue of other types of on fatigue tests reported in NCHRP Report 164, “Fatigue
welded splices. It should be noted that Article 8.32.2.1 Strength of High-Yield Reinforcing Bars.”
requires all welding of reinforcing bar splices to conform
to the latest edition of the AWS Code, and that this Code C8.16.4.4
limits lap welded splices to bar size No. 6 and smaller.
These additions taken from research conducted at the
C8.32.2.5 University of Texas at Austin by A. W. Taylor, R. B. Row-
ell and J. E. Breen on the subject; Design and Behavior of
Review of the available fatigue and static test data in- Thin Walls in Hollow Concrete Bridge Piers and Pylons
dicates that any splice which develops 125% of the yield provide guidance for these members. This test program,
strength of the bar, will sustain 1 million cycles of a 4 ksi
however, was limited to the case of loading under simul-
constant amplitude stress range. This lower limit is a close
taneous axial and uniaxial bending about the weak axis of
lower bound for the splice fatigue data obtained in
the section. The results of the study have not been con-
NCHRP Project 10-35, and it also agrees well with the
firmed for the case of biaxial loading on hollow sections
limit of 4.5 ksi for Category E from the provisions of fa-
tigue of structural steel weldments. The strength require- in his design.
ments of Articles 8.32.2.2 and 8.32.2.3 also will generally
insure that a welded splice or mechanical connector will Commentary to Section 10
also meet certain minimum requirements for fabrication
and installation such as sound welding and proper dimen- Overview
sional tolerances. Splices which do not meet these re-
quirements for fabrication and installation may have a re- C10.2.3
duced fatigue performance. Further, splices designed to
the lesser force requirements of Article 8.32.3.4 may not Article 10.2.3 has been revised to correspond with the
have the same fatigue performance as splices designed for rewrite of Article 14.6.1.2. Articles 10.2.6.4 and 10.32.4.2
the greater force requirement. Consequently, the mini- have been deleted and replaced by the rewrite of Articles
mum strength requirement indirectly provides for a mini- 14.6.7.1 and 14.6.1.4, respectively.
mum fatigue performance. The proposed changes affect the capacity of girders with
It was found in NCHRP Project 10-35 that there is sub- longitudinally stiffened webs, and the capacity of girder
stantial variation in the fatigue performance of different webs with and without longitudinal stiffeners during con-
types of welds and connectors. However, all types of splices struction. In addition, a separate section on constructibility
appeared to exhibit a constant amplitude fatigue limit for has been added to the LFD portion of the specification
repetitive loading exceeding about 1 million cycles. The to put all the constructibility requirements in one section.
C-9
C-10 HIGHWAY BRIDGES
Other than the changes to the web buckling requirements, Development of Proposed Changes
this new section contains the same provisions as previously
contained in various parts of the specification. The development of the proposed changes is presented
The present specification for longitudinally stiffened below. The details of the development of the buckling co-
webs is based upon the performance of symmetrical gird- efficients is given in reference 1. The buckling stress of a
ers. The buckling coefficient used to set the web thickness steel plate, E 5 29,000,000 psi and Poisson’s ratio 5 0.3,
requirements is based upon a web with the neutral axis at is given by the equation below:
mid-depth and a longitudinal stiffener located 0.2 3 web
depth (D). This stiffener location is the optimum location 26, 200, 000 k
for a symmetrical girder. The buckling mode of the web is Fcr = 2
a buckle in panel above and below the stiffener. If the stiff-  D
 
ener is placed in a lower position in the web, the top panel  tw 
alone buckles at a lower stress due to the increase in its
slenderness. If the stiffener is placed at a higher position in The buckling coefficient, k, relates the geometry of the
the web, the buckle forms in the panel below the stiffener plate and loading to its buckling stress, Fcr. The buckling
also at a lower stress. A similar behavior occurs in an un- coefficient for the web subjected to inplane bending
symmetrical girder. The neutral axis is not a mid-depth in stresses is a function of the boundary conditions assumed
an unsymmetrical girder. Consequently, a stiffener placed at the boundaries of the web. The present AASHTO and
at 0.2D in an unsymmetrical girder is not at the optimum AISC specification are based upon partial rotational re-
location and will result in a lower web buckling capacity. straint of the web by the flange and simply supported con-
The proposed changes to the specification provide a method ditions at the transverse stiffeners. The buckling of a web
to calculate the capacity of the web as a function of the lon- with a longitudinal stiffener is not effected as much by the
gitudinal stiffener location with respect to the web depth in restraint offered by the flange since the flange restraint
compression. The equations are based upon a finite element does not change the capacity of the web panel below the
study of webs contained in reference 1. stiffener. The buckling coefficients for an unstiffened and
The design of longitudinally stiffened composite plate longitudinally stiffened web are given below.
girders is more complex. The steel section normally used Unstiffened Web with Partial Rotational Restraint
is unsymmetrical and often has various size flange plates from Flange
along its length. The location of the neutral axis varies
along the length and consequently the optimum location 2
of the longitudinal stiffener varies. The neutral axis then  D
k = 9 
shifts when load is applied to the composite section with  Dc 
a hardened composite slab. In the positive moment region,
the neutral axis shifts upward reducing the web depth in Longitudinally Stiffened Web
compression and increasing the webs buckling capacity.
In the negative moment region at a pier, the web depth in d
compression increases. The noncomposite construction ≥ 0.4
Dc
loading normally controls the web capacity in the positive
moment region and the composite section controls in neg- 2
 D
ative bending. In positive-moment regions, Dc of the com- k = 5.17 
 ds 
posite section increases with increasing span length be-
cause of the increasing dead to live ratio. As a result, using
ds
Dc of the short-term composite section, as has been the < 0.4
customary practice in the past, is unconservative. Thus, it Dc
is stated that in positive-moment regions, the value of Dc 2
shall be calculated by summing the stresses due the ap-  D 
k = 11.64 
propriate loadings acting on the respective cross sections  ( Dc − ds ) 
supporting the loading. In negative-bending regions of
composite sections using Dc of the composite section Where
consisting of the steel section plus the longitudinal re- D 5 web depth
inforcement is conservative; thus, computing Dc by sum- Dc 5 web depth in compression
ming stresses from the various stages of loading is not ds 5 distance from bottom of compression flange to
necessarily required. centerline of longitudinal stiffener.
1997 COMMENTARY C-11
Two buckling coefficients are listed for the longitudi- The wording is changed to clarify that the limits apply
nally stiffened web. The two equations give the buckling only to symmetrical girders.
coefficient when the stiffener is above or below the opti-
mum location. When ds is less than 0.4 Dc, the stiffener is C10.34.5.1
above the optimum location and the buckling occurs in the
lower panel. When ds is greater than 0.4 Dc, the panel be- Section reworded to give guidance to the designer in
tween the stiffener and the flange buckles. When ds 5 0.4 selecting the stiffener location which will allow the thinnest
Dc, the stiffener is at the optimum location and buckling web. An equation is provided for the positive moment
occurs in both panels and both equations give the same section stiffener location.
value, 129, for the buckling coefficient.
The buckling coefficient for webs without a longitudi- C10.34.5.2
nal stiffener is calculated using the buckling coefficient
assuming partial restraint from the flanges. An a value of Required thickness of stiffener written as a function of
1.3 is used with this buckling coefficient when checking the compression flange yield stress to insure the stiffener
a girder without a longitudinal stiffener. The a offsets the is adequate to develop the yield strength of the section.
load factor of 1.3 used for dead load. The result is that The equation proposed gives the same value as the present
webs without longitudinal stiffeners are checked against equation when fb 5 0.55 Fy.
local web buckling during construction without a load
factor as a serviceability condition and for their post buck- C10.38.1.7
ling strength with a load factor in Article 10.48.4.1 using
the Rb strength reduction factor. Reference to LFD eliminated. Section refers only to
These buckling coefficients are used to determine the ca- ASD provisions to eliminate confusion.
See also C10.38.1 (1999).
pacity of the girders during construction and maximum load
in ASD. The maximum load capacity of the girders in LFD
C10.48.4.1
is based upon their postbuckling strength. The postbuckling
strength is given as before as RbMr where Rb is the post-
The strength of girders with or without longitudinally
buckling strength reduction due to the shedding of the stress
stiffened webs which have a web buckling stress less than
from the buckled web to the flange. The post buckling
the yield strength are based upon the postbuckling capac-
strength of webs with and without longitudinal stiffeners is
ity RbMr.
the same since the longitudinal stiffener is not adequate to See also C10.48.4.1 (1999).
resist the lateral deformation of the web after buckling.
Footnote b of Article 10.48.1
Specific Commentary of the Proposed Changes
Revised to refer to new Article 10.61.1.
C10.34.3.2.1
C10.48.6.1
Equation for required web slenderness written as a func-
tion of stiffener location and depth of the web in com- Web limits in this section apply only to symmetrical
pression. The proposed equation gives the same value as girders.
the present specification when Dc 5 D/2 (a symmetrical See also C10.48.6.1 (1999).
girder), and ds 5 0.4 Dc 5 0.2 D.
See also C10.34.3.2.1 (1999). C10.49.3.2
Figure 10.34.1A Section reworded to give guidance to the designer in

selecting the stiffener location which will allow the thinnest
Axis title changed to reflect that the figure is only ap- web. An equation is provided for the positive moment
plicable to a symmetric girder with a stiffener at the opti- section stiffener location.
mum location. See also C10.49.3.2 (1999).
C10.34.3.2.2 C10.50
The values for the limit are shown to three significant Clarified wording to indicate that the value of Dc should
figures to match other similar tables in the specification. be calculated by summing the stresses on the appropriate
sections in positive-moment regions. Constructibility re- its, etc. However, the equations better lend themselves to
quirements removed and section (d) added to direct the direct computations.
engineer to the new constructibility section 10.61.
Commentary to Section 14—Bearings
C10.61
C14.1 General
All provisions during construction are collected into
this one section to eliminate confusion in the specification. This draft specification is an allowable stress design con-
The major change proposed is the limit on web stresses to version of the draft LRFD Specification developed as part
the web buckling stress during construction. The present of the NCHRP 10-20A research program. The reader is re-
specification allowed the bending stress to exceed the ferred to the Final Report of this research project for details
buckling limit with no limitation. and rationale behind the provisions in this specification.
See also C10.61 (1999). Bridge bearings must allow movements due to tem-
perature changes, creep and shrinkage, elastic shortening
References due to prestressing, traffic loading, construction toler-
ances or other effects. If these movements are restrained,
1. Frank, K.H. and Helwig, T.A. “Buckling of Webs in large horizontal forces may result. If the bridge deck is
Unsymmetric Plate Girders,” Engineering Journal, AISC, cast in place concrete, the bearings in a single support
Vol. 32, No. 2, 1995, pp. 43–53. should permit transverse expansion and contraction. In
order to permit such movements to take place freely, ex-
Commentary to Section 12—Soil-Corrugated Metal ternally applied transverse loads such as wind, earth-
Structure Interaction Systems quake, or traffic braking forces should be carried either on
a small number of bearings near the centerline of the
C12.4.1.4 and C12.6.1.4 bridge or by an independent guide system. The latter is
likely to be needed if the horizontal forces are large.
The reduction of flexibility factors for some aluminum Distribution of vertical load among bearings may ad-
pipes effectively increases the required minimum section versely affect individual bearings. This is particularly
properties. The change has been accepted by ASTM and critical when the girders are stiff in bending and torsion
is needed because the current flexibility factors allow too and bearings are stiff in compression and the construc-
light a gauge to be used for some pipe corrugations. tion method does not allow minor misalignments to be
corrected.
C12.7
C14.2 Definitions
Several changes are made to the current specification in
order to provide a more complete specification in the areas C14.3 Notation
of design of foundation, design of the backfill envelope, and
end treatment design. Similar changes are made in the cor- C14.4 Movements and Loads
responding sections of the LRFD specification which are
completely rewritten to improve its organization. For more Bridge movements arise from a number of different
background on changes made, see the LRFD commentary. causes. The direction and magnitude of these movements
must be accurately estimated to determine the design re-
C12.8.2.2 quirements for the joint or bearing. Simplified estimates
of bridge movements, particularly on bridges with com-
Changes here are to clarify where dimensions should plex geometry, may sometimes lead to improper estima-
be measured to and remove ambiguity when a box culvert tion of the direction of motion and, as a result, an im-
is installed in a keyway on a concrete footing. proper selection of the bearing or joint system. Curved
bridges and skewed bridges may have transverse as well
C12.8.4.2–C12.8.4.3 as longitudinal movement due to temperature effects and
creep or shrinkage. Rotations caused by permissible lev-
These changes replace the current tables of factored els of misalignment during installation must also be al-
dead and live load moments with the original, unfactored lowed for, and in many cases these will be larger than the
live and dead load moment equations used to generate live load rotations. Transverse movement of the super-
them. The change does not alter final designs, design lim- structure may become significant for very wide bridges.
A significant portion of the design rotation may be procedure is not intended to encourage excess rotation of
caused by construction loads, camber of beams, out of level these bearings, instead it avoids practical problems, since
supports, and temporary load conditions. The bridge gird- temporary local uplift caused by light load and a large ro-
ers are often more flexible during construction since the tation and less serious limit states might unreasonably
stiffness of the deck slab is not available. Further, there govern the design of these more flexible bearings.
may be severe and unusual concentrations of loading due
to the sequence of deck slab placement and construction C14.5 General Requirements for Bearings
equipment. The rotation will sometimes be maximum due
to the construction effects, and these rotations must be Bearings support relatively large loads while accom-
considered in the design process. modating large movements or rotations. The resistances
The neutral axis of a girder which acts compositely of the bearings as described in this specification are often
with its bridge deck is typically close to the underside of based on judgement and experience, but they are gener-
the deck. As a result, the neutral axis of the beam and the ally thought to be conservative.
center of rotation of the bearing seldom coincide. Under
these conditions, end rotation of the girder induces either C14.5.1 Load and Movement Capabilities
horizontal movements or forces at the bottom flange or
bearing level. It is important that the loads and movements be prop-
The failure of bridge bearings or joint seals is fre- erly defined in both magnitude and direction, and that the
quently a serviceability failure which may ultimately lead proper bearing system be selected to accommodate them.
to deterioration or damage to the bridge. This damage may
be very expensive to repair. As a result, some of the de- C14.5.2 Characteristics
sign limitations are based on serviceability limits rather
than strength or resistance. Table 14.5.2-1 indicates the suitability of individual
Each bearing should be clearly identified in design bearing components for different functions. Practical
documents and the requirements should be identified in bearings will often consist of several components in order
Figure 14.4. to fulfill multiple functions. For example, a pot bearing
may be combined with a PTFE sliding surface to permit
C14.4.1 translation and rotation.
Bearing systems differ in their ability to support these
Bearings must accommodate movements in addition to loads and movements. Table 14.5.2-1 is a guide for estab-
supporting loads, so factored displacements, and in par- lishing these capabilities. The ratings are based on general
ticular factored rotations, are needed for design. Live load judgement and observation, and there will obviously be a
rotations are typically less than 0.005 RAD, but the total few exceptions to the information listed, for which the en-
rotation due to fabrication and setting tolerances for seats, gineer must use his judgement. Bearings which are listed
bearings, and girders may be significantly larger than this. as suitable for a specific application are likely to be suit-
Therefore, the rotation to be used in the design is defined able with little or no effort on the part of the Engineer other
by adding to the dead and live load rotations allowances than good design and detailing practice. Bearings which
for such tolerances. An owner may reduce the fabrication are listed as unsuitable are likely to be marginal even if the
and setting tolerance allowances if justified by a suitable Engineer makes extraordinary efforts to make the bearing
quality control plan, and therefore these tolerance limits work properly. Bearings which are listed as suitable for
are stated as recommendations rather than absolute limits. limited application may work if the load and rotation re-
Rotations are considered at the service and factored quirements are not excessive.
load states. Metal or concrete components are susceptible
to damage under a single rotation that causes metal to C14.5.3 Forces in the Structure Caused by
metal contact, and so they must be designed using the Restraint of Movement at the Bearing
maximum rotation with a very low risk of over revolution.
As a result, um is (uL 1 uD 1 0.02) RAD for these bear- Restraint of movement results in a corresponding force
ings. Failure of deformable components such as elas- or moment in the structure. The forces should be calcu-
tomeric bearings is generally governed by a gradual dete- lated taking into account the flexibilities of the bridge and
rioration under many cycles of load rather than sudden the bearing. The latter should be estimated by the meth-
failure under a single load application. As a result, um for ods outlined in Article 14.6. In some cases, the bearing re-
elastomeric pads and steel reinforced elastomeric bear- sistance depends on time and temperature, as well as on
ings is then (uL 1 uD 1 0.005) RAD. The difference in the movement.
C14.5.3.2 Bending Moment C14.6.1.3 Geometric Requirements
The moment for curved sliding bearings is caused by A cylindrical roller is in neutral equilibrium. The pro-
friction resistance at the curved surface, and it acts about the visions for bearings with two curved surfaces achieve at
center of the curved surface. The moment imposed on indi- least neutral, if not stable, equilibrium.
vidual components of the bridge structure may be different, The choice of radius for a curved surface is a compro-
depending on the location of the axis of rotation, and must mise: a large radius results in low contact stresses, but
be calculated by a rational method. The addition of a flat large rotations of the point of contact, and vice versa. The
sliding surface in addition to the curved surface increases latter could be important if, for example, a rotational bear-
the rotational resistance as noted in NCHRP 10-20A. ing is surmounted by a PTFE slider, since the PTFE is sen-
The load-deflection curve of an elastomeric bearing is sitive to eccentric loading.
nonlinear, so Ec is load-dependent. However, an accept- If pintles or gear mechanisms are used to guide the
able constant approximation is bearing, their geometry shall be such as to permit free
movement of the bearing.
Ec 5 6GS2 (C14.5.3.2-1)
C14.6.1.4 Contact Stresses
where S is the shape factor and G is the shear modulus of
the elastomer. The compressive loads are limited so that the maxi-
mum shear stress is maintained below the shear yield
C14.6 Special Design Provisions for Bearings stress and maximum compressive stress is below com-
pressive yield with appropriate factors of safety. The max-
imum compressive stress is at the surface, and the maxi-
C14.6.1 Metal Rocker and Roller Bearings
mum shear stress occurs just below it.
The two diameters have the same sign if the centers of
C14.6.1.1 General Design Considerations
the two curved surfaces in contact are on the same side of
the contact plane, such as is the case when a circular shaft
Cylindrical bearings contain no deformable parts and
fits in a circular hole.
so are susceptible to damage if the superstructure rotates
The formulas are derived from the theoretical value for
about an axis perpendicular to the axis of the bearing.
contact stress between elastic bodies, Roark and Young
Thus they are unsuitable for bridges in which the axis of
(1976). They are based on the assumption that the width
rotation may vary significantly under different loadings, of the contact area is much less than the diameter of the
such as bridges with a large skew. They are also unsuitable curved surface.
for use in seismic regions because the transverse shear If two surfaces have curves of the opposite sign, the
caused by earthquake loading can cause substantial over- value of D2 is negative. This would be an unusual situa-
turning moment. tion in bridge bearings.
Good maintenance is essential if mechanical bearings
are to perform properly. Dirt attracts and holds moisture, C14.6.2 PTFE Sliding Surfaces
which, combined with locally high contact stresses, can
promote stress corrosion. Metal bearings, in particular, PTFE is also known as TFE and is commonly used in
must be designed for easy maintenance. bridge bearings in the United States. This article does not
cover guides. The friction requirements for guides are less
C14.6.1.2 Materials stringent and a wider variety of materials and fabrication
methods can be used for them.
Carbon steel has been the traditional steel used in me-
chanical bearings because of its good mechanical prop- C14.6.2.1 PTFE Surface
erties. Surface hardening may be considered. Corrosion
resistance is also important. The use of stainless steel PTFE may be provided in sheets or in mats woven
for the contact surfaces may prove economical when from fibers. The sheets may be filled with reinforcing
life-cycle costs are considered. Weathering steels should fibers to reduce creep, i.e., cold flow, and wear, or they
be used with caution as their resistance to corrosion is may be made from pure resin. The friction coefficient de-
often significantly reduced by mechanical wear at the pends on many factors, such as sliding speed, contact
surface. pressure, lubrication, temperature, and properties such as
the finish of the mating surface, Campbell and Kong C14.6.2.3.2 Stainless Steel Mating Surface
(1987). The material properties which influence the fric-
tion are less well understood, but the crystalline structure The minimum thickness requirements for the mating
of the PTFE is known to be important, and it is strongly surface are included primarily to prevent its wrinkling or
affected by the quality control exercised during the sin- buckling. This surface is usually quite thin to minimize
tering process. the cost of the highly finished mating surface. Some mat-
ing surfaces, particularly with curved surfaces, are made
C14.6.2.2 Mating Surface of carbon steel on which a stainless steel weld is de-
posited. This welded surface is then machined and pol-
Stainless steel is the most commonly used mating sur- ished to achieve the desired finish.
face for PTFE sliding surfaces. Anodized aluminum is
sometimes used in spherical and cylindrical bearings. C14.6.2.4 Contact Pressure
The finish of this mating surface is also extremely im-
portant, since it affects the coefficient of friction. ASTM The contact pressure must be limited to prevent exces-
A 240, Type 304, stainless, with a surface finish of 16 m- sive creep or plastic flow of the PTFE, which causes the
IN RMS or better, is appropriate, but the surface mea- PTFE disc to expand laterally under compressive stress
surements are inherently inexact. The NCHRP 10-20A and may contribute to separation or bond failure. The lat-
research showed that woven PTFE may achieve lower eral expansion is controlled by recessing the PTFE into a
coefficients of friction with a slightly rougher surface, steel plate or by reinforcing the PTFE, but there are ad-
and as a result different surfaces are permitted if sub- verse consequences with both methods. Edge loading may
stantiated by test results. Friction testing is required for be particularly detrimental because it causes large stress
all types of PTFE and its mating surface because of the and potential flow in a local area near the edge of the ma-
many variables involved. terial on hard contact between steel surfaces. The actual
values of the contact pressure are in appropriate propor-
C14.6.2.3 Minimum Thickness Requirements tions to one another relative to the best available research
knowledge at this time, but the actual numbers are subject
C14.6.2.3.1 PTFE to adjustment as better data become available. These num-
bers are in the lower range of those used in Europe.
A minimum thickness is specified to ensure uniform
bearing and to allow for wear. C14.6.2.5 Coefficient of Friction
During the first few cycles of movement, small amounts
of PTFE transfer to the mating surface and contribute to The friction factor decreases with lubrication and in-
the very low friction achieved subsequently. This wear is creasing contact stress, but increases with sliding velocity,
acceptable and desirable. Campbell and Kong (1987). The coefficient of friction also
Wear of PTFE continues with time. Campbell and tends to increase at low temperatures. Static friction is
Kong (1987), and movement and is exacerbated by de- larger than dynamic friction, and the dynamic coefficient
teriorated or rough surfaces. Wear is undesirable because of friction is larger for the first cycle of movement than it
it usually causes higher friction and it reduces the thick- is for later cycles. Friction increases with increasing rough-
ness of the remaining PTFE. Unlubricated, flat PTFE ness of the mating surface and decreasing temperature. The
wears more severely than the lubricated material. The friction factors used in the earlier AASHTO Specification
evidence on the rate of wear is tentative. High travel speeds, are suitable for use with dimpled, lubricated PTFE. They
such as those associated with traffic movements, appear are much too small for the flat, dry PTFE commonly used
to be more damaging than the slow ones due to thermal in the US. This specification is changed to recognize this
movements. However they may be avoided by placing fact. The coefficients provided in Table 14.6.2.5-1 are
the sliding surface on an elastomeric bearing which will based upon the results of experimental research performed
absorb small longitudinal movements. No further al- as part of the NCHRP 10-20A research program. The spec-
lowance for wear is made in this specification due to the ified friction values are intended to be smaller than the fric-
limited research available to quantify or estimate the tion that may be expected for static breakaway in the initial
wear as a function of time and travel. However, wear cycle of slip and larger than the maximum friction achieved
may ultimately cause the need for replacement of the in later cycles. The coefficients of friction given in Table
PTFE, so it is wise to allow for future replacement in the 14.6.2.5-1 are not applicable to high velocity movements
original design. such as those occurring in seismic events. High velocity
coefficients are included in the AASHTO “Guide Spec- C14.6.2.6.2 Mating Surface
ifications for Seismic Isolation Design.” Coefficients are
provided for lower temperatures based on the experi- The restrictions on the attachment of the mating sur-
mental results, but these data are less accurate than room face are primarily intended to assure that the surface is flat
temperature data since they are extrapolated from limited and retains uniform contact with the PTFE at all times,
experimental results. Coefficients of friction, somewhat without adversely affecting the friction of the surface or
smaller than those given in Table 14.6.2.5-1, are possible gouging or cutting the PTFE. The mating surface of
with care and quality control. curved sliding surfaces must be machined to the required
Certification testing from the production lot is es- surface finish from a single piece.
sential for PTFE sliding surfaces primarily to insure that
the friction actually achieved in the bearing is appropri- C14.6.3 Bearings with Curved Sliding Surfaces
ate for the bearing design. Testing is the only reliable
method for certifying the coefficient of friction and bear- These provisions are directed primarily toward spher-
ing behavior. ical or cylindrical bearings with bronze or PTFE sliding
Contamination of the sliding surface with dirt and dust surfaces.
increases the coefficient of friction and increases the
wear of the PTFE. To prevent contamination, the bearing C14.6.3.1 Geometric Requirements
should be sealed by the manufacturer and not separated at
the construction site. To prevent contamination and goug- The geometry of a spherical bearing controls its ability
ing of the PTFE, the stainless steel should normally be on to resist lateral loads, its moment-rotation behavior, and its
top and should be larger than the PTFE, plus its maximum frictional characteristics. The geometry is relatively easy to
travel. define, but it has some consequences which are not widely
Woven PTFE is sometimes formed by weaving pure appreciated. The stress may vary over the contact surface
PTFE strands with a reinforcing material. These reinforc- of spherical or cylindrical bearings. Cylindrical and spher-
ing strands may increase the resistance to creep and cold ical surfaces cannot be machined as accurately as a flat
flow, and they can be woven so that reinforcing strands do smooth surface. It is important that the radius of the convex
not appear on the sliding surface. This separation is nec- and concave surfaces be within appropriate limits. If these
essary if the coefficients of friction provided in Table limits are exceeded the bronze may crack due to hard bear-
14.6.2.5-1 are to be used. ing contact or there may be excessive wear and damage due
to creep or cold flow of the PTFE. The stress limits used
C14.6.2.6 Attachment in this article are based on average contact stress levels.
C14.6.2.6.1 PTFE C14.6.3.2 Lateral Load Capacity
Recessing is the most effective way of preventing The geometry of a curved bearing combined with grav-
creep in unfilled PTFE and it is required here. The PTFE ity loads can provide considerable resistance to lateral
discs may also be bonded into the recess, but this is op- load. An external restraint is often a more reliable method
tional and the benefits are debatable. Bonding helps to re- of resisting large lateral loads.
tain the PTFE in the recess during the service life of the
bridge, but it makes replacement of the disc more diffi- C14.6.4 Pot Bearings
cult. If the adhesive is not applied uniformly it can cause
an uneven PTFE sliding surface which could lead to pre- C14.6.4.2 Materials
mature wear. Some manufacturers cut the PTFE slightly
oversize and pre-cool it before installation, since this re- Softer elastomers permit rotation more readily and so
sults in a tighter fit at room temperature. are preferred.
Sometimes, PTFE is bonded to the top cover layer of Corrosion resistant steels, such as AASHTO M 270
an elastomeric bearing. This layer should be relatively grade 50W are not recommended for applications where
thick and hard to avoid rippling of the PTFE; Roeder, they may come into contact with salt water or be perma-
Stanton, and Taylor (1987). PTFE must be etched prior to nently damp, unless their whole surface is completely
epoxy bonding in order to obtain good adhesion. How- corrosion-protected. Most pot bearings are machined
ever, ultra-violet light attacks the etching and can lead to from a solid plate, so use of high strength steel to decrease
delamination, so PTFE exposed to ultra-violet light should the wall thickness results in only a very small reduction in
not be attached by bonding alone. volume of material used.
Other properties, such as corrosion resistance, ease of The vertical clearance between top of piston and top of
machining, electrochemical compatibility with steel gird- pot wall, hp2, may be determined from
ers, availability, and price should also be considered.
The choice of specifications for brass simply reflects hp2 $ 0.5Dpum 1 2.0dm 1 1 ⁄ 8 (IN) (C14.6.4.3-2)
present practice.
where
C14.6.4.3 Geometric Requirements
dm 5 maximum vertical load deflection (IN)
Dp 5 pot internal diameter (IN)
The requirements of this article are intended to prevent
the seal from escaping and the bearing from locking up even
Note that the Equation (C14.6.4.3-1) does not contain any
under the most adverse conditions. Use of the design rota-
allowance for vertical deflection, dm. This omission is
tion, um, means that the designer must take into account both
conservative because Equation (C14.6.4.3-1) addresses
the anticipated movements due to loads and those due to fab-
the possibility of the piston lifting clear of the pot, and
rication and installation tolerances, including the rotation
compressive deflection would inhibit this behavior.
imposed on the bearing due to out-of-level of other bridge
Research performed as part of the NCHRP 10-20A
components, such as undersides of prefabricated girders, and
Research Program has shown that thicker elastomeric
permissible misalignments during construction. Vertical de-
pads are preferable to thinner pads. Thicker pads with
flection caused by compressive load should also be taken
deeper pots cause smaller strains in the elastomer, and
into account, because it will reduce the available clearance.
they appear to experience less wear and abrasion. Re-
Anchor bolts projecting above the base plate should be taken
cessing of the rings into the pad is necessary for satisfac-
into consideration when clearance is checked.
tory pad performance, but it also decreases the effective
Rotation capacity can be increased by using a deeper
thickness of the pad at that location. Further, the recess
pot, a thicker elastomeric pad, and a larger vertical clear-
has sometimes been cut into the pad, and this cut appears
ance between the pot wall and the piston or slider. The
to make the pad susceptible to additional damage. There-
minimum thickness of the pad specified herein results in
fore it is generally better to use a deeper pot and thicker
edge deflections due to rotation no greater than 15% of the
pad even though this leads to greater material and ma-
nominal pad thickness. Figure C14.6.4.3-1 and Equations
chining cost.
(C14.6.4.3-1) and (C14.6.4.3-2) may be used to verify
that the major components will have adequate clearance.
C14.6.4.4 Elastomeric Disc
The pot cavity depth hp1 may be determined from
The average stress on the elastomeric disc is largely
hp1 $ (0.5Dpum) 1 hr 1 hw (C14.6.4.3-1)
limited by the seal’s ability to prevent escape of the elas-
tomer. The 3.5 ksi level has been used as a practical upper
where
limit for some years and most bearings have performed
hr 5 thickness of elastomeric pad (IN) satisfactorily, but a few seal failures have occurred. The
hw 5 height from underside of piston to top of rim experimental research of NCHRP 10-20A showed that
which contacts pot wall (IN) greater wear and abrasion due to cyclic rotation occurred
FIGURE C14.6.4.3-1 Pot Bearing—Critical Dimensions for Clearances
when higher stress levels are employed, but this correla- ing must be assured by appropriate inspection. The fin-
tion is not strong. As a result, the 3.5 ksi stress limit is re- ished inside profile of the pot must satisfy the required
tained as a practical design limit. shape and tolerances. Straightening and machining may
Lubrication helps prevent abrasion of the elastomer be needed to rectify welding distortions.
during cyclic rotation, however research has shown that The lower bounds on the thickness of the baseplate are
the beneficial effect of the lubrication tends to be lost intended to provide some rigidity to counteract the effects
with time. Silicon grease has been used with success. It of uneven bearing. If the base plate were to deform signif-
performed well in experiments and is recommended. icantly, the volume of the elastomer would be inadequate
Thin sheets of PTFE have also been used. These sheets to fill the space in the pot and hard contact could occur
performed quite well in experimental studies, but they between some components.
are less highly recommended since there is a concern The minimum wall thickness criterion for unguided
that they may wrinkle and become ineffective. Powdered pots is based on hoop strength. If the pot is guided or
graphite has been used but did not perform well in rota- fixed, horizontal forces will occur, and the wall must be
tion experiments. As a result, silicon grease is the preferred thicker than the minimum given here, as required by Ar-
lubricant and powdered graphite is not recommended. ticle 14.6.4.8.
PTFE disks are permitted as a method of lubrication, but The surface finish on the inside of the pot may have
the user should be aware that some problems have been considerable impact on the bearing performance. A
reported. smooth finish reduces rotational resistance and wear and
abrasion of the elastomer. It probably also improves the
C14.6.4.5 Sealing Rings performance of the sealing rings, but at present there are
no definitive limits as to what the surface finish should
Failure of seals has been one of the most common prob- ideally be for good bearing performance. Metallization on
lems in pot bearings. Multiple flat brass rings, circular the inside of the pot tends to cause a rougher surface fin-
brass rod formed and brazed into a ring, and proprietary ish, which leads to significant increases in damage under
plastic rings have been found to be successful. Experi- cyclic rotation, and as a result metallization may not be a
mental research suggests that solid circular brass rings good method of protection.
provide a tight fit and prevent leakage of the elastomer,
but they experience severe wear during cyclic rotation. C14.6.4.7 Piston
Experiments suggest that flat brass rings are somewhat
more susceptible to elastomer leakage and fracture, but The required piston thickness is partly controlled by
they are less prone toward wear. PTFE rings should not be rigidity and strength. A central internal guide bar fitted in
used. The rings should preferably be recessed into the a slot in the piston causes bending moments which are
elastomer or vulcanized to it in order to minimize distor- largest where the piston is weakest. In this case the piston
tion of the elastomer. must also be thick enough to supply an adequate grip
Cyclic rotation of the bearing due to temperature vari- length for any bolts used to secure the guidebar.
ations or traffic loading can cause chafing of the elastomer The clearance between piston and pot is critical to the
against the pot wall, which can give rise to some loss of proper functioning of the bearing. In most bearings the
elastomer past the seal. The detailed design of the sealing finished value, after anti-corrosion coatings have been ap-
system is important in preventing this. The details of the plied, should be about 0.02–0.04-IN, a range which is eas-
tests for alternate sealing systems are left to the discre- ily achievable. The equation for minimum clearance is
tion of the Engineer. However, tests should include cyclic based on geometry.
rotation.
C14.6.4.8 Lateral Loads
C14.6.4.6 Pot
If the piston rotates while a horizontal load is acting,
Pots are constructed most reliably by machining from the piston rim will be subject to bearing stresses due to
a single piece of plate. For very large bearings, this may horizontal load and to shear forces. If the rim surface is
become prohibitively expensive, so fabrication by weld- cylindrical, contact between it and the pot wall will theo-
ing a ring to a base plate is implicitly accepted. However retically be along a line when the piston rotates. In prac-
the ring must be welded to the plate by a full penetration tice, some localized yielding is then inevitable. Experi-
weld, because the wall is subject to significant bending ments have shown that the increased rotational resistance
moments where it joins the base plate. The quality of weld- caused by this contact causes considerable wear and abra-
sion of the piston and the pot wall. Equation (14.6.4.8-2) for rectangular bearings
is an approximate equation which limits this bearing stress.
If the pot is guided or fixed, horizontal forces will
Si =
LW − ∑ πd / 4 (C14.6.5.1-1)
2
(2L + 2W + ∑ πd)
occur and the walls must be thicker than required by
Equation (14.6.4.6-1). Equation (14.6.4.8-1) is a simple h ri
limit for the thickness of both the pot base and pot wall
which is intended to limit the deformation of the pot bear- for circular bearings
ing under horizontal load, since excess deformation may
lead to elastomer leakage and other potential problems.
Si =
D2 − ∑d 2
(C14.6.5.1-2)
(D + ∑ d )
This limit is likely to control the minimum thickness when
the lateral load is large, but compressive load limits such 4 h ri
as Equation 14.6.4.6-1 will control if the horizontal load
is relatively small. where d is the diameter of the hole or holes in the bearing.
C14.6.5 Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings— C14.6.5.2 Material Properties

Method B
Shear modulus, G, is the single most important mate-
C14.6.5.1 General rial property for design, and it is therefore the preferred
means of specifying the elastomer. Hardness has been
The stress limits associated with Method A, specified widely used in the past because the test for it is quick and
in Article 14.6.6, usually result in a bearing with a lower simple. However, the results obtained from it are variable
capacity than a bearing designed using Method B. This in- and correlate only loosely with shear modulus, and the
creased capacity resulting from the use of Method B re- ranges given in Table 1 represent the variations to be found
quires additional testing and quality control. in practice. If the material is specified by hardness, a safe
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings are treated sepa-
and presumably different estimate of G must be taken for
rately from other elastomeric bearings because of their
each of the design calculations. Specifying the material by
greater strength and superior performance in practice,
hardness thus imposes a slight penalty in design.
Roeder, Stanton, and Taylor (1987), Roeder and Stanton
The zones are defined by their extreme low tempera-
(1991). The design method described in this article allows
ture or the largest number of consecutive days when the
higher compressive stresses and more slender bearings
temperature does not rise above 32° F, whichever gives
than are permitted for other types of bearings, both of
the more severe condition.
which can lead to smaller horizontal forces on the sub-
structure. To qualify for the more liberal design, the bear- Materials with a nominal hardness greater than 60 are
ing must be subjected to more rigorous testing. These test prohibited because they generally have a smaller elonga-
requirements are detailed in Article 18.7 of Division II of tion at break, greater stiffness and greater creep than their
this specification. softer counterparts. This inferior performance is generally
Tapered layers are expressly prohibited because they attributed to the larger amounts of filler present. Their fa-
cause larger shear strains and bearings made with them tigue behavior does not differ in a clearly discernible way
fail prematurely due to delamination or rupture of the re- from that of softer materials.
inforcement. All internal layers should be the same thick- Shear modulus increases as the elastomer cools, but
ness because the strength and stiffness of the bearing in the extent of stiffening depends on the elastomer com-
resisting compressive load are controlled by the thickest pound, time, and temperature. It is therefore important
layer. to specify a material with low temperature properties which
The shape factor, Si, is defined in terms of the gross are appropriate for the bridge site. The bridge site should
plan dimensions of layer i. Refinements to account for the be classified as being in one of the five zones A–E, ac-
difference between gross dimensions and the dimensions cording to the definitions in Table 14.6.5.2-2. In order of
of the reinforcement are not warranted because quality preference, the low temperature classification should be
control on elastomer thickness has a more dominant in- based on:
fluence on bearing behavior. Holes are strongly discour-
aged in steel-reinforced bearings. However, if holes are • the 50-year temperature history at the site, or
used, their effect should be accounted for when calculat- • a statistical analysis of a shorter temperature history,
ing the shape factor because they reduce the loaded area or
and increase the area free to bulge. Suitable formulas are: • Figure 14.6.5.2-1
Table 14.6.5.2-2 gives the minimum elastomer grade to be more detrimental to the bond, so the real safety fac-
to be used in each zone. A grade suitable for a lower tem- tor against initiation of debonding may be somewhat less
perature may be specified by the Engineer, if desired, but than 1.5.
improvements in low temperature performance can often The compressive stress limits, in terms of GS, were de-
be obtained only at the cost of reductions in other proper- rived from fatigue tests and are based on the observation
ties. The definitions and tests for the elastomer grades, that fatigue cracking in the experiments remained accept-
which are based on ASTM D 4014, are given in Section 18 ably low, if the maximum shear strain due to total dead
of Division II of this Specification. This low temperature and live load was kept below 1.5. The level of damage
classification is intended to limit the force on the bridge considered acceptable had to be selected arbitrarily, there-
under extreme environmental conditions to 1.5 times the fore, the limits are not clear-cut.
maximum design force. Two limits are given, one for total load and one for live
Creep varies from one compound to another and is load, and the more restrictive one will control.
generally more prevalent in harder elastomers, but is sel-
dom a problem if high quality materials are used. This is C14.6.5.3.3 Compressive Deflection
particularly true because the deflection limits are based on
serviceability and are likely to be controlled by live load, Limiting instantaneous deflections is important to en-
rather than total load. The creep values given in Table sure that deck joints and seals are not damaged. Further-
14.6.5.2-1 are representative of neoprene, and are conser- more, bearings which are too flexible in compression
vative for natural rubber. could cause a small step in the road surface at a deck joint
when traffic passes from one girder to the other, giving
C14.6.5.3 Design Requirements rise to impact loading. A maximum relative deflection
across a joint of 1 ⁄ 8-IN is suggested. Joints and seals that
C14.6.5.3.1 Scope are sensitive to relative deflections may require limits
that are tighter than this. Long-term deflections should
Steel reinforced bearings are designed to resist rela- be accounted for when joints and seals between sections
tively high stresses. Their integrity depends on good qual- of the bridge rest on bearings of different design, and
ity control during manufacture, which can only be assured when estimating redistribution of forces in continuous
by rigorous testing. bridges caused by support settlement. Provided high qual-
ity materials are used, the effects of creep are unlikely to
C14.6.5.3.2 Compressive Stress cause problems.
Laminated elastomeric bearings have a nonlinear load-
These provisions limit the shear stress and strain in the deflection curve in compression. In the absence of in-
elastomer. The relationship between the shear stress and formation specific to the particular bearing to be used,
the applied compressive load depends directly on shape Figure C14.6.5.3.3-1 may be used as a guide.
factor, with higher shape factors leading to higher capac- Reliable test data on total deflections are rare because
ities. If movements are accommodated by shear deforma- of the difficulties in defining the true zero for deflection.
tions of the elastomer, they cause shear stresses in the However, the change in deflection due to live load can be
elastomer. These add to the shear stresses caused by com- reliably predicted either by design aids based on test re-
pressive load, so a lower load limit is needed. sults or by using theoretically based equations, Stanton
The compressive limits were derived from static and and Roeder (1982). In the latter case, it is important to in-
fatigue tests correlated with theory, Roeder and Stanton clude the effects of bulk compressibility of the elastomer,
(1986), Roeder, Stanton, and Taylor (1991). There was especially for high shape factor bearings.
tremendous scatter in the stress at which delamination
started in different tests, both fatigue and static. The ab- C14.6.5.3.4 Shear
solute limits of 1.6 and 1.75 ksi came from the static tests.
The static load limits were based on the fact that, of all the The shear strain should be limited to 1/2 0.5 hrt in
bearings which had not been previously tested, none order to avoid rollover at the edges and delamination due
showed any delamination at a compressive stress less than to fatigue problems.
2.5 ksi. The limits of 1.6 and 1.75 ksi thus provide a safety The fatigue tests were conducted to 20,000 cycles,
factor of approximately 1.5 against debonding in a well- which represents one expansion/contraction cycle per day
made bearing with a shape factor comparable to those for approximately 55 years, Roeder, Stanton, and Taylor
used in the test program. However, long term loading was (1990). The provisions will, therefore, be unconservative
not investigated in the test program although it is known if the shear deformation is caused by high cycle loading
FIGURE C14.6.5.3.3-1 Load Deflection Behavior of Elastomeric Bearings
due to braking forces or vibration. The maximum shear goes net uplift, and Equations (14.6.5.3.5-2) and (14.6.5.3.5-
deformation due to these high cycle loadings should be 3) prevent excessive compressive stress on the edge sub-
restricted to no more than 1/2 0.10 hrt unless better injected to greatest compression. Uplift, which could occur
formation is available. At this strain amplitude, the exper- if the bearing were subjected to a large rotation combined
iments showed that the bearing has an essentially infinite with only a light compressive load, must be prevented be-
fatigue life. cause strain reversal in the elastomer significantly de-
Calculations of Ds should include deflections for the creases its fatigue life.
bridge pier and substructure and the construction meth- A rectangular bearing should normally be oriented so
ods. Pier deflections sometimes accommodate a signifi- its long side is parallel to the axis about which the rotation
cant portion of the bridge movement, and this may reduce occurs. The critical location in the bearing for both com-
the movement which must be accommodated by the bear- pression and rotation is then at the mid point of the long
ing. Construction methods may increase the bearing side. If rotation occurs about both axes, uplift and exces-
movement because of poor installation tolerances or poor sive compression should be checked in both directions.
timing of the bearing installation. However, construction Equations (14.6.5.3.5-4) through (14.6.5.3.5-6) pro-
practice may also decrease the design movement, if the vide limits for circular bearings which are similar in prin-
girders are lifted to allow the bearing to spring back after ciple to Equations (14.6.5.3.5-1) through (14.6.5.3.5-3)
some of the girder shortening has occurred. These factors for rectangular bearings, but the numerical values are dif-
may be considered in design. ferent. If the rotations are small, a circular bearing may be
able to carry a higher average stress than a rectangular
C14.6.5.3.5 Combined Compression and Rotation bearing, but a rectangular bearing rotated about its weak
axis is more efficient if the rotations are significant. In all
The equations in this article have been changed from cases, the upper limits on compressive stress given in Ar-
the format in which they appeared in earlier editions of the ticle 14.6.5.3.2 must also be met.
AASHTO Specifications, but the underlying physical prin- The interaction between compressive and rotation ca-
ciples remain the same. The changes were made in order pacity in a bearing is illustrated in Figure C14.6.5.3.6-1.
to simplify the design process by obviating the need for It is analogous to the interaction diagram for a reinforced
iterative calculations and, by removing the need for de- concrete column.
flective charts, to permit computer implementation and to Since a high shape factor is best for resisting compres-
include provisions for circular bearings. sion, but a low one accommodates rotation most readily,
The provisions address two conditions. Equation the best choice represents a compromise between the two.
(14.6.5.3.5-1) ensures that no point in the bearing under- The “balanced design” point in Figure C14.6.5.3.6-1,
FIGURE C14.6.5.3.6-1 Elastomeric Bearing—Interaction Between Compressive Stress and Rotation Angle
where uplift and compressive stress are simultaneously C14.6.5.3.7 Reinforcement

critical, will in many cases provide the most economical
solution for a given plan geometry. The reinforcement must be adequate to sustain the ten-
sile stresses induced by compression of the bearing. The
C14.6.5.3.6 Stability formulas given ensure this. With the present load limita-
tions, the minimum steel plate thickness practical for fab-
The average compressive stress is limited here to half rication will usually provide adequate strength.
the predicted buckling stress. The latter is calculated using Holes in the reinforcement cause stress concentrations
the buckling theory developed by Gent, modified to ac- which have a harmful effect. Their use should be discour-
count for changes in geometry during compression, and aged. The required increase in steel thickness accounts
calibrated against experimental results, Gent (1964), Stan- for material removed and for stress concentrations around
ton, Scroggins, Taylor, and Roeder (1990). This provision the hole.
will permit taller bearings and reduced shear forces com-
pared to those permitted under previous specifications. C14.6.6 Elastomeric Pads and Steel-Reinforced
Equation 14.6.5.3.6-1 corresponds to buckling in a Elastomeric Bearings—Method A
sidesway mode and is relevant for bridges in which the
deck is not rigidly fixed against horizontal translation C14.6.6.1 General
at any point. This may be the case in many bridges for
transverse translation perpendicular to the longitudinal Elastomeric pads have characteristics which are dif-
axis. If one point on the bridge is fixed against horizon- ferent from those of steel reinforced elastomeric bearings.
tal movement, the sidesway buckling mode is not possi- Plain elastomeric pads are less strong and more flexible
ble and Equation 14.6.5.3.6-2 should be used. This free- because they are restrained from bulging by friction alone,
dom to move horizontally should be distinguished from Stanton, Roeder (1986) and (1983). Slip inevitably occurs,
the question of whether the bearing is subject to shear especially under dynamic loads, causing larger compressive
deformations relevant to Articles 14.6.5.3.4 and 14.6.5.3.5. deflections and higher internal stresses in the elastomer.
In a bridge which is fixed at one end, the bearings at the In pads reinforced with layers of fiberglass, the re-
other end will be subject to imposed shear deformation inforcement inhibits the deformations found in plain pads.
but will not be free to translate in the sense relevant However, elastomers bond less well to fiberglass, and the
to buckling due to the restraint at the opposite end of the fiberglass is less strong than steel, so the fiberglass pad is
bridge. unable to carry the same loads as a steel reinforced bear-
ing, Crozier, et al, (1979). Fiberglass pads have the ad- sions of Article 14.6.6 is invoked in order to allow these
vantage that they can be cut to size from a large sheet of bearings to be eligible for the less stringent test require-
vulcanized material. ments for elastomeric pads.
Pads reinforced with closely spaced layers of cotton
duck typically display high compressive stiffness and C14.6.6.3.3 Compressive Deflection
strength, obtained by use of very thin elastomeric layers.
However, the thin layers also give rise to very high rota- The three types of pad behave differently, and so it is
tional stiffness which could easily lead to edge loading important to use information which is relevant to the par-
and a higher shear stiffness than that to be found in lay- ticular type of pad. For example, in plain pads, slip at the
ered bearings. This high shear stiffness leads to larger interface between the elastomer and the material on which
forces in the bridge unless it is offset by the use of the it is seated is dependent on the friction coefficient, and
PTFE slider on top of the elastomeric pad, Nordlin, Boss this will be different for pads seated on concrete, steel,
and Trimble (1970). grout, epoxy, etc.
The shape factor is defined in the same way as for steel The compressive deflections of PEP, FGP, and CDP
reinforced bearings in Article 14.3. will be larger than those of steel reinforced elastomeric
bearings under the same load. Appropriate data for these
C14.6.6.2 Material Properties pad types may be used to estimate their deflections. In the
absence of such data, the compressive deflection of a
This article invokes the provisions of Article 14.6.5.2 PEP and FGP may be estimated at 3 and 1.5 times the de-
for steel reinforced elastomeric bearings, but allows flection estimated for steel reinforced bearings of the
harder elastomer to be used. same shape factor in Article 14.6.5.3.3 and Equation
(14.6.5.3.3.-1). CDP are typically very stiff in compres-
C14.6.6.3 Design Requirements sion and the provisions of this article may be considered
as satisfied on the basis of past experience, and no calcu-
C14.6.6.3.1 Scope lations need be done, unless the usage is unusual.
The design methods for elastomeric pads are simpler C14.6.6.3.4 Shear
and more conservative than those for steel reinforced
bearings, so the test methods are less stringent than those The design provisions here are similar to those for steel
required by Article 14.6.5 and detailed in Article 18.7. reinforced elastomeric bearings. For plain pads and fiber-
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings may be made eligi- glass reinforced pads, the shear deflection is limited to a
ble for these less stringent testing procedures by limiting maximum of 1 ⁄ 2 of the total rubber thickness to protect the
the allowable stress to 1.0 ksi or 1.0 GS. elastomer from rollover at the corners of the pad and con-
sequent debonding. In cotton duck reinforced pads, the
C14.6.6.3.2 Compressive Stress shear deflection is limited to only 1 ⁄ 10 of the total rubber
thickness because the shear stiffness of the pad is much
In plain elastomeric pads and fiberglass reinforced higher than with the other two types. This limitation pre-
pads, the compressive stress is limited to G times the ef- vents the induction of very high shearing forces in the pad
fective shape factor. The effective shape factor for a plain and in the structure.
pad is approximately 0.55 3 the nominal S, and this is re-
flected in the formulas given. Both types of pad are also C14.6.6.3.5 Rotation
limited to 0.8 ksi compressive stress under all circum-
stances. The 0.8 ksi can be reached in a fiberglass pad The limits given here prevent uplift on one side of the
which is much thicker than a plain elastomeric pad be- pad and are the same as the uplift provisions for steel re-
cause of the effect of the coefficient 0.55 in the limiting inforced elastomeric bearings. They are unlikely to con-
stress for plain pads. In cotton duck reinforced pads, the trol for a plain elastomeric pad or a fiberglass reinforced
shape factor of each elastomer layer is essentially infinite, pad, but they may control in a cotton duck reinforced pad.
and so there is only one stress limit. 1.5 ksi is approxi-
mately 15% of the failure load and this is in line with the C14.6.6.3.6 Stability
safety factors inherent in the design of steel reinforced
elastomeric bearings. A plain pad tall enough to cause stability problems
The reduced stress limit for steel reinforced elas- has such a small shape factor that it is essentially use-
tomeric bearings designed in accordance with the provi- less for bridge work. The buckling behavior of fiberglass
reinforced pads and cotton duck reinforced pads is com- The lubrication is forced into a pattern of recesses, and
plicated due to the fact that the individual layers of re- the lubrication reduces the friction and prolongs the life
inforcement can bend out of plane, and, therefore, the proof the bearing. Plain bronze or copper lack this self lu-
visions given here are simple and conservative. bricating quality and would appear to have poorer bear-
ing performance.
C14.6.6.3.7 Reinforcement
C14.6.7.2 Coefficient of Friction
The reinforcement must be strong enough to sustain
the stresses induced in it when the bearing is loaded in The best available experimental evidence suggests that
compression. For a given compressive stress, thicker elas- lubricated bronze can consistently achieve a coefficient of
tomer layers lead to higher tension stresses in the re- friction in the order of 0.07 during its early life while the
inforcement. The required reinforcement strength can be lubrication projects above the bronze surface. The coeffi-
related to the compressive stress on the bearing, defined cient of friction is likely to increase to approximately 0.10
in Article 14.6.6.1. The relationship has been verified for after the surface lubrication wears away and the bronze
FGP. Past experience is the only guide currently available starts to wear down into the recessed lubrication. Copper
for CDP. alloy or plain bronze would cause considerably higher
For steel reinforced elastomeric bearings designed in friction. In the absence of better information, conservative
accordance with the provisions of Article 14.6.6, the equa- coefficients of friction of 0.1 and 0.4, respectively, are rec-
tions from Article 14.6.5.3.7 are used. While these equa- ommended for design.
tions are intended for steel reinforced bearings with a
higher allowable stress, the thickness of reinforcing sheets C14.6.7.3 Limits on Load and Geometry
required is not significantly greater than those required by
the old “Method A.” The stress limits in this article are related to the nomi-
nal yield strength of the bronze.
C14.6.7 Bronze or Copper Alloy Sliding Surfaces
C14.6.7.4 Clearances and Mating Surface
Bronze or copper alloy sliding surfaces have a long
history of application in the United States with relatively The mating surface is commonly manufactured by a
satisfactory performance of the different materials. How- steel fabricator rather than the bearing manufacturer who
ever, there is virtually no research to substantiate the prop- produces the bronze surface. This contractual arrange-
erties and characteristics of these bearings. Successful ment is discouraged because it can lead to a poor fit be-
past experience is the best guide currently available. tween two components. The bronze is weaker and softer
than the steel, and fracture and excessive wear of the
C14.6.7.1 Materials bronze may occur if there is inadequate quality control.
Historically these bearings have been built from sintered C14.6.8 Disc Bearings
bronze, lubricated bronze, or copper alloy with no distinc-
tion between the performance of the different materials. C14.6.8.1 General
However, the evidence suggests that there may be a vast
difference between the different types of bearing. Sintered A disc bearing functions by deformations of the poly-
bronze bridge bearings have historically been included in ether urethane disc, which must be stiff enough to resist
the AASHTO Specification. Sintered bronze is manufac- vertical loads without excessive deformation and yet flex-
tured with a metal powder technology, which results in a ible enough to accommodate the imposed rotations with-
porous surface structure which is usually filled with a self out lift-off or excessive stress on other components, such
lubricating material. There do not appear to be many man- as PTFE.
ufacturers of sintered bronze bridge bearings at this time Limiting rings may be used to partially confine the
and there is some evidence that past bridge bearings of this elastomer against lateral expansion. They may consist of
type have not always performed well. As a result, there is steel rings welded to the upper and lower plates, or a cir-
no reference to sintered bronze in this specification. cular recess in each of those plates. If a limiting ring is
Lubricated bronze bearings are produced by a number used, it should be at least 0.03Dd deep to prevent possible
of manufacturers and they have a relatively good reputa- over-riding by the urethane disc under extreme rotation
tion among bridge engineers and bearing manufacturers. conditions.
C14.6.8.2 Materials m is the coefficient of friction of the PTFE slider and P is

the vertical load on the bearing. This may be carried by
Polyether Urethane can be compounded to provide a the urethane disc without a separate shear resisting de-
wide range of hardnesses. The appropriate material prop- vice, provided that the disc is held in place by positive
erties must be selected as an integral part of the design locating devices such as recesses in the top and bottom
process, because the softest urethanes may require a lim- plates.
iting ring to prevent excessive compressive deflection,
whereas the hardest ones risk being too stiff and causing C14.6.8.6 Steel Plates
too high a resisting moment. Also, harder elastomers
generally have higher ratios of creep deflection to elastic The plates need to be thick enough to distribute the
deflection. concentrated load in the bearing so that they satisfy the
ASTM A709, Grades 100 or 100W should be used only allowable stresses on the supporting material. Any dis-
where their inferior ductility will not be detrimental. tribution plates should be designed in accordance with
Article 14.6.9.
C14.6.8.3 Overall Geometric Requirements
C14.6.9 Guides and Restraints
The primary concerns are that clearances should be
maintained and that binding should be avoided even C14.6.9.1 General
at extreme rotations. The vertical deflection, including
creep, of the bearing should be taken into account when Guides are frequently required to control the direction
doing this. of movement of a bearing. If the horizontal force becomes
too large to be carried reliably and economically on a
C14.6.8.4 Elastomeric Disc guided bearing, a separate guide system may be used.
Design of the urethane disc may be based on the as- C14.6.9.2 Design Loads
sumption that it behaves as a linear elastic material, un-
restrained laterally at its top and bottom surfaces. The The minimum horizontal design load, equal to 10% of
estimates of resisting moments so calculated will be con- the maximum vertical load, is intended to account for re-
servative, because they ignore the beneficial effects of sponses which cannot be calculated reliably, such as hor-
creep which reduce the moments. However, the compres- izontal bending or twisting of a bridge deck caused by
sive deflection due to creep must also be accounted for. nonuniform or time-dependent thermal effects.
The urethane disc must be positively located to prevent Large ratios of horizontal to vertical load can lead to
its slipping out of place. This may be achieved either by a bearing instability, in which case a separate guide system
shear restriction device, as described in Article 14.6.8.5, should be considered.
or by some other means such as recessing the disc into the
steel plates. C14.6.9.3 Materials
Rotational experiments have shown that uplift occurs
at relatively small moments and rotations in disc bearings. Many different low-friction materials have been used
This leads to edge loading on PTFE sliding surfaces and in the past. Because the total transverse force at a bent is
increases the potential for damage to the PTFE. As a re- usually smaller than the total vertical force, the guides
sult, the allowable contact stress on PTFE is reduced to may contribute less than the primary sliding surfaces to
75% of the value specified in Article 14.6.2.4 when the the total longitudinal friction force. Thus material may be
PTFE is used with a disc bearing. used which is more robust but causes higher friction than
the primary material. Filled PTFE is common, and other
C14.6.8.5 Shear Resisting Mechanism proprietary materials, such as PTFE impregnated metals,
have proved effective.
The shear resisting device may be placed either inside
or outside the urethane disc. If shear is carried by a sepa- C14.6.9.4 Geometric Requirements
rate transfer device external to the bearing, such as oppos-
ing concrete blocks, the bearing itself may be unguided. Guides must be parallel to avoid binding and inducing
In unguided bearings, the shear force which must be longitudinal resistance. The clearances in the transverse
transmitted through the body of the bearing is mP, where direction are fairly tight and are intended to ensure that
excessive slack does not exist in the system. Free trans- C14.7 Load Plates and Anchorage for Bearings
verse slip has the advantage that transverse restraint
forces are not induced, but if this is the objective a non- C14.7.1 Plates for Load Distribution
guided bearing is preferable. On the other hand, if applied
transverse loads are intended to be shared among several Large forces may be concentrated in a bearing and they
bearings, free slip causes the load to be distributed un- have to be spread out so as not to damage the supporting
evenly, possibly leading to overloading of one guide. structure. In general, metal rocker and roller bearings
cause the most concentrated loads, followed by pots, discs
C14.6.9.5 Design Basis and sphericals, while elastomeric bearings cause the least
concentrated loads. Masonry plates may be required to
C14.6.9.5.1 Load Location prevent such damage to concrete or grout surfaces.
Many simplified methods have been used to design
Guides are often bolted to the slider plate to avoid masonry plates, some based on strength and some on stiff-
welding distortions. Horizontal forces applied to the guide ness. Several studies have indicated that masonry plates
cause shear and moment, both of which must be resisted are less effective in distributing the load than these sim-
by the bolts. The tension in the bolt can be reduced by plified methods would suggest (McEwen and Spencer,
using a wider guide bar. If high-strength bolts are used, the 1981 and Saxena and McEwen, 1986). NCHRP 10-20A
threaded hole in the plate must develop the full tension has shown that there is substantial room for improvement
strength of the bolt. of the design criteria for load plates, but there is not
enough information to complete these changes in this
C14.6.9.5.2 Contact Stress specification. The present design rules represent an at-
tempt to provide a uniform basis for design which lies
Appropriate compressive stresses for proprietary mate- within the range of traditional methods. Design based on
rials must be developed by the Manufacturer and approved more precise information, such as Finite Element Analy-
by the Engineer on the basis of test evidence. Strength, sis, is preferable but may not be practical in all cases.
cold flow, wear and friction coefficient should be taken Some types of bearings were only developed in the last
into consideration. 20 or 30 years, so their longevity has yet to be proven in
On conventional materials, higher stresses are allowed the field. Hence the requirement for bearing replaceability.
for short-term loading because the limitations in Table One common way to provide for replacement is to use
14.6.2.4.1 are based partly on creep considerations. Short- a masonry plate, attached to the concrete pier head by em-
term loading includes wind, earthquake etc., but not ther- bedded anchors or anchor bolts. The bearing can then be
mal or gravity effects. attached to the masonry plate by seating it in a machined
recess and bolting it down. The bridge needs then to be
C14.6.9.6 Attachment of Low-Friction Material lifted only through a height equal to the depth of the re-
cess in order to replace the bearing. The deformation tol-
Some difficulties have been experienced when PTFE is erance of joints and seals, as well as the stresses in the
attached to the metal backing plates by bonding alone. structure, should be considered in determining the allow-
Ultra-violet light attacks the PTFE surface which is etched able jacking height.
prior to bonding and this has caused bond failures. Thus,
at least two separate methods of attachment are required. C14.7.2 Tapered Plates
Mechanical fasteners should be countersunk to avoid
gouging the mating surface. Tapered plates may be used to counteract the effects of
end slope in a girder. In all but short-span bridges, the
C14.6.10 Other Bearing Systems dead load will dominate the forces on the bearing, so the
tapered plate should be designed to provide zero rotation
In appraising an alternative bearing system, the Engi- of the girder under full dead load. The limit of 0.01 RAD
neer should plan the test program carefully because the out of level corresponds to the 0.01 RAD component
tests constitute a larger part of the assurance program than which is required in the design rotation in Article 14.4.
is the case with more widely used bearings.
In bearings which rely on elastomeric components, as- C14.7.3 Anchorage
pects of behavior such as time dependent effects, response
to cyclic loading, temperature sensitivity, etc., should be Bearings should be anchored securely to the support to
checked. prevent their moving out of place during construction or
the service life of the bridge. Elastomeric bearings may be 4. McEwen, E.E., and Spencer, G.D., “Finite Element
left without anchorage if adequate friction is available. A Analysis and Experimental Results Concerning Distrib-
design coefficient of friction of 0.2 may be assumed be- ution of Stress under Pot Bearings,” Joint Sealing and
tween elastomer and clean concrete or steel. Bearing Systems for Concrete Structures, Special Pub-
Girders may be located on bearings by bolts or pintles. lication SP-70, ACI, Detroit, Vol. 2, pp 829–864 (1981).
The latter provide no uplift capacity. Welding may be used 5. Nordlin, E.F., Boss, J.F. and Trimble R.R., “Tetrafluoro-
provided it does not cause damage to the bearing or diffi- ethylene (TFE) as a Bridge Bearing Material,” Research
culties with replacement. Report No. M & R 646142-2, Materials and Research
Uplift must be prevented both between the major ele- Department, Division of Highways, Department of Pub-
ments, such as the girder, bearing and support, and be- lic Works, State of California, June 1970, 43 pp.
tween the individual components of a bearing. If it were 6. Roark, R.J., and Young, W.C., “Formulas for Stress and
allowed to occur, some parts of the structure could be mis- Strain,” Fifth Edition, McGraw Hill, New York (1976).
aligned when contact was regained, causing damage. 7. Roeder, C.W., Stanton, J.F. and Taylor, A., “Failure
Modes of Elastomeric Bearings and Influence of Manu-
C14.8 Corrosion Protection facturing Methods,” Joint Sealing and Bearing Systems
for Concrete Structures, Vol. I, ACI, SP-94, Detroit, MI,
The use of stainless steel is the most reliable protection 1986.
against corrosion, since coatings of any sort are subject to 8. Roeder, C.W. and Stanton, J.F., “State of the Art Elasto-
damage by wear or mechanical impact. This is particu- meric Bridge Bearing Design,” ACI Journal, No. 1, Vol.
larly important in bearings where metal-to-metal contact 88, 1991.
is inevitable, such as rocker and roller bearings. Weather- 9. Roeder, CW., Stanton, J.F. and Taylor, A., “Elastomeric
ing steel is excluded because it forms an oxide coating Bearings—Design Construction and Materials,” NCHRP
which may inhibit the proper functioning of the bearing. Report 298, National Research Council, National Acad-
When using hot-dip galvanizing for corrosion protec- emy of Science, Washington, DC, 1987.
tion, several factors must be considered. Embrittlement of 10. Roeder, C.W., Stanton, J.F., and Feller, T., “Low Tem-
very high strength fasteners such as M 253 (ASTM A 490) perature Performance and Manufacturing Tolerances of
bolts may occur due to acid cleaning (pickling) before gal- Elastomeric Bearings,” NCHRP Report 325, National
vanizing, and quenched and tempered material, such as Research Council, Washington, DC, 1990.
Grade 70W and 100W, may undergo changes in mechan- 11. Saxena, A., and McEwen, E., “Behavior of Masonry Bear-
ical properties, so galvanizing these should be avoided ing Plates in Highway Bridges,” Joint Sealing and Bearing
(see ASTM A 143 on avoiding embrittlement). With good Systems for Concrete Structures, ACI Special Publication
practice, commonly used steels such as Grades 36, 50, and SP-94, ACI, Detroit, Vol. 2, pp 523–542 (1986)
50W should not be adversely affected if their chemistry 12. Stanton, J.F. and Roeder, C.W., “Elastomeric Bearings—
and the assembly’s details are compatible (see ASTM A Design, Construction and Materials,” NCHRP Report 248,
385 on ensuring high quality coating). Certain types of Washington, DC, September, 1982.
bearings such as intricate pot or spherical bearings are not 13. Stanton, J.F. and Roeder, C.W., “A Comparison of Design
suitable for hot-dip galvanizing. Criteria for Elastomeric Bearings,” Journal of ACI, Vol. 80, No.
6, Nov.–Dec. 1983.
14. Stanton, J.F., Scroggins, D., Taylor, A.W. and Roeder, C.W.,
REFERENCES “Stability of Laminated Elastomeric Bearings,” ASCE, Journal
of Engineering Mechanics, Vol. 116, No. 6, June 1990.
1. Campbell, T.I. and Kong, W.L., “TFE Sliding Sur-
faces in Bridge Bearings,” Report ME 87-06, Min- Commentary to Section 15—TFE Bearing Surface
istry of Transportation, Downsview, Ontario, July
1987, 57 pp. Section replaced by new Section 14 in 1997.
2. Crozier, W.F., Stoker, J.R., Martin, V.C., and Nordlin,
E.F., “A Laboratory Evaluation of Full Size Elas- Commentary to Section 17—Soil-Reinforced
tomeric Bridge Bearing Pads,” Transportation Re- Concrete Structure Interaction Systems
search Laboratory, Research Report CS.DOT.TL-
6574-I-74-26, Highway Research Report (June 1974) General
3. Gent, A.N., “Elastic Stability of Rubber Compression
Springs,” Journal of Mechanical Engineering Sci- Section 17 has been revised to incorporate the Direct
ence, Vol. 6, No. 4 (1964) pp 318–326. Design Method developed along with the Standard Instal-
lations. The proposed revisions help clarify the direct C17.4.6.6.1 Reinforcement for Flexural Strength
design equations, while at the same time allowing the de-
signer more flexibility. fy has been moved to the right side of Equation (17-9),
The proposed direct design procedure is only a slight and b has been defined as 12 inches.
modification to the current direct design method used in
Section 17. This procedure was accepted in 1993 by C17.4.6.6.2 Minimum Reinforcement
ASCE in the publication ASCE 93-15, “Standard Practice
for Direct Design of Buried Precast Concrete Pipe Using In Equations (17-10), (17-11), and (17-12), b/12 has
Standard Installations (SIDD).” The design method was been added to correct the equation units, and 65,000 has
developed along with the research performed on the been replaced with fy to indicate other reinforcement yield
Standard Installations. However, the design equations are strengths may be used. In Equations (17-10) and (17-11),
applied after the required bending moments, thrusts, and As has been changed to Asi and Aso respectively to cor-
shear forces at all critical sections of the pipe have been rectly correlate with the use of the equations. b has been
determined using any one of the pressure distribution/ defined as equal to 12 inches.
structural analysis methods allowed in Section 17; and are Minimum outside steel (Aso) is reduced from 65% to
not intended for use only with the Standard Installations the commonly used 60% of the inside steel area. This
and Heger Pressure Distribution. complies with the ratio of inside to outside steel used in
Direct design for pipe, using the design equations that ASTM C 76.
have been part of Section 17 since 1983, is facilitated
using the Federal Highway Administration Computer Pro- C17.4.6.6.3 Maximum Flexural Reinforcement
gram PIPECAR. This program has recently been updated
to include the design method proposed for Section 17. fy has been moved to the right side of Equations (17-13)
See also C Section 17 (1996). and (17-14). The expression b/12 has been added to cor-
rect the equation units. The notation fv has been cor-
rected to fr. A factor frt has been added to account for the
C17.1.2 Notations
increasing radial tension strength, shown in industry
tests, as pipe diameter decreases below 72 inches. Con-
Several new notations are defined. These notations are
versely, Frt gives a decrease in radial tension strength for
used within the revisions proposed to Section 17.
pipe diameters above 72 inches. Three formulas defin-
ing Frt have been included.
C17.4.6 Direct Design Method For Precast
Reinforced Concrete Circular Pipe C17.4.6.6.4 Crack Width Control (Service Load
Design)
All of the subsections in 17.4.6 have been renumbered
to allow for more information to be incorporated con- Definition of the crack control factor has been added.
cerning the Direct Design Method and the pressure op- In Equation (17-15), ff has been correctly placed in the
tions available. denominator, rather than in the numerator where it has
been incorrectly shown since publication. The formula
C17.4.6.1 Application and C17.4.6.2 General defining e/d has been modified to indicate that for values
below 1.15, crack control will not govern.
These two sections replace the existing Article The table of B1 and C1 coefficient values for type of re-
17.4.6.1. They include references to the new Heger Pres- inforcement has been modified to show only C1 values. The
sure Distribution and the possible pressure distributions formula defining B1 has been modified to reflect a constant
that may be used for design. control of the limiting crack width at 1 inch from the ten-
sion reinforcement, instead of at the surface. This informa-
C17.4.6.3 Strength Reduction Factors and tion is necessary in designing pipe having cover thickness
C17.4.6.4 Process and Material Factors greater than 1 inch. B1 is also applied to all types of rein-
forcement, which was the intent of the design procedure as
These two sections have been renumbered. originally developed. Since cover and reinforcing spacing
effect crack width for all types of reinforcing.
C17.4.6.5 Orientation Angle
C17.4.6.6.5 Shear Strength
Possible misorientation of the pipe invert during in-
stallation is accounted for in the design process when The location of the critical shear, Mnu/Vud has been
designing quadrant mats, stirrups, and/or elliptical cages. modified to use the effective moment, Mnu which has been
defined by a formula. This formula takes into account the for typical reinforced concrete beams. Thus, b is included
effect of thrust. The thrust factor FN, has been modified in as a variable in Equation (17-19).
accordance with the thrust factors for shear strength in Ar- The maximum dc is limited to a maximum clear cover
ticle 8.16.6.2, to produce an increase in shear strength of 2 in, consistent with the provisions of Article 8.16.8.4.
with compressive thrust and a reduction for tensile thrust. See also C17.6.4.7 (2000).
The resulting modified shear strength is close to the shear
strength determined using the previous empirically deter- Commentary to Section 18—Soil-Thermoplastic
mined thrust modification factors for the common case of Pipe Interaction Systems
compressive thrust.
The shear resistance factor, f, is maintained for over- C18.4.3.1.2
all shear strength in Equation (17-16), but has been re-
moved from various subsidiary terms and formulas, so as
In accordance with the final recommendations made in
to be consistent with proper design practice.
the NCHRP Project 20-7, Task 68, Polyethylene Pipe
Specifications Report, the material specification for Cor-
C17.4.6.6.6.1 Radial Tension Stirrups
rugated PE pipe is revised from cell class 315412C to
335420C. A corresponding change in the Subcommittee
In Equation (17-17), fv has been corrected to fr in both
on Materials will be made to revise the specified cell clas-
the numerator and the denominator. The designation of
sification from 324420C to 325420C. This change re-
the spacing of circumferential stirrups has been changed
solves a long-standing discrepancy between the Bridge
from Sv to sv to be consistent with the nomenclature of
Design and the Materials Specification.
other sections and articles.
See also C18.4.3.1.2 (2000).
C17.4.6.6.6.2 Shear Stirrups
DIVISION II
In Equation (17-18), the fv which is applied to Vc has
been removed since fv is already applied in the terms out- Commentary to Section 3—Temporary Works
side the brackets. The term Sv has been corrected to sv. In
the formula for Vc, the resistance factor fv has been re- C3.1.3
moved since it already is applied in Equation (17-18), and
Mu has been corrected to Mnu. Recommends default specifications for design. Clari-
fies erection trusses—access scaffolding is covered under
C17.4.7 Development of Quadrant Mat OSHA, but stability trusses used for erection of structural
Reinforcement steel are designed as falsework. Calls out Registered Pro-
fessional Engineer.
Current standards do not provide guidance for the de-
tailing of quadrant mats. Article 17.4.7 is added to provide Commentary to Section 18—Bearings
the necessary details for minimum main cage steel area
and quadrant mat development length. C18.4 Materials
C17.6.4.7 C18.4.1 General
The same crack control criteria that is the basis of Equa- C18.4.1.1 Steel
tion (8-61) is also the basis for Equation (17-19) for cast-
in-place box sections. The z value of 130 specified in C18.4.1.1.1 The steel plate chosen should be com-
Article 8.16.8.4 for severe exposure is also used for cast- patible with that in the bridge, and the same steel is often
in-place box sections. The basic derivation of this z value chosen for both. Availability often influences the choices
includes an assumption that a typical ratio of the distance too. Sometimes it is difficult to obtain small quantities of
from the neutral axis to the location of crack width divided specialized steel in relatively large thicknesses. Many
by the distance from the neutral axis to the centroid of ten- bridges are now made from A 588 (weathering) steel.
sile reinforcing b, is 1.2, a typical value for reinforced con- However, this is not necessarily a good choice for the bear-
crete beams. However, because cast-in-place box sections ing unless it is completely protected against corrosion.
may have a range of b ratios from about 1.1 for thick slabs C18.4.1.1.2 Steel laminates for steel reinforced elas-
to about 1.6 for thin slabs, the variation in the b ratio for tomeric bearings are frequently less than 1 ⁄ 80 thick, thus
typical box sections is greater than the range of b values they cannot conform to A 36 or A 709 steels for which the
specification does not extend below 1 ⁄ 80 thickness. For thereafter was ineffective as a seal. However, certain pro-
thin plate, AISI C1020 is frequently used. This is a rela- prietary materials have also been used in Europe with suc-
tively ductile steel for cold formed metal structures which cess. They would require verification testing before being
has no specified yield strength but usually has a yield accepted in the USA.
strength of approximately 33 ksi. Since the minimum
thickness of the steel is often governed by fabrication cri- C18.4.5 Special Material Requirements for Steel
teria, little is to be gained by using a higher strength steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings and
than necessary. Holes are not allowed in the steel plate un- Elastomeric Pads
less they have been accounted for in design because the
steel is in tension and would be weakened by holes. C18.4.5.1 Properties of the Elastomer
C18.4.1.1.6 Stainless steel welding is sometimes used
to create a continuous overlay over carbon steel plate, for At present only natural Rubber (polyisoprene) and neo-
example in spherical sliding bearings. The stainless steel prene (polychloroprene) are permitted. This is because both
layer so created is then machined to give a smooth surface. have an extensive history of satisfactory use. In addition,
much more field experience exists with these two materials
C18.4.3 Special Material Requirements for PTFE than with any other, and almost all of it is satisfactory.
Sliding Surfaces The low-temperature grading system addresses the
problem of stiffening of the elastomer at low tempera-
The lubricant most frequently used in Europe with tures. Special compounding and curing are needed to
sheet PTFE is based on lithium grease. It has proved to be avoid the problem but they increase cost and in extreme
effective and stable over long periods. cases may adversely affect some other properties. These
adverse effects can be minimized by choosing a grade of
C18.4.3.1 PTFE elastomer appropriate for the conditions prevailing at the
site. The grades follow the approach of ASTM D 2000 and
The tests described in this section are intended to D 4014, with more stringent low temperature test criteria
determine the purity and crystallinity of the PTFE. The for higher grades.
purity influences the friction factor which can be obtained, Tables 25.3.1A and B outline the required properties of
and the crystallinity influences both the resistance to wear the elastomer. The standards are sometimes different for
and the friction. The specific gravity test is indirectly a test neoprene and natural rubber, which appears irrational be-
of the crystallinity. The strength tests are necessary to cause in other ways the requirements resemble a perfor-
make sure that the PTFE does not creep excessively and mance specification. However, the present state of knowl-
does not fail in direct tension. The test strength required edge is inadequate to pin down precisely those material
of woven fabric material is extremely high because it is at properties needed to assure good bearing behavior, so the
present conducted on a single strand of PTFE fiber. This tests are intended to achieve a generally good quality ma-
is a carry-over from the existing practice, but a strength terial rather than specific properties. Natural rubber and
test which measures the strength of the finished fabric in neoprene have different strengths and weaknesses, so dif-
pounds per inch of fabric would probably be better. ferent tests are indeed appropriate. (Generally natural rub-
ber creeps less, suffers less low-temperature stiffening,
C18.4.4 Special Material Requirements for Pot and has a better elongation at break—but neoprene has
Bearings better chemical, ozone, and aging resistance.)
The previous low temperature brittleness test has been
C18.4.4.1 The rotational element should be made augmented by two others: the Clash-Berg test for low tem-
from a flexible elastomer. The elastomer is fully confined perature stiffness (ASTM D 1043) and a test for low tem-
in the pot and therefore cannot undergo large deflections, perature crystallization stiffening (the ASTM D 4014 quad
so no advantage is gained by using a stiffer elastomer as shear test conducted at low temperature). All three tests
might be the case in a laminated elastomeric bearing. are required for elastomers of grade 3 and above. Previ-
ously, the brittleness test at 240° F was required for all
C18.4.4.3 Sealing Rings elastomers, including those to be used in the southern tier
states, yet no test was required for thermal or crystalliza-
Sealing rings are presently made from brass in the tion stiffening, even in the northern tier states or Alaska.
USA. Attempts were made to use PTFE in the past, but The brittleness test essentially detects glass transition,
these were unsuccessful because the PTFE ring squeezed but gives no indication of stiffening. The Clash-Berg test
out through the gap between the pot and the piston and is introduced to detect instantaneous low temperature
stiffening. It is quick to perform and requires only a mod- The tests required here are intended to insure a good qual-
est investment in special equipment. Crystallization stiff- ity material.
ening is both time- and temperature-dependent, but con-
stitutes a significant portion of the total low temperature C18.4.8 Special Material Requirements for Guides
stiffening of many elastomers. Detecting it is therefore
important and is done by the long-duration shear stiffness Very low friction coefficients are less necessary for
test. In addition to the ASTM D 4014 quad-shear rig, this guides than for the PTFE slider which supports the grav-
test requires a freezer which surrounds the rig. Because of ity load. This is because friction on the guides contributes
the nature of the crystallization, the test may take up to 28 only a small percentage of the longitudinal resisting force
days, so it is not required for every lot of bearings. of the bearing. Thus filled PTFE, which has a better resis-
Harder elastomers have a greater shear stiffness and tance to creep than pure PTFE, is often used for guides.
thus exert larger pier forces due to thermal expansion than The use of a filler means that it is not necessary to recess
materials of low hardness, unless the plan area of the bear- the PTFE in a metal backing plate, and this therefore saves
ing is reduced proportionately. This could cause the bear- some machining. PTFE filled with fiberglass or carbon
ing to be rather slender, possibly leading to instability fibers, and a PTFE and sintered metal mixture have been
problems. Further, 70 durometer material generally creeps used with success.
more than its softer counterparts. Thus, when larger com-
pressive stiffness is required, it is recommended that rein- C18.5 Fabrication
forced bearings of softer elastomer with thinner layers and
higher shape factor be used. C18.5.1 General
Hardness is maintained as a material property because
it is widely used in rubber technology and is easy to mea- C18.5.1.4 Designing bearings for replacement is im-
sure. However, measurements are sensitive to who takes portant because even high quality bearings have in some
them, and hardness generally gives only rough indication cases been known to fail because of unanticipated forces
of mechanical properties particularly at low temperatures. or other conditions. Setting the bearing in a shallow recess
The shear modulus is a much more useful property, but is in the masonry plate is a simple way of making replace-
more time consuming to measure. ment easy.
C18.4.5.2 Fabric Reinforcement C18.5.1.5 Tolerances
Fiberglass is the only fabric proven to perform ade- Each bearing type has one or more tolerances which
quately as reinforcement, and only one grade is currently are particularly important. In bearings which depend on
permitted. Polyester has proved too flexible, and both it and rocking or rolling surfaces, it is most important to ensure
cotton are not strong enough. The strength of the reinforce- that the curvature of the curved surface is constant to
ment governs the compressive strength of the bearing when within a fine tolerance. This is more important than the
minimum amounts are used, so if stronger fabric with ac- actual value of the radius of curvature. In nested roller
ceptable bond properties is developed, the stress limits of bearings it is also important to ensure that all the rollers
Article 14.6.6.3.2 of Division I may be reconsidered. How- have exactly the same radius of curvature, because if they
ever, thorough testing over a wide range of loading condi- do not, the load will not be equally shared between them.
tions, including fatigue, will be needed prior to acceptance. In flat PTFE sliding surfaces, the surface finish of the mat-
ing surface, usually stainless steel, is particularly impor-
C18.4.5.3 Bond tant. A number 8 mirror finish or better is recommended
in all cases.
Adequate bond is essential if the reinforcement is to be In bearings which depend on the sliding of one curved
effective. It is particularly important at the edges of the surface over another, such as curved PTFE sliding bear-
bearing. ings, curved bronze sliding bearings, or pins and bushings
which allow rotation, the difference in diameter of the two
C18.4.7 Special Material Requirements for Disc curved surfaces is the most important tolerance. The out
Bearings of round or the variation in curvature of the curved sur-
face is also important, and again the actual value of the ra-
Polyether urethane is a hard tough plastic material. dius of curvature is less important. If two parts of the bear-
However, its tensile strength varies significantly depending are made by different fabricators, machining by fitting
ing on the quality control exercised during processing. the two parts is not possible and it is necessary to machine
each part to a specific radius within a very high accuracy. C18.5.5 Special Fabrication Requirements for Pot
In the past, bearings made of components which are fab- Bearings
ricated by different manufacturers have given problems
because of lack of a good fit. In pot bearings, the most im- C18.5.5.1 Pots
portant tolerances are those on the clearance between the
pot and the piston and on the vertical clearance between The most common way of fabricating a pot is to ma-
the upper and lower parts of the bearing. chine it from a single piece of steel plate. However, for very
large pots this may be uneconomical because it means a
C18.5.3 Special Fabrication Requirements for large amount of machining. In such cases, casting, forging
PTFE Sliding Bearings or fabrication by welding are possible but they introduce
extra difficulties beyond those found in pots machined from
C18.5.3.1 PTFE sheets should be both recessed and plate. If the pot is made by welding a ring to a base plate,
bonded to obtain the best performance. The recessing in- the weld is critically important. The weld must be made on
hibits creep or cold flow and the bonding keeps the PTFE both the inside and the outside of the ring and then the weld
in the recess when the mating surface of stainless steel on the inside must be machined if necessary to give the cor-
slides over it. Without the bond there is a risk that condi- rect final profile. The welds must be verified by suitable ul-
tions such as eccentric loading would cause the PTFE to trasonic or radiographic examination methods and the flat-
come out of the recess. The minimum bonding pressure of ness of the plates after welding must be ensured.
100 psi is intended to ensure that the adhesive under the
PTFE is well distributed and that the final PTFE surface C18.5.6 Special Fabrication Requirements for
will be flat. Steel Reinforced Elastomeric Bearings and
Elastomeric Pads
C18.5.3.2 Filled PTFE is much rougher and leads to
C18.5.6.1 Requirements for all Elastomeric
higher friction coefficients than pure PTFE. Polishing is
Bearings
intended to minimize the adverse effects of the filler.
Bearings which are designed as a single unit must be
C18.5.3.2.3 Woven PTFE
built as a single unit, because the shape factor, bearing
stiffness and strength, and general behavior under load
Woven PTFE cannot be kept in place by a recess in the
will be different if built in sections.
same way that sheet PTFE can, so some other means is
necessary. It can be attached to its backing substrate either
C18.5.6.2 Steel Laminated Elastomeric Bearings
by bonding or by forming in the metal substrate mechan-
ical indentations into which the PTFE weave is pressed.
In order to achieve good bond, the steel laminates must
The effectiveness of such a mechanical connection can be
first be thoroughly sand blasted and cleaned and then pro-
judged by a test in which one piece of woven PTFE is
tected against contamination until fabrication is complete.
compressed between two indented metal substrates and
Edge cover is primarily needed to prevent corrosion of
the PTFE is pulled out from between them.
the reinforcement and ozone attack of the bond. However,
C18.5.3.3 Stainless Steel it also decreases the probability of delamination by re-
ducing the stress concentrations at the exposed outer
Stainless steel should be attached by welding all surface.
around. This not only ensures a uniform transfer of stress In the past, bonding during vulcanization has been the
from the PTFE to the backing plate when the stainless steel most successful method of attaching the laminates, and is
is subjected to shear from sliding forces, but it also mini- required for bonding of internal laminates. However,
mizes the corrosion which can occur behind the PTFE. practical difficulties may arise in hot bonding of external
plates, thus hot bonding is strongly recommended for
C18.5.4 Special Fabrication Requirements for them, but not required.
Curved Sliding Bearings
C18.5.9 Special Fabrication Requirements for
The mating parts of each bearing, especially machined Guides
metal bearings such as self-lubricating bronze bearings,
should be furnished by a single manufacturer in order to Guide bars are usually attached by bolting because
ensure proper fitting of the mating surfaces. welding tends to introduce distortions. If the bolts are held
in threaded holes in the plate rather than by nuts, the the complete bearing. They represent a check that the
threaded holes should have adequate length to develop the materials being used will have suitable resistance to wear
full tension strength of the bolt. The guide bars must be at- and deterioration over the long term. Since the quality of
tached with a relatively fine tolerance in order to prevent materials both in the short and the long term is essentially
locking up when the bearing displaces longitudinally. being assured by material sample tests rather than tests
on the complete bearing, it is also necessary to make sure
C18.5.9.3 The low friction material used for guides that the material will behave in the same way in the com-
must be attached by two of the three given methods to plete as it will in the material sample. This is done by
avoid the debonding problems which have occurred in complete bearing tests, which again need be done at the
the past. least frequent rate.
C18.7 Testing and Acceptance C18.7.2.2 Material Friction Test
C18.7.1 General It is important that the material tested here is identical

to that used in the finished bearing. In particular, no lubri-
The purpose of testing is to ensure a good quality fin- cant whatsoever should be applied during the test unless
ished bearing. The obvious way to achieve this is to con- it is also required in the finished bearing, and the (stain-
duct rigorous tests on every bearing. However, this is eco- less steel) mating surface should be new for every piece
nomically infeasible and resorting to other methods is of material tested. Thus the same piece of stainless steel
necessary. The testing outlined here is based on four dif- should not be used for more than one PTFE specimen in
ferent levels. The first is to ensure that the proper materi- the PTFE material tests. The friction coefficients which
als are supplied and this is achieved by material tests. The constitute the performance criteria for the tests are directly
second and third are concerned with immediate testing for related to the values used in design. This is considered
short term behavior. In the second, the dimensions of the more realistic than the arrangements in the 15th edition of
bearing, and in particular some critical dimensions which the AASHTO Specification.
are different for each bearing type, are checked to ensure
that they are within the proper tolerances. The third type C18.7.2.9 Bearing Horizontal Force Capacity
of test is then short term proof loading tests. This is re-
quired only in cases where it will produce useful infor- This test is only for bearings which must resist pre-
mation. For example, applying a vertical load to a spher- scribed horizontal forces. It is important to select only re-
ical sliding bearing for a short period of time is unlikely alistic combinations of vertical and horizontal load. Selec-
to be informative. The fourth and last category of tests tion of an impossible load combination may result in
consists of long term proof loading tests to demonstrate unwarranted rejection of the bearing. Bearings which must
the adequacy of the bearing under long term conditions carry a large ratio of horizontal to vertical force are fre-
which could cause wear or damage. quently an indicator of a poorly thought out bearing system.
Because the long term tests require more complicated
test machinery and a longer test time, they are inevitably C18.7.4 Special Testing Requirements
more expensive than short term ones. Therefore the fre-
quency with which each of these tests must be done is de- The minimum testing frequencies laid out in this sec-
termined separately. The material quality control tests tion represent absolute minimums. In cases where the
and the dimensional check must essentially be made for bearing performance is particularly critical, the engineer
every bearing. These are routine tests and are simple and may demand more stringent testing. An example might be
cheap to perform. Where short term compressive proof a bridge in which the bearings are relatively inaccessible
load tests are simple to do and produce useful informa- and would be difficult and expensive to replace.
tion, they are required. For example, in steel laminated
elastomeric bearings such a proof load test gives an indi- C18.8 Packing, Shipping and Storing
cation of the quality of the bond and the placement of the
steel and rubber layers within the bearing. This test can Small amounts of grit, dirt, or other contamination can
be done by the manufacturer in the same press in which seriously detract from the good performance which could
the bearing was fabricated. It therefore requires very lit- otherwise be obtained from a bearing. It is therefore very
tle extra time or effort and no additional equipment. The important that the bearing should not be opened up on
long term tests need be done the least frequently, and they site except under the supervision of the manufacturer or
may be conducted on samples of material rather than on his agent.
C18.9 Installation will assist in settling any disputes that may arise, because
the test results for that bearing should be traceable. It also
Bridge bearings are precisely engineered products and provides a means of monitoring and investigating the long
must be treated as such when they are installed. Fre- term field behavior of bearings.
quently the bearing has a relatively low profile which is
gained by providing only the minimum required rotation Commentary to Section 19—Pot Bearings
capacity. Thus it is crucial that the bearing be installed
level and that the girder which will be seated on it also has Section replaced by new Section 14 in 1997.
a level underside. Furthermore, guided bearings must be
oriented correctly, or else large horizontal forces may be Commentary to Section 20—Disc Bearings
introduced. Bearings should be marked in such a way that
the identification number can be seen after erection. This Section replaced by new Section 14 in 1997.
1998 Commentary to
DIVISION I sults of these studies indicate that both methods provide

COMMENTARY TO reasonably adequate results for a variety of loading con-
“SECTION 5—RETAINING WALLS” ditions and wall heights relative to the actual reinforce-
ment stresses measured, and that there is very little dif-
Figure C5.2A ference in the amount of reinforcement needed in a given
wall designed by either method. However, for welded
For consistency in presentation. wire wall and bar mat walls, the Simplified Method shifts
the density of reinforcement from the bottom to the top of
C5.8.2 the wall.
The Simplified Method is the preferred design
Concerns have been raised by some state DOT’s and method for a national specification because it provides
wall suppliers that the new Simplified Method does not the most uniform results for all wall types and it can eas-
fully account for the effect of large or steep sloping sur- ily be adapted to any future ME wall type. However,
charges. (See commentary for Article 5.8.4.1.) The Simpli- other design methods have been used successfully for
fied Method as well as the Coherent Gravity Method do not many years with no apparent performance problems, and
fully account for large, steep continuous sloping surcharges, some state DOT’s have confidence in those methods. The
as such surcharges can effect a combination of internal and proposed revision retains the Simplified Method as the
external stability, resulting in failure surfaces which are par- preferred method, but allows other proven design meth-
tially internal and external (compound failure surfaces). ods to be used.
Therefore, it is prudent to perform additional analyses to
check reinforcement requirements and overall stability. C5.8.4.2
See also C5.8.2 (1996).
Measured loads in the reinforcement at the wall face
C5.8.4.1 tend to be less than Tmax near the upper portion of the wall.
However, construction practices can introduce uncertain-
The 1997 Interims eliminated the use of the Coherent ties in the loads in the reinforcement at the wall face.
Gravity and Structure Stiffness Methods for determining Therefore, it is prudent to design for 100% of Tmax at the
internal stability of ME wall systems, and required all ME wall face.
wall systems to be designed using the new Simplified
Method. This action caused significant concern among Figure C5.8.5.2A
some of the state DOT’s and some of the wall suppliers.
Changing to a new design method results in a need to re- Source document (FHWA Publication No. FHWA-SA-
design all existing wall standards and computer software 97-071) indicates maximum value of 2.0 should be used.
for those systems. They did not consider the extra effort Furthermore, the minimum value of Cu of 4 will result in
for these changes to be warranted, especially considering a maximum F* value greater than 1.5.
that many walls have been designed using these methods
over the last 20 years and the walls have not exhibited Table C5.8.6.1.2.A
poor performance. In addition, there was a perception that
the Simplified Method was unconservative for some walls The test methods quoted in the current AASHTO spec-
and overly conservative for others. ification do not fully address the polymers used in geo-
Additional studies have been performed comparing the synthetics nor do they reflect industry practice. These test
Simplified Method and the Coherent Gravity Method. Re- procedures will yield incorrect results which could affect
C-35
product acceptance. The new GRI test methods are in sistent with other wall types in Chapter 5 to eliminate any
draft form and are being developed based on industry reference to a factor of safety for temporary walls. This ac-
practice, and on recent research conducted through the tion would leave it up to the engineer to determine if a lower
FHWA geosynthetic durability study and research at the factor of safety than for a permanent wall was justified.
Geosynthetics Research Institute at Drexel University.
C5.8.7.2
C5.8.6.1.2(4)
This additional phrase provides clarification that the
The minimum combined reduction factor, RF, of 3.0 minimum design connection strength cannot be less than
does not reflect polymer specific characteristics, and it the design load in the reinforcement in the backfill.
was conservative for some polymers and unconservative See also C5.8.7.2 (1999).
for other polymers. To insure that the minimum reduction
factors are not affected by differing polymer characteris- C5.8.7.2, Equation C5.8.7.2-1
tics, they must be treated individually. Since the creep re-
duction factor overwhelms the value of the combined min- If the connection strength is controlled by pullout, it
imum reduction factor, a combined minimum reduction must be reduced by a safety factor consistent with the
factor cannot be used. Minimum reduction factors for in- pullout design for the reinforcement in the backfill.
stallation damage and for durability are provided to insure
the desired level of safety. A minimum reduction factor Table C5.8.7.2A
cannot be provided for the effect of creep because it is too
polymer specific. Appendix B of the FHWA-SA-96-071, See commentary for Article 5.8.6.1.2(4).
“Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and Reinforced Soil
Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines,” provides a C5.8.9
safe assessment of the creep reduction factor. Therefore,
a minimum reduction factor for creep is not needed. Though performance history of ME walls in large
earthquakes has demonstrated that current pseudo-static
Table C5.8.6.1.2B design methods are adequately safe to prevent collapse,
and in most cases significant deformation, there is limited
See commentary for Article 5.8.6.1.2(4). evidence which suggests that some lateral deformation is
possible when the ground acceleration is large. There is an
C5.8.6.2.2 on-going research effort to investigate this and related is-
sues. Until that work is completed and clearer or more ac-
Article 5.8.6.2.2 in the 1997 Interims requires a global curate guidance is available, there are state-of-the-art de-
safety factor which accounts for various uncertainties in formation based design tools available which can be used.
the wall system. For ultimate limit state conditions, this It is recommended that this additional design step be taken
safety factor for geosynthetic walls is 1.5. By comparison, to evaluate the potential for unacceptable deformations
the same global safety factor for steel reinforced walls is during large earthquakes until a better understanding of
1.8. The proposed revision clarifies the requirements of this phenomenon is available.
the 1997 Interims for geosynthetic walls, which includes
an additional safety factor for creep extrapolation, which C5.8.9.1
is typically about 1.2 and depends on the amount of creep
data available, which increases the total safety factor for Equation (5.8.9.1-1) has been empirically derived based
geosynthetic walls to about 1.8. on finite element analyses and shake table studies. Those
The 1997 Interims introduced an FS of 1.2 for tempo- who performed the studies (RECO, in particular Segrestin
rary geosynthetic walls, based on their high flexibility and and Bastic, 1988) recommended that the equation not be
resistance to failure. This is the only type of wall that used for accelerations greater than 0.45 to g. As “A” ap-
makes reference to a factor of safety for temporary walls. proaches g, Am decreases from a value greater than “A” to a
Further input from the community of wall users indicates value which equals “A.” As “A” increases to a value above
that there may be critical installations that could not ac- g, this equation would calculate Am to be a value less than
commodate the additional wall face movement that may “A.” This equation has not been evaluated for higher accel-
result with the lower factor of safety. Rather than try to de- erations, but until more is known, it should be conservatively
fine what a better value should be, it would be more con- assumed that Am is always greater than or equal to “A.”
C5.8.9.2 Article C
Editorial, to adjust to changes resulting from revision The traffic surcharge load “q” is shown in the figure
to Article 5.8.9.2, Equations (5.8.9.2-4) to (5.8.9.2-6). but was inadvertently left out of the equations.
For consistency with the other equation in this and
other articles. Article 5.8.9.2, Equation (5.8.9.2-4) as pro- DIVISION I-A
posed in Agenda Item 42: In the denominator, after “FS,”
add “3 RFID 3 RFD .” Commentary
The transient nature of the loading only affects geo- SECTION 1—INTRODUCTION
synthetic creep. The effects of installation damage and dura- These Specifications and Commentary were originally
bility will occur regardless of the presence of a transient prepared by the Applied Technology Council and pub-
load or not. Therefore, RDID and RFD should be consid- lished in the ATC 6 report “Seismic Design of Highway
ered when determining the strength required to resist the Bridges.” In 1983 the AASHTO Bridge and Structures
transient load. Subcommittee adopted these provisions as a Guide Spec-
The 1997 Interims do not include the effects of creep ification,1 and in 1990 replaced the existing seismic pro-
in the design of the reinforcement for seismic loading. The visions in the Standard Specifications with those of the
reinforcement must be designed to resist the dynamic com- Guide Specifications. Since 1991, these provisions have
ponent of the load at any time during its design life, but it been contained in Division I-A of the Standard Specifica-
will be most critical at the end of its design life. Current tions for Highway Bridges. In 1994, a major revision to
design practice in AASHTO requires the strength of the Division I-A was adopted and the accompanying Com-
reinforcement at the end of the design life to be reduced mentary was modified and expanded to be compatible
to account for creep and other degradation mechanisms. with the new provisions. This new Commentary is pre-
Strength lost in polymeric materials due to creep requires sented herein. Based on the original Commentary devel-
long-term, sustained loading. The dynamic component of oped for ATC 6, it reflects changes in the specifications
load for seismic design is a transient load and does not over the last 15 years.
cause strength loss due to creep. The resistance of the re-
inforcement to the static component of load, Tmax, must be DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
handled separately from the dynamic component of load,
Tmd. The strength required to resist Tmax must include the Conceptually there are two seismic design approaches
effects of creep, but the strength required to resist Tmd currently in use and both employ a “force design” con-
should not include the effects of creep. This would apply cept. These are the current New Zealand and Caltrans
to other types of transient loads as well, such as impact criteria and are discussed in detail in References 2 and 3,
load on a traffic barrier. respectively.
C5.8.9.3 Note
See commentary for Article 5.8.4.2. This version of the Commentary to Division I-A of the
See the commentary for Article 5.8.9.2. The same dis- AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, dated
cussion applies to the effect of seismic loads on connec- March 1997, is essentially the same as the May 1996 version,
tion strength. previously distributed to Technical Committee T-3, Seismic, of
See the commentary for Article 5.8.9.2. The same dis- the AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Bridges and Struc-
cussion applies to transient loads, such as impact loads on tures. Changes in this version include: (a) corrections to fig-
traffic barriers. ure, table, and equation references so as to be consistent with
Same as for Article 5.8.9.2, except that RDID does not the format used in the 16th Edition of the Standard Specifica-
need to be considered for connection strength as the strength tions; (b) replacement of all references to Appendix A “Bridge
Analysis Methods Parameter Study” by citing a more com-
reduction measured in the connection strength test, CRu,
prehensive technical report; (c) removal of Appendix A “Bridge
accounts for damage to the geosynthetic reinforcement. Analysis Methods Parameter Study” and renumbering Appen-
dix B “Foundation and Abutment Requirements for Bridges in
C5.8.12.2 Seismic Performance Categories B, C, and D” as Appendix A;
(d) expanded commentary concerning over-strength in concrete
Same as for Article 5.8.9.2. columns in Article C7.2.2; and (e) minor editorial and gram-
See also C5.8.12.2 (1999). matical corrections.
In the New Zealand Code, which accepts the philoso- ative displacement effects that cannot be calculated by cur-
phy that it is uneconomical to design a bridge to resist a rent state-of-the-art methods. A somewhat similar require-
large earthquake elastically, bridges are designed to resist ment is included in the Japanese bridge design criteria.4
small-to-moderate earthquakes in the elastic range. For Second, member design forces are calculated to account for
large earthquakes the design philosophy is that bridges be the directional uncertainty of earthquake motions and the
ductile where possible. Flexural plastic hinging in the simultaneous occurrence of earthquake forces in two per-
columns is acceptable but significant damage to the foun- pendicular horizontal directions. Third, design require-
dations and other joints is not. Consequently, as a second ments and forces for foundations are intended to minimize
step in the design process, forces resulting from plastic foundation damage which is not readily detectable. Fourth,
hinging in all columns are determined and the capacities of a basic premise in developing the Specifications was that
connections to columns are checked to determine if they they be applicable to all parts of the United States. In order
are able to resist these forces. Hence, critical elements in to provide flexibility in specifying design provisions asso-
the bridge are designed to resist the maximum forces to ciated with areas of different seismic risk, four Seismic
which they will be subjected in a large earthquake. Performance Categories (SPC) were defined. The four cat-
In the Caltrans approach the member forces are deter- egories permit variation in the design requirements and
mined from an elastic design response spectrum for a analysis methods in accordance with the seismic risk as-
maximum credible earthquake. The design forces for each sociated with a particular bridge location. Bridges classi-
component of the bridge are then obtained by dividing the fied as SPC D are designed for the highest level of seis-
elastic forces by a reduction factor (Z). The Z-Factor is 1.0 mic performance and bridges classified as SPC A for the
and 0.8, respectively, for hinge restrainers and shear keys. lowest level of seismic performance.
These components are therefore designed for expected For bridges classified as SPC A, prevention of super-
and greater-than-expected (in the case of shear keys) elas- structure collapse is all that was deemed necessary for
tic forces resulting from a maximum credible earthquake. their level of seismic exposure. The requirements for
Well-confined ductile columns are designed for lower- these bridges are minimal and specify the support lengths
than-expected forces from an elastic analysis as Z varies for girders at abutments, columns and expansion joints,
from 4 to 8. This assumes that the columns can deform and that the design of the connections of the superstruc-
plastically when the seismic forces exceed these lower de- ture to the substructure be for 0.20 times the dead load re-
sign forces. The end result is similar to the New Zealand action forces.
approach although the procedures are quite different. For bridges classified as SPC B the approach used is
In assessing bridge failures of past earthquakes in similar to that of Caltrans where elastic member forces are
Alaska, California and Japan, many loss-of-span type fail- determined from a single-mode spectral method of analy-
ures are attributed in part to relative displacement effects. sis. Design forces for each component are obtained by di-
Relative displacements arise from out-of-phase motion of viding the elastic forces by a response modification factor
different pars of bridge, from lateral displacement and/or (R). For connections at abutments, columns and expan-
rotation of the foundations and differential displacements sion joints, the R-Factor is either 1.0 or 0.8; therefore
of abutments. Therefore in developing these Specifica- these components are designed for expected or greater-
tions the design displacements and forces were consid- than-expected elastic forces. For columns and piers the
ered equally important. Thus minimum support lengths R-Factor varies between 2 and 5 resulting in design forces
at abutments, columns and hinge seats are specified, and lower than predicted by the elastic analysis. Therefore the
for bridges in areas of high seismic risk ties between non- columns are expected to yield when subjected to the
continuous segments of a bridge are specified. Special forces of the design earthquake. This yielding in turn im-
attention to the problem of relative displacements is re- plies relative distortions of the structural system that must
quired for bridges with high columns or piers. be considered in assessing the adequacy of the final bridge
The methodology used in these Specifications is, in design. Design requirements to ensure reasonable ductil-
part, a combination of the New Zealand2 and Caltrans3 ity capacity of columns for bridges classified as SPC B are
“force design” approaches but also addresses the relative specified but they are not as stringent as those for bridges
displacement problem. The complexity of the methodol- classified as SPC C and D. Foundations in SPC B are de-
ogy increases as the seismic intensity of an area increases. signed for twice the seismic design forces of a column
Four additional concepts are included in these Specifica- or pier.
tions that are not included in either the Caltrans or New For bridges classified as SPC C and D the general ap-
Zealand approach. First, minimum requirements are spec- proach is similar to that for SPC B however several addi-
ified for support lengths of girders at abutments, columns tional requirements are included. For columns, additional
and hinge seats to account for some of the important rel- requirements are included to ensure that they are capable
of developing reasonable ductility capacities. For connec- • In a second approach, the computer program
tions and foundations, the recommended design forces are SHAKE8 was used by Caltrans to develop soil am-
based on the maximum shears and moments that can be plification factors for its design criteria. The pro-
developed by column yielding. Horizontal linkage and gram analyzes a one-dimensional soil column for
tie-down requirements at connections are also provided. shear wave motions propagating from the rock level
For SPC D, approach slabs are required to ensure use- to the top of the soil column. The Caltrans approach
ability of the bridge after an earthquake. is limited because only vertically propagating one-
dimensional soil effects are considered and several
SEISMIC GROUND MOTION ACCELERATIONS parameters which could have significant effects are
not considered. These parameters include surface
Selection of the seismic ground motion to be used with waves, oblique transmission of waves through the
the design provisions was carefully considered by the soil and the effects of reflection and refraction at
authors of the 1983 Guide Specification1. A comprehen- the interfaces of different material layers.
sive study entitled “Tentative Provisions for the Develop- • For the third approach, representative ground mo-
ment of Seismic Regulations for Buildings” (ATC-3-06) tion spectral shapes were modified in ATC-3-065 to
had been published in 1978 in which seismic risk maps determine corresponding values of effective peak
and an associated design spectrum were developed.5 The ground acceleration and smoothed spectral shapes
ATC-3-06 maps are based on (1) a realistic appraisal of for three typical site conditions. These modifications
expected levels of ground motion shaking, (2) approxi- were based on a study of ground motions recorded
mately the same probability that the design ground shak- at locations with different site conditions and the
ing will be exceeded for all parts of the United States, and exercise of experienced judgement in extrapolating
(3) the frequency of occurrence of earthquakes in various beyond the data base. Coefficients were developed
regions of the country. Although these maps have been re- for each of these typical soil conditions.
vised several times in the intervening 15 years, the map in
the current specifications is based on the same criteria as The ATC-3-06 approach for considering soil effects on
presented in ATC-3-06. Developed by the US Geological ground motion is used in these Specifications and is dis-
Survey, it is taken from the 1988 NEHRP Recommended cussed in more detail in Article C3.2.
Provisions for the seismic design of buildings.6 A detailed
discussion of the development of the seismic risk maps REFERENCES
and the associated design spectrum is given in Article
C3.2 of this commentary. 1. Guide Specifications for Seismic Design of High-
Although the probability is quite small, it is possible way Bridges, American Association of State Highway
that in highly seismic areas, particularly near active faults, and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 1983,
the ground motions could exceed the design earthquake 106 pp.
ground shaking. For these locations it is recommended 2. Chapman, H.E., “An Overview of the State of Practice
that a qualified professional be consulted to determine an in Earthquake Resistant Design of Bridges in New
appropriate value for the Acceleration Coefficient, A. Zealand,” Proceedings of a Workshop on Earthquake
Resistance of Highway Bridges, Applied Technology
SOIL EFFECTS ON GROUND MOTION Council, Berkeley, CA, January 1979.
3. Gates, J.H., “Factors Considered in the Development
It is generally recognized that the effects of local soil of the California Seismic Design Criteria for Bridges,”
conditions on ground motion characteristics should be Proceedings of a Workshop on Earthquake Resistance
considered in structural design. Three fundamentally dif- of Highway Bridges, Applied Technology Council,
ferent approaches have been used: Berkeley, CA, January 1979.
4. “Design Specifications of Road Bridges; Part V: Seis-
• The first approach was based on the concept of po- mic Design”, Japan Road Association, February 1990.
tential resonance of a structure with the underlying 5. Applied Technology Council, “Tentative Provisions
soil. In the SEAOC building seismic requirements7 for the Development of Seismic Regulations for
the seismic site-structure resonance coefficient var- Buildings,” ATC Report No. 3-06, Berkeley, CA,
ies from 1.0 to 1.5 depending on the ratio of the fun- June 1978.
damental building period to the characteristic site 6. “NEHRP Recommended Provisions for the Develop-
period. ment of Seismic Regulations for New Buildings”,
Federal Emergency Management Agency; Part 1: Pro- 2. The Multimode Spectral Procedure described in Ar-
visions, FEMA Report 95; Part 2: Commentary, ticle 4.5 should be considered, especially if the Accel-
FEMA Report 96; Washington, DC, 1988. Federal eration Coefficient for the bridge site is greater than
Emergency Management Agency. 0.20. The designer should consider the pros and cons
7. Structural Engineers Association of California, “Rec- of using elastic and/or inelastic methods of time history
ommended Lateral Force Requirements and Commen- analysis for larger and more complex types of bridges.
tary,” 1975 Edition. If these methods are used, appropriate time histories
8. Schnabel, P.B., Lysmer, J., and Seed, H.B., “SHAKE— must be determined as part of the site specific study. It
A Computer Program for Earthquake Response Analy- is recommended that at least five ground motion time
sis of Horizontally Layered Sites,” EERC Report No. histories be used in this type of analysis.
72-12, Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Uni- 3. Design displacements are as important as design
versity of California, Berkeley, CA, 1972. forces and, where possible, the design methodology
should consider displacements arising from the effects
discussed in Article C3.10.
Commentary 4. If a design methodology similar to that used in these
SECTION 3—GENERAL REQUIREMENTS Specifications is deemed desirable, the design require-
ments of Sections 5, 6, and 7 should be used to ensure
C3.1 APPLICABILITY OF SPECIFICATIONS compliance with the design philosophy.
These Specifications present seismic design and con- C3.2, C3.5 AND C3.6 ACCELERATION
struction requirements applicable to the majority of high- COEFFICIENT, SITE
way bridges to be constructed in the United States. Bridges EFFECTS AND ELASTIC
not covered by these provisions probably constitute 5 to SEISMIC RESPONSE
15% of the total number of bridges designed. COEFFICIENT AND
The Project Engineering Panel (PEP) for the 1983 SPECTRUM
Guide Specifications decided that special seismic design
provisions would not be required for buried type struc- The ground motion coefficient to be used with these
tures. It was recognized by the PEP, however, that this de- Specifications was originally developed as part of a simi-
cision may need reconsideration as more research data on lar but even more extensive study for buildings entitled
the seismic performance of this type of structure becomes “Tentative Provisions for the Development of Seismic
available. Regulations for Buildings” (ATC-3-06).1 Since the ground
These Specifications specify minimum requirements. motion coefficient and associated elastic response spectrum
More sophisticated design and/or analysis techniques may are independent of the structural system, the ATC-3-06
be utilized if deemed appropriate by the design engineer. values are used in these Specifications.
For bridge types not covered by these Specifications, Two coefficients and two corresponding maps were
the following factors should be considered. developed in the ATC-3-06 provisions. The two coeffi-
cients are the Effective Peak Acceleration Coefficient, Aa,
1. The recommended elastic design force levels of the and the Effective Peak Velocity-Related Acceleration Co-
Specifications should be applicable because force lev- efficient Av. County-by-county and contour maps of the
els are largely independent of the type of bridge struc- United States for each of the two coefficients are included
ture, although a project may warrant a site-specific in the ATC-3-06 report.
study to determine appropriate design force levels. If A major policy decision in the development of these
the site is near an active fault zone it is also recom- Specifications was to replace the Aa and Av maps of ATC-
mended that qualified professionals familiar with local 3-06 with a single map for the Acceleration Coefficient,
conditions be consulted, especially for locations within A, in order to simplify the design process. This decision
the 40% contour of Figures 3.2A and 3.2B. was consistent with that made earlier for the AASHTO
It should be noted that the elastic design force levels Guide Specification2 in which A was set equal to Av and
of the Specifications are part of a design philosophy de- read from a contour map prepared in 1976 by Algermis-
scribed in the introduction to this Commentary. The ap- sen and Perkins3 of the US Geological Survey. The deci-
propriateness of both the design force levels and the de- sion to use a contour rather than county-by-county map
sign philosophy must be assessed before they are used was made because it was felt that the local jurisdictional
for bridges that are not covered by these Specifications. problems with buildings were not of major importance for
bridges. Note, however, that in the present specification, A. Engineering Judgement

the Acceleration Coefficient, A, is based on a 1982 map
developed by Algermissen and others.4 A modified version It must be emphasized at the outset that the specifica-
of this map was recommended by the ground-shaking tion of earthquake ground shaking cannot be achieved
hazard committee of the Building Seismic Safety Council solely by following a set of scientific principles. First, the
for inclusion in the 1988 Edition of the NEHRP Recom- causes of earthquakes are still not well understood and ex-
mended Provisions for the seismic design of new build- perts do not fully agree as to how available knowledge
ings where it is published as Figure 1-5.5 The maps shown should be interpreted to specify ground motions for use in
in Figures 3.2A and 3.2B of the present specification are design. Second, to achieve workable bridge design provi-
the same as those in Figure 1-5 of the 1988 NEHRP Pro- sions it is necessary to simplify the enormously complex
visions and represent the expected maximum horizontal matter of earthquake occurrence and ground motions. Fi-
acceleration in rock that has a 10% probability of being nally, any specification of a design ground shaking in-
exceeded in 50 years. volves balancing the risk of that motion occurring against
Note also that Article 3.2 calls for the site-specific de- the cost to society of requiring that structures be designed
termination of the Acceleration Coefficient, A, if a bridge to withstand that motion. Hence judgment, engineering
is located close to an active fault or when earthquakes of experience, and political wisdom are as necessary as sci-
long duration are expected. As a general rule a site should entific knowledge. In addition, it must be remembered
be considered “close” if it is within 3 miles (5 km) of a that design ground shaking alone does not determine how
fault. Also, if fault activity is unknown in a particular a bridge will perform during a future earthquake; there
area, site-specific studies are recommended whenever the must be a balance of the specified shaking with the rules
area lies within a 40% contour in Figures 3.2A and 3.2B. used to assess structural resistance to that shaking.
Site-specific hazard studies are also required in any
seismic zone if the importance of a bridge is high and B. Policy Decisions
either a longer exposure period (.50 years), or a lower
probability of exceedance (,10%), is required. For ex- The recommended ground shaking regionalization
ample, an exposure period of the order of 250 years may maps are based upon two major policy decisions.
be appropriate for some critically important bridges, The first policy decision was that the probability of ex-
and acceleration coefficients having a 10% probability ceeding the design ground shaking should, as a goal, be
of exceedance in this time frame, correspond to earth- assumed to be equal in all parts of the country. The desir-
quakes with return periods of the order of 2400 years. ability of this goal is accepted within the profession; how-
Figure 1-7 of the 1988 NEHRP Provisions5 shows an ac- ever, there is some disagreement as to the accuracy of
celeration map for this longer return period and is use- estimates of probability of ground motion as determined
ful for describing the order of magnitude of the seismic from current knowledge and procedures. Use of a contour
hazard under these conditions. However there is general map based on uniform probability of occurrence is a de-
uncertainty about the reliability of such a map especially parture from the use of the zone maps which are based on
in regions of the country where large earthquakes are very estimates of maximum ground shaking experienced dur-
infrequent. Such a map should therefore be used with ing the recorded historical period without any considera-
care and should not be used as a substitute for a site- tion of how frequently such motions might occur. It is also
specific study. Nevertheless, recent advances in engineer- recognized that the real concern is with the probability of
ing seismology are expected to allow the preparation of structural failures and resultant casualties and that the
more reliable maps in the near future and the use of long geographical distribution of that probability is not neces-
recurrence-period maps in design may become standard sarily the same as the distribution of the probability of ex-
practice in the next generation of bridge and building ceeding some ground motion. Thus the goal as stated is
specifications. the most workable one of the present but not necessarily
The ATC-3-06 Commentary1 gives a detailed descrip- the ideal one for the future.
tion of the philosophy behind the choice and representa- The second policy decision was that the regionaliza-
tion of seismic design ground motions, the representation tion maps should not attempt to microzone. In particular,
of risk, and the inclusion of site effects. This material is there was to be no attempt to locate actual faults on the re-
also relevant to the current specification and the discus- gionalization maps, and variations of ground shaking over
sion that follows is based on certain sections of the ATC- short distances—about 10 miles (15 km) or less—were
3-06 Commentary. A more complete review of these is- not to be considered. Any such microzoning must be done
sues can be found in the ATC-3 document.1 by qualified professionals who are familiar with localized
conditions. Many local jurisdictions may find it expedient ered in drawing up the recommended provisions, although
to undertake microzoning. in a general way it was envisioned that the design ground
shaking might have a duration of 20 to 30 seconds. The
C. Design Earthquake Ground Motion possibility that the design motion might be longer in
highly seismic areas and shorter in less seismic areas was
The previous sections have discussed design ground one of the considerations which influenced the design pro-
shaking in general without being specific as to the mean- visions for the various Seismic Performance Categories
ing of the phrase. To state the concept rather than a pre- (SPC). Even so, for areas where particularly long duration
cise definition, the design ground shaking for a location is events are likely to occur, such as in the subduction zones
the ground motion that the engineer should consider when of the Northwest United States, the SPC provisions may
designing a structure to provide a specified degree of pro- not give sufficient protection. It is for this reason that Ar-
tection for life safety and to prevent collapse. ticle 3.2 requires site-specific determination of the hazard
At present, the best workable tool for describing de- and requires that special precautions be taken to assure
sign ground shaking is a smoothed elastic response spec- satisfactory performance in these regions.
trum for single degree-of-freedom systems.6 Such a
spectrum provides a quantitative description of both the D. Ground Motion Parameters
intensity and frequency content of a ground motion.
Smoothed elastic response spectra for 5% damping were The design parameter used to characterize the ground
used as a basic tool for the development of the regional- motion is the effective peak acceleration (EPA). This
ization maps and for the inclusion of the effects of local parameter does not have a precise definition in physical
ground conditions. In effect, the first policy decision was terms but is instead a normalizing factor for the construc-
reinterpreted to mean the probability of exceeding the or- tion of smoothed elastic response spectra6 for ground mo-
dinates of the design elastic response spectrum for all tions of normal duration. This is shown in Figure C3.2
structural periods for a given location would be roughly where the EPA is shown to be proportional to the spectral
equal. Again, this concept should be looked upon as a ordinates in the period range from 0.1 to 0.5 seconds. The
gradual goal, and not one that can be strictly met on the constant of proportionality for a 5% damped spectrum, is
basis of present knowledge. taken to be 2.5. In some building codes an effective peak
This should not be interpreted to mean that a structure
can necessarily be designed for the forces implied by an
elastic response spectrum. The design philosophy associ-
ated with the elastic response spectrum is at least as im-
portant as the level of the response spectrum.
A smoothed elastic response spectrum is not neces-
sarily the ideal means for describing the design ground
shaking. A time history analysis would be better, but a
single time history motion generally is not adequate. It
would be better to use a set of five or more acceleration
time histories with an average elastic response spectrum
similar to the design spectrum. This approach may be
desirable for structures of special importance but is not
feasible for the vast majority of structures. This discus-
sion is intended to emphasize that the design ground
shaking is not a single motion, but rather a concept that
encompasses a family of motions having the same over-
all intensity and frequency content but differing in some
potentially important details of the time sequences of the
motions.
A significant deficiency of the response spectrum is
that it does not by itself include the duration of the shak-
ing. The extent that duration affects elastic response is ac-
counted for by the spectrum. However, the major effect of FIGURE C3.2 Schematic Representation Showing How
duration is upon possible loss of strength once a structure Effective Peak Acceleration and Effective Peak Velocity Are
yields. Duration effects have not been explicitly consid- Obtained from a Response Spectrum
velocity (EPV) is also used to characterize the hazard and of adequate data. Sufficient information is available to
the definition of this parameter is also shown in Figure characterize in a general way the effects of specific soil
C3.2. For the purpose of computing a lateral force, an Ac- conditions on effective peak acceleration and spectral
celeration Coefficient, A, is defined which is numerically shapes. The effects of the other factors are so little under-
equal to the EPA divided by the acceleration due to grav- stood at this time that they are often not considered in
ity (g). For example if EPA 5 0.2 g, then A 5 0.2. Note spectral studies.
that Figures 3.2A and 3.2B express A as a percentage of The present recommendations therefore only consider
EPA/g and thus contour values must be divided by 100 to effects of site conditions and distance from the seismic
obtain design values for A from these figures. source zone. At such times that potential effects of other
significant parameters can be delineated and quantified,
E. Risk Associated with the Contour Map the current recommendations can be modified to reflect
these effects.
The probability that the recommended EPA at a given Thus, the starting points in the development of the
location will not be exceeded during a 50-year period is ground motion spectra are the seismic design regionaliza-
estimated to be about 90%. At present, this probability tion maps that express, by contours, the EPA that would
cannot be estimated precisely. Moreover, since the maps be developed on firm ground.
were adjusted and smoothed by the committee after con-
sultation with seismologists, the risk may not be the same Site Effects
at all locations. It is believed that this probability of the de-
The fact that the effects of local soil conditions on
sign ground motion not being exceeded is in the range of
ground motion characteristics should be considered in
80% or 90%. The use of a 50-year interval to characterize
structural design has long been recognized in many coun-
the probability is a rather arbitrary convenience, and does
tries of the world. Most countries considering these ef-
not imply that all structures are thought to have a useful
fects have developed different design criteria for several
life of 50 years.
different soil conditions. Typically these criteria use up to
The probability that an ordinate of the design elastic re-
four different soil conditions. In the early part of the ATC-
sponse spectrum will not be exceeded, at any period, is
3-06 study consideration was given to four different con-
approximately the same as the probability that the EPA
ditions of local site geology.
will not be exceeded. The veracity of this statement lies in
On the basis of available data, the following four con-
the fact that the uncertainty in the EPA that will occur in
ditions were selected:
a future earthquake is much greater than the uncertainty
in spectral ordinates, given the EPA. Thus the probability
1. Rock—of any characteristic, whether it be shale-
that the ordinates of the design elastic response spectrum
like or crystalline in nature. In general, such mate-
will not be exceeded during a 50-year interval is also
rial is characterized by a shear wave velocity
roughly 90%, or in the general range of 80 to 95%.
greater than about 2,500 ft/sec (750 m/sec).
2. Stiff soil conditions or firm ground—including any
F. Site Effects and Elastic Seismic Response
site where soil depth is less than 200 ft (60 m) and
Coefficient and Spectrum (Articles 3.5 and 3.6)
the soil types overlying rock are stable deposits of
sands, gravels, or still clays.
It is known that the characteristics of ground shaking
3. Deep cohesionless or stiff clay soil conditions—
and the corresponding spectra are influenced by:
including sites where the soil depth exceeds about
200 ft (60 m) and the soil types overlying rock are
1. The characteristics of the soil deposits underlying
stable deposits of sands, gravels, or still clays.
the proposed area.
4. Soft to medium-stiff clays and sands—character-
2. The magnitude of the earthquake producing the
ized by several tens of feet of soft to medium-stiff
ground motions.
clay with or without intervening layers of sand or
3. The source mechanism of the earthquake producing
other cohesionless soils.
the ground motions.
4. The distance of the earthquake from the proposed
Effective Peak Accelerations for Different
site and the geology of the travel path.
Site Conditions
While it is conceptually desirable to include specific The values of EPA for rock conditions were first modi-
consideration of all four of the factors listed above it is fied to determine corresponding values of EPA for the three
not possible to do so at the present time because of lack other site conditions outlined above. This modification was
based on a statistical study of peak accelerations developed number of soil types to three by combining the spectra for
at locations with different site conditions and the exercise rock and stiff soil conditions. But when preparing the pres-
of judgment to extrapolate beyond the data base. ent specification a fourth soil type was added to represent
After evaluating these effects and rounding out the re- very soft sites where shear wave velocities may be as low
sults obtained, the values of EPA were modified as fol- as 500 ft/sec (150 m/sec). Damage sustained by bridges
lows. For the first three soil types (rock, shallow stiff soils on such sites during recent earthquakes in California
and deep cohesionless or stiff clay soils) there is no reduc- (1989 and 1994), the Philippines (1990), Costa Rica
tion. For the fourth soil type (soft to medium-stiff clays) a (1991), and Japan (1995) have highlighted the hazardous
reduction factor of 0.8 is used for all seismicity index nature of these particular sites and the need to address
areas. It should be pointed out that statistical data show them with a separate site coefficient. Accordingly four
that the reduction effect is not constant for all ground normalized spectra are shown in Figure C3.5B. These
motion levels and that the value of the reduction factor is curves apply to the following four soil conditions.
generally smaller than is recommended here.
Soil Profile Type I: Rock of any characteristic, either
Spectral Shapes shale-like or crystalline in nature (such material may
Spectral shapes representative of the different soil be characterized by a shear wave velocity greater than
conditions discussed above were selected on the basis of 2,500 ft/sec (750 m/sec); or stiff soil conditions where
a statistical study of spectral shapes developed on such the soil depth is less than 200 ft (60 m) and the soil
soils close to the seismic source zone in past earthquakes. types overlying rock are stable deposits of sands, grav-
The mean spectral shapes determined directly from the els, or stiff clays.
study by Seed et al.7 based on 104 records, primarily from Soil Profile Type II: Deep cohesionless or stiff clay
earthquakes in the Western United States, are shown in soil conditions, including sites where the soil depth ex-
Figure C3.5A. These spectral shapes were also compared ceeds 200 ft (60 m) and the soil types of overlying rock
with spectral shapes from studies conducted by Blume8, are stable deposits of sands, gravels, or stiff clays.
Newmark,9 and Mohraz.10 During the development of Soil Profile Type III: Soft to medium-stiff clays and
ATC-3-06, it was considered appropriate to reduce the sands, characterized by 30 ft (9 m) or more of soft to
FIGURE C3.5A Average Acceleration Spectra for Different Site Conditions (after Seed, et al., 1976)
FIGURE C3.5B Normalized Response Spectra
medium-stiff clay with or without intervening layers of Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient and Spectra
sand or other cohesionless soils.
The equivalent lateral force method of design requires
Soil Profile Type IV: Soft clays or silts greater than
that a horizontal force be accommodated in the structural de-
40 ft (12 m) in depth, characterized by a shear wave
sign. The magnitude of this force is a function of several pa-
velocity less than 500 ft/sec (150 m/sec) and possibly
rameters including the Acceleration Coefficient, the type of
including loose natural deposits and man-made, non-
soil at the site, and the fundamental period of the structure.
engineered fill.
For use in a design provision or code it is distinctly ad-
vantageous to express the lateral design force coefficient
Ground motion spectra for 5% damping for the differ-
in as simple a manner as possible. The recommended pro-
ent map areas are thus obtained by multiplying the nor-
cedure for determining the lateral design force coefficient
malized spectral values shown in Figure C3.5B by the ap-
Cs is given by Equation (3-1) in Article 3.6 as:
propriate EPA and by the correction factor of 0.8 if Soil
Profile Type III or IV exists. The resulting ground motion
spectra for an EPA of 0.4 are shown in Figure C3.5C. The 1.2 AS
Cs =
spectra from Figure C3.5C are shown in Figure C3.5D T2 3
plotted in tripartite form. It can be readily seen in Figure
12 that for all soil conditions the response spectra for pe- The value of Cs need not exceed 2.5A for all soil types.
riods near 1 second are horizontal or equivalent to a con- The site coefficient, S, is given in Table 3.5.1. The use
stant spectral velocity. It should also be noted that these of a simple soil factor in Equation (3-1) approximates
spectra are modified as discussed in the following section the effect of local site conditions on the design require-
before they are used in the design provisions. On the basis ments. This direct method eliminates the need for the
of studies of spectral shapes conducted by Blume8 and estimation of a predominant site period and the compu-
Newmark,9 spectra for 2% damping may be obtained by tation of a soil factor based on the site period and the
multiplying the ordinates of Figure C3.5B by a factor fundamental period of the bridge.
of 1.25. It is apparent from the discussion on spectral shapes in
Spectra for vertical motions may be determined with the foregoing paragraphs and from Figures C3.5B and
sufficient accuracy by multiplying the ordinates of the C3.5C that the elastic acceleration response spectrum de-
spectra for horizontal motions by a factor of 0.67. creases approximately as 1/T for longer periods. How-
FIGURE C3.5C Ground Motion Spectra for A 5 0.4
FIGURE C3.5D Ground Motion Spectra for A 5 0.4
ever, because of the concerns associated with inelastic re- introduced in consideration of the known characteristics of
sponse of longer period bridges it was decided that the or- earthquake response spectra at intermediate and long peri-
dinates of the design coefficients and spectra should not ods. At intermediate periods the average velocity spectrum
decrease as rapidly as 1/T but should be proportional to of strong earthquake motions from large earthquakes (mag-
1/T2/3 as shown in Equations (3-1) and (3-2). nitude 6.5 and larger) is approximately horizontal; this im-
A comparison of the spectra resulting from Equa- plies that Csm should decrease as 1/Tm. In Equation (3-2), Csm
tions (3-1) and (3-2) and those of the ATC-3-06 elastic ac- decreases as 1/T2/3m for reasons discussed earlier in this Arti-
celeration response spectra is given in Figure C3.5E. It cle and this slower rate of decrease, if extended to very long
will be seen that the elastic seismic response coefficient periods, would result in an unbalanced degree of conser-
is approximately 50% greater at a period of 2 seconds for vatism in the modal forces for very flexible bridges. In ad-
the stiff soil condition than would be obtained by direct use dition, for very long periods, the average displacement spec-
of the elastic acceleration response spectra. This increase trum of strong earthquake motions becomes horizontal; this
gradually decreases as the period of the bridge shortens. implies that Csm, which has the form of an acceleration spec-
The two major reasons for introducing this conservatism trum, should decay as 1/T2m. The period at which the dis-
in the design of long period bridges are: placement response spectrum becomes horizontal depends
on the size of the earthquake, being longer for large earth-
1. The fundamental period of a bridge increases as the quakes, and a representative period of 4 seconds was chosen
column height increases, the span length increases and to make the transition.
the number of columns per bent decreases. Hence the A central feature of modal analysis is that the earth-
longer the period the more likely that high ductility re- quake response is considered as a combination of the in-
quirements will be concentrated in a few columns. dependent responses of the bridge vibrating in each of its
2. Instability of a bridge is more of a problem as the important modes. As the bridge vibrates back and forth in
period increases. a particular mode at the associated period, it experiences
maximum values of member forces and displacements.
The relationship between the response coefficient and The coefficient Csm is determined for each mode from
bridge period is discussed further below. Equation (3-2) using the associated period of the mode,
Tm, in addition to the factors A and S, which are discussed
elsewhere in this Article. An exception to this procedure
Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient for
occurs for higher modes of those bridges which have pe-
Multimodal Analysis
riods shorter than 0.3 seconds and which are founded on
Equation (3-4) is to be used if a modal period exceeds Type III and IV soils. For such modes, Equation (3-3) is
4 seconds. It can be seen that Equations (3-4) and (3-2) co- used. Equation (3-3) gives values ranging from 0.8 A for
incide at Tm 5 4 sec, so that the effect of using Equation very short periods to 2.0 A for Tm 5 0.3. Comparing these
(3-4) is to provide a more rapid decrease in Csm as a function values with the limiting value of Csm of 2.0 A for Type III
of Tm than implied by Equation (3-2). This modification is and IV soils as specified following Equation (3-2), it is
FIGURE C3.5E Comparison of Free Field Ground Motion Spectra and Lateral Design Force Coefficients
seen that the use of Equation (3-3), when applicable, re- on seismic moment. It does not saturate because it depends
duces the modal base shear. This is an approximation in- on the physical parameters of fault. It is a very robust esti-
troduced in consideration of the conservatism embodied in mate of earthquake size, from very small to largest sizes,
using the spectral shape specified by Equation (3-2) and its in a uniform manner. The overall character of fault rupture
limiting values. This shape is a conservative approxima- process is considered here. Mo can be correlated to other
tion to that of average spectra which are known to first as- magnitudes using derived relationships.
cend, then level off, and then decay as period increases— Moment magnitudes are used for estimating potential
see Figures C3.5A and C3.5B. Equation (3-2) and its earthquake sizes on young faults for earthquake hazard es-
limiting values conservatively replace the ascending por- timates. Based on the evaluation of the lengths and widths
tion for small periods by a level portion. For Type I or II of faults, it is a straightforward manner to estimate moment
soils, the ascending portion of the spectrum is completed magnitudes of maximum credible earthquakes (MCEs)
by the time the period reaches a value near 0.1 or 0.2 sec- for particular faults. These magnitudes are used for scal-
onds. On the other hand, for soft soils the ascent may not ing ground motion parameters such as peak accelerations
be completed until a larger period is reached. Equation for given project site locations. Peak accelerations are
(3-3) is then a replacement for Type III and IV soils at short obtained from attenuation relationships, which also used
periods, which is more consistent with spectra for mea- moment magnitude for their development. Most modern
sured accelerations. It was introduced because it was seismic hazard estimates use moment magnitude for esti-
judged unnecessarily conservative to use Equation (3-2) mating potential earthquake sizes and the associated strong
for modal analysis in the case of Type III and IV soils. ground motions.
SEISMIC MOMENT
Seismic moment is another measure of the strength or C3.3 IMPORTANCE CLASSIFICATION
size of an earthquake caused by a fault slip. It is denoted
by Mo and is equal to the product of (1) average fault slip, The Importance Classification (IC) is used in conjunc-
(2) slip area, and, (3) shear modulus of undisturbed rock tion with the Acceleration Coefficient (A) to determine
of the fault slip region. It is also proportional to the fourier the Seismic Performance Category (SPC) for bridges with
spectral amplitude of displacement record for very low, an Acceleration Coefficient greater than 0.29. The SPC
approaching zero, frequency waves. That spectral ampli- controls the degree of complexity and sophistication of
tude corresponds to the permanent (average) slip on the the analysis and design requirements.
fault during the earthquake. Thus, seismic moment can be Two Importance Classifications are specified. An IC of
estimated from (a) analysis of instrumental records and I is assigned for essential bridges and II for all others. Es-
(b) also from geologic/geodetic observations. As such, it sential bridges are those that must continue to function
is a fundamental quantity, which is useful for quantifying after an earthquake. The determination of the Importance
and comparing earthquakes. Classification of a bridge is necessarily subjective. Con-
Instrumental earthquake magnitude scale originated by sideration should be given to the following Social/Sur-
Richter and the subsequent modifications are used by seis- vival and Security Defense requirements. An additional
mologists to quantify and compare earthquake sizes. All consideration would be average annual daily traffic.
such magnitude scales have limitations imposed by the The Social/Survival evaluation is largely concerned
recording instruments and particular seismic waves used with the need for roadways during the period immediately
for magnitudes calculations. They all have saturation following an earthquake. In order for civil defense, police,
points beyond which magnitudes are fixed. For example, fire department or public health agencies to respond to a
the limit for Richter magnitude scale appears to be around disaster situation a continuous route must be provided.
6 and surface wave around magnitude 8. This problem is Bridges on such routes should be classified as essential.
very critical especially for large earthquakes because such Survival and mitigation of the effects of the earthquake
magnitude scales will not recognize them. Again, such are of primary concern following a seismic event. Trans-
large earthquakes are damaging and most important for portation routes to critical facilities such as hospitals,
engineering and other applications. Significantly, none of police and fire stations and communication centers must
the above magnitudes provides information about the continue to function and bridges required for this purpose
physical nature of an earthquake source such as the length, should be classified as essential. In addition, a bridge that
width and slip of fault rupture. has the potential to impede traffic if it collapses onto an
In order to solve the above limitations, seismologists essential route should also be classified as essential.
came up with a new magnitude scale called “moment The health and well-being of the community is another
magnitude,” denoted by M. Moment magnitude is based major concern. Victims with critical injuries or illnesses
must be treated; food, water and shelter provided and util- across the country and design requirements applicable to
ities restored. Routes to such facilities as schools and are- the higher risk areas are not always appropriate for the
nas, which could provide shelter or be converted to aid lower risk areas. In order to provide flexibility in specify-
stations must suffer little or no damage and bridges on ing design provisions associated with areas of different
such routes should be classified as essential. Access must seismic risk, four Seismic Performance Categories (SPC)
be available to power installations and water treatment were defined. The four categories permit variation in the
plants, and bridges required for these purposes should also requirements for methods of analysis, minimum support
be classified as essential. lengths, column design details, foundation and abutment
The importance evaluation of a bridge of Social/Sur- design requirements in accordance with the seismic risk
vival significance in a disaster situation depends on the associated with a particular bridge location.
range of options available and the possibility of a bridge The Seismic Performance Category is determined
being in parallel or series with other bridges in a roadway from the Importance Classification of Article 3.3 and the
network. Discussion may be required with highway, civil Acceleration Coefficient of Article 3.2. Thus the impor-
defense and police officials. tance of a bridge in a road network and the level of seis-
A basis for the Security Defense evaluation is the 1973 mic exposure at a bridge site are used to determine the
Federal-Aid Highway Act which required that a plan for SPC. Different degrees of complexity in analysis and de-
defense highways be developed by each state. This plan sign requirements are specified for each SPC. Bridges
had to include, as a minimum, the Interstate and Federal- classified as SPC D are those designed for the highest
Aid Primary routes; however, some of these routes can be level of seismic performance and bridges classified as
deleted when such action is considered appropriate by a SPC A are those designed for the lowest level of seismic
state. The defense highway network provides connecting performance.
routes to active military installations, industries and re-
sources not covered by the Federal-Air Primary routes and
C3.5 SITE EFFECTS
includes:
See Article C3.2(F).
1. Military bases and supply depots and National
Guard installations.
2. Hospitals, medical supply centers and emergency C3.6 ELASTIC SEISMIC RESPONSE
depots. COEFFICIENT
3. Major airports.
4. Defense industries and those industries that could See Article C3.2(F).
easily or logically be converted to such.
5. Refineries, fuel storage, and distribution centers.
C3.7 RESPONSE MODIFICATION FACTORS
6. Major railroad terminals, railheads, docks, and
truck terminals.
Response modification factors (R) shown in Table 3.7
7. Major power plants including nuclear power facili-
are used to modify the component forces obtained from
ties and hydroelectric centers at major dams.
the elastic analysis. Inherent in the R values is the as-
8. Major communication centers.
sumption that columns will yield when subjected to forces
9. Other facilities that the state considers important
induced by the design ground motions and that connec-
from a national defense viewpoint or during emer-
tions and foundations are designed to accommodate the
gencies resulting from natural disasters or other un-
design ground motion forces with little, if any, damage.
foreseen circumstances.
The rationale used in the development of the R-Factors
for columns, piers and pile bents was based on considera-
Bridges serve as important links in the Security/
tions of redundancy and ductility provided by the various
Defense roadway network and such bridges should be
supports. The wall type pier was judged to have minimal
classified as essential.
ductility capacity and redundancy in its strong direction
and was assigned an R-Factor of 2. A multiple column bent
C3.4 SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES with well-detailed columns, as specified in Sections 6 and
7, was judged to have good ductility capacity and redun-
The basic premise in developing these Specifications dancy and was assigned the highest value of 5. The ductil-
was that they be applicable to all parts of the United ity capacity of single columns is similar to that of columns
States. The seismic risk varies from very small to high in a multiple column bent; however, there is no redundancy
and therefore a lower R-Factor of 3 was assigned to single would be subjected if it responded elastically and the ac-
columns to provide a level of performance similar to that tual ground motion had similar characteristics to the de-
of multiple column bents. Unfortunately little information sign ground motion. Thus, the displacements resulting
was available on the performance of pile bent substruc- from this analysis are used as a lower bound for the design
tures in actual earthquakes and the R-Factors were based displacements.
on an assessment of potential pile bent performance in
comparison to that of the other three types of substructure. C3.9 COMBINATION OF ORTHOGONAL
It was believed that there would be a reduction in the duc- SEISMIC FORCES
tility capacity of pile bents with batter piles and therefore
lower R-Factors were assigned to these systems. The method of combining forces for each of the load
The R-Factors of 1.0 and 0.8 assigned to connections cases is given by means of an example. The two principal
mean that the connections are designed for the design elas- transverse axes of a column, abutment or pier, may be des-
tic forces and for greater-than-the-design elastic forces in ignated as the z and y axes. The shear (V), moment (M),
the case of abutments. This approach was adopted in part and axial (P) forces resulting from an analysis of the
to accommodate the redistribution of forces that occurs bridge subjected to loads in the transverse direction
when a bridge responds inelastically.11 The other reason for are designated as: VzT,VyT,MzT,MyT, and PT, respectively.
adopting these values was to maintain the overall integrity The corresponding forces resulting from an analysis
of the bridge structure at these important joints. Increased of loads in the longitudinal direction are designated
protection can be obtained for a minimum increase in con- VzL,VyL,MzL,MyL, and PL respectively. The design shear
struction cost by designing connections for these large (VzD,VyD), moment (MzD,MyD) and axial (PD) forces for the
force levels. However, it should be noted that for bridges z and y axes of the member for the two load cases are as
classified as SPC C and D the recommended design forces follows:
for column connections are the forces that can be devel-
oped by plastic hinging of the columns. Since these are the
LOAD CASE 1
maximum forces that can be developed and are generally
smaller than the elastic values, the desired integrity will be
VzD 5 1.0uVzL u 1 0.3uVzT u
obtained at lower cost. The connection design forces asso-
ciated with plastic hinging are not calculated for bridges V Dy 5 1.0uV Ly u 1 0.3uV Ty u
classified as SPC B because plastic hinging requires a
M zD 5 1.0uM zL u 1 0.3uM zT u
more detailed analysis. See Article C7.2.2 for additional
commentary on this topic. M Dy 5 1.0uM Ly u 1 0.3uM Ty u
PD 5 1.0uPL u 1 0.3uPT u
C3.8 DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC FORCES
AND DISPLACEMENTS LOAD CASE 2
Current knowledge of earthquake ground motions in- VzD 5 0.3uVzL u 1 1.0uVzT u

dicates that structures will be subjected to simultaneous
ground motion in three orthogonal directions.12 For many V Dy 5 0.3uV Ly u 1 1.0uV Ty u
bridges the effect of the vertical component of motion M zD 5 0.3uM zL u 1 1.0uM zT u
may not be important and a detailed analysis in the verti-
cal direction is not required. However, for bridges classi- M Dy 5 0.3uM Ly u 1 1.0uM Ty u
fied as SPC C and D, the effect is accounted for by the PD 5 0.3uPL u 1 1.0uPT u
design requirements of Article 7.2.5(B).
To account for the two horizontal components of mo- where the symbol \ denotes the absolute value or the mag-
tion, an analysis is required in two orthogonal directions, nitude of the force or moment without regard to its sign,
generally the longitudinal and transverse directions of the since a seismic force can act in either direction. It should
bridge. Forces and moments resulting from these analyses be noted that, for a straight bridge with no skewed piers,
are then combined as specified in Article 3.9 to account columns or abutments, the above combinations simplify
for the simultaneous occurrence of forces in two horizon- significantly because a transverse load will primarily pro-
tal directions. duce moments and shear forces in the “z” direction of the
The forces and displacements obtained from an elastic structural member and the longitudinal load will primar-
analysis should be similar to those to which the bridge ily produce moments and shear forces in the “y” direction.
The exception to these load combinations indicated at the factors that cause the differential displacements. Although
end of this section, should also apply to SPC-B bridges a considerable amount of judgment was exercised when
when foundation forces are determined from plastic hing- developing these minimum requirements using current
ing of the columns. (See C6.2.) knowledge, these criteria should be refined as the state of
the art develops.
C3.10 MINIMUM SEAT WIDTH
REQUIREMENTS C3.11 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SINGLE
SPAN BRIDGES
In developing these Specifications, design displace-
ments were considered to be as important as design forces Requirements for single span bridges are not as rigor-
because many of the loss-of-span failures in past earth- ous as for multi-span bridges because of their favorable
quakes have been attributed in part to relative displace- response to seismic loads in past earthquakes. As a result,
ment effects. single span bridges need not be analyzed for seismic loads
The length of support provided at abutments, columns regardless of the SPC and design requirements are limited
and hinge seats must accommodate displacements result- to minimum seat widths and connection forces. Adequate
ing from the overall inelastic response of the bridge struc- seat widths must be provided in both the transverse and
ture, possible independent movement of different parts of longitudinal directions. Connection forces based on the
the substructure, and out-of-phase rotation of abutments premise that the bridge is very stiff and that the funda-
and columns resulting from traveling surface wave mo- mental period of response will be short. This assumption
tions. The minimum support length also provides for pos- acknowledges the fact that the period of vibration is diffi-
sible translation and rotation of the footings due to ground cult to calculate because of significant interaction with the
failure and/or deformations due to liquefaction. abutments.
A reasonable estimate of the displacements resulting These reduced requirements are also based on the as-
from the overall elastic dynamic response of the bridge sumption that there are no vulnerable substructures (i.e.,
structure can be obtained from the multimode spectral no columns) and that a rigid (or near rigid) superstructure
method of analysis if the flexibility of the foundations is is in place to distribute the in-plane loads to the abutments.
included. Better estimates can be obtained if an inelastic If, however, the superstructure is not able to act as a stiff
time history analysis is performed; however, this is not diaphragm and sustains significant in-plane deformation
recommended in these Specifications because of the com- during horizontal loading, it should be analyzed for these
plexities involved in performing this method of analysis. loads and designed accordingly. Single span trusses may
Either the elastic or inelastic time history analysis will be sensitive to in-plane loads and the designer may need
give reasonable estimates of the out-of-phase movements to take additional precautions to ensure the safety of truss
of different parts of the substructure whereas the multi- superstructures.
mode method of spectral analysis will not. The recent
work of Elms et al13,14 can be used to give the order of C3.12 REQUIREMENTS FOR TEMPORARY
magnitude of abutment movement and the recent work BRIDGES
of Werner et al15,16 gives some indication of the effects of
traveling waves on the responses of a limited number Temporary bridges are not exempt from the seismic de-
of bridges. However, much research remains to be done in sign requirements of this specification. However, in view
both these areas12. of their short life, they have less exposure to the seismic
In summary, the current state of the art precludes a hazard, and the Acceleration Coefficient, A, may be re-
good estimate of the differential column and abutment duced by a factor of 2 when calculating the lateral forces
displacements to be expected when a bridge is subjected that such a bridge can be reasonably expected to sustain.
to an earthquake. It is therefore prudent to specify mini- Exceptions exist for bridges in high seismic zones and
mum support lengths at abutments, piers and hinge seats close to active faults which require site specific studies.
to provide for the effects discussed above. If the displace- Furthermore, the performance criteria assumed for con-
ments resulting from the elastic analysis of Article 3.8 ex- ventional bridges may be relaxed for these temporary
ceed the minimum specified values, the values resulting structures and certain Response Modification Factors may
from the elastic analysis must be used in the design. The therefore be increased by up to 50% (i.e., by a factor of 1.5).
minimum support lengths specified are dependent on the It is noted that in low-to-moderate seismic zones, wind
deck length between expansion joints and the column loads may well exceed these reduced seismic loads and
height since both dimensions influence one or more of the thus govern design for lateral loads. In this event, care
should be taken with the design of the foundations as quake Resistance of Highway Bridges, Applied Tech-
noted in Articles 6.2 and C6.2. nology Council, Berkeley, CA, January 1979.
12. Hall, W.J. and Newmark, N.M., “Seismic Design of
Bridges—An Overview of Research Needs,” Pro-
REFERENCES
ceedings of a Workshop on Earthquake Resistance of
Highway Bridges, Applied Technology Council,
1. Applied Technology Council, “Tentative Provisions
Berkeley, CA, January 1979.
for the Development of Seismic Regulations for
13. Richards, R. and Elms, D.G., “Seismic Behavior of
Buildings,” ATC Report No. ATC-3-06, Berkeley,
Retaining Walls and Bridge Abutments,” Report No.
CA, June 1978.
77-10, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New
2. American Association of State Highway and Trans-
Zealand, June 1977.
portation Officials, “Guide Specifications for Seismic
Design of Highway Bridges,” AASHTO, Washing- 14. Elms, D.G. and Martin, G.R., “Factors Involved in
ton, DC, 1983. the Seismic Design of Bridge Abutments,” Proceed-
3. Algermissen, S.T. and Perkins, D.M., “A Proba- ings of a Workshop on Earthquake Resistance of
bilistic Estimate of Maximum Acceleration in Rock Highway Bridges, Applied Technology Council,
in the Contiguous United States,” USGS Open File Berkeley, CA, January 1979.
Report 76-416. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey, 15. Werner, S.D., Lee, L.C., Wong, L.H., and Trifunac,
1976. M.D., “An Evaluation of the Effects of Travelling
4. Algermissen, S.T., Perkins, D.M., Thenhaus, P.C., Seismic Waves on the Three Dimensional Response
Hanson, S.L. and Bender, B.L., “Probabilistic Esti- of Structures,” Agbabian and Associates, El Segundo,
mates of Acceleration and Gravity in Rock in the CA, October 1977.
Contiguous United States,” USGS Open File Report 16. Werner, S.D., Lee, L.C., Wong, L.H., and Trifunac,
82-1033. Denver: USGS, 1982. M.D., “Effects of Traveling Waves on the Response
5. Federal Emergency Management Agency, “NEHRP of Bridges,” Proceedings of a Workshop on Earth-
Recommended Provisions for the Development of quake Resistance of Highway Bridges, Applied Tech-
Seismic Regulations for New Buildings,” Part 1: Pro- nology Council, Berkeley, CA, January 1979.
visions, FEMA Report 95; Part 2: Commentary,
FEMA Report 96; Washington, DC 1988. Commentary
6. Newmark, N.M. and Hall, W.J., “Seismic Design Cri- SECTION 4—ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS
teria for Nuclear Reactor Facilities,” Proceedings of
4th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, C4.1 GENERAL
Santiago, Chile, 1969.
7. Seed, H.B., Ugas, C., and Lysmer, J., “Site Depen- This section of the Specifications presents four analyt-
dent Spectra for Earthquake Resistant Design,” Bul- ical procedures to determine the distribution of forces for
letin of the Seismological Society of America, Vol. the prescribed seismic loadings. All are based on linear
66, No. 1, February 1976. elastic analysis techniques.
8. Blume, J.A., Sharpe, R.L., and Dalal, J., “Recom-
mendations for the Shape of Earthquake Response
Spectra,” report prepared for the Directorate of Li- C4.2 SELECTION OF ANALYSIS METHOD
censing, United States Atomic Energy Commission,
February 1973. An elastic analysis procedure is used for the seismic
9. Newmark, N.M., Hall, W.J., and Morhaz, B., “A design of bridges to give the designer an indication of the
Study of Vertical and Horizontal Spectra,” report pre- force distribution to the structural members and to give
pared for the Directorate of Licensing, United States him or her some indication of the relative deformations.
Atomic Energy Commission, Report No. WASH- It also provides the basis for the design of the compo-
1255, April 1973. nents. The actual forces and displacements in bridges
10. Mohraz, B., “A Study of Earthquake Response Spec- subjected to the design ground motions may be quite dif-
tra for Different Geological Conditions,” Bulletin of ferent from those obtained from the elastic analysis be-
Seismological Society of America, Vol. 66, No. 3, cause at these high levels of excitation the bridge may
June 1973. respond inelastically.
11. Imbsen, R.A., Nutt, R.V., and Penzien, J., “Evaluation Procedures 1 and 2 both assume that the seismic re-
of Analytical Procedures Used in Bridge Seismic De- sponse of a bridge can be represented by a single mode of
sign Practice,” Proceedings of a Workshop on Earth- vibration when in actual fact bridges have many possible
vibration modes and most will participate to some degree little consequence once flexural yielding commences in
when responding to an earthquake. However, for “regu- the columns.
lar” bridges one mode usually dominates (in the direction Higher modes of vibration may be important in bridges
of the earthquake) and this mode is sometimes called the that are “not regular” and a multimode method of analysis
fundamental mode. Both Procedures require the calcula- is then required to adequately describe the response. Pro-
tion of the period (T) of this mode from which a reason- cedure 3 is one such method which is based on combining
able estimate of the elastic forces and displacements can the individual responses from each of the participating
then be made using standard analytical methods. The prin- modes subject to the same response spectrum. This “multi-
cipal difference between the two methods is the way in mode spectral analysis” method does not directly account
which the fundamental period is calculated; Procedure 1 for the phase relationships between the modes of vibration
is not as rigorous as Procedure 2 but it is more intuitive in but instead combines the modes by a statistical approach
its approach and easier to apply. However, both methods known as the complete quadratic combination method
are approximate and the limits on their application must (CQC method). The Procedure is very efficient and can be
be clearly understood and observed. Table 4.2B defines a used with confidence to analyze almost any elastic structure
“regular” bridge for which both methods are applicable. for which the dynamic loads are specified by response spec-
The limits prescribed in Table 4.2B were determined tra. Appropriate computer software is readily available.
after reviewing the results of a limited parameter study on Procedure 4 also addresses higher mode effects but by
27 bridges which included continuous 2, 3, and 6 span performing a step-by-step time history analysis of re-
structures. Eleven of these bridges were straight and 16 sponse. Phasing between modes is directly included in the
were curved (subtending angles of arc of either 40° or 80° solution and no modal combination rules are required.
at the center of curvature). Ratios between adjacent pier The solution is the most rigorous of the four Procedures
stiffnesses ranged from unity up to 8.0. Force and dis- specified but it is also the most computationally intensive.
placement results were obtained from Procedures 1 and 2 Again computer software is available and application to
for each bridge and compared against corresponding results nonlinear, inelastic analysis is feasible. A major limitation
from the multi-mode method (Procedure 3). Reference 1 of the method is the need to know the time history of the
describes this parameter study in more detail. It is noted that design ground motion to be used for the analysis. This is
in developing the provisions in Table 4.2B, the results of not specified in the current Specification and must be de-
this parameter study were modified to permit up to 6-span termined by a site-specific study by a qualified profes-
bridges to be considered “regular” provided that tighter sional. Furthermore, it is generally considered that one
restrictions on span-length ratio and pier-stiffness ratio were time history is insufficient to represent all possible re-
imposed on these longer bridges. Furthermore, Refer- sponses and the current specification therefore calls for at
ence 1 also describes a similar parameter study on simply- least five analyses using five different input time histories.
supported 2, 3, and 6 span bridges. The results of this study Each of the above Procedures has strengths and limi-
show that the requirements of Table 4.2B are unconserva- tations. Increased rigor from Procedure 1 to Procedure 4
tive for curved multiple simple span bridges with a sub- is accompanied by increased effort and less intuitive feel
tended angle in plan greater than 20°, and the use of sim- for the analytical process or the results. Also greater care
plified methods of analysis for such bridges is not allowed. in modelling is required. Nevertheless, important and /or
The results of this second parameter study also show irregular bridges deserve careful analysis and the effort
that particular care should be taken when applying simpli- spent on more rigorous analysis may prevent a failure due
fied methods of analysis to straight simple span bridges to an unanticipated response or an unexpected load path.
when calculating response to longitudinal earthquake It may also save construction costs and particularly so in
loads. In this situation, the bridge should be analyzed in the foundations where careful modelling has been shown
segments, where a segment is defined as one span of a mul- to lead to substantial savings.
tiple simple span bridge. Similar care should also be taken For bridges classified as SPC C and D with three or more
with straight bridges comprised of 2 or more sections of spans, the designer should consider including the flexibil-
continuous girders. In this case, a segment is defined as
ity of the foundations and abutments in the analysis.
that section of superstructure that is continuous from one
expansion joint to the next or from one abutment to the
closest expansion joint. C4.3 UNIFORM LOAD METHOD—
Whereas further studies are required, the limits in PROCEDURE 1
Table 4.2B are believed to be adequate in most situations
and should not underestimate the governing design forces The uniform load method is an equivalent static method
and displacements by more than 10%. These errors are of of analysis that may be used to calculate seismic forces
and displacements in bridges provided the structure is

“regular” and responds predominately in its first trans-
verse mode of vibration during an earthquake. It is further
assumed that the shape of this mode is given by the de-
flected shape of the bridge when subject to a uniform hor-
izontal load acting at the level of the superstructure. It is
also assumed that the period of this mode can be calcu- FIGURE C4.4A Plan View of a Bridge Subjected to a
lated using the total weight of the bridge and the maxi- Transverse Earthquake Motion
mum deflection obtained under the uniform load. In fact,
seismic loads are not uniformly distributed along the
length of a bridge even if it has uniform weight, because to a transverse earthquake ground motion. The bridge is
inertia loads are also proportional to acceleration which composed of several spans restrained transversely at the
vary with the deflected shape. However, reasonably good end abutments and intermediate piers, as shown in Figure
results can be obtained by this method for regular bridges C4.4A. Typically the bridge deck may have expansion
due to some compensatory effects in the modelling. But it joints at the piers or within the spans. These expansion
is known to overestimate the transverse shear forces at the joints do not have the capability to transmit transverse
abutments. This is because Equation (4-4) overestimates deck moments between adjacent deck sections. The equa-
the total base shear (i.e., the total earthquake load acting tion of motion for a continuous system representing this
on the bridge) by about 20 to 25% when compared to say system is conveniently formulated using energy princi-
the total shear calculated from Equation (4-9) (the single ples. The principle of virtual displacements may be used
mode method for regular structures). The situation is fur- to formulate a generalized parameter model of a continu-
ther aggravated if the lateral stiffnesses of the inter- ous system in a manner which approximates the overall
mediate piers are high compared to the in-plane flexural
behavior of the system. Assuming transverse motion in a
stiffness of the superstructure in which case the abutment
single mode shape, a single degree-of-freedom “general-
shears, by the uniform load method, are even higher than
ized parameter” model may be formulated. To obtain an
suggested above. In extreme cases this overestimation can
approximation to this mode shape, a uniform static load-
reach 100%. Compensatory effects in the uniform load
ing, po, is applied to the superstructure and the resulting
method mean that this conservatism at the abutments is
deflection, vs(x), is obtained. The dynamic deflection,
not seen elsewhere in the structure nor is there a corre-
v(x,t), of the structure under seismic excitation as shown
sponding under-prediction elsewhere in the structure. It
in Figure C4.4B is then approximated by the shape func-
occurs because the uniform load method has more load on
the structure than the more “exact” methods and this extra tion multiplied by a generalized amplitude function, v(t),
load is mainly in the end spans close to the abutments. If as shown by Equation (C4-1).
this effect is undesirable, then the single mode method of
analysis (Article 4.4) is recommended. v(x,t) 5 vs(x)v(t) (C4-1)
This function will describe the deformed bridge structure

C4.4 SINGLE MODE SPECTRAL ANALYSIS in a manner which is consistent with the support condi-
METHOD—PROCEDURE 2 tions and intermediate expansion joint hinges in the deck.
Note that it is an admissible function which satisfies the
The single mode spectral analysis method is used to cal- geometric boundary conditions of the system.
culate the seismic design forces for bridges that respond Initially, to establish the deflected shape for the gener-
predominately in the first mode of vibration. The method, alized parameter model, apply a uniform loading po to the
although completely rigorous from a structural dynamics structure as shown in Figure C4.4C. Assume that the load-
point of view, reduces to a problem in statics after the in- ing is applied gradually so that the kinetic energy of the
troduction of inertia forces. The method, as formulated,
can be applied to many types of bridges which have both
continuous and noncontinuous superstructures. Boundary
conditions at the abutments and piers can also be modeled
to include the effects of foundation flexibility.
Bridges are generally continuous systems consisting of
many components which contribute to the overall resis- FIGURE C4.4B Displacement Function Describing the
tance capacity of the system. Consider a bridge subjected Transverse Position of the Bridge Deck
where:
L
γ= ∫ w(x)v (x) dx
O
s
2
(C4-7)
and v is the frequency of the vibrating system. The factor

FIGURE C4.4C Deflected Shape Due to Uniform Static g defined in Equation (C4-7), and appearing in Step 2 of
Loading the Specifications, is evaluated numerically.
The maximum strain energy stored in the system is:
mass of the structure is zero. The external work, WE, done Umax 5 WE (C4-8)
by the uniformly applied loading in deforming the struc-
ture is given by: Using Equations (C4-2), (C4-6) and (C4-8), Equation
(C4-5) becomes:
Po L Po
WE =
2 ∫ O
v s(x)dx =
2
α (C4-2)
p oα =
ω2γ
(C4-9)
g
where:
Introducing v 5 2p/T into Equation (C4-9) and solving
L for the period T, yields:
α= ∫
O
v s (x)dx (C4-3)
γ
This work will be stored internally in the elastic structure T = 2π (C4-10)
p o gα
in the form of strain energy U, thus,
The generalized equation of motion for the single
U 5 WE (C4-4) degree-of-freedom system subjected to a ground accel-
eration v– g(t) may be written as:
After vs(x) is determined using any standard static analy-
sis approach, the integral in Equation (C4-3), and appear- −βvg( t )
ing in Step 2 of the Specifications, may be evaluated v( t ) + 2ξωv⋅ ( t ) + ω 2 v( t ) = (C4-11)
γ
numerically.
If the uniform loading po is suddenly removed, and the where:
effects of damping are neglected, the structure will vibrate
in the assumed mode shape shown in Figure C4.4D at a nat- L
ural frequency determined by equating maximum kinetic β= ∫O
w(x)vg (x)dx (C4-12)
energy to maximum strain energy (Rayleigh method), i.e.
and j is the damping ratio to be prescribed. For most struc-
Tmax 5 Umax (C4-5) tures, a value of 0.05 will be satisfactory.
Now express the standard acceleration response spec-
The maximum kinetic energy of the system is given by: tral value Cs in its dimensionless form:
ω2 L ω2γ SA (ξ,T )
Tmax =
2g ∫ O
w(x)v s (x)2 dx =
2g
(C4-6) Cs =
g
(C4-13)
where SA(j, T) is the pseudo-acceleration spectral value.

The maximum response of the system is then given by:
v(x,t)max 5 v(t)maxvs(x) (C4-14)
where:
FIGURE C4.4D Transverse Free Vibration of the Bridge C s gβ

v( t ) max = (C4-15)
in Assumed Mode Shape ω2γ
Thus: mass terms should be done with care to prevent the loss of
the inertia effects of the structure.
C s gβ The force-displacement relationship at bridge abutments
v( x,t ) max = vs (x) (C4-16)
ω2γ is a highly complex nonlinear problem and will be affected
by the abutment design. In the absence of more accurate
The static loading pe(x) which approximates the inertial information, the following iterative technique may be used
effects associated with the displacement v(x,t)max is shown to determine an equivalent elastic transverse and longitu-
in Figure C4.4E and is given by: dinal stiffness at the abutments to be used for the analysis
of typical bridge structures. The procedure is outlined in
βC s the flowchart appearing in Figure C4.5.2 and described in
p o (x) = w( x)v s ( x). (C4-17) the following steps:
γ
Examples of the application of the single mode spectral 1. Assume an initial abutment design and stiffness.
analysis method are given in References 2 and 3. 2. Analyze the bridge and determine the forces at the
abutment. Perform the appropriate following step:
C4.5 MULTIMODE SPECTRAL ANALYSIS (a) If the force levels exceed the acceptable capac-
METHOD—PROCEDURE 3 ity of the abutment fill and/or piles, reduce the
stiffness of the abutments until the analysis indi-
C4.5.1 General cates force levels below the acceptable capacity.
(b) If the force levels are below the acceptable ca-
The multimode response spectrum analysis should be pacity of the abutments, proceed to Step 3.
performed with a suitable linear dynamic analysis com- 3. Observe the analyzed displacements at the abut-
puter program. Programs generally available with these ment and take the appropriate following step:
capabilities include: STRUDL, SAP90, ANSYS, STAR- (a) If displacements exceed acceptable levels, the
DYN, NASTRAN, EASE, and MARC. assumed abutment design is inadequate. Re-
design the abutment and return to Step 1.
C4.5.2 Mathematical Model (b) If displacements are acceptable, the last assumed
abutment stiffness is consistent with the as-
The model type and degree of refinement depends on sumed abutment design.
the complexity of the actual structure and the results de-
sired in the analysis. Modeling a bridge for a dynamic C4.5.3 Mode Shapes and Periods
analysis is currently more an art than a science. The over-
all objective is to produce a mathematical model that will The computer programs mentioned in Article C4.5.1
represent the dynamic characteristics of the structure and have the ability to calculate the mode shapes, frequencies
produce realistic results consistent with the input parame- and resulting member forces and displacements for a multi-
ters. This section is intended to provide some basic guide- mode spectral analysis. The following equations summa-
lines which will yield realistic results for most bridge rize the equations used in such an analysis.
structures. Although the terms “joint” and “node” are gen- Mode shapes and frequencies should be obtained from
erally used interchangeably, for the purposes of these the equation:
Specifications the term “node” is used to indicate the use
of a joint specifically for the purposes of mathematically [k − ω 2 m]vˆ = 0 (C4-18)
modelling mass or inertia characteristics. Condensation of
using standard eigenvalue computer programs; where k
and m are the known stiffness and mass matrices of the
mathematical model, respectively, v̂ is the displacement
amplitude vector, and v is the frequency. This analysis
will yield the dimensionless mode shapes f1, f2, . . . ,fn
and their corresponding circular frequencies v1, v2, . . . ,
vn. The modal periods can then be obtained using:
FIGURE C4.4E Characteristic Static Loading Applied 2π

Ti = (i = 1, 2,K, n ) (C4-19)
to the Bridge System ωi
FIGURE C4.5.2 Iterative Procedure for Including Abutment Soil Effects in the Seismic Analysis of Bridges
C.4.5.4 Multimode Spectral Analysis where the subscript i refers to the mode number, Yi v1 and
ji are the mode amplitude, frequency, and damping ratios,
The uncoupled normal mode equations of motion are respectively, and the effective modal load Pi(t) and gener-
of the form: alized mass Mi are given by:
Pi ( t ) Pi ( t ) = φ Ti mBvg ( t )
Yi ( t ) + 2ω i ξ i Yi ( t ) + ω 2i Yi ( t ) = (i = 1, 2,K, n )
Mi
(C4-20) M i = φ Ti m φ i (C4-21)
where B is an “influence coefficient vector” containing a the above notation, the participating modal mass (PMM)
value between 21 and 11 for individual degrees of for mode i is given by:
freedom.
(φ )
2
The maximum absolute value of Yi(t) during the entire T
i mB
time-history of earthquake excitation is given by: PMM = (C4-26)
φ i mφ i
T
Ti2 Sa (ξ i , Ti ) φ i mB
Yi ( t ) max = (C4-22) Alternatively the modal participation factor (MPF)
4π 2 φ Ti m φ i
may be used to determine the cut-off point in the number
of modes to be included in the analysis. Since this factor
where Sa(ji, Ti) is the acceleration response spectral value is used to scale the modal forces and displacements before
for the prescribed earthquake excitation. In these Specifi- combining the modal contributions together to obtain de-
cations Sa(ji, Ti) is obtained from the equation: sign values, this factor is an indicator of the importance of
each mode. An MPF which falls below a predetermined
Sa (ξ i , Ti ) = gC sm (C4-23) value will indicate a mode that has no significance on the
design values. One disadvantage of this method is that to
where Csm is defined through the empirical relation given determine which modes are important, the MPF of all
by Equations 3-2, 3-3 or 3-4. modes should first be calculated so that the critical modes
To determine the maximum value of any particular re- can be identified. On the other hand, the participating
sponse quantity Z(t) (e.g., a shear, moment, displacement mass is calculated by starting with the fundamental mode
or relative displacement), use is made of the fact that it is and working sequentially through the modes until say
linearly related to the normal mode amplitude, i.e., 95% of the mass has been accounted for. As a result there
may be considerably less numerical effort in the latter
n
method than in the former. Using the above notation, the
Z( t ) = ∑ A Y (t )
i =1
i i (C4-24) expression for the modal participation factor (MPF) for
mode i, is given by:
where coefficients Ai are known. The maximum value of

φ Ti mB
Z(t) during the duration of the earthquake can be esti- MPF = (C4-27)
mated using the square root of the sum of the squares φ Ti m φ i
(SRSS) method for systems having well-separated modes,
i.e., using: The disadvantage of both of the above indicators is that
it is not possible to know the total participating mass
n (PMM) and the MPFs for each mode until the analysis is
Z( t ) max = ∑A i =1
2
i
2
Yi ( t ) max (C4-25) complete. Iteration is therefore necessary to take full ad-
vantage of these factors. In the meantime, the rule of 3
times the number of spans given in this article is a useful
Alternatively, the CQC method (Complete Quadratic starting point for the designer but it may not be sufficient
Combination method) might be preferred because it is to assure reliable results and it may be necessary to in-
more reliable when the modes are not well separated. crease the number of modes once the total participating
This topic is discussed in more detail in the following mass is known.
section.
The number of modes used in a multimode analysis C4.5.5 Combination of Modal Forces and
should be sufficient to include at least 95% of the total Displacements
mass of the bridge excluding the foundations if soil
springs are not included. The total effective mass of a The member forces and displacements of an elastic
bridge is distributed amongst the various modes of vibra- structure are obtained by the superposition of the respec-
tion according to the frequency content and direction of a tive quantities of the individual modes of vibration. Gen-
particular earthquake. It is thus important to include as erally, the maximum values for each mode do not occur
many modes as necessary to capture the total mass of the simultaneously and thus the maximum value of each
structure. However, it is frequently impractical to do so mode cannot be directly superimposed to obtain the max-
(i.e., to account for 100% of the mass) and a lesser figure imum force or displacement of a member. The direct
of between 90 and 95% is considered acceptable. Using superposition (absolute sum) of the individual modal con-
tributions thus provides an upper bound which is gen- use (for design purposes) the mean of these five results or
erally conservative and not recommended for design. A the mean plus one standard deviation in order to assure an
satisfactory estimate of the maximum value of a force or acceptable level of performance. This decision will proba-
displacement can be obtained by taking the square root bly be decided by the importance of the bridge and the
of the sum of the squares (SRSS) of the individual modal likelihood that the design values will be exceeded in the
response as defined by Equation (C4-25). useful life of the bridge. In the absence of a site-specific
The SRSS method is generally applicable to most determination of the input time histories by a qualified
bridges, however there are some bridges with unusual geo- professional (an engineering seismologist or similar),
metric features which cause some of the individual modes spectrum-compatible time histories may be used where the
to have closely spaced periods in which case, this method spectrum is that described in Article 3.6. This alternative
may not be applicable. One possible combination method usually leads to a set of unrealistically severe time histories
is to add the absolute values of the closely spaced modes because the spectrum, given for example by Equation (3-1),
to the SRSS of the remaining modes which presumes that does not represent a single earthquake but is rather an
the designer knows beforehand which modes are closely envelope of many different earthquakes which have about
spaced. A better method, which is now commonly used, is the same return period for the region under considera-
the Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC) method4. tion. Furthermore this envelope has been empirically in-
This procedure uses a “cross correlation” matrix, which is creased in the long period range to account for uncertain-
a function of the ratio of the periods and the damping co- ties in the response of long period bridges as discussed
efficient. The procedure consists of performing a double in Article C3.2(F). Spectrum-compatible time histories
summation over the number of modes retained in the analy- are therefore likely to be very conservative unless steps
sis for a particular response quantity, in order to obtain one are taken to account for the nature of the spectrum in the
combined response quantity—hence the name “complete development of the histories. Such steps should be dis-
quadratic”. cussed with the Engineer/Owner and the implications fully
The cross-correlation matrix becomes an identity ma- understood before proceeding with time history analyses.
trix when periods from mode-to-mode are well-spaced, Time history computer programs generally use a step-
and therefore the CQC method reduces to the SRSS by-step algorithm to solve the equations of motion. The
method. When modes have closely spaced periods and size of the time step used in the algorithm can have a sig-
participate in the solution to the same degree, the CQC nificant effect on the accuracy of the answers and rules-
and the SRSS can produce very different results.5 of-thumb, such as using a fraction of the structure period,
can lead to either ill-conditioned equations or a failure to
C4.6 TIME HISTORY METHOD— capture the important modes of structure response. It is
PROCEDURE 4 therefore required that the sensitivity of the results to the
size of the time step be determined by repeating the analy-
Time history methods of analysis are considered to be ses using a range of time steps and checking the stability
the most accurate for the dynamic analysis of seismic of the solution.
loads. As noted in the commentary to Article 4.2, these One of the advantages of the time history method is the
methods automatically include the appropriate modal con- ability to perform nonlinear (inelastic) analyses of bridges.
tributions and the correct phasing between these modes. Such methods allow the explicit definition of column ca-
They can give the complete history of any response quan- pacities (e.g. yield moments and post-yield properties) and
tity of interest (force or displacement) for the duration avoid the need to assign R-factors in the design process
of the earthquake. Maximum values may then be taken (Article 3.7). Many of the uncertainties surrounding the
from these time histories for use in design. The proce- use of R-factors and the results of elastic analyses to de-
dures are however computationally intensive and have only sign bridges in their inelastic range are avoided by this
become practical design office tools since computers and method. But, given the present state-of-the-art, a new set
the necessary software have become widely available. of uncertainties are introduced by the method which range
Nevertheless, these methods should be used with cau- from the stability of the solution algorithms to the specifi-
tion. For example care must be taken in choosing the ap- cation of appropriate nonlinear material properties and the
propriate time history of input ground motion to be used inclusion of damping. As a result, great care must be taken
in the analysis. In fact at least five different time histories to assure reliable and meaningful results and sensitivity
should be used (each one representing the same level of studies, of the type described in the previous paragraph,
seismic hazard at the site) in order to obtain an indication will be helpful in this regard. It follows that inelastic time
of the variability of structure response to variations in input history analyses should only be performed by engineers
ground motion. The designer must then decide whether to who are experienced in the field of nonlinear analysis.
REFERENCES is simple and somewhat conservative, especially for more

flexible bridges, since the forces are based on the maxi-
1. Buckle, I.G., Button, M. and Kim, D., “Limitations on mum elastic response coefficient. If the design forces are
the Applicability of Simplified Analysis Methods for difficult to accommodate, it is recommended that SPC B
Seismic Bridge Design,” NCEER Report 96-xxxx (in analysis and design procedures be used.
press). This article describes the minimum connection force
2. American Association of State Highway and Trans- that must be transferred from the superstructure to its sup-
portation Officials, Guide Specifications for Seismic porting substructures through the bearings. It does not
Design of Highway Bridges, AASHTO, Washington, apply if the connection is a monolithic structural joint.
DC, 1983. Similarly, it does not apply to unrestrained bearings (such
3. Federal Highway Administration, “Seismic Design as elastomeric bearings) or in the unrestrained directions
and Retrofit Manual for Highway Bridges,” FHWA of bearings that are free to move (slide) in one direction
Report IP-87-6, McLean, VA, 1987. but fixed (restrained) in an orthogonal direction. The min-
4. Wilson, E.L., Der Kiureghian, A., and Bayo, E.P., “A imum force is simply 20% of the weight that is effective
Replacement for the SRSS Method in Seismic Analy- in the restrained direction. The calculation of the effective
sis,” International Journal of Earthquake Engineering weight requires care and may be thought of as a tributary
and Structural Dynamics, Vol. 9, 1981, pp. 187–194. weight. It is calculated from the length of the superstruc-
5. “SEISAB: Seismic Analysis of Bridges,” Users Man- ture that is tributary to the bearing in the direction under
ual, Imbsen and Associates, Sacramento, 1993. consideration. For example, in the longitudinal direction
at a fixed bearing, this length will be the length of the seg-
Commentary ment and may include more than one span if it is a con-
SECTION 5— tinuous girder; i.e., it is the length from one expansion
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES IN joint to the next. But in the transverse direction at the same
SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A bearing, this length may be as little as one-half of the span,
particularly if it is supporting an expansion joint. This is
C5.1 GENERAL because the expansion bearings at the adjacent piers will
generally be transversely restrained and able to transfer
Bridges in Seismic Performance Category A need not lateral loads to the substructure.
be explicitly designed for seismic loads provided certain It is important that not only the bearing but also the de-
minimum requirements are satisfied. These requirements tails that fasten the bearing to the sole and masonry plates
include minimum seat widths and connection forces which (including the anchor bolts which engage the supporting
are specified in order to provide a basic level of seismic members), have sufficient capacity to resist the above
resistance to bridges in low-seismic hazard zones. These forces. At a fixed bearing, it is necessary to consider the
minima recognize the uncertainties in defining the seismic simultaneous application of the longitudinal and trans-
hazard in the low-to-moderate regions of the United States verse connection forces when checking these capacities.
and are a form of insurance against the occurrence of large, Note that the primary purpose of this requirement is
but rare, earthquakes in these regions. to ensure that the connections between the superstruc-
ture and its supporting substructures remain intact dur-
ing the design earthquake and thus protect the girders
C5.2 DESIGN FORCES FOR SEISMIC from being unseated. The failure of these connections
PERFORMANCE CATEGORY A has been observed in many earthquakes and imposing
minimum strength requirements is considered to be a
During the development of the 1983 Guide Specifica- simple but effective strategy to minimize the risk of col-
tions, the PEP thought that the design of the connections lapse. However, in low-seismic zones such as SPC A it
for wind forces would be satisfactory for anticipated is not necessary to design the substructures or their foun-
seismic forces for bridges classified as SPC A. However, dations for these forces since it is expected that if a col-
when the magnitude of the wind and seismic forces were umn does yield it will have sufficient inherent ductility
compared for six bridges, during a trial design exercise, to survive without collapse. Even though bridge columns
it was found in almost all cases that, for an Acceleration in SPC A are not required to be designed for seismic
Coefficient of 0.10, seismic forces were greater than wind loads, default reinforcement requirements will provide
forces. In some cases the difference was significant. Hence, a minimum level of capacity for ductile deformations
it was deemed necessary to include the requirement of this which is considered to be adequate for the magnitude
section for the design of the connections. The requirement and duration of the ground motions expected in SPC A.
This has been recently confirmed by the dynamic testing Commentary

of a full-scale bridge column taken from a bridge in the SECTION 6—
Eastern United States which had not been designed for DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES IN
seismic loads and to which demonstrated surprisingly SEISMIC PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B
ductile performance.1
C6.2 DESIGN FORCES FOR SEISMIC
C5.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FOR SEISMIC
The seismic design forces specified for bridges clas-
sified as SPC B are intended to be relatively simple but
The rationale for these minimum seat width require-
consistent with the overall design concepts and method-
ments for bridges in all seismic performance categories
ology. Inherent in any simplification of a design proce-
has been given in Article C3.10.
Since an elastic analysis is not required for bridges clas- dure, however, is a degree of conservatism and for SPC
sified as SPC A the minimum support lengths specified in B this occurs in the determination of the design forces
Article 5.3 are the only design displacement requirements for the foundations and connections to columns. If these
for these bridges. forces appear to be excessive, then the method specified
Skewed bridges are known to develop large displace- for bridges classified as SPC C and D in Articles 7.2.5 and
ments at their supports due to the superstructure rotating 7.2.6 should be used. The major difference is that, for
about a vertical axis through the center of stiffness of the SPC C and D, foundations and connections to columns
substructure. This has been observed in many earthquakes are designed for the maximum forces that a column can
and the relatively frequent occurrence of damaged and transmit to these components. In some cases, these may
unseated skewed spans is attributed to this phenomenon. be considerably less than the design forces specified in
For this reason, the seat width for skewed spans is in- Article 6.2.
creased in proportion to the square of the angle of skew. Article 6.2.1 specifies the design forces for the struc-
This allowance for skew increases the minimum width tural components of the bridge. In the first step, the elas-
(N in Equation (5-1)) by approximately 25% for bridges tic forces of Load Cases 1 and 2 of Article 3.9 are divided
with skew angles of 45°. Note that N is measured normal by the appropriate R-Factors of Article 3.7. These forces
to the leading edge of the seat and thus the minimum are combined with those from other loads and the group
width parallel to the bridge centerline is larger than N and loading combination is the same as that used in the cur-
given by N times the secant of the angle of skew. rent AASHTO Specifications with all g and b factors
equal to 1.0. Furthermore, each component shall be de-
signed to resist the two seismic group load combinations
C5.4, C5.5, FOUNDATION AND ABUTMENT of Article 3.9, one including Load Case 1 and the other in-
AND C5.6 DESIGN, STEEL AND CONCRETE cluding Load Case 2. Each load case incorporates differ-
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR ent proportions of bi-directional seismic loading. This
SEISMIC PERFORMANCE may be important for some components (e.g., biaxial de-
CATEGORY A sign of columns) and unimportant for others. In the design
loads for each component the sign of the seismic forces
Consistent with the overall philosophy for bridges
and moments obtained from Article 3.9 can be taken as
classified as SPC A, special seismic design requirements
either positive or negative. The sign of the seismic force
are not specified because of the low level of seismic
or moment that gives the maximum magnitude for the de-
risk and the low probability that a foundation or a col-
sign force (either positive or negative) shall be used.
umn will be subjected to seismic forces that will cause
Either the load factor or service load method of design
yielding.
as specified in Division I can be used with the specified
forces. For essential bridges in SPC B, a designer may
REFERENCE wish to consider the column design requirements for SPC
C and D in Section 7 to enhance the column ductility ca-
1. Mander, J., Mahmoodzadegan, B., Bhadra, S., and pacity. However, for most bridges, the Division I require-
Chen, S.S., “Seismic Evaluation of a 30-Year Old ments and the additional requirements of Article 6.6 were
Non-Ductile Highway Bridge Pier and Its Retrofit,” deemed reasonable in view of the seismic risk level asso-
Technical Report NCEER-96-0008, National Center for ciated with SPC B. The ductility capacity of a column de-
Earthquake Engineering Research, Buffalo, NY, 1996. signed to Division I is difficult to estimate because the
potential mode of failure could be shear, flexure, com- timate of the displacements resulting from the inelastic re-
pression, or loss of anchorage, or a combination of any sponse of the bridge. However, it must be recognized that
two or more. The design requirements of Section 7 for displacements are very sensitive to the flexibility of the
bridges classified as SPC C and D are specified such that foundation and if the foundation is not included in the elas-
the potential for a shear, compression or loss of anchorage tic analysis of Article 3.8 consideration should be given to
mode of failure is minimized and the column is forced to increasing the specified displacements for bridges founded
yield in flexure with reasonable ductility capacity when on very soft soils. This increase may be of the order of 50%
subjected to significant seismic force levels. or more but as with any generalization, considerable judg-
Article 6.2.2 specifies the design forces for foundations ment is required. A better method is to determine upper and
which include the footings, pile caps and piles. The design lower bounds from an elastic analysis which incorporates
forces are essentially twice the seismic design forces of foundation flexibility. Special care in regard to foundation
the columns. This will generally be conservative and was flexibility is required for bridges with high piers.
adopted to simplify the design procedure for bridges clas- The rationale for these minimum seat width require-
sified as SPC B. However, if seismic forces do not govern ments is given in Article C3.10. Skewed bridges are known
the design of columns and piers there is a possibility that to develop large displacements at their supports due to the
during an earthquake the foundations will be subjected superstructure rotating about a vertical axis through the
to forces larger than the design forces. For example this center of stiffness of the substructure. This has been ob-
may occur due to unintended column overstrengths which served in many earthquakes and the relatively frequent oc-
may exceed the capacity of the foundations. An estimate currence of damaged and unseated skewed spans is attrib-
of this effect may be found by using overstrength factors uted to this phenomenon. For this reason, the seat width
of 1.3 for reinforced concrete columns and 1.25 for steel for skewed spans is increased in proportion to the square
columns. It is also possible that even in cases when seis- of the angle of skew. This allowance for skew increases
mic loads govern the column design, the columns may the minimum width (N in Equation (6-3)) by approxi-
have insufficient shear strength to enable a ductile flexural mately 25% for bridges with skew angles of 45°. Note that
mechanism to develop but instead allow a brittle shear N is measured normal to the leading edge of the seat and
failure to occur. Again this situation is due to potential thus the minimum width parallel to the bridge centerline
overstrength in the flexural capacity of columns and could is larger than N and given by N times the secant of the
possibly be prevented by arbitrarily increasing the column angle of skew.
design shear by the overstrength factor (1.3 for concrete
columns and 1.25 for steel columns). C6.4 FOUNDATIONS AND ABUTMENT DESIGN
Conservatism in the design, and in some cases under- REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC
design, of foundations and columns in SPC B based on the PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B
simplified procedure of this Article has been widely de-
bated. (See for example Gajer and Wagh5.) In light of the Since the design of bridge foundations in SPC B is es-
above discussion it is recommended that for important sentially the same as for bridges in SPC C and D, a joint
bridges classified as SPC B consideration should be given commentary is provided in Appendix A.
to the use of the forces specified in Article 7.2.6 for foun-
dations in SPC C and D. It should be noted that ultimate C6.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN
soil and pile strengths are to be used with the specified REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC
foundation seismic design forces. PERFORMANCE CATEGORY B
C6.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FOR SEISMIC C6.5.1 General

The 50% increase in allowable stresses for service load
For bridges classified as SPC B, the design displace- design is based on the following:
ments are specified as either the maximum of those calcu-
lated by the elastic analysis of Article 3.8 or the minimum 1. The margin of safety between the yield strength and
specified support lengths given by Equation (6-3). This allowable stress of short columns.
“either/or” specification was introduced to account for 2. The margin of safety between the yield strength and
larger displacements that may occur from the analysis of allowable tensile stress.
more flexible bridges. Displacements obtained from the 3. The margin of safety of compression members,
elastic analysis of bridges should provide a reasonable es- which varies between 1.7 and 1.9.1,2
It is noted that seismic design requirements for steel REFERENCES

bridges are currently under review and it is likely that
the provisions given in these articles will be modified in 1. “Manual of Steel Construction,” American Institute of
the near future. Some indication of the likely trends in Steel Construction, Inc., 1979.
seismic design of steel bridges may be found in Report 2. Johnson, B.G., Structural Stability Research Council’s
ATC-32 prepared by the Applied Technology Council “Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Struc-
for Caltrans6 and in a report prepared for the American tures,” Third Edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York,
Iron and Steel Institute Task Force on Seismic Design 1976.
by A. Astaneh7. 3. Priestley, M.J.N. and Park, R., “Seismic Resistance of
Reinforced Concrete Bridge Columns,” Proceedings
C6.5.2 P-delta Effects of a Workshop on the Earthquake Resistance of High-
way Bridges, Applied Technology Council, Berkeley,
This Article provides modifications to the interaction CA, January 1979.
equations when the P-delta effects are explicitly deter- 4. Jirsa, J.O., “Applicability to Bridges of Experimen-
mined. In columns, the reductions to the allowable stresses tal Seismic Test Results Performed on Subassem-
are in part a result of the consideration of member P-delta blages of Buildings,” Proceedings of a Workshop
effects. These P-delta reductions are modified in AASHTO on the Earthquake Resistance of Highway Bridges,
by a K-factor which is a recognition of the effect of end re- Applied Technology Council, Berkeley, CA, January
straint in the member P-delta relationship. The bases for 1979.
the values of this ratio where joint translation is prevented 5. Gajer, R.B., and Wagh, V.P., “Bridge Design for Seis-
are well documented. The selection of the value of Cm mic Performance Category B: The Problem With
where joint translation is permitted was an approxima- Foundation Design,” Proc 11th Annl Intl Bridge Conf.,
tion applicable primarily to designs for which significant Paper IBC-94-62, Pittsburgh, PA, 1994.
applied horizontal forces are not present. Since the advent 6. Applied Technology Council, “Recommended Revi-
of computer analysis, the solution of the interaction equa- sions of Caltrans Seismic Design Procedures for
tions when secondary effects resulting from deflection are Bridges,” Report ATC-32, 1996 (in press).
taken into account, has become much easier. In most cases,
7. A. Astaneh, “Seismic Behavior and Design of Steel
with significant horizontal displacements, the first iteration
Bridges—Response Modification Factor Based De-
of deflection is sufficient. It is possible that for some mem-
sign,” Report to American Iron and Steel Institute Task
bers, such as weak axis columns depending on end-support
Force on Seismic Design, 1995.
conditions, critical stress may occur at the midheight rather
than the column ends. Thus the stress limits specified when
joint translation is prevented should not be exceeded. Commentary
SECTION 7—DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR
C6.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGES IN SEISMIC PERFORMANCE
REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC CATEGORIES C AND D
Bridges classified as SPC B have a reasonable prob- C7.2 DESIGN FORCES FOR SEISMIC
ability of being subjected to lower level seismic forces PERFORMANCE CATEGORIES C AND D
that will cause localized yielding of the columns. Thus,
it was deemed necessary that columns have some duc- For bridges classified as SPC C and D two sets of de-
tility capacity although it was recognized that the ductil- sign forces are defined and either one, or both sets, is
ity demand will not be as great as for columns of bridges specified as the design force for different components. If
classified as SPC C and D. The most important require- two sets are specified, the designer has an either/or option
ment to ensure some level of ductility is the transverse with one set being more conservative than the other. The
reinforcement requirement specified3,4. This will pre- major difference between these design forces and those
vent buckling of the longitudinal steel and provide con- specified for bridges classified as SPC B is that one set
finement for the core of the column. The maximum spac- of these defined forces corresponds to forces resulting
ing for the transverse reinforcement was increased to from plastic hinging in the columns. The design forces
6 in. (150 mm) because of the anticipated lower ductil- for the various components are specified in Articles 7.2.3
ity demand. to 7.2.7.
C7.2.1 Modified Design Forces Column Size and Reinforcement Configuration

The design engineer should select the minimum col-
Article 7.2.1 defines the modified design forces which
umn section size and steel reinforcement ratio when sat-
are used for the design of some components of the bridge.
isfying structural design requirements. As these param-
In the first step the elastic forces of Load Cases 1 and 2 of
eters increase, the overstrength capacity increases. This
Article 3.9 are divided by the appropriate R-Factor of Ar-
may lead to an increase in the foundation size and cost.
ticle 3.7. In combining these forces with those from other
Column size will also influence whether a column is func-
load types, the group loading combination is the same as
tioning above or below Pb (Articles 8.1.2 and 8.16.4.2.3,
that used in Group VII of the current Division I with all g
Division I). A size and reinforcement ratio which forces
and b factors equal to 1.0. Two seismic group load com-
the design below Pb is preferable, especially in high seis-
binations are defined; one for Load Case 1 of Article 3.9
mic areas. However, the selection of size and reinforce-
and the other for Load Case 2. This may be important for
ment must also satisfy architectural, and perhaps other
some components (e.g., biaxial design of columns) and
requirements, which may govern the design.
unimportant for others. In the design loads for each com-
ponent for the group load combination, the sign of the
Increase in Reinforcement Strength
seismic forces and moments obtained from Article 3.9 can
be either positive or negative. The sign of the seismic Almost all reinforcing bars will have a yield strength
force or moment that gives the maximum magnitude for larger than the minimum specified value (up to 30%
the design force (either positive or negative) shall be used. higher, with an average increase of 12%). Combining this
The exception to this is for column axial loads in which increase with the effect of strain hardening, it is realistic
the seismic axial load is considered alternately as a posi- to assume an increased yield strength of 1.25fy, when
tive and negative load so that a minimum and maximum computing the column overstrength1.
axial force is calculated for each load case.
Increase in Concrete Strength
C7.2.2 Forces Resulting from Plastic Hinging in
Concrete strength is defined as the specified 28-day
Columns, Piers, or Bents
compression strength; this is a low estimate of the strength
expected in the field. Typically, conservative concrete
Article 7.2.2 defines the forces resulting from plastic
batch designs result in actual 28-day strengths of about
hinging (a column reaching its ultimate moment capacity)
20 to 25% higher than specified. Concrete will also con-
in the columns and presents two procedures. One is for
tinue to gain strength with age. Tests on cores taken from
a single-column hinging about its two principal axes;
older California bridges (built in the 1950’s and 1960’s)
this is also applicable for piers and bents acting as single
have consistently yielded compression strengths in ex-
columns. The other procedure is for a multiple column
cess of 1.5f9c. Concrete compression strength is further
bent in the plane of the bent. The forces are based on the
enhanced by the possible confinement provided by the
potential overstrength capacity of the materials and to be
transverse reinforcement. Rapid loading due to seismic
valid the design detail requirements of this section must
forces could also result in significant increase in strength
be used so that plastic hinging of the columns can occur.
(strain-rate effect). In view of all the above, the actual
The overstrength capacity results from actual properties
concrete strength when a seismic event occurs is likely
being greater than the minimum specified values. This fact
to significantly exceed the specified 28-day strength.
must be accounted for when forces generated by yielding
Therefore, an increased concrete strength of 1.5f9c could
of the column are used as design forces. Generally, over-
be assumed in the calculation of the column overstrength
strength capacity depends on the following factors:
capacity.1,2,3,4
1. The actual size of the column and the actual amount Ultimate Compressive Strain (ec)
of reinforcing steel.
2. The effect of an increased steel strength over the Although tests on unconfined concrete show 0.003 to
specified fy and for strain hardening effects. be a reasonable strain at first crushing, tests on confined
3. The effect of an increased concrete strength over column sections show a marked increase in this value. The
the specified f9c and confinement provided by the use of such a low extreme fiber strain, is a very conserva-
transverse steel. Also, with time, concrete will grad- tive estimate of strains at which crushing and spalling first
ually increase in strength. develop in most columns, and considerably less than the
4. The effect of an actual concrete ultimate compres- expected strain at maximum response to the design seis-
sive strain above 0.003. mic event. Research has supported strains of the order of
0.01 and higher as the likely magnitude of ultimate com- properties than specified, is illustrated by comparing the
pressive strain. Therefore, designers could assume a value actual overstrength curve (computed with realistic f9c, fy
of ultimate strain equal to 0.01 as a realistic value.1,2,3,4,10 and ec values) to the nominal strength interaction curve
For calculation purposes, the thickness of clear con- (Pn, Mn). It is generally satisfactory to approximate the
crete cover used to compute the section overstrength, shall overstrength capacity curve by multiplying the nominal
not be taken to be greater than 2 inches (50 mm). This re- moment strength by the 1.3 factor for axial loads below Pb
duced section shall be adequate for all applied loads asso- (Pn, 1.3Mn curve). However, as shown in the plot, this
ciated with the plastic hinge. curve may be in considerable error for axial loads above
Pb. Therefore, it is recommended that the approximate
overstrength curve be obtained by multiplying both Pn and
Overstrength Capacity
Mn by f 5 1.3, (1.3Pn, 1.3Mn)5. This curve follows the
The derivation of the column overstrength capacity is general shape of the actual curve very closely at all levels
depicted in Figure C7.2.2A. The effect of higher material of axial loads.
FIGURE C7.2.2A Development of Approximate Overstrength Interaction Curves from Nominal Strength Curves
(after Gajer and Wagh5)
In the light of the above discussion, it is recommended umn is expected to yield when subjected to the forces of
that: the design earthquake.
The design axial forces which control both the flexural
1. For all bridges with axial loads below Pb, the over- design of the column and the shear design requirements
strength moment capacity be assumed to be 1.3 are either the maximum or minimum of the unreduced
times the nominal moment capacity. design forces or the values corresponding to plastic hing-
2. For SPC C and D bridges with Importance Classifica- ing of the columns. In most cases, the values correspond-
tion (IC) 5 II and for all SPC B bridges, the over- ing to plastic hinging of the columns will be lower than
strength curve for axial loads greater than Pb be ap- the unreduced design forces. The design shear forces are
proximated by multiplying both Pn and Mn by f 5 1.3. specified so that the possibility of a shear failure in the
3. For SPC C and D bridges with Importance Classifi- column is minimized.
cation (IC) 5 I, the overstrength curve for axial loads
greater than Pb, be computed using realistic values C7.2.4 Pier Design Forces
for f9c, fy and ec as recommended in Table C7.2.2A
or from values based on actual test results. The The design forces for piers specified in Article 7.2.4 are
overstrength thus calculated should not be less than based on the assumption that a pier has low ductility ca-
the value estimated by the approximate curve based pacity and no redundancy. As a result, a low R-Factor of
on (1.3Pn, 1.3Mn). 2 is used in determining the reduced design forces and it
is expected that only a small amount of inelastic defor-
TABLE C7.2.2A Recommended Increased Values of mation will occur in the response of a pier when subjected
Materials Properties to the forces of the design earthquake. If a pier is designed
as a column in its weak direction then both the design
Increased fy (minimum) 1.25 fy
forces and, more important, the design requirements of
Increased f9c 1.5 f9c
Articles 7.2.3 and 7.6.2 are applicable.
Increased ec 0.01
C7.2.5 Connection Design Forces
Shear Failure
Connections are important elements in maintaining the
The shear mode of failure in a column or pile bent will
overall integrity of a bridge structure. Therefore, specific
probably result in a partial or total collapse of the bridge;
attention was given to the displacements that occur at
therefore, the design shear force must be calculated con-
movable supports (Article 7.3) and, for fixed connections,
servatively. In calculating the column or pile bent shear
reasonably conservative design forces are specified to
force, consideration must be given to the potential loca- provide increased protection for a minimum increase in
tions of plastic hinges. For flared columns, these may construction cost.
occur at the top or bottom of the flare. For multiple col- The recommended design forces specified in Article
umn bents with a partial-height wall, the plastic hinges 7.2.5 are such that column connections are designed for the
will probably occur at the top of the wall unless the wall maximum forces that a column can transmit to the con-
is structurally separated from the column. For columns nection (Article 7.2.5(C)). The design forces for other con-
with deeply embedded foundations, the plastic hinge may nections and the alternate forces for column connections
occur above the foundation mat or pile cap. For pile bents are the elastic seismic forces specified in Article 7.2.1.
the plastic hinge may occur above the calculated point of Forces greater than the elastic seismic forces are specified
fixity. Because of the consequences of a shear failure, it is in the case of abutment connections. An additional re-
recommended that conservatism be used in locating pos- quirement to prevent significant relative displacements at
sible plastic hinges such that the smallest potential col- connections is given in Article 7.2.5(A). Positive horizon-
umn length be used with the plastic moments to calculate tal linkage shall be provided by cables or an equivalent
the largest potential shear force for design. mechanism. Friction shall not be considered as positive
linkage. As a further safety measure, minimum bearing
C7.2.3 Column and Pile Bent Design Forces support lengths are required. The problem of relative dis-
placement is discussed in more detail in Article C3.10.
The design forces for columns specified in Article 7.2.3 Section 7.2.5(B) represents the only provision included
are based on the design philosophy of the Specifications in the Specifications to minimize the potential adverse ef-
discussed in the Introduction to the Commentary. The defects of vertical seismic excitation as discussed in Article
sign moments are specified on the assumption that the col- C3.8. This is a reasonably straightforward requirement and
will be subject to refinement as the state-of-the-art in the bridges with skew angles of 45°. Note that N is measured
effects of vertical seismic excitation develops. normal to the leading edge of the seat and thus the mini-
mum width parallel to the bridge centerline is larger than
C7.2.6 Foundation Design Forces N and given by N times the secant of the angle of skew.
The foundation design forces specified in Article 7.2.6

C7.4 FOUNDATIONS AND ABUTMENT DESIGN
are consistent with the design philosophy of minimizing
damage that would not be readily detectable. The recom-
mended design forces are the maximum forces that can be
transmitted to the footing by plastic hinging of the column. Since the design of bridge foundations in SPC C and D
The alternate design forces are the elastic design forces. is essentially the same as for bridges in SPC B, a joint
It should be noted that these may be considerably greater commentary is provided in Appendix A.
than the recommended design forces although where archi-
tectural considerations govern the design of a column the
alternate elastic design forces may be less than the forces C7.5 STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN
resulting from column plastic hinging. REQUIREMENTS FOR SEISMIC
C7.3 DESIGN DISPLACEMENTS FOR SEISMIC C7.5.1 General

The 50% increase in allowable stresses for service load
For bridges classified as SPC C and D, the design dis- design is based on the following:
placements are specified as either the maximum of those
calculated by the elastic analysis of Article 3.8 or the min- 1. The margin of safety between the yield strength and
imum specified support lengths given by Equation 7-3. allowable stress of short columns.
This either/or specification was introduced to account for 2. The margin of safety between the yield strength and
larger displacements that may occur from the analysis of allowable tensile stress.
more flexible bridges. It was the opinion of the PEP that 3. The margin of safety of compression members,
displacements obtained from the elastic analysis of bridges which varies between 1.7 and 1.9.6,7
should provide a reasonable estimate of the displacements
resulting from the inelastic response of the bridge. How- It is noted that seismic design requirements for steel
ever, it must be recognized that displacements are very bridges are currently under review and it is likely that the
sensitive to the flexibility of the foundation and if the foun- provisions given in these articles will be modified in the
dation is not included in the elastic analysis of Article 3.8 near future. Some indication of the likely trends in seis-
consideration should be given to increasing the specified mic design of steel bridges may be found in Report ATC-
displacements for bridges founded on very soft soils. This 32 prepared by the Applied Technology Council for Cal-
increase may be of the order of 50% or more but as with trans8 and in a report prepared for the American Iron
any generalization, considerable judgment is required. and Steel Institute Task Force on Seismic Design by
A better method is to determine upper and lower bounds A. Astaneh.9
from an elastic analysis which incorporates foundation
flexibility. Special care in regard to foundation flexibil- C7.5.2 P-delta Effects
ity is required for bridges with high piers.
The rationale for these minimum seat width require- This Article provides modifications to the interaction
ments is given in Article C3.10. Skewed bridges are known equations when the P-delta effects are explicitly deter-
to develop large displacements at their supports due to the mined. In columns, the reductions to the allowable
superstructure rotating about a vertical axis through the stresses are in part a result of the consideration of mem-
center of stiffness of the substructure. This has been ob- ber P-delta effects. These P-delta reductions are modified
served in many earthquakes and the relatively frequent oc- in AASHTO by a K-factor which is a recognition of the
currence of damaged and unseated skewed spans is attrib- effect of end restraint in the member P-delta relationship.
uted to this phenomenon. For this reason, the seat width for The bases for the values of this ratio where joint transla-
skewed spans is increased in proportion to the square of the tion is prevented are well documented. The selection of
angle of skew. This allowance for skew increases the min- the value of Cm where joint translation is permitted was an
imum width (N in Equation 7-3) by approximately 25% for approximation applicable primarily to designs for which
significant applied horizontal forces are not present. Since Factor method of design be used since it is consistent with
the advent of computer analysis, the solution of the inter- the ultimate load capacity concept used in determining the
action equations when secondary effects resulting from design force levels. An increase in allowable stresses of
deflection are taken into account, has become much eas- 331⁄ 3% is permitted for Service Load design. This is
ier. In most cases, with significant horizontal displace- consistent with current Division I specifications.
ments, the first iteration of deflection is sufficient. It is pos-
sible that for some members, such as weak axis columns C7.6.2 Column Requirements
depending on end support conditions, critical stress may
occur at the midheight rather than the column ends. Thus The definition of a column in this section is provided as
the stress limits specified when joint translation is pre- a guideline to differentiate between the additional design
vented should not be exceeded. requirements for a pier and for a column. This should
be used as a guideline and, if a column or pier is above
or below the recommended criterion, it can be consid-
C7.6 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN
ered either as a column or pier, provided the appropri-
ate R-Factor of Article 3.7 and the appropriate require-
ments of either Article 7.6.2 or 7.6.3 are used. For columns
with an H/d ratio less than 21 ⁄ 2, the forces resulting from
C7.6.1 General
plastic hinging will generally exceed the elastic design
forces and consequently the forces of Article 7.2.2 would
The purpose of the additional design requirements of
not be applicable.
this Article is to ensure that, for bridges classified as SPC
C and D, the design of the components of these bridges is
C7.6.2(A) Vertical Reinforcement
consistent with the overall design philosophy and that the
potential for failures observed in past earthquakes is min- This requirement is intended to apply for the full sec-
imized. The additional column design requirements of tion of the columns. The lower limit on the column re-
this Article for bridges classified as SPC C and D are such inforcement reflects the traditional concern for the effect
that a column is forced to yield in flexure with a reason- of time-dependent deformations as well as the desire to
able ductility capacity and that the potential for a shear, avoid a sizable difference between the flexural cracking
compression or loss of anchorage mode of failure is min- and yield moments. The 6% maximum ratio is to avoid
imized. The additional design requirements for piers pro- congestion and to permit anchorage of the longitudinal
vide for some inelastic capacity; however, the R-factor steel. If the effectiveness of higher percentages of re-
specified for piers is such that the anticipated inelastic inforcement is substantiated by test results, relaxation of
capacity is significantly less than that of columns. this requirement could be considered; however, the PEP
The actual ductility demand on a column or pier is a gave serious consideration to reducing the upper limit to
complex function of a number of variables10,11 including 4% and recommends that a lower value be used when
the earthquake characteristics, design force level, period feasible.
of the bridge, shape of the inelastic hysteresis loop of the
columns, elastic damping coefficient, contributions of foun- C7.6.2(B) Flexural Strength
dation and bearing compliance to structural flexibility, Article C3.9 indicates that bridges will be subjected to
and plastic hinge length of the column. The damage po- the simultaneous occurrence of ground motion in three
tential of a column is also related to the ratio of the dura- orthogonal directions. Thus columns are required to be
tion of strong motion shaking to the natural period of the designed biaxially and checked for both the minimum and
bridge. This ratio will be an indicator of the number of maximum axial forces. For columns with a maximum axial
yield excursions, and hence of the cumulative ductility. stress exceeding 0.20 f9c the strength reduction factor, f, is
There are some grounds for considering the cumulative reduced to 0.50. A linear interpolation is to be used for the
ductility to be a more useful index than the peak ductil- value of f (0.90) for pure flexure and the value at 0.20 f9c.
ity level; for example, 10 cycles at a curvature ductility This requirement was added because of the trend towards
factor of 8 might be more damaging than one yield ex- a reduction in ductility capacity as the axial load increases.
cursion at a curvature ductility factor of 10 or 12. How- Implicit in this requirement is the recommendation that
ever, there is little experimental evidence to support or design axial stresses be less than 0.20 f9c. Columns with
contradict this view. axial stresses greater than this value are not prohibited but
Both Service Load and Load Factor methods of design are designed for higher force levels (i.e., a lower F factor)
are permitted although it is recommended that the Load in lieu of the lower ductility capacity.
C7.6.2(C) Column Shear and Transverse The confinement requirements for rectangular sections
Reinforcement of Equation (7-6) were developed from the requirements
for spiral columns as follows.
The requirements of this section are to minimize the
The confining force P provided by a spirally reinforced
potential for a column shear failure.10,11 The design shear
column shown in Figure C7.6.2A, is
force is specified as either that capable of being developed
by flexural yielding of the columns or the elastic design
P 5 rsD 5 2Asfyh,
shear force. This requirement was added because of the po-
tential for superstructure collapse if a column fails in shear.
where:
It should be noted that a column may yield in either the
r 5 confining pressure
longitudinal or transverse direction and that the shear
s 5 spacing of the spiral reinforcement
force corresponding to the maximum shear developed in
D 5 core diameter of the column
either direction (for non-circular columns) should be used
As 5 area of the spiral reinforcement
for the determination of the transverse reinforcement.
fyh 5 yield strength of the spiral reinforcement.
The concrete contribution to shear capacity is un-
dependable within the plastic hinge zone, particularly at
Therefore,
low axial load levels, because of full section cracking
under load reversals. As a result, the concrete shear con-
2 A s fyh
tribution must be decreased for axial load levels less than r= (C7-1)
0.10 f9c Ag. In the absence of evidence to the contrary, this sD
article specifies a linear reduction in vc from the value per-
mitted in Division I (Article 8.16.6.2) at 0.10 f9c compres- The volumetric ratio rs of spiral reinforcement is:
sion, down to zero at zero compressive load.
4 πDA s 4 A s
ρs = = (C7-2)
C7.6.2(D) Transverse Reinforcement for πD 2 s Ds
Confinement at Plastic Hinges
The main function of the transverse reinforcement Substituting Equation (C7-2) into Equation (C7-1),
specified in this section is to ensure that the axial load
carried by the column after spalling of the concrete cover ρs fyh
r= (C7-3)
will at least equal the load carried before spalling and 2
that buckling of the longitudinal reinforcement is pre-
vented.10,11 Thus the spacing of the confining reinforce- The confining force provided by a rectangular column
ment is also important. shown in Figure C7.6.2B, is
Equation (8-63) of Division I, Article 8.18.2 and Equa-
tion (7-4) of these Specifications are based on the arbitrary P = rah c = ∑ A s fyh (C7-4)
concept that, under axial compressive loading, the maxi-
mum capacity of the helically reinforced column (spiral where a is the spacing of the hoop reinforcement, and
column) before loss of cover concrete is equal to that with hc is the core dimension of the column for the direction
the cover concrete destroyed and the helical reinforcement
stressed to its useful limit. The toughness of the spiral col-
umn under axial loading is not directly relevant to its typ-
ical role in earthquake-resistant structures where tough-
ness or ductility is likely to be related to performance of
the column under large reversals of moment as well as
axial load. Nonetheless, without implicit quantitative re-
lationships between performance criteria interpreted in
terms of the quality of the confined concrete and the
amount of spiral reinforcement, there has been no com-
pelling reason to modify Equation (7-4) for earthquake-
resistant construction other than by adding Equation (7-5)
which provides a varying lower bound to the amount of
transverse reinforcement and tends to govern for columns FIGURE C7.6.2A Confining Pressure Provided by a
with large cross-sectional areas. Spirally Reinforced Column
Loss of concrete cover in the plastic hinge zone, as a

result of spalling, requires careful detailing of the confin-
ing steel. It is clearly inadequate simply to lap the spiral
reinforcement. If the concrete cover is going to spall, the
spiral will be able to unwind. Therefore, under these con-
ditions full strength lap welds are required. Similarly, rec-
tangular hoops must be adequately anchored by bending
ends back into the core. Thus the requirement of at least a
135° bend with an extension of at least six tie bar diame-
ters back into the core, or an equivalent welded anchor-
age, was specified.
C7.6.2(F) Splices
FIGURE C7.6.2B Confining Pressure Provided by a
Rectangular Reinforced Column In construction it is desirable to lap longitudinal re-
inforcement with starter bars or dowels at the column
base. This is undesirable for seismic performance on two
under consideration; oAsfyh is the force resistance capa- counts; first, the splice occurs in a potential plastic hinge
bility of the hoop reinforcement crossing the section region where requirements for bond will be extremely
under consideration. Therefore, severe.10 This appears to have been the main cause of fail-
ure of one of the bridges of the Golden-State-Foothills
fyh ∑ A s freeway interchange in the 1971 San Fernando earth-
r= (C7-5)
ah c quake.12 Second, lapping the main reinforcement will tend
to concentrate plastic deformation close to the base and
Thus, if the two columns provide equal confining reduce the effective plastic hinge length as a result of stiff-
pres,sure, from Equation (C7-3) and Equation (C7-5), ening of the column over the lapping region. This may re-
sult in a very severe local curvature demand. Testing of
∑ A s = ah cρs 2 (C7-6) this common construction detail is urgently required.
then, by substituting Equation (7-4) into Equation (C7-6),
C7.6.3 Pier Requirements
 Ag  f′
∑ A s = 0.225 ah c  A − 1 c (C7-7) The requirements of this section are based on limited
 c  fyh data on the behavior of piers in the inelastic range. Con-
sequently, the R-Factor of 2 for piers is based on the as-
The 0.225 coefficient for a rectangular column corre-
sumption of minimal inelastic behavior.
sponds to the experimentally determined 0.45 coefficient
It is required that the vertical reinforcement ratio be
of Equation (7-4) for a spiral column. However, on the
equal to or in excess of the horizontal reinforcement ratio
basis of a limited amount of experimental data, it was felt
in order to avoid the possibility of having inadequate web
that a rectangular column was not as effective as a spiral
column. So the coefficient for a rectangular column was reinforcement in piers which are short in comparison to
increased from 0.225 to 0.30. their height. Splices are staggered in an effort to avoid
Figures C7.6.2C and C7.6.2D will aid the designer in weak sections. The requirement for a minimum of two
the use of Equation (7-6). It should be noted that As, the layers of reinforcement in walls carrying substantial de-
total area of hoop reinforcement, should be determined for sign shears is based on the premise that two curtains of re-
both principal axes of a rectangular column and the max- inforcement will tend to “basket” the concrete and retain
imum value should be used. the integrity of the wall after cracking of the concrete.
Based on tests conducted during the last decade, it has Also, under typical construction conditions, the likelihood
been recommended to use only spirally reinforced col- of maintaining the location of a single layer of reinforce-
umns. Hoops are used for the confinement of large size ment near the middle of the pier is low.
columns. For rectangular shaped columns, spirals or
hoops are used in interlocking rings. Cross ties are im- C7.6.4 Column Connections
portant for preventing buckling of longitudinal bars, es-
pecially in plastic hinge zones. The number of cross ties The integrity of the column connection is important if
gets to be prohibitive for large columns and is the reason the columns are to develop their flexural capacity. First,
why interlocking spirals or hoops are recommended. the longitudinal reinforcement must be capable of devel-
FIGURE C7.6.2C Tie Details in a Rectangular Column
FIGURE C7.6.2D Tie Details in a Square Column
oping its overstrength capacity of 1.25fy. Second, the 8. Applied Technology Council, “Recommended Revi-
transverse confining reinforcement of the column must be sions of Caltrans Seismic Design Procedures for
continued a sufficient distance into the joint to avoid a Bridges,” Report ATC-32, 1996 (in press).
plane of weakness at the interface. 9. A. Astaneh, “Seismic Behavior and Design of Steel
For column connections in a column cap an evaluation Bridges—Response Modification Factor Based De-
of existing and new data on the strength of joints sub- sign,” Report to American Iron and Steel Institute
jected to moment reversals has indicated that the strength Task Force on Seismic Design, 1995.
of the joint is relatively insensitive to the amount of trans- 10. Priestley, M.J.N. and Park, R., “Seismic Resistance of
verse reinforcement, provided there is a minimum amount, Reinforced Concrete Bridge Columns,” Proceedings
and that a limiting shear stress of 12= f9c or unconfined of a Workshop on the Earthquake Resistance of High-
joints may be used for normal weight aggregate concrete. way Bridges, Applied Technology Council, Berkeley,
The allowable stress for joints made with lightweight CA, January 1979.
aggregate concrete has been based on the observation that 11. Jirsa, J.O., “Applicability to Bridges of Experimen-
shear transfer in such concrete has been measured to be tal Seismic Test Results Performed on Subassem-
approximately 75% of that in normal-weight aggregate blages of Buildings,” Proceedings of a Workshop on
concrete. the Earthquake Resistance of Highway Bridges, Ap-
plied Technology Council, Berkeley, CA, January
1979.
C7.6.5 Construction Joints in Piers and Columns 12. Fung, G., LeBeau, R.F., Klein, E.D., Belvedere, J.,
and Goldschmidt, A.G., “Field Investigation of
This section requires that construction joints be de- Bridge Damage in the San Fernando Earthquake,”
signed and constructed to resist seismic design forces at Bridge Department, Division of Highways, Califor-
the joint. Equation (7-9) is based on Equation (11-30) of nia Department of Transportation, Sacramento, CA,
ACI 318-71 but is restated to reflect dowel action and fric- 1971.
tional resistance.
DIVISION II
COMMENTARY TO
“SECTION 8—CONCRETE STRUCTURES”
REFERENCES
C8.7.4
1. Priestley, M.J.N., Seible, F., Chai, Y.H., “Design
Guidelines for Assessment Retrofit and Repair of
Add requirement for vibrators used with epoxy-coated
Bridges for Seismic Performance,” University of Cal- reinforcement.
ifornia, San Diego, 1992.
2. Priestley, M.J.N., Park, R., Potangaroa, R.T., “Duc- COMMENTARY TO
tility of Spirally Confined Concrete Columns,” “SECTION 9—REINFORCING STEEL”
ASCE, J. Structural Div., January 1981. Revisions made to update reinforcing bar specifica-
3. Mander, J.B., Priestley, M.J.N., Park, R., “Theoreti- tions to CRSI criteria.
cal Stress-Strain Model for Confined Concrete,”
ASCE, J. Structural Div., August 1988. COMMENTARY TO
4. Mander, J.B., Priestley, M.J.N., Park, R., “Observed “SECTION 11—STEEL STRUCTURES”
Stress-Strain Behavior of Confined Concrete,”
ASCE, J. Structural Div., August 1988. C11.5.6
5. Gajer, R.B., and Wagh, V.P., “Bridge Design for Seis-
mic Performance Category B: The Problem With Update terminology for bolting, and other editorial
Foundation Design,” Proc. 11th Annl Intl. Bridge corrections.
Conf., Paper IBC-94-92, Pittsburgh, PA, 1994.
6. “Manual of Steel Construction,” American Institute COMMENTARY TO
of Steel Construction, Inc., 1979. SECTION 30—“THERMOPLASTIC PIPE”
7. Johnson, B.G., Structural Stability Research Coun-
cil’s “Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal New Division II, Section 30, “Thermoplastic Pipe” has
Structures,” Third Edition, John Wiley and Sons, been added to complement Division I, Section 18, “Soil-
New York, 1976. Thermoplastic Pipe Interaction Systems.”
APPENDIX A Another design philosophy for bridges in liquefaction

Commentary susceptible areas might be one of “calculated risk,” at
FOUNDATION AND ABUTMENT least for those bridges regarded as being less essential for
REQUIREMENTS FOR BRIDGES IN SEISMIC communication purposes immediately after an earth-
PERFORMANCE, CATEGORIES B, C, AND D quake. It may not be economically justifiable to design
some bridges to survive a large earthquake in a liquefac-
C6.3, C6.4, AND C6.5 SEISMIC PERFORMANCE tion environment without significant damage. However, it
CATEGORIES B, C, AND D may be possible to optimize a design so that the cost of re-
pair of potential earthquake damage to those bridges does
C6.4.2, C7.4.2, and C7.4.4 Foundations not exceed the cost of remedial measures and additional
construction needed to avoid the damage. The approaches
C6.4.2(A), C7.4.2(A), and C7.4.4(A) Investigation for determining the liquefaction potential at a site are out-
lined below.
Slope instability, liquefaction, fill settlement and in- A recent review of methodologies3 identifies two basic
creases in lateral earth pressure have often been major fac- approaches for evaluating the cyclic liquefaction poten-
tors in contributing to bridge damage in past earthquakes. tial of a deposit of saturated and subjected to earthquake
These earthquake hazards may be significant design fac- shaking:
tors for peak earthquake accelerations in excess of 0.1 g
and should form part of a site specific investigation if 1. Empirical methods based on field observations of
the site conditions and the associated acceleration levels the performance of sand deposits in previous earth-
and design concepts suggest that such hazards may be of quakes, and correlations between sites which have
importance. Since liquefaction has contributed to many and have not liquefied and Relative Density or Stan-
bridge failures, methods for evaluating site liquefaction dard Penetration Test (SPT) blowcounts.
potential are described in more detail below. 2. Analytical methods based on the laboratory deter-
Liquefaction Potential. Liquefaction of saturated mination of the liquefaction strength characteristics
granular foundation soils has been a major source of
of undisturbed samples and the use of dynamic site
bridge failures during historic earthquakes. For example,
response analysis to determine the magnitude of
during the 1964 Alaska earthquake, 9 bridges suffered
earthquake-induced shearing stresses.
complete collapse, and 26 suffered severe deformation or
partial collapse. Investigations indicated that liquefaction
Both empirical and analytical methods required the level
of foundation soils contributed to much of the damage,
of ground acceleration at a site to be defined as a pre-
with loss of foundation support leading to major dis-
requisite for assessing liquefaction potential. This is often
placements of abutments and piers. A study of seismically
inducted liquefaction and its influence on bridges has established from relationships between earthquake mag-
been compiled by Ferritto and Forest in a report1 to the nitude, distance from the epicenter and peak acceleration.
Federal Highway Administration. A brief review of seis- For conventional evaluations using a “total stress” ap-
mic design considerations for bridge foundations related proach the two methods are similar, and differ only in the
to site liquefaction potential is given in Reference 2. From manner in which the field liquefaction strength is deter-
the foundation failures documented in these reports and in mined. In the “total stress” approach, liquefaction strengths
the literature in general, it is clear that the design of bridge are normally expressed as the ratio of an equivalent uni-
foundations in soils susceptible to liquefaction poses dif- form or average cyclic shearing stress (th)av acting on hor-
ficult problems. Where possible, the best design measure izontal surfaces of the sand to the initial vertical effective
is to avoid deep, loose to medium-dense sand sites where stress s9o. As a first approximation, the cyclic stress ratio
liquefaction risks are high. Where dense or more compe- developed in the field because of earthquake ground shak-
tent soils are found at shallow depths, stabilization mea- ing may be computed from an equation given by Seed and
sures such as densification may be economical. The use of Idriss,4 namely:
long ductile vertical steel piles to support bridge piers
could also be considered. Calculations for lateral resis- ( τ h )av σ ′o = 0.65rd (amax g) (σ o σ ′o ) (CA-1)
tance would assume zero support from the upper zone of
potential liquefaction, and the question of axial buckling where:
would need to be addressed. Overall abutment stability amax 5 maximum or effective peak ground accelera-
would also require careful evaluation, and it may be tion at the ground surface
preferable to use longer spans and to anchor abutments so 5 total overburden pressure on sand layer under
well back from the end of approach fills. consideration
s9o 5 initial effective overburden pressure on sand

layer under consideration
rd 5 stress reduction factor varying from a value of
1 at the ground surface to 0.9 at a depth of
about 30 ft (9 m).
Empirical Methods. Values of the cyclic stress ratio

defined by Equation (CA-1) have been correlated for sites
which have and have not liquefied, with parameters such
as relative density based on SPT data (Seed et al.,5 Cas-
tro6). The latest form of this type of correlation (after
Seed3) is expressed in Figures CA1 and CA2. N1 is the
measured standard penetration resistance of the sand cor-
rected to an effective overburden pressure of 1 ton/sq ft
(95,800 N/m2) using the relationship:
N1 5 NCN (CA-2)
where N 5 measured penetration resistance and C N 5

correction factor from Figure CA2.
Thus, for a given site and a given maximum ground FIGURE CA2 Relationship Between CN and Effective
surface acceleration, the average stress ratio developed Overburden Pressure
during the earthquake, (th)av/s9o, at which liquefaction
may be expected to occur, is expressed by the empirical
correlations shown by Figure CA1. The correlations for duced by the design earthquake. It is suggested that a fac-
different magnitudes reflect the influence of earthquake tor of safety of 1.5 is desirable to establish a reasonable
duration on liquefaction potential. The factor of safety margin of safety against liquefaction in the case of im-
against liquefaction can be determined by comparing the portant bridge sites.
stress ratio required to cause liquefaction with that in- A further extension of the empirical approach has re-
cently been described by Dezfulian and Prager,7 where a
correlation between cone penetrometer test (CPT) and
standard penetration tests (SPT) has enabled CPT mea-
surements in sands (expressed as point resistance qc) to be
used as a measure of liquefaction potential. CPT have the
advantage of being more economical than SPT, and since
they can provide a continuous record of penetration resis-
tance with depth, potentially liquefiable thin seams of
sand can be identified more readily.
Whereas penetration tests have the clear advantage of
being a field oriented liquefaction evaluation procedure, it
must always be remembered that the empirical correlation
has been established from a very limited data base re-
stricted to sites comprising primarily deposits of fine silty
sand. The correlation may break down for sandy silts and
gravelly soils (where blowcount data are difficult to in-
terpret), and for coarser sands where partial drainage of
excess pore pressures may occur during an earthquake.
Furthermore, for situations where additional stresses are
imposed by construction operations, care is needed in in-
terpreting the correlation.
Analytical Methods. The analytical approach for eval-
FIGURE CA1 Correlation Between Field Liquefaction uating liquefaction potential is based on a comparison be-
Behavior and Penetration Resistance tween field liquefaction strengths established from cyclic
laboratory test on undisturbed samples, and earthquake- It is of interest to note that a rough indication of the po-
induced shearing stresses. In this approach it must be tential for liquefaction may be obtained by making use of
recognized that the development of a field liquefaction empirical correlations established between earthquake
strength curve from laboratory test results, requires data magnitude and the epicentral distance to the most distant
adjustment to account for factors such as correct cyclic field manifestations of liquefaction. Such a relationship
stress simulation, sample disturbance, aging effects, field has been described by Youd and Perkins11 (Figure CA5),
cyclic stress history, and the magnitude of in situ lateral and has been used as a basis for preparation of liquefac-
stresses. These adjustments require a considerable degree tion-induced ground failure susceptibility maps.
of engineering judgment. Also in many cases it is impos-
sible to obtain undisturbed sand samples. C6.4.2(B), C7.4.2(B) and C7.4.4(B) Foundation
Once a liquefaction strength curve has been established, Design
if a total stress analysis is used, liquefaction potential is
evaluated for comparisons with estimated earthquake- The commonly accepted practice for the seismic design
induced shear stresses (as shown in Figure CA3). of foundations is to utilize a pseudo-static approach, where
The earthquake-induced shear stress levels may be earthquake-induced foundation loads are determined from
established from a simplified procedure,4 or more sophis- the reaction forces and moments necessary for structural
ticated assessments made using one dimensional “equiva- equilibrium. Whereas traditional bearing capacity design
lent linear” dynamic response programs such as SHAKE. approaches are also applied, with appropriate capacity re-
Average stress levels are established using the equivalent duction factors if a measure of safety against “failure” is de-
number of cycles concept (approximately 10 for M7 and sired, a number of factors associated with the dynamic na-
30 for M8.5 earthquakes). More recently, nonlinear pro- ture of earthquake loading should always be borne in mind.
grams have been introduced for response calculations. Under cyclic loading at earthquake frequencies, the
An improved representation of the progressive devel- strength capable of being mobilized by many soils is
opment of liquefaction is provided by the use of an effec- greater than the static strength. For unsaturated cohesion-
tive stress approach8,9,10 where pore water pressure increases less soils the increase may be about 10%, while for co-
are coupled to nonlinear dynamic response solutions, and hesive soils, a 50% increase could occur. However, for
the influence of potential pore water pressure dissipa- softer saturated clays and saturated sands, the potential for
tion during an earthquake is taken into account. This ap- strength and stiffness degradation under repeated cycles
proach provides data on the time history of pore water of loading must also be recognized. For bridges classified
pressure increases during an earthquake, as shown in as SPC B, the use of static soil strengths for evaluating
Figure CA4. ultimate foundation capacity provides a small implicit
FIGURE CA3 Principles of Analytical Approach (Total Stress) to Liquefaction Potential Evaluation
FIGURE CA4 Effective Stress Approach to Liquefaction Evaluation Showing Effect of Permeability (After Flan et al., 1977)
FIGURE CA5 Maximum Distance to Significant Liquefaction as a Function of Earthquake Magnitude
factor of safety and, in most cases, strength and stiffness gest that rotational yielding beneath rocking foundations
degradation under repeated loading will not be a problem can provide a useful form of energy dissipation. However,
because of the smaller magnitudes of seismic events. How- care must be taken to avoid significant induced vertical
ever, for bridges classified as SPC C and D, some attention deformations accompanying possible soil yield during
should be given to the potential for stiffness and strength earthquake rocking, as well as excessive pier movement.
degradation of site soils when evaluating ultimate foun- These could lead to design difficulties with relative dis-
dation capacity for seismic design. placements.
As earthquake loading is transient in nature, “failure” Lateral Loading of Piles. Most of the well-known so-
of soil for a short time during a cycle of loading may not lutions for computing the lateral stiffness of vertical piles
be significant. Of perhaps greater concern is the magni- are based on the assumption of elastic behavior and uti-
tude of the cyclic foundation displacement or rotation lize equivalent cantilever beam concepts,13 the beam on an
associated with soil yield, as this could have a significant elastic Winkler foundation method14 or elastic continuum
influence on structural displacements or bending moments solutions.15 However, the use of methods incorporating
and shear distributions in columns. nonlinear subgrade reaction behavior that allows for soil
As foundation compliance influences the distribution failure may be important for high lateral loading of piles
of forces or moments in a structure and affects computa- in soft clay and sand. Such a procedure is encompassed in
tion of the natural period, equivalent stiffness factors for the American Petroleum Institute (API) recommendations
foundation systems are often required. In many cases, use for offshore platform design.16 The method utilizes non-
is made of various analytical solutions which are available linear subgrade reaction or p-y curves for sands and clays
for footings or piles, where it is assumed that soil behaves which have been developed experimentally from field
as an elastic medium. In using these formulae, it should loading tests.
be recognized that equivalent elastic moduli for soils are The general features of the API analysis in the case of
a function of strain amplitude, and for high seismic loads sands are illustrated in Figure CA7. Under large loads, a
modulus values could be significantly less than those ap- passive failure zone develops near the pile head. Test data
propriate for low levels of seismic loading. Variation of indicate that the ultimate resistance, pu, for lateral loading is
shear modulus with shearing strain amplitude in the case reached for pile deflections, uu, of about 3d/80, where d is
of sands is shown in Figure CA6. the pile diameter. Note that most of the lateral resistance
On the basis of field and experimental observations, it is mobilized over a depth of about 5d. The API method
is becoming more widely recognized that transient foun- also recognizes degradation in lateral resistance with
dation uplift or rocking during earthquake loading, result- cyclic loading, although in the case of saturated sands the
ing in separation of the foundation from the subsoil, is degradation postulated does not reflect pore water pres-
acceptable provided appropriate design precautions are sure increases. The degradation in lateral resistance due
taken (Taylor and Williams12). Experimental studies sug- to earthquake-induced free-field pore-waster pressure
FIGURE CA6 Variation of Shear Modulus with Shearing Strain for Sands
FIGURE CA7 Lateral Loading of Piles in Sand Using API Criteria
increases in saturated sands, has been described by Finn over the pile length, and these relative displacements may
and Martin.17 A numerical method which allows the use of in turn induce high pile bending moments. For this reason,
API p-y curves to compute pile stiffness characteristics more flexible vertical pile systems where lateral load is re-
forms the basis of the computer program BMCOL 76 de- sisted by bending near the pile heads, are commended.
scribed by Board and Matlock.18 However, such pile systems must be designed to be duc-
The influence of group action on pile stiffness is a some- tile, because large lateral displacements may be necessary
what controversial subject. Solutions based on elastic the- to resist the lateral load. A compromise design using bat-
ory can be misleading where yield near the pile head occurs. ter piles spaced some distance apart may provide a system
Experimental evidence tends to suggest that group action is which has the benefits of limited flexibility and the econ-
not significant for pile spacings greater than 4d to 6d. omy of axial load resistance to lateral load.
For batter pile systems, the computation of lateral pile Soil-Pile Interaction. The use of pile stiffness charac-
stiffness is complicated by the stiffness of the piles in teristics to determine earthquake-induced pile bending
axial compression and tension. It is also important to rec- moments based on a pseudo-static approach, assumes that
ognize that bending deformations in batter pile groups moments are induced only by lateral loads arising from in-
may generate high reaction forces on the pile cap. ertial effects on the bridge structure. However, it must be
It should be noted that while batter piles are economi- remembered that the inertial loads are generated by inter-
cally attractive for resisting horizontal loads, such piles action of the free-field earthquake ground motion with the
are very rigid in the lateral direction if arranged so that piles, and that the free-field displacements themselves can
only axial loads are induced. Hence, large relative lateral influence bending moments. This is illustrated in an ide-
displacements of the more flexible surrounding soil may alized manner in Figure CA8. The free-field earthquake
occur during the “free-field” earthquake response of the displacement time histories provide input into the lateral
site (particularly if large changes in soil stiffness occur resistance interface elements which in turn transfer mo-
FIGURE CA8 Mechanism of Soil-Pile Interaction During Seismic Loading
tion to the pile. Near the pile heads, bending moments will has been described by Matlock et al.21 The model used is,
be dominated by the lateral interaction loads generated by in effect, a dynamic version of the previously mentioned
inertial effects on the bridge structure. At greater depth BMCOL program.
(e.g., greater than 10d) where soil stiffness progressively
increases with respect to pile stiffness, the pile will be C6.4.2(C) and C7.4.2(C) Special Pile Requirements
constrained to deform in a similar manner to that of the
free field, and pile bending moments become a function The uncertainties of ground and bridge response char-
of the curvatures induced by free-field displacements. acteristics lead to the desirability of providing tolerant
To illustrate the nature of free-field displacements, ref- pile foundation systems. Toughness under induced cur-
erence is made to Figure CA9, which shows a 200-ft (60 m) vature and shears is required, and hence piles such as steel
deep cohesionless soil profile subjected to the El Centro H-sections and concrete filled steel-cased piles are favored
Earthquake. The free-field response was determined using for highly seismic areas. Unreinforced concrete piles are
a nonlinear one-dimensional response analysis. From the brittle in nature, so nominal longitudinal reinforcing is
displacement profiles shown at specific times, curvatures specified to reduce this hazard. The reinforcing steel should
can be computed and pile bending moments calculated it be extended into the footing to tie elements together and
if is assumed that the pile is constrained to displace in to assist in load transfer from the pile to the pile cap.
phase with the free-field response. Experience has shown that reinforced concrete piles
Large curvatures could develop at interfaces between tend to hinge or shatter immediately below the pile cap.
soft and rigid soils and, clearly, in such cases emphasis Hence, tie spacing is reduced in this area so that the con-
should be placed on using flexible ductile piles. Marga- crete is better confined. Driven precast piles should be
son19 suggests that curvatures of up to 6 3 1024 in.21 constructed with considerable spiral confining steel to en-
(15 3 1023 mm21) could be induced by strong earthquakes, sure good shear strength and tolerance of yield curvatures
but these should pose no problems to well-designed steel should these be imparted by the soil or structural re-
or prestressed concrete piles. sponse. Clearly, it is desirable to ensure that piles do not
Studies incorporating the complete soil-pile-structure fail below ground level, and that flexural yielding in the
interaction system as presented by Figure CA8, have been columns is forced to occur above ground level. The addi-
described by Penzien20 for a bridge piling system in a deep tional pile design requirements imposed on piles for
soft clay. A similar but somewhat simpler soil-pile-struc- bridges classified as SPC C and D for which earthquake
ture interaction system (SPASM) to that used by Penzien, loading is more severe, reflect a design philosophy aimed
FIGURE CA9 Typical Earthquake Displacement Profiles
at minimizing below ground damage which is not easily placement and associated damage have been reported in
inspected following a major earthquake. publications on the Niigata and Alaskan earthquakes.
However, these failures were primarily associated with
C6.4.3, C7.4.3, and C7.4.5 Abutments liquefaction of foundation soils.
Design features of abutments vary tremendously, and
The numerous case histories of damage to, or failure
depend on the nature of the bridge site, foundation soils,
of, bridges induced by abutment failure or displacement
bridge span length and load magnitudes. Abutment types
during earthquakes have clearly demonstrated the need
include free-standing gravity walls, cantilever walls, tied
for careful attention to abutment design and detailing in
back walls, and monolithic diaphragms. Foundation sup-
seismic areas. Damage is typically associated with fill set-
port may use spread footings, vertical piles or battered
tlement or slumping, displacements induced by high seis-
piles, while connection details to the superstructure may
mically induced lateral earth pressures, or the transfer of
incorporate roller supports, elastomeric bearings or fixed
high longitudinal or transverse inertia forces from the
bolted connections. Considering the number of potential
bridge structure itself. Settlement of abutment backfill, se-
design variables together with the complex nature of soil-
vere abutment damage or bridge deck damage induced by
abutment-superstructure interaction during earthquakes,
the movement of abutments may cause loss of bridge ac-
it is clear that the seismic design of abutments necessitates
cess, and hence abutments must be considered as a vital
many simplifying assumptions.
link in the overall seismic design process for bridges.
The nature of abutment movement or damage during
C6.4.3(A), C7.4.3(A), and C7.4.5 Free-Standing
past earthquakes has been well documented in the litera-
Abutments
ture. Evans22 examined the abutments of 39 bridges within
30 miles (48.3 km) of the 1968 M7 Inangahua earthquake For free-standing abutments such as gravity or cantilever
in New Zealand, of which 23 showed measurable move- walls, which are able to yield laterally during an earthquake
ment and 15 were damaged. Movements of free standing (i.e., superstructure supported by bearings which are able to
abutments followed the general pattern of outward motion slide freely) the well-established Mononobe-Okabe pseudo-
and rotation about the top after contact with and restraint static approach outlined below, is widely used to compute
by the superstructures. Fill settlements were observed to earth pressures induced by earthquakes.
be 10 to 15% of the fill height. Damage effects on bridge For free-standing abutments in highly seismic areas,
abutments in the M7 Madang earthquake in New Guinea design of abutments to provide zero displacement under
reported by Ellison23 were similar; abutment movements peak ground accelerations may be unrealistic, and design
as much as 20 in. (500 mm) were noted. Damage to abut- for an acceptable small lateral displacement may be
ments in the 1971 San Fernando earthquake is described preferable. A recently developed method for computing
by Fung et al.24 Numerous instances of abutment dis- the magnitude of relative wall displacement during a
given earthquake is outlined in this subsection. Based on E AE = 1 2 γH 2 (1 − kv ) K AE (CA-3)

this simplified approach, recommendations are made for
the selection of a pseudo-static seismic coefficient and the where the seismic active pressure coefficient KAE is:
corresponding displacement level for a given effective
peak ground acceleration. cos 2 (φ − θ − β)
K AE = (CA-4)
ψ cos θ cos 2 β cos(δ + β + θ)
Mononobe-Okabe Analysis
The method most frequently used for the calculation and where:
of the seismic soil forces acting on a bridge abutment is a g 5 unit weight of soil
static approach developed in the 1920’s by Mononobe25 and H 5 height of soil face
Okabe.26 The Mononobe-Okabe analysis is an extension of f 5 angle of friction of soil
the Coulomb sliding-wedge theory taking into account hor- u 5 arc tan (kh/1 2 kv)
izontal and vertical inertia forces acting on the soil. The d 5 angle of friction between soil and abutment
analysis is described in detail by Seed and Whitman27 and kh 5 horizontal acceleration coefficient
Richards and Elms.28 The following assumptions are made: kv 5 vertical acceleration coefficient
i 5 backfill slope angle
1. The abutment is free to yield sufficiently to enable b 5 slope of soil face.
full soil strength or active pressure conditions to be
2
mobilized. If the abutment is rigidly fixed and unable  sin(φ + δ ) sin(φ − θ − i ) 
to move, the soil forces will be much higher than c 5 1 + 
 cos(δ + β + θ) cos(i − β) 
those predicted by the Mononobe-Okabe analysis.
2. The backfill is cohesionless, with a friction angle
of f. The equivalent expression for passive force if the abut-
3. The backfill is unsaturated, so that liquefaction ment is being pushed into the backfill is:
problems will not arise.
E PE = 1 2 γH 2 (1 − kv )K PE (CA-5)
Equilibrium considerations of the soil wedge behind
the abutment (Figure CA10) then lead to a value, EAE, of where:
the active force exerted on the soil mass by the abutment
(and vice versa), when the abutment is at the point of fail- cos 2 (φ − θ + β)
K PE =
ure. EAE is given by the expression: Γ cos θ cos 2 β cos(δ − β + θ)
FIGURE CA10 Active Wedge Force Diagram
2 friction angle, the significance of the various parameters

 sin(φ + δ ) sin(φ − θ + i ) 
and Γ = 1 −  is not obvious. Figure CA11 shows the variation of KAE
 cos(δ − β + θ) cos(i − β)  against kh for different values of u and kv; KAE is obviously
very sensitive to the value of u. Also, for a constant value
As the seismic inertia angle u increases, the values of KAE of u, KAE doubles as kh increases from zero to 0.35 for zero
and KPE approach each other and, for a vertical backfill, vertical acceleration, and thereafter it increases more
become equal when u 5 f. rapidly.
Despite the relative simplicity of the approach, the ac- In order to evaluate the increase in soil active pressure
curacy of Equation (CA-3) has been substantiated by due to earthquake effects more easily, KAE can be normal-
model tests27 and by back calculation from observed fail- ized by dividing by its static value KA to give a thrust factor:
ures of flood channel walls.29 In the latter case, however,
the displacements were large; and this, as will be seen, can FT 5 KAE/KA (CA-7)
modify the effective values of kh at which failure occurs.
The value of H, the height at which the resultant of the Whereas Figure CA11 shows that KAE is sensitive to
soil pressure acts on the abutment, may be taken as H/3 changes in the soil friction angle f, the plots of FT against
for the static case with no earthquake effects involved. f in Figure CA12 indicate that the value of f has little ef-
However, it becomes greater as earthquake effects in- fect on the thrust factor until quite suddenly, over a short
crease. This has been shown by tests and theoretically by range of f, FT increases rapidly and becomes infinite for
Wood,30 who found that the resultant of the dynamic pres- specific critical values of f. The reason for this behavior
sure acted approximately at mid-height. Seed and Whit-
may be determined by examining Equation (CA-4). The
man have suggested that h could be obtained by assum-
contents of the radical must be positive for a real solution
ing that the static component of the soil force (computed
to be possible, and for this it is necessary that:
from Equation (CA-3) with (u 5 kv 5 0) acts at H/3 from
the bottom of the abutment, while the additional dynamic
effect should be taken to act at a height of 0.6H. For most  k 
φ ≥ i + θ = i + arc tan h  (CA-8)
purposes it is sufficient to assume h 5 H/2, with a uni-  1 − kv 
formly distributed pressure.
Although the Mononobe-Okabe expression for active This condition could also be thought of as specifying a
thrust is easily evaluated for any particular geometry and limit to the horizontal acceleration coefficient that could
FIGURE CA11 Effect of Seismic Coefficients and Soil Friction Angle on Seismic Active Pressure Coefficient
FIGURE CA12 Influence of Soil Friction Angle on Magnification Ratio
be sustained by any structure in a given soil. The limiting Design for Displacement
condition is that:
If peak ground accelerations are used in the Mononobe-
kh ≤ (1 − kv ) tan(φ − i ) (CA-9) Okabe analysis method, the size of gravity retaining struc-
tures will often be excessively great. To provide a more
For zero vertical acceleration and backfill angle and for a economic structure, design for a small tolerable displace-
soil friction angle of 35°, the limiting value of kh is 0.7. ment rather than no displacement may be preferable.
This is a figure of some interest in that it provides an ab- Tests have shown that a gravity retaining wall fails in
solute upper bound for the seismic acceleration that can an incremental manner in an earthquake. For any earth-
be transmitted to any structure whatsoever built on soil quake ground motion, the total relative displacement may
with the given strength characteristics. be calculated using the sliding block method suggested by
Figure CA13 shows the effect on FT of changes in the Newmark.31 The method assumes a displacement pattern
vertical acceleration coefficient kv. Positive values of kv
have a significant effect for values of kh greater than 0.2.
The effect is greater than 10% above and to the right of
the dashed line.
As is to be expected from Equation (CA-6), KAE and FT
are also sensitive to variations in backfill slope, particularly
for higher values of horizontal acceleration coefficient
when the limit implied by Equation (CA-6) is approached.
This effect is shown in Figure CA14.
The effects of abutment inertia are not taken into ac-
count in the Mononobe-Okabe analysis. Many current
procedures assume that the inertia forces due to the mass
of the abutment itself may be neglected in considering
seismic behavior and seismic design. This is not a con-
servative assumption, and for those abutments relying on
their mass for stability it is also an unreasonable assump-
tion, in that to neglect the mass is to neglect a major as-
pect of their behavior. The effects of wall inertia are dis-
cussed further by Richards and Elms,28 who show that
wall inertia forces should not be neglected in the design FIGURE CA13 Influence of Vertical Seismic Coefficient
of gravity retaining walls. on Magnification Ratio
is assumed to begin sliding; relative motion will continue

until wall and soil velocities are equal. Figures CA16
and CA17 show the results28 of a computation of wall
displacement for kh 5 0.1 for the El Centro 1940 N-S
record.
Newmark computed the maximum displacement re-
sponse for four earthquake records, and plotted the results
after scaling the earthquakes to a common maximum ac-
celeration and velocity. Franklin and Chang32 repeated the
analysis for a large number of both natural and synthetic
records and added their results to the sample plot. Upper
bound envelopes for their results are shown in Figure
CA18. All records were scaled to a maximum acceleration
coefficient of 0.5 and a maximum velocity V of 30 in./sec
(760 mm/sec). The maximum resistance coefficient N is
the maximum acceleration coefficient sustainable by a
sliding block before it slides. In the case of a wall de-
signed using the Mononobe-Okabe method, the maxi-
FIGURE CA14 Influence of Backfill Slope Angle on mum coefficient is, of course, kh.
Magnification Ratio Figure CA18 shows that the displacement envelopes
for all the scaled records have roughly the same shape.
similar to that of a block resting on a plane rough hori- An approximation to the curves for relatively low dis-
zontal surface subjected to an earthquake, with the block placements is given by the relation, expressed in any con-
being free to move against frictional resistance in one di- sistent set of units,
rection only. Figure CA15 shows how the relative dis-
placement relates to the acceleration and velocity time V 2  N  −4
d = 0.087 (CA-10)
histories of soil and wall. At a critical value of kh, the wall Ag  A 
FIGURE CA15 Relation Between Relative Displacement and Acceleration and Velocity Time Histories of Soil and Wall
FIGURE CA16 Acceleration and Velocity Time Histories of Soil and Wall (El Centro 1940 N-S Record)
where d is the total relative displacement of a wall sub- One possible design procedure would be to choose a de-
jected to an earthquake ground motion whose maximum sired value of maximum wall displacement d together with
acceleration coefficient and maximum velocity are A appropriate earthquake parameters, and to use Equation
and V, respectively. This is drawn as a straight line on (CA-10) to derive a value of the seismic acceleration co-
Figure CA18. Note that as this expression has been efficient for which the wall should be designed. The wall
derived from envelope curves, it will overestimate d for connections, if any, could then be detailed to allow for this
most earthquakes. displacement.
FIGURE CA17 Relative Displacement of Wall (El Centro 1940 N-S Record)
FIGURE CA18 Upper Bound Envelope Curves of Permanent Displacements for All Natural and Synthetic Records
Analyzed by Franklin and Chang (1 in. 5 25.4 mm)
By applying the above procedure to several simplified The magnitude of the force initially depends on the rela-
examples, Elms and Martin33 have shown that a value of tive movement between the superstructure and the abut-
kh 5 A/2 is adequate for most design purposes, provided ment, and force magnitudes can become quite large before
that allowance is made for an outward displacement of the slip will occur.
abutment of up to 10A in. (254A mm). For bridges classified as SPC D, additional considera-
For bridges classified as SPC C and D, more detailed tion should be given to the use of linkage bolts and buffers
consideration of the mechanism of transfer of structural to minimize damage. A typical abutment support detail
inertia forces through bridge bearings to free-standing used by the New Zealand Ministry of Works is shown in
abutments is required, particularly for bridges classified as Figure CA20. It may be seen that linkage bolts are in-
SPC D where continued bridge accessibility after a major corporated to prevent spans dropping off supports. The
earthquake is required. rubber rings act as buffers to prevent impact damage in the
For sliding steel bearings or pot bearings, force diagrams event that the lateral displacement clearance provided is
describing limiting equilibrium conditions for a simple inadequate. The knock-off backwall accommodates dif-
abutment are shown in Figure CA19. Where bearings com- ferential displacement between the abutment and super-
prise unconfined elastomeric pads, the nature of the forces structure, with minimum structural damage. A more typi-
transferred to the abutment becomes more complex, since cal design provision in United States practice is to seal the
such bearings are capable of transferring significant force. gap between superstructure and abutment with bitumen
FIGURE CA19 Force Diagrams Including Bearing Friction
to minimize impact damage. It must be recognized, how- presented by Wood30 for rigid non-yielding walls, also in-
ever, that in this case some damage and possible abutment dicate that pressures are greater than those given by
rotation will occur in strong earthquakes. Mononobe-Okabe. The use of a factor of 1.5 in conjunc-
The use of a settlement or approach slab in Figures tion with peak ground accelerations is suggested for de-
CA20 and CA21 which has the effect of providing bridge sign where doubt exists that an abutment can yield suffi-
access in the event of backfill settlement is also noted. The ciently to mobilize soil strengths.
slab also provides an additional abutment friction anchor-
age against lateral movement. C6.4.3(B), C7.4.3(B) and C7.4.5 Monolithic
Abutments
Nonyielding Abutments
Monolithic or end diaphragm abutments such as shown
As previously noted, the Mononobe-Okabe analysis in Figure CA21 are commonly used for single and for two-
assumes that the abutment is free to yield laterally a suf- span bridges in California. As shown, the end diaphragm
ficient amount to mobilize peak soil strengths in the soil is cast monolithically with the superstructure and may be
backfill. For granular soils, peak strengths can be assumed directly supported on piles, or provision may be made for
to be mobilized if deflections at the top of the wall are beam shortening during post-tensioning. The diaphragm
about 0.5% of the abutment height. For abutments which acts as a retaining wall with the superstructure acting as a
are restrained against lateral movement by tie backs or prop between abutments.
batter piles, lateral pressures induced by inertia forces Such abutments have performed well during earth-
in the backfill will be greater than those given by a quakes and avoid problems such as backwall and bearing
Mononobe-Okabe analysis. Simplified elastic solutions damage associated with yielding abutments, and reduce
FIGURE CA20 Seat-Type Abutment Showing Details Used in New Zealand
FIGURE CA21 Monolithic Abutments Showing Details Used in California
the lateral load taken by columns or piers. On the other Related to Bridges, Applied Technology Council,
hand, higher longitudinal and transverse superstructure Berkeley, 1979.
inertia forces are transmitted directly into the backfill and 3. Seed, H.B., “Soil Liquefaction and Cyclic Mobility
provision must be made for adequate passive resistance to Evaluation for Level Ground During Earthquakes,”
avoid excessive relative displacements. Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division,
Whereas free-standing or seat-type abutments allow ASCE, Volume 105, No. GT2, 1979.
the engineer more control over development of soil forces, 4. Seed, H.B. and Idriss, I.M., “A Simplified Procedure
the added joint introduces a potential collapse mechanism for Evaluating Soil Liquefaction Potential,” Journal
into the structure. To avoid this collapse mechanism, of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division,
monolithic abutments are particularly recommended for ASCE, Volume 97, No. SM9, 1971.
bridges classified as SPC D. Whereas damage may be 5. Seed, H.B., Arango, I., and Chan, C.K., “Evaluation
heavier than that for free-standing abutments because of of Soil Liquefaction Potential During Earthquakes,”
the higher forces transferred to backfill soils, with ade- Report No. EERC 75-28, Earthquake Engineering
quate abutment reinforcement the collapse potential is Research Center, University of California, Berkeley,
low. In making estimates of monolithic abutment stiffness 1975.
and associated longitudinal displacements during transfer 6. Castro, G., “Liquefaction and Cyclic Mobility of Sat-
of peak earthquake forces from the structure, it is recom- urated Sands,” Journal of the Geotechnical Engineer-
mended that abutments be proportioned to restrict dis- ing Division, ASCE, Volume 101, No. GT6, 1975.
placements to 0.3 ft (90 mm) or less in order to minimize 7. Dezfulian, H. and Prager, S.R., “Use of Penetration
damage. Data for Evaluation of Liquefaction Potential,” Pro-
ceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Mi-
crozonation, San Francisco, 1978.
REFERENCES 8. Finn, W.D.L., Lee, K.W., and Martin, G.R., “An Ef-
fective Stress Model for Liquefaction,” Journal of the
1. Ferritto, J.M. and Forest, J.B., “Determination of Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Volume
Seismically Induced Soil Liquefaction Potential at 102, No. GT6, 1977.
Proposed Bridge Sites,” Federal Highway Adminis- 9. Finn, W.D.L., Martin, G.R., and Lee, M.K.W., “Com-
tration Offices of Research and Development, Wash- parison of Dynamic Analyses for Saturated Sands,”
ington, DC, 1977. Proceedings, ASCE Earthquake Engineering and Soil
2. Martin, Geoffrey R., “Seismic Design Considerations Dynamics Conference, Pasadena, 1978.
for Bridge Foundations and Site Liquefaction Poten- 10. Martin, P.P. and Seed, H.B., “Simplified Procedure
tial,” Proceedings, Workshop on Seismic Problems for Effective Stress Analysis of Ground Response,”
Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division, 23. Ellison, B., “Earthquake Damage to Roads and
ASCE, Volume 105, No. GT6, pp. 739–958, 1979. Bridges—Madang, R.P.N.G.,—Nov. 1970,” Bulletin,
11. Youd, T.L. and Perkins, D.M., “Mapping Liquefac- New Zealand Society of Earthquake Engineering,
tion-Induced Ground Failure Potential,” Journal of Volume 4, pp. 243–257, 1971.
the Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol- 24. Fung, G.G., LeBeau, R.F., Klein, E.D., Belvedere, J.,
ume 102, No. GT6, 1977. and Goldschmidt, A.G., “Field Investigation of
12. Taylor, P.W. and Williams, R.L., “Foundations for Bridge Damage in the San Fernando Earthquake,”
Capacity Designed Structures,” Bulletin of the New Preliminary Report, State of California Business and
Zealand National Society for Earthquake Engineer- Transportation Agency, Department of Public Works,
ing, Volume 12, No. 2, 1979. Division of Highways, Bridge Department, 1971.
13. Davisson, M.T. and Gill, H.L., “Laterally Loaded 25. Mononobe, N., “Earthquake-Proof Construction of
Piles in a Layered Soil System,” Journal of the Soil Masonry Dams,” Proceedings, World Engineering
Mechanics and Foundations Division, ASCE, Vol- Conference, Volume 9, p. 275, 1929.
ume 89, No. SM5, 1960. 26. Okabe, S., “General Theory of Earth Pressure,” Jour-
14. Matlock, H. and Reese, L.C., “Generalized Solutions nal Japanese Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 12,
for Laterally Loaded Piles,” Journal of the Soil Me- No. 1, 1926.
chanics and Foundation Division, ASCE, Volume 89, 27. Seed, H.B. and Whitman, R.V., “Design of Earth Re-
No. SM5, 1960. taining Structures for Dynamic Loads,” ASCE Spe-
15. Poulos, H.G., “Behavior of Laterally Loaded Piles I— cialty Conference—Lateral Stresses in the Ground
Single Piles,” Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foun- and Design of Earth Retaining Structures, American
dations Division, ASCE, Volume 97, No. SM5, 1971. Society of Civil Engineers, 1970.
16. American Petroleum Institute, RP2A, “Recommended 28. Richards, R. and Elms, D.G., “Seismic Behavior of
Practice for Planning, Designing and Constructing Gravity Retaining Walls,” Journal of the Geotechni-
Fixed Offshore Platforms,” 1979. cal Engineering Division, ASCE, Volume 105, No.
17. Finn, W.D.L. and Martin, G.R., “Seismic Design of GT4, 1979.
Pile Supported Platforms in Sand,” Paper submitted 29. Clough, G.W. and Fragaszy, R.F., “A Study of Earth
to Symposium on Soil Dynamics in the Marine Envi- Loadings on Floodway Retaining Structures in the
ronment, ASCE Spring Convention, Boston, 1979. 1971 San Fernando Valley Earthquake,” Proceedings
18. Bogard, D. and Matlock, H., “A Computer Program 6th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering,
for the Analysis of Beam Columns Under Static Axial New Delhi, pp. 7–37 to 7–42, 1977.
and Lateral Loads,” Proceedings, 1977 Offshore 30. Wood, J.H., “Earthquake-Induced Soil Pressures on
Technology Conference, Houston, 1977. Structures,” Report No. EERL 73-05, Earthquake En-
19. Margason, E., “Earthquake Effects on Embedded Pile gineering Research Lab., California Institute of
Foundations,” Seminar on Current Practices in Pile Technology, Pasadena, CA, 1973.
Design and Installation, Associated Pile and Fitting 31. Newmark, N.M., “Effects of Earthquakes on Dams
Corp., San Francisco, 1979. and Embankments,” Geotechnique, Volume 14, No.
20. Penzien, J., “Soil-Pile-Foundation Interaction,” Earth- 2, pp. 139–160, 1965.
quake Engineering (R.L. Wiegel, Editor), Prentice 32. Franklin, A.G. and Chang, F.K., “Earthquake Resis-
Hall, Inc., 1970. tance of Earth and Rockfill Dams: Report 5, Permanent
21. Matlock, Hudson; Fook, Stephen H.C.; and Cheang, Displacements of Earth Embankments by Newmark
Lino, “Simulation of Lateral Pile Behavior Under Sliding Block Analysis,” Miscellaneous Paper S-71-17,
Earthquake Loading,” Proceedings, ASCE Earth- Soils and Pavements Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer
quake Engineering and Soil Dynamics Conference, Waterways Experiment Stations, Vicksburg, MS, 1977.
Pasadena, 1978. 33. Elms, David A. and Martin, Geoffrey R., “Factors In-
22. Evans, G.L., “The Behavior of Bridges Under Earth- volved in the Seismic Design of Bridge Abutments,”
quakes,” Proceedings, New Zealand Roading Sym- Proceedings, Workshop on Seismic Problems Related
posium, Victoria University, Volume 2, pp. 664–684, to Bridges, Applied Technology Council, Berkeley,
1971. 1979.
1999/2000 Commentary to
DIVISION I COMMENTARY TO
COMMENTARY TO
SECTION 3 —LOADS C5.3 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION AND
TESTING PROGRAMS
C3.12 REDUCTION IN LOAD INTENSITY
C5.3.3 Minimum Coverage
C3.12.1 and C3.12.2
The current specifications do not allow adjustment of
These revisions will remove the ambiguity in applying the bore hole spacing based on the variability of the sub-
Article 3.12. surface conditions. The AASHTO specifications, since
1992, have bounced back and forth between 30 m and
60 m bore hole spacing, and current FHWA guidelines
C3.20 EARTH PRESSURE specify a range of 30 to 60 m.
C3.20.1
C5.4 NOTATIONS
The current Section 5 “Retaining Walls” specifies in
This revision clarifies that one must calculate connection
general that the Coulomb Equation be used to calculate
strength only for the connection failure mode which con-
lateral earth pressure. This revision will make Article
trols, i.e., reinforcement rupture or reinforcement pullout.
3.20.1 consistent with the intent of Section 5.
Smooth blocks at low, confining stresses (i.e., blocks lo-
cated near the top of the wall) will tend to have connection
C3.23 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO failures controlled by pullout. At higher confining stresses
STRINGERS, LONGITUDINAL BEAMS, (i.e., blocks near the middle and bottom of the wall), con-
AND FLOOR BEAMS nection failures will likely be controlled by rupture of the
reinforcement at the connection. The connection failure
C3.23.4 Precast Concrete Beams Used in mode is determined from the laboratory connection test and
Multi-Beam Decks the anticipated confining pressure applied to the connection
based on the facing block location within the wall.
C3.23.4.3
C5.8 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH
The reason for the revisions is to correct discrepancies WALL DESIGN
and inconsistencies discovered in the use of the Specifi-
cations for structures with width, W, greater than length, C5.8.6 Reinforcement Strength Design
L. The new Equation (3-13) imposes an upper limit for the
value of C when the width of the bridge is equal to or C5.8.6.1 Design Life Requirements
greater than the length, resulting in a more reasonable
C5.8.6.1.1
value for the Load Fraction, S/D.
This definition of nonaggressive soil is currently pro-
vided in Division II, Article 7.3.6.3. Since this definition
really functions as a design criteria, the definition of non-
aggressive soil should be located in Division I. This revision
C-91
moves the definition of nonaggressive soil to Division I. use these specifications, and at times designers have se-
The content of the criteria has not been changed. References lected the wrong distribution for design. This article
in Division I to Division II for the definition of nonaggres- was based on the results from a full-scale traffic barrier
sive soil were removed since the definition of nonaggres- test conducted by the Reinforced Earth Company (see
sive soil is moved to Division I through this revision. Reinforced Earth Company Technical Bulletin MSE-8,
October 1995 for additional information.) This revision
C5.8.6.1.2 makes Article 5.8.12.2 consistent with the results of this
full-scale crash barrier research and attempts to clarify the
This definition of nonaggressive soil is currently pro- current specifications regarding this issue.
vided in Division II, Article 7.3.6.3. Since this definition See also C5.8.12.2 (1998).
really functions as a design criteria, it should be located in
Division I. This revision moves the definition to Division COMMENTARY TO
I. The content of the criteria have not been changed, other SECTION 10—STRUCTURAL STEEL
than for temporary geosynthetic structures the maximum (OMNIBUS REVISIONS)
allowed pH was changed from “11” to “10”. The reason for
the more restrictive pH range for temporary geosynthetic INTRODUCTION
structures is that for some geosynthetic polymers, in par- The miscellaneous revisions to AASHTO Section 10
ticular polyester, degradation can occur very rapidly at a have been prepared to: 1) allow the engineer the option to
pH of 11 based on laboratory studies. This change will also compute fatigue stress ranges (in both ASD and LFD) and
make the AASHTO specifications more consistent with the overload flange stresses (in LFD) for composite sections
FHWA Demonstration Project 82 manual. References in assuming the concrete deck to be fully effective for both
Division I to Division II for the definition of nonaggressive positive and negative moment if certain conditions are
soil were removed since the definition of nonaggressive met, and 2) allow the engineer to compute the maximum
soil is moved to Division I through this revision. strength of the compression flange for a braced non-
compact section in LFD based on the actual compression-
C5.8.7 Soil Reinforcement /Facing Connection flange slenderness ratio, with a practical upper limit spec-
Strength Design ified for the ratio. Other revisions (primarily editorial)
have also been prepared, which are intended to clarify and
C5.8.7.2 Connection Strength for Geosynthetic enhance certain existing provisions.
Reinforcements Reference to AASHTO M 270 Grade 70W and ASTM
A 709 Grade 70W steel has been replaced with reference
This revision clarifies that one must calculate connection to AASHTO M 270 Grade HPS70W and ASTM A 709
strength only for the connection failure mode which con- Grade HPS70W steel to encourage the use of HPS over
trols, i.e., reinforcement rupture or reinforcement pullout. conventional 70W bridge steel due to its enhanced prop-
Smooth blocks at low, confining stresses (i.e., blocks lo- erties. Grade 70W steel is still available at this writing, but
cated near the top of the wall) will tend to have connection should only be used with the approval of the Owner.
failures controlled by pullout. At higher confining stresses
(i.e., blocks near the middle and bottom of the wall), con- Table C10.2A Minimum Material Properties—
nection failures will likely be controlled by rupture of the Structural Steel
reinforcement at the connection. The connection failure
mode is determined from the laboratory connection test and Reference to AASHTO M 270 Grade 70W and ASTM
the anticipated confining pressure applied to the connection A 709 Grade 70W steel has been replaced with reference to
based on the facing block location within the wall. AASHTO M 270 Grade HPS70W and ASTM A 709 Grade
Changes to Article 5.8.7.2 of the 1997 Interim Specifi- HPS70W steel to encourage the use of HPS over conven-
cations were balloted and approved for inclusion in the tional 70W bridge steel due to its enhanced properties.
1998 Interim Specifications. Grade 70W steel is still available at this writing, but should
See also C5.8.7.2 (1998). only be used with the approval of the Owner.
C5.8.12 Special Loading Conditions C10.3 REPETITIVE LOADING AND

TOUGHNESS CONSIDERATIONS
C5.8.12.2 Traffic Loads and Barriers
C10.3.1 Allowable Fatigue Stress
The reason for the two different impact load distribu-
tions in Article 5.8.12.2 and how the load distributions are The revision to this article allows the engineer the option
to be used for design is not provided in the current speci- to compute the range of stress in ASD using the full com-
fications. This has created confusion for designers who posite section assuming the concrete deck to be fully effec-
1999/2000 COMMENTARY C-93
tive for both positive and negative moment if certain condi- quirements given in the latest version of the ASTM A 709
tions are met. Those conditions are that shear connectors specification.
must be provided along the entire length of the girder and
the longitudinal reinforcement must satisfy the revised pro- C10.6 DEFLECTION
visions of Article 10.38.4.3. The revised Article 10.38.4.3
states that the minimum longitudinal reinforcement in the C10.6.2
concrete deck must equal or exceed 1 percent of the cross-
sectional area of the concrete slab whenever the longitudi- This revision states that the live load used to check de-
nal tensile stress in the slab due to either the construction flection preferably shall not exceed HS20 loading. This re-
loads or the design loads exceeds the allowable tensile stress vision parallels a similar revision that was made to Article
for the concrete ft, specified in Article 8.15.2.1.1. In addition, 10.3.2 (see the preceding discussion in C10.3.2.1). Live
the required longitudinal reinforcement is to be No. 6 bars load deflection is a serviceability issue and not a strength
or smaller spaced at not more than 12 inches. issue. Experience with bridges designed according to pre-
Concrete can provide significant resistance to tensile vious versions of these specifications indicates no adverse
stress at service load levels. Recognizing this behavior will effects attributed directly to live load deflection. Therefore,
have a significantly beneficial effect on the computation there would appear to be little reason to check live load de-
of fatigue stress ranges in top flanges in regions of stress flection according to the suggested criteria for a loading
reversal and in negative moment regions. By utilizing shear heavier than the standard HS20 loading given in these
connectors in these regions to ensure composite action and specifications.
properly placed longitudinal reinforcement at locations
wherever the longitudinal tensile stress in the deck exceeds C10.12 FLEXURAL MEMBERS
the tensile strength of the concrete, crack length and
width can be controlled so that full-depth cracks should The revision to Article 10.12, “Flexural Members,” de-
not occur. When a crack does occur, the stress in the lon- fines an effective flange area Ae for tension flanges of flex-
gitudinal reinforcement increases until the crack is arrested. ural members. The effective flange area is given by Equa-
Ultimately, the cracked concrete and the reinforcement tion (10-4g) in Article 10.18.2.2.4. The effective flange
reach equilibrium. Thus, the deck may contain a small area is to be used to compute the elastic section properties
number of staggered cracks at any given section. Prop- at sections with holes. At splices in areas of stress rever-
erly placed longitudinal reinforcement prevents coales- sal, Ae should only be computed for the flange subject to
cence of these cracks. Reference 1 addresses the effects tension under the loading condition being investigated.
of slip and crack size on both the strength and stiffness of Also, for reasons to be discussed in Article 10.18.2.2.4,
concrete in tension. Field data presented in Reference 2 the strength of compact sections with holes in the ten-
substantiate that stresses in the composite section are sion flange is not to be taken greater than the moment
best predicted based on section properties computed as- capacity at first yield in the case of the strength design
suming an uncracked composite section up to the over- method.
load level.
C10.15 HEAT-CURVED ROLLED BEAMS AND
C10.3.2 Load Cycles WELDED PLATE GIRDERS
C10.3.2.1
C10.15.1 Scope
This revision states that the live load used to check fa-
tigue preferably shall not exceed HS20 loading. Many Heat curving of rolled beams and welded girders is ex-
states are now designing for HS25 live loading. However, tended to Grade HPS70W (high-performance) steels with a
the existing AASHTO fatigue provisions in the Standard specified minimum yield strength not exceeding 70,000 psi.
Specifications were initially developed assuming an HS20 This revision is being made in Division I for consistency
design loading. The use of HS25 loading for fatigue de- with the revision permitting heat curving of these steels
sign can yield results that are inconsistent with the cali- that is being made to Article 11.4.12.2.1 of Division II
bration used to develop the specifications and can unduly under AASHTO 1999 Agenda Item 12.
penalize the design.
C10.3.3 Charpy V-Notch Impact Requirements C10.18 SPLICES
C10.3.3.4 INTRODUCTION
These revisions have been prepared to: 1) ensure a
This article is removed because the statement in this ar- more consistent interpretation of the provisions for the
ticle is no longer valid based on the fracture toughness re- design of splices in flexural members at all limit states,
2) better handle the design of splices for composite flexural pression members has been moved to Article 10.18.3,
members, especially in areas of stress reversal, 3) provide which covers the design of bolted splices for compres-
a more consistent and reasonable design shear for splices sion members.
in flexural members, and 4) clarify the intent and applica- The previous language in this article regarding the
tion of the 15% rule to determine the effective flange area 15% rule has been eliminated and is now covered in the
for flexural members with holes. Organizational changes following: 1) a new Article 10.18.2.2.4 (for application
have also been made to separate and group provisions re- to the design of bolted flange splices), 2) a revised Arti-
lated specifically to the service load design and strength cle 10.18.4.1 (for application to the design of splices for
design methods. tension members), and 3) a revised Article 10.12 (for ap-
These revisions concentrate primarily on the basic pro- plication to the computation of elastic section properties
visions for the design of bolted field splices for flexural for flexural members at sections with holes). These arti-
members, which require the greatest amount of clarifica-
cles are discussed in more detail below.
tion. The revision does not directly address the effects of lat-
eral flange bending on flange splices in curved I girders and
the effects of torsional shear on bottom-flange splices of C10.18.1.2 Fillers
curved box girders at this time. Although not currently ad-
dressed in the Standard Specifications, designers should at This article has been revised to incorporate all the pro-
least be cognizant of these effects and should consider their visions related to filler plates in one location. As a result,
relative importance in splice designs for these members. the previous Article 10.18.6 entitled “Fillers” has been
eliminated.
C10.18.1 General
C10.18.1.2.1
C10.18.1.1 Design Strength This article covers fillers in bolted or riveted axially
loaded connections, including girder flange splices. Fillers
The previous language regarding the application of the are usually necessary in these connections when two
75% rule or the average rule to the calculation of a mini- plates of different thicknesses are to be spliced together
mum design capacity (or design strength) for the design by bolts or rivets. Filler plates reduce eccentricity effects
of splices in both the service load design and strength de- and create common shear planes between the connected
sign methods has been left essentially intact as a general plates. There are two types of fillers: tight (or developed)
philosophy for the design of all splices in either tension, and loose (or undeveloped) fillers. According to the pre-
compression, bending, or shear, except as may be speci- vious Article 10.18.6, filler plates thicker than 1⁄4 inch are
fied in the following articles. either to be extended beyond the flange splice plates and
The 75% rule, which normally governs in regions of secured by enough additional bolts to develop the design
lower moment or stress, is interpreted as providing a lon- stress over the combined area of the member plus the
gitudinal stiffness at the splice that is consistent with the filler, or else the fillers are to be terminated at the end of
stiffness assumed at that point in the structural analysis. the splice plates and an equivalent number of additional
The average rule, which normally governs in regions of bolts passed through the filler and splice material.
higher moment or stress, is interpreted as providing ad- For developed fillers, the filler plate must be secured
equate strength at the splice. For flexural members, the by the additional bolts to make the filler an integral part of
application of these rules to calculate a minimum design the connection for shear. The integral connection results
capacity allows for possible unintended shifts of the in well-defined shear planes and no reduction in the shear
girder moment at the splice and for differences between strength of the bolts. Fillers can be developed using either
the actual and predicted moments at the splice, which are of the above two approaches. Undeveloped fillers serve
certain to be more significant near points of dead-load only as packing pieces and are assumed to carry no axial
contraflexure. load; therefore, the shear plane is not well defined. Ad-
Language has been added to this article to specifically ditional bolts must be added to connections utilizing un-
refer the designer to the appropriate articles for the design developed fillers to compensate for a reduction in the
of bolted splices for flexural members (Article 10.18.2), shear strength of the bolts caused by bending of the bolts.
compression members (Article 10.18.3), and tension Undeveloped fillers are typically terminated at the end of
members (Article 10.18.4), and for the design of welded the splice plates.
splices (Article 10.18.5). In lieu of extending and developing fillers, the AISC
The previous language in this article regarding the use Specification permits the use of undeveloped fillers pro-
of the gross section for the design of splices for com- vided a reduction factor equal to [1 – 0.4(t – 0.25)] is ap-
plied to the bolt shear strength, where t is the total thick- need for additional fasteners in connections utilizing
ness of the fillers. This factor was essentially derived fillers, which has been retained at the beginning of this ar-
based on the results of an experimental program on axi- ticle, is modified slightly to include connections utilizing
1
ally loaded bolted splice connections with undeveloped ⁄4-inch-thick fillers.
fillers by Yura, Hansen and Frank (3). The factor com- It should be noted that the preceding requirements for
pensates for the reduction in bolt shear strength caused by bolted or riveted axially loaded connections utilizing
bending in the bolts and will typically result in the need to filler plates (including girder flange splices) only apply
provide additional bolts in the connection. The AISC for- when checking the strength (shear resistance) of the
mula is currently only applicable to fillers between 1⁄4 and connection. For slip-critical connections, the calculated
3
⁄4 inch thick (inclusive) and is a function of only the thick- design slip force need not be adjusted for the effect of
ness of the fillers. Also, the formula is theoretically only the fillers. The resistance to slip between the fillers and
applicable to connections with undeveloped fillers. either connected part is comparable to the resistance that
As discussed above, connections utilizing developed would exist between the connected parts if no fillers were
or undeveloped fillers generally require the use of addi- present.
tional bolts. The primary difference between the two types
of connections is that the bolts added to connections with C10.18.1.2.2
undeveloped fillers are used to compensate for the reduc-
The provision in this article, originally introduced as a
tion in shear strength of the bolts; whereas, the bolts added
new Article 10.18.1.5 in the 1998 Interims, is now placed
to connections with developed fillers are used to distrib-
here in order to include the provision with the other pro-
ute the stress uniformly across the combined area of the
visions related directly to fillers. This provision states that
connected plate and the fillers.
filler plates are not required for bolted web splices when
In the new Article 10.18.1.2.1, a more general reduction
the thickness difference of the web plates on either side of
factor is applied to the design shear strength of the bolts in
the splice is 1/16” or less.
these axially loaded connections when the fillers are not
extended. The factor is applicable to fillers 1⁄4 inch and
C10.18.1.2.3
thicker and can be utilized for connections with either de-
veloped or undeveloped fillers (thus eliminating the dis- Should fillers be used for welded splices (although not
tinction). Application of the reduction factor to the bolt preferred), the designer is referred in this article to the re-
shear strength will typically result in the need for enough quirements of the ANSI/AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Weld-
additional bolts to satisfy the requirements for both types ing Code. The existing provisions in Articles 10.18.5.3
of fillers. It should be noted that the reduction factor is only and 10.18.5.4 related to the design of fillers for welded
to be applied on the side of the connection with the fillers. splices are identical to the provisions in the Bridge Weld-
The reduction factor R given by Equation (10-4a) is ing Code and have therefore been eliminated from the
[(1+g)/(1+2g)], where g is equal to the ratio of the sum of Standard Specifications.
the areas of the fillers on the top and the bottom of the
connected plate, Af, to the smaller of either the connected C10.18.1.3 Design Force for Flange Splice Plates
plate area or the sum of the splice plate areas on the top
and bottom of the connected plate, Ap. The factor is more For a flange splice with inner and outer splice plates, this
general in that it takes into account the areas of the main revised article covers the proportioning of the flange design
connected plate, splice plates and fillers. The factor can force to the inner and outer plates and their connections.
also theoretically be applied to fillers thicker than 3⁄4 inches If the areas of the inner and outer flange splice plates are
(vs. the AISC formula). The proposed factor was devel- approximately the same, the provisions in this article state
oped mathematically (4) and was verified by comparison that the inner and outer plates each be proportioned for
to the results of the experimental program reported in Ref- strength for one-half of the flange design force. For this case,
erence 3. Unlike the AISC formula, R computed from the connections would be proportioned assuming double
Equation (10-4a) will typically be less than 1.0 for connec- shear. A maximum difference in the splice-plate areas of
tions utilizing 1⁄4-thick-fillers. The use of a factor less than 10% was deemed reasonable to satisfy this assumption.
1.0 for these connections is consistent with the recommen- Should the inner and outer splice plate areas differ by
dations of the original research given in Reference 3, which more than 10%, the provisions state that the flange design
suggested that a factor less than 1.0 be applied to ensure force to each splice plate and its connection be determined
both adequate shear strength and limited deformation of by multiplying the flange design force by the ratio of the
the connection. For additional consistency within the pro- area of the splice plate under consideration to the total
visions, the previous language given above regarding the area of the inner and outer splice plates. For this case, the
shear strength of the connection would be checked for the web splices be proportioned to prevent slip under the
maximum calculated splice plate force assumed to be act- maximum actions induced during the erection of the steel
ing on a single shear plane. and during the casting of the concrete deck.
When checking for slip of high-strength bolted con-
nections for a flange splice with inner and outer splice C10.18.2.1.5
plates, the slip resistance of the connection is always to be
At compact sections with holes, it is possible that frac-
determined for the total design force assumed to be di-
ture may occur at the net section of the tension flange be-
vided equally to the two slip planes regardless of the ratio
fore full plastification of the section occurs. Because of
of the splice plate areas. Slip of the connection cannot
this concern, the provisions explicitly limit the flexural
occur unless slip occurs on both planes.
capacity of compact sections at bolted splices in flexural
members to the moment capacity at first yield. The mo-
C10.18.1.4 Truss Chords and Columns ment capacity at first yield is to be computed accounting
for the holes in the tension flange as specified in Article
This article contains the previous language from Arti- 10.12. Further research is needed to possibly relax this
cle 10.18.3.2 and refers to the preferred location and limitation in the future, which would allow more freedom
arrangement of splices in truss chords and columns. The in locating bolted splices along composite simple-span
language was moved to this location in order to improve girders and along rolled beams.
the overall organization of Article 10.18.
C10.18.2.1.6
C10.18.2 Flexural Members
This article explicitly states that the following provi-
The name of this article has been revised from “Beams sions for the design of flange and web splices must be ap-
and Girders” to “Flexural Members.” plied for both positive and negative flexure in areas of
stress reversal in order to determine the governing case.
C10.18.2.1 General
C10.18.2.1.7
C10.18.2.1.1 Formerly Article 10.18.1.4, this provision has been ed-
Formerly Article 10.18.2.5, the word dead-load has itorially moved here under the section on splices for flex-
been added before the word contraflexure for further ural members.
clarification.
C10.18.2.2 Flange Splices
C10.18.2.1.2
C10.18.2.2.1
The language is this article requires that both flange
and web splices not have less than two rows of bolts on Equation (10-4b) in this article defines a design stress
each side of the joint. This requirement previously existed Fcu for the controlling flange at the point of splice which
only for web splices in the former Article 10.18.2.1. For must be used, as a minimum, to proportion the splice
completeness and to ensure proper alignment and stabil- plates and their connections for that flange in the case of
ity of the girder during construction, the requirement is the strength design method. The controlling flange is de-
also extended to flange splices. fined as either the top or bottom flange for the smaller sec-
tion at the point of splice, whichever flange has the maxi-
C10.18.2.1.3 mum ratio of the elastic flexural stress at its mid-thickness
due to the factored loads to its maximum strength. Fcu for
The provisions of this article forbid the use of oversize
the flange is then to be multiplied by the smaller effective
or slotted holes in either the member or the splice plates
flange area Ae (from Article 10.l8.2.2.4—discussed later)
at bolted splices of flexural members for improved geom-
on either side of the splice to determine a minimum design
etry control during erection. Also, research at the Univer-
force Pcu for the controlling flange. The smaller value of Ae
sity of Texas has indicated that a strength reduction may
on either side of the splice is used to determine the design
occur when oversize or slotted holes are used in eccentri-
force to ensure that the design force does not exceed the
cally loaded bolted web connections (5).
strength of the smaller flange.
Typically, for flexural members, splices have been de-
C10.18.2.1.4
signed by treating the flanges and web of the girder as in-
For improved geometry control, this article requires dividual components and then proportioning the computed
that high-strength bolted connections for both flange and minimum design moment at the splice to each component.
The minimum design moment has typically been com- positive or negative flexure at the point of splice, whichever
puted as follows: causes the maximum compressive stress due to the fac-
tored loads at the mid-thickness of the flange under con-
1
⁄2 (M 1 Mu) $ 0.75Mu sideration. For example, the maximum compressive stress
in the top flange near points of dead-load contraflexure in
where M is the maximum moment at the point of splice and a composite girder is typically caused by positive dead-
Mu is the maximum bending strength of the section at the plus live-load moments. Thus, a would be computed using
point of splice. For a composite section in an area of stress Mu for the composite section in positive flexure according
reversal, the maximum bending strength of the section at to the provisions of Article 10.50.1. However, since Mu
the splice is different in positive and negative flexure; thus, will typically exceed My for a composite section in posi-
it is not clear which section strength to use to compute the tive flexure, a would be taken as 1.0 in this case accord-
minimum design moment at the splice. Also, for a coming to the specification. At the same section, the maximum
posite girder, dead- and live-load moments due to the fac- compressive stress in the bottom flange is typically gov-
tored loads are applied to different sections and should not erned by negative dead- plus live-load moments. In this
be directly summed when at elastic stress levels (up to and case a would be computed using Mu for the composite
including Fy)—such as when checking for slip of the bolts section in negative flexure according to the provisions of
under overloads in the strength design method. In other Article 10.50.2, which is often less than My. Thus, the de-
words, the principle of superposition applies to stresses, but signer would have the option to use a value of a less than
not to the moments in this case. Thus, it becomes both more 1.0 in this case – particularly if the splice is for a box-girder
bottom flange as discussed in the preceding paragraph. For
convenient and more correct to design the splice for a min-
the majority of cases, however, a will equal 1.0 which re-
imum design stress in each component.
sults in little or no change from the current application of
According to Equation (10-4b), Fcu is taken as the larger
the 75% and average rules.
of 0.75aFyf or the average of the absolute value of the max-
The hybrid girder reduction factor R is determined ac-
imum flexural stress Fcu at the mid-thickness of the con-
cording to the provisions of Article 10.53.1.2. Since the
trolling flange at the point of splice (divided by the hybrid
flanges of hybrid girders are allowed to reach Fyf, the max-
girder reduction factor R) and the quantity Fyf. The factor
imum elastic flexural stress fcu due to the factored loads at
a is generally taken as 1.0, except that a lower value equal
the mid-thickness of the controlling flange is divided by
to the ratio of Mu to My may be used for flanges in com- R instead of reducing Fyf by R in Equation (10-4b). In ac-
pression at sections where Mu is less than My. For com- tuality, yielding in the web results in an increase in the ap-
posite sections, My is to be calculated in accordance with plied flange stress. When fcu is less than or equal to the spec-
the provisions of Article 10.50(c) (formerly referred to as ified minimum yield strength of the web Fyw, R is taken as
Article 10.50(f) prior to the 1997 Interims to the Standard 1.0 since there is theoretically no yielding in the web. R is
Specifications), which account for the application of the always taken equal to 1.0 for homogeneous girders.
dead- and live-load moments to different sections. For The splice plates and connections for the noncontrol-
hybrid sections, My is to be calculated in accordance with ling flange are to proportioned, as a minimum, for a de-
Article 10.53. sign force Pncu in that flange at the point of splice. Pncu
In determining the factor a, a value Mu below My might is computed as the design stress Fncu given by Equation
occur, for instance, in the case of bottom flanges of box (10-4c) times the smaller value of the effective flange area
girders subject to compression at the point of splice. Mu for on either side of the splice. Fncu is defined as the absolute
box girders in regions of negative flexure is based on the value of the maximum elastic flexural stress fncu at the mid-
critical buckling stress Fcr for the bottom (compression) thickness of the noncontrolling flange (divided by R) fac-
flange. As a result, Mu may be considerably below My mak- tored up by the ratio of Fcu to fcu. The ratio of Fcu to fcu is
ing it overly conservative to use Fyf to determine the flange referred to as Rcu in the specification. Essentially, the
design force for designing the splice in this case. Thus, a stress in the noncontrolling flange is being factored up by
value of a less than 1.0 should be applied. The reduction in the same amount as the stress in the controlling flange in
strength of unbraced I-section flanges subject to compres- order to determine the design stress for the noncontrolling
sion at the point of splice is typically not as large. Thus, for flange splice. Note that the computed value of Fncu must
simplicity, the designer may wish to conservatively use a equal or exceed 0.75a Fyf as a minimum.
value of a equal to 1.0 for this case even though the spec- In computing fcu, fncu, Mu, My, and R, the specification
ification would permit the use of a lower value. requires that holes in tension flanges be accounted for
As specified in Article 10.18.2.1.6, flange splices in when calculating the section properties used to compute
areas of stress reversal are to be checked for both positive these values at the point of splice. The effective area of the
and negative flexure. The maximum bending strength Mu tension flange at the splice is to be computed according to
used to calculate a is to be computed for the section in the provisions of Article 10.12 (discussed previously).
The required effective area of the splice plates is to be painted faying surface that has been blast cleaned, or else,
determined as the yield strength of the splice plate divided to a surface that has been blast cleaned and painted with a
by the appropriate portion of the design force in the splice Class B coating. Provided that they have indeed been
plate. For a flange splice with inner and outer splice plates, qualified by test as required by the specifications, many
the design force in the splice plate is determined accord- commercially available primers satisfy the requirements
ing to the provisions of Article 10.18.1.3 (discussed pre- for Class B coatings. Unpainted faying surfaces on weath-
viously). Should the design force in tension be less than ering steel that have been blast cleaned qualify as Class B
the design force in compression in areas of stress reversal, surfaces. Since faying surfaces are typically blast cleaned
the governing required area will be either the required as a minimum, a Class A surface condition should be used
effective area for compression (equal to the gross area) or only to compute the slip resistance when: 1) Class A coat-
the required effective area for tension, whichever controls. ings are applied, 2) when unpainted clean mill scale is left
The appropriate design force is also to be used to check on the faying surface, or 3) when a coating has not been
the shear resistance of the connections and the bearing re- properly tested to show conformance with the require-
sistance at the bolt holes according to the provisions of Ar- ments for Class B coatings. The use of a Class A surface
ticle 10.56.1.3.2. condition to compute slip resistance may result in a sig-
nificant increase in the total number of bolts required in
C10.18.2.2.2 the splice to resist Pfo should the slip resistance control the
In the case of the strength design method, an overload number of bolts in the connection.
design force Pfo is defined in this article in order to pro-
portion high-strength bolted connection for both top and C10.18.2.2.3
bottom flange splices to prevent slip. Pfo is defined in This article defines similar requirements for the design
Equation (10-4d) as the maximum flexural stress fo, due of flange splice plates and their connections in the case of
to D+bL(L+I) at the mid-thickness of the flange under the service load design method. Fyf is replaced by the al-
consideration for the smaller section at the point of splice lowable flexural stress Fb for the flange under considera-
(divided by the hybrid reduction factor R) multiplied by tion at the point of splice in Equations (10-4e) and (10-4f).
the smaller gross area of the smaller flange on either side The factor a is not required in the service load design
of the splice. Pfo is checked against the slip resistance of method.
the bolts given by Equation (10-172). When fo is less than The splice connections are to be designed to develop
or equal to the specified minimum yield stress of the web the appropriate design force in shear and in bearing at the
Fyw, R is taken equal to 1.0 since there is theoretically no bolt holes according to Table 10.32.3B. Since an overload
yielding in the web. is not defined in the service load design method, high
In Load Factor Design, overloads are heavy vehicles strength bolted connnections are also to be proportioned
that can be allowed on a structure on infrequent occasions to prevent slip under D + (L + I). The slip resistance is
without causing permanent damage. Permanent damage determined as specified in Article 10.32.3.2.1.
is controlled by limiting the design Overload stresses in
the girder to a percentage of the yield stress (0.80Fy at C10.18.2.2.4
non-composite sections and 0.95Fy at composite sec-
tions) and by preventing slip at bolted connections. For The second sentence in previous versions of Article
design purposes, the total loading at the Overload level 10.18.1.1 stated that “For members primarily in bending,
is taken D+bL(L+I), which represents the minimum re- the gross section shall also be used, except that if more
quired capacity of the girder or the minimum required than 15% of each flange area is removed, that amount re-
slip resistance of a bolted connection at the Overload moved in excess of 15% shall be deducted from the gross
level. The value of the load factor bL is take as 5/3 for area.” This so-called 15% rule is intended to ensure that a
live loadings greater than or equal to H20 (placed in flange subject to tension will not fracture at its net section.
multiple lanes). For live loadings less than H20, bL is The above rule is re-written as Equation (10-4g) in a
taken as 2.2 and the live loading is to be placed in a new Article 10.18.2.2.4 for checking the strength of flange
single lane. splices (i.e., the flange and associated splice plates) subject
Consideration should be given to the use of a Class B to tension. The equation defines an effective Ae based on
surface condition for determining the slip resistance of the the above rule. If yielding on the effective area given by
faying surface whenever possible. A Class A surface con- Equation (10-4g) is prevented in a flange or splice plate
dition refers to a faying surface consisting of clean mill subject to tension, then fracture on the net section should
scale or to blast cleaned surfaces painted with a Class A theoretically not occur and need not be explicitly checked.
coating. A Class B surface condition refers to an un- For flanges and splice plates subject to compression, net
section fracture is not a concern, and the effective area is sumed to be resisted by the web (applied at the mid-depth
simply equal to the gross area as stated in Equation (10-4h). of the web), and 4) for sections where the neutral axis is
The effective area given by Equation (10-4g) is equal not located at the mid-depth of the web, a horizontal de-
to the net area of the flange or splice plate plus a factor b sign force resultant (applied at the mid-depth of the web).
times the gross area of the flange or splice plate. The sum Each of these force effects is discussed in more detail later
must not exceed the gross area. The factor b can be de- on under the description of subsequent articles.
fined by the following equation: Web splice plates are to be symmetrical on each side of
the web and are to extend as near as practical to the full
b = (An/Ag)[Fu/Fy) 2 1] depth of the web between flanges without impinging on
bolt assembly clearances. The required bolt assembly
where An is the net area, Ag is the gross area, and Fu is the clearances are available in the AISC Manual of Steel
specified minimum tensile strength of the steel. Based on Construction.
the above formula, for plates with a specified minimum
yield strength Fy of 70 ksi and below, and with a ratio of C10.18.2.3.2
net area to gross area greater than or equal to approxi- In this article, a minimum design shear Vwu is defined
mately 0.5, b can be taken equal to 0.15. In most all prac- for the case of the strength design method. There have been
tical cases, the ratio of net area to gross area will exceed many different interpretations of the current provisions for
0.5 based on current AASHTO bolt spacing and edge dis- the design shear. Some designers have used the larger of
tance requirements, which indicates that Equation (10-4g) 75% of the web shear capacity at the splice Vu, or the aver-
in its current form will theoretically prevent fracture at the age of the maximum shear V at the point of splice and Vu.
net section of a flange or splice plate for those cases. As a Others have used a notional design shear previously de-
result, the existing check on fracture at the net section in fined in Article 10.18.2.3 as V multiplied by the ratio of the
this article (accomplished by limiting the design tensile splice design moment to the actual moment at the splice.
stress on the net section to a specified percentage of Fu), As discussed earlier, for a composite section in an area of
is considered to be redundant for most all practical cases stress reversal, the maximum bending strength of the sec-
and has therefore been eliminated. For the rare case where tion at the splice is different in positive and negative flex-
the ratio of the net area to the gross area of a flange or ure; thus, it is not always clear which section should be
splice plate of 70-ksi steel or below might be below 0.5, used to compute the splice design moment. Also, the no-
the designer may wish to make an adjustment in b using the tional design shear previously given in Article 10.18.2.3
above formula, or else make an explicit check for fracture was originally intended to be used only for designing
on the net section. splices in rolled flexural members in order to provide a
For 100-ksi yield-strength steels, the effective area of more reasonable value of the design shear. However, many
the flange or splice plates is conservatively limited to the have since applied this notional shear to the design of web
net area. Thus, the factor b is set equal to 0.0 for M 270 splices for larger girder sections in an attempt to determine
Grades 100/100W steels. b is also set equal to 0.0 when a more reasonable design shear for those sections.
holes exceed 1-1/4 inch in diameter (see Table 10.32.1A In general, Vu can be as much as 4 to 5 times greater
in the Standard Specifications). For all other steels and than V for members such as short stocky rolled beams. If
when holes do not exceed 1-1/4 inch in diameter, b is Vu is assumed to be equal to 5V and the traditional 75%
equal to 0.15 (or 15%). The net area is given as the net and average rules are applied to determine the design
width Wn of the flange times the flange thickness in order shear for the splice, then
to accommodate the possibility of staggered holes in the
1
flange and splice plate, where several chains of holes may ⁄2(V+Vu)>0.75Vu
need to be investigated to determine the minimum net
1
width (and area). ⁄2(V+5V)>3.00V
C10.18.2.3 Web Splices 0.75(5V)>3.75V (governs)
It would seem to be overly conservative and impracti-

C10.18.2.3.1
cal to design the web splice in this case for 3.75 times the
In general, web splice plates and their connections are maximum applied shear.
to be proportioned for a combination of the following: Thus, to provide a more consistent design shear to be
1) a design shear, 2) a moment due to the eccentricity of used for designing web splices for all types of flexural
the design shear, 3) the portion of the flexural moment as- members and to prevent having to design the web splice
for unreasonably large increases in the applied shear in the polar moment of inertia of the bolt group about the
certain cases (such as the case illustrated above), Equation neutral axis of the composite section (which is typically
(10-4i) of the revised provisions arbitrarily limits the in- not at the mid-depth of the web). Such an approach may
crease in the shear to 50% of V when V is less than 50% not yield the correct result unless the neutral axis is com-
of the shear capacity Vu. This would represent the region puted from the summation of the stresses due to the ap-
where the 75% rule would normally govern. The increase propriate loadings acting on the respective cross sections
in the shear is limited to 50% of V because the opportuni- supporting the loadings. Simply shifting the polar mo-
ties for V to change from its calculated value are smaller ment of inertia of the bolts to the geometric neutral axis of
than for moment; large unintended shifts in the shear at the composite section may cause the bolt forces to be un-
the splice are unlikely. In addition, the maximum shear is derestimated. Thus, to simplify the overall computations
usually not concurrent with the maximum moment at the and to avoid possible errors, the provisions require that all
splice; thus, the use of a lower value of the design shear actions (moment and horizontal force resultant) be ap-
in regions where the applied shear is low seems reason- plied at the mid-depth of the web. As a result, when ap-
able. For cases where V is greater than 50% of Vu, the av- plying the elastic vector method to determine the critical
erage rule [Equation (10-4j)] is applied to determine the bolt forces in the web splice, the polar moment of inertia
design shear. of the bolt group should be taken about the centroid of the
connection.
C10.18.2.3.3 To further reduce any ambiguities, explicit equations
are given in the provisions, which may be used to deter-
In this article, a minimum design moment Mvu due to
mine Mwu and Hwu to be applied at the mid-depth of the
the eccentricity of the design shear Vwu is defined for the
web. Mwu and Hwu are computed by conservatively using
case of the strength design method. The eccentricity of
the elastic flexural stresses at the mid-thickness of the top
Vwu is explicitly defined as the distance from the center-
and bottom flange. These stresses are computed consider-
line of the splice to the centroid of the connection on the
ing the application of the moments due to the appropriate
side of the joint under consideration. Some designers have
loadings to the respective cross sections supporting those
defined the eccentricity as the distance between the cen-
loadings. By using the stresses at the mid-thickness of the
troids of the connection on each side of the joint, but re-
flanges, the same stress values can be used in the design
cent tests on bolted splices conducted at the University of
of both the flange and web splices, which simplifies the
Texas have indicated that the eccentricity should instead
calculations.
be defined from the centerline of the splice (5).
As required in Article 10.18.2.1.6, Mwu and Hwu are to
be computed for both positive and negative flexure in areas
C10.18.2.3.4
of stress reversal. Each loading condition is to be consid-
In this article, the portion of the flexural moment that ered independently to determine the governing condition.
is assumed to be resisted by the web Mwu is defined for the For the case of a composite girder in positive flexure, the
case of the strength design method. Mwu is assumed to be controlling flange is typically the bottom flange; thus, the
applied at the mid-depth of the web, which means that for top of the web is usually in compression and the neutral
sections where the neutral axis is not at the mid-depth of axis is usually near the top flange. To compute minimum
the web, a horizontal force resultant Hwu must also be ap- design values of Mwu and Hwu for this case, the stress at the
plied at the mid-depth of the web in order to maintain mid-thickness of the bottom flange is assumed to be equal
equilibrium. Mwu and Hwu applied together yield a com- to its design stress Fcu defined by Equation (10-4b) times
bined stress distribution equivalent to the unsymmetrical the hybrid girder reduction factor R. As shown in the fol-
stress distribution in the web. For sections with equal lowing figure, the stress fncu at the mid-thickness of the
compressive and tensile stresses at the top and bottom of other flange (the top flange in this case), which is to be
the web (i.e. with the neutral axis located at the mid-depth taken as the flexural stress concurrent with the maximum
of the web), Hwu will equal zero. applied flexural stress fcu at the mid-thickness of the bottom
The determination of the proportion of the total mo- flange, is then assumed to be factored up by the ratio Rcu.
ment carried by the web is not necessarily straightforward For this loading condition, Rcu is taken as the ratio of Fcu
for an unsymmetrical composite girder. Many different to fcu for the bottom (controlling) flange.
approaches have been used, which have not always led to In essence, the stresses in the web are being factored
consistent results. In addition, in designing the web-splice up by the same amount as the stresses in the controlling
bolt group according to the traditional elastic vector flange so that the web splice is designed in a consistent
method for the effects of this moment plus the moment fashion. By integrating these stresses over the depth of
due to the eccentric shear, many designers have computed the web, Equation (10-4l) can then be derived to com-
Positive Flexure Case
pute Mwu to be applied at the mid-depth of the web. Hwu, For the case of negative flexure in an area of stress re-
given by Equation (10-4m), is simply taken as the aver- versal, the controlling flange can be either the top or bot-
age of the factored-up stresses at the mid-thickness of tom flange, with the maximum stress caused by the sum of
the top and bottom flange. The stresses in Equations the dead-load plus the negative live-load moments; thus,
(10-4l) and (10-4m) are to be taken as signed quantities the top of the web is usually in tension and the neutral axis
(positive for tension; negative for compression). For is usually at or just slightly above the mid-depth of the
convenience, absolute value signs are applied to the re- web. To compute minimum design values of Mwu and Hwu
sulting difference of the stresses in the equation for Mwu. for this case, the stress at the mid-thickness of the control-
In actuality, the sign of Mwu corresponds to the sign of ling flange is again assumed to be equal to its design stress
the vertical bending moment for the loading condition Fcu defined by Equation (10-4b) times R. If the top flange
under consideration. The computed value of Hwu is taken is assumed to be the controlling flange, the stress fcnu at the
as a a signed quantity (positive for tension; negative for mid-thickness of the other flange (the bottom flange in this
compression). case), which is to be taken as the flexural stress concurrent
To incorporate the hybrid girder reduction factor R, the with the flexural stress fcu at the mid-thickness of the top
equation for Mwu was originally written as follows: flange, is then assumed to be factored up by the ratio Rcu as
shown in the following figure. For this case Rcu is taken as
the ratio of Fcu to fcu for the top flange.
Mwu is again given by Equation (10-4l) and Hwu is again
given by Equation (10-4m).
For the case of web splices not in areas of stress re-
Performing the algebra and rearranging yields Equa- versal, Mwu and Hwu need only be computed from Equa-
tion (10-4l). Equation (10-4m) can be derived similarly. tions (10-4l) and (10-4m) for the loading condition caus-
Negative Flexure Curve
ing the maximum stress in the controlling flange at the slightly in lieu of increasing the number of bolts or thick-
point of splice. Thus, only a single loading condition need ening the web. Another option would be to calculate the
be checked. bearing strength based on the inclined distance, or else re-
An alternative approach for compact steel sections, solve the resultant force in the direction parallel to the
whereby all the flexural moment is assumed to be resisted edge distance.
by the flange splices, provided the flanges are capable of The provisions also require that as a minimum, in the
resisting the design moment, is referred to by footnote in case of the strength design method, high-strength bolted
Article 10.18.2.3.1. This method is only to be applied connections for web splices be proportioned as eccentri-
when checking the strength of the connection; slip of the cally loaded connections to prevent slip under the most crit-
bolts should still be checked using the conventional ap- ical combination of: 1) an overload design shear Vwo, 2) an
proach. Should the flanges not be capable of resisting the overload design moment Mvo due to the eccentricity of Vvo,
full design moment, the web splice is assumed to resist the 3) an overload design moment Mwo applied at the mid-depth
additional flexural moment in addition to the design shear of the web representing the portion of the flexural moment
and the moment due to the eccentricity of the design shear. that is assumed to be resisted by the web, and 4) for sections
where the neutral axis is not located at the mid-depth of the
C10.18.2.3.5 web, an overload horizontal design force resultant Hwo ap-
plied at the mid-depth of the web. The maximum resultant
This article specifies that web splice plates and their bolt force on the eccentrically load connection should not
connections in the case of the strength design method are exceed the slip resistance of the connection computed from
to be proportioned as a minimum to develop the most Equation (10-172) with the number of bolts Nb taken equal
critical combination of Vwu, Mvu, Mwu, and Hwu. The con- to 1.0. Again, a Class B surface condition should be as-
nections are to be designed as eccentrically loaded con- sumed for the faying surface wherever possible.
nections to develop the resultant bolt force in shear and The overload design shear Mvo given by Equation
in bearing at the bolt holes according to the provisions of (10-4n) is simply taken as the maximum shear in the web
Article 10.56.1.3.2. The traditional elastic vector method due to D+bL(L+I) at the point of the splice, where bL is
is the most common approach used to design the connec- defined in Article 3.22.
tion and is the recommended approach. Mvu, Mwu, and The overload design moment Mvo given by Equation
Hwu are again to be applied at the mid-depth of the web (10-4o) is taken as as the overload design shear Vwo times
and the polar moment of inertia of the connection should the eccentricity e defined previously.
be computed about the centroid of the connection. The The overload design moment Mwo and horizontal force
following formula can be used to compute the polar mo- resultant Hwo are computed using an approach similar
ment of inertia Ip of the bolt group about the centroid of to that described above for computing Mwu and Hwu. For
the connection: splices in areas of stress reversal, both positive and neg-
ative flexure must again be considered. First, the loading
condition causing the maximum flexural stress fo at the
mid-thickness of the bottom flange for the smaller section
where: at the splice due to D+bL(L+I) is considered. Then, the
m = number of vertical rows of bolts loading condition causing fo in the top flange is consid-
n = number of bolts in one vertical row ered (it is not necessary to determine a controlling and
s = the vertical pitch non-controlling flange when checking slip). Each loading
g = the horizontal pitch condition is considered independently to determine the
governing condition.
Hwu can be assumed distributed equally to all the bolts Equations (10-4p) and (10-4q) for computing Mwo and
and is simply added to the horizontal components of Mvu Hwo are similar in format to Equations (10-4l) and (10-4m)
and Mwu. for computing Mwu and Hwu with the following substitu-
When checking the bearing strength at bolt holes in the tions: 1) Fcu is replaced by the maximum flexural stress fo
web splice, the strength of an outermost hole can be con- due to D+bL(L+I) at the mid-thickness of the flange under
servatively checked against the maximum force (vector consideration at the point of splice, 2) fncu is replaced by
resultant) acting on the extreme bolt in the connection; fof, which is the flexural stress at the mid-thickness of the
this check is conservative since the components of this other flange due to D+bL(L+I) concurrent with fo in the
force parallel to the failure surfaces are smaller than the flange under consideration, and 3) Rcu and R are not re-
maximum force. Should the bearing strength be exceeded, quired. Stresses at the mid-thickness of the flanges are again
it is recommended that the edge distance be increased used in the equations in order to simplify the calculations.
For the case of the web splices not in areas of stress re- method, high-strength bolted connections are also to be
versal, Mwo and Hwo need only be computed from Equa- proportioned as eccentrically loaded connections to pre-
tions (10-4p) and (10-4q) for the loading condition caus- vent slip under the most critical combination of shear,
ing fo due to D+bL(L+I) in the flange with the maximum moment and horizontal force due to D+ (L+I) at the point
stress at the point of splice. of splice. The slip resistance is determined as specified in
Article 10.32.3.2.1, with Nb again taken equal to 1.0.
C10.18.2.3.6 through C10.18.2.3.9
C10.18.3 Compression Members
For proportioning web splices and their connections in
the case of the service load design method, these articles
specify: 1) a design shear stress Fw (Article 10.18.2.3.6), The title of this article has been changed from Columns
2) a design moment Mv due to the eccentricity of the de- to Compression Members so as to better indicate that the
sign shear (Article 10.18.2.3.7), 3) a design moment Mw provisions apply to splices in all types of compression
applied at mid-depth of the web representing the portion members. The provisions apply to splices made with high-
of the flexural moment that is assumed to be resisted by strength bolted connections.
the web (Article 10.18.2.3.8), and 4) for sections where
the neutral axis is not located at the mid-depth of the web, C10.18.6 Fillers
a horizontal design force resultant Hw applied at mid-
depth of the web (Article 10.18.2.3.8). The derivations of The language in this article is now encompassed in a
these design force effects are similar to the derivations for new revised Article 10.18.1.2. Therefore, this article has
these force effects discussed previously for the case of the been eliminated.
strength design method and will not be repeated here.
Article 10.18.2.3.9 specifies that web splice plates and Note: Following is a brief example illustrating the basic
their connections in the case of service load design method application of some of the proposed provisions for the
are to be proportioned as a minimum to develop the most design of flange and web splices for flexural members.
critical combination of FwDtw, Mv, Mw, and Hw. As in the The example is incomplete, but it does illustrate some of
case of the strength design method, the connections are to the basic computations involved in computing the design
be designed as eccentrically loaded connections to de- forces, moments, and shears that would be used to de-
velop the resultant bolt force in shear and in bearing at the sign the splice plates and their connections according to
bolt holes according to Table 10.32.3B. Mv, Mw, and Hw the proposed provisions. More complete illustrative ex-
are again to be applied at the mid-depth of the web. Since amples should be available from the industry in the near
an overload is not defined in the service load design future.
C10.21 LATERAL BRACING buckling modes are given in the AISC Manual of Steel
Construction, Ninth Edition, 1989.
C10.21.3 Reference to Grade HPS70W steel has been added. Clar-
ifications have also been made to the allowable stresses for
The word preferably has ben added to the first sentence axial tension in members with and without holes. For mem-
because there may be special instances where it may be de- bers without holes, yielding on the gross section is checked
sirable to include lateral bracing in the interior bays as well. (for Grade 100/100W steels, gross section yielding is con-
servatively checked against 0.46Fu, which is less than
0.55Fy). For members with holes, both yielding on the gross
C10.23 WELDING section and fracture on the net section must be checked.
Fracture on the net section is conservatively checked using
C10.23.2 Effective Size of Fillet Welds 0.46Fu (which represents 0.55 times the ratio of the AISC
resistance factor of 0.75 for net section fracture divided by
C10.23.2.2 Minimum Size of Fillet Welds the AISC resistance factor of 0.90 for gross section yield-
ing). The net section check based on 0.50fu is eliminated.
In the table of minimum fillet weld sizes in this article, Because yielding on the gross section and fracture on
the metric thickness of the base metal of the thicker part the net section are to be explicitly checked, the former foot-
joined (T) is changed from 19 mm to 20 mm. This revi- note d referring to the use of the 15% rule for the gross sec-
sion brings the table into conformance with the require- tion check is redundant and is eliminated here. Also, the ref-
ments of the AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code and also erence to open holes larger than 11⁄4 inches is removed
with a similar table in the SI Units version of the 2nd Edi- because fracture is to now to be checked on the net section
tion of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications in all cases for members with holes, regardless of the hole
(Table 6.13.3.4-1). size.
C10.30.8 Stay-in-Place Deck Forms Table C10.32.3A Allowable Stresses for

Low-Carbon Steel Bolts and
C10.30.8.2 Metal Stay-in-Place Forms Power Driven Rivets
Editorial revisions are made to this article. A clarifica- Footnote d has been added to indicate that the joint
tion is made to indicate that the deflection limit of L/180 or length correction factor also applies when determining the
1
⁄2 inch applies to form work spans of 10 feet or less and the shear strength of ASTM A 307 bolts (Note: footnotes in
deflection limit of L/240 or 3⁄4 inch applies to form work all tables in Section 10 have been generally re-ordered in
spans exceeding 10 feet. order to place them in a more logical sequence).
Table C10.32.3B Allowable Stresses on

C10.32 ALLOWABLE STRESSES High-Strength Bolts or
Connected Material
C10.32.1 Steel
Language has been added at the end of footnote e in
Table C10.32.1A Allowable Stresses—Structural order to clarify the definition of the 50-inch length used in
Steel (In pounds per square inch) determining whether or not to apply the joint-length cor-
rection factor when calculating the shear strength of high-
Language is added to footnote c of Table 10.32.1A re- strength bolts in flange splices.
garding the computation of the allowable stress in ASD
for concentrically loaded columns. The language indi- C10.32.3.3 Applied Tension, combined Tension, and
cates that singly symmetric and unsymmetric compres- Shear
sion members, such as angles or tees, and doubly sym-
metric compression members, such as cruciform or builtup C10.32.3.3.4
members with very thin walls, may be governed by the Equation (10-18) was replaced by Equations (10-16)
modes of flexural-torsional buckling or torsional buckling and (10-17) in previous interim specifications and is no
rather than the conventional flexural buckling mode re- longer required. A note has been added to indicate the re-
flected in the equations given in the table. It is further in- moval of this equation to prevent having to renumber all
dicated that procedures to check these members for these subsequent equations in section 10.
C10.32.4 Pins, Rollers, and Expansion Rockers construction implicitly assumes that a load factor of ap-
proximately 1.82 (1/0.55) is applied to the unfactored
C10.32.4.2 dead loads. The corresponding LFD compression-flange
local buckling check (Article 10.61.4) is made using a load
An editorial correction is indicated in this article. factor of 1.3 applied to the unfactored dead loads. Thus, the
The reference to Table 10.32.4.2A should be to Table current ASD constructibility check applies 1.4 (1.82/1.3)
10.32.4.3A instead. There is no Table 10.32.4.2A in the times more dead load. When the original ASD code was
specification. developed, the constructibility check for dead load alone
was not explicitly considered. However, recognition of this
C10.34 PLATE GIRDERS significant discrepancy in safety margin for the case of dead
load acting alone was apparently made at some point in time
C10.34.2 Flanges since the revised equation did appear in earlier versions of
the Standard Specifications. Therefore, to once again re-
C10.34.2.1 Welded Girders duce this significant inherent conservatism in the ASD
constructibility check and make it more equivalent to the
C10.34.2.1.1 LFD check, the current ASD width-to-thickness require-
The indicated revision to this ASD article specifies rec- ment for the case of dead load acting alone is divided by
ommended minimum flange proportions for fabricated 1 1.4 resulting in the revised Equation (10-20).
I-shaped girders. Compression-flange widths are prefer-
ably not to be less than 0.2 times the web depth, but in no C10.34.2.2 Riveted or Bolted Girders
case less than 0.15 times the web depth. Compression-
flange thicknesses are preferably not to be less than 1.5 C10.34.2.2.4
times the web thickness. If the compression flange of the
The width-to-thickness requirement for unsupported
girder is smaller than the tension flange, the minimum
flange width may be based on two times the depth of the outstanding legs of top flange angles in compression in
web in compression, Dc, rather than the web depth. These composite girders under the noncomposite dead load
proportions are recommended to help ensure that the web [Equation (10-22)] is revised to be consistent with the re-
is adequately restrained by the flanges to control web vision made to Equation (10-20) of Article 10.34.2.1.5, as
bend-buckling. The recommended proportions are based described below.
on a study by Zureick and Shih (Reference 6) on doubly
symmetric tangent girders, which clearly showed that the C10.34.3 Thickness of Web Plates
web buckling capacity was dramatically reduced when the
compression flange buckled prior to the web. Although C10.34.3.2 Girders Stiffened Longitudinally
the study was limited to doubly symmetric girders, the
recommended minimum flange proportions are deemed
C10.34.3.2.1
to be adequate for reasonably proportioned singly sym-
metric I-girders. The advent of composite design has led A longitudinally stiffened web must be investigated for
to a significant reduction in the size of compression flanges the stress conditions at different limit states, as well as
in positive moment regions. These smaller flanges are along the girder. The stiffener is often located at an in-
most likely to be governed by the recommended limits. Pro- efficient location for a particular condition resulting in
viding minimum compression-flange widths that satisfy the a very low bend-buckling web capacity (reflected in a
recommended limit in these regions will help to ensure a small value of the bend-buckling coefficient k). Because
more stable girder that is easier to handle. simply-supported boundary conditions are assumed in the
In addition, the b/t of tension flanges be limited to a development of the equations for k, it is conceivable that
practical upper limit of 24 to ensure the flanges will not the computed web bend-buckling capacity for the longi-
distort excessively when welded to the web. Also, an tudinally stiffened web may be less than that computed for
upper limit on the b/t for a tension flange covers the case a web without longitudinal stiffeners where some rota-
where the flange may be subject to an unanticipated stress tional restraint from the flanges has been assumed. To pre-
reversal. vent this anomaly, this revision requires that the k value
for a longitudinally stiffened web for the case where ds/Dc
C10.34.2.1.5
≥ 0.4 equal or exceed a value of 9(D/Dc)2, which is the k
The AASHTO ASD compression-flange local buckling value for a web without longitudinal stiffeners computed
check specified in this article for the top flange during assuming partial rotational restraint from the flanges.
Also, near points of dead-load contraflexure, both ened girders is eliminated in the definition of D in Equa-
edges of the web may be in compression when stresses in tion (10-32) for consistency with the revision to Article
the steel and composite sections due to moments of oppo- 10.34.5.6 discussed below.
site sign are accumulated. In this case, the neutral axis lies Finally, the local buckling capacity of a transverse stiff-
outside the web. Thus, this revision also limits the mini- ener is combined with the area requirement for the stiffener
mum value of k to 7.2, which is approximately equal to in a new Equation (10-32a). The stiffener area requirement
the theoretical bend-buckling coefficient for a web plate is based upon the load that the stiffener must support. In
under uniform compression assuming fixed boundary many cases, the required stiffener area is zero indicating
conditions at the flanges (Reference 7). that the stiffener is not required to support any axial com-
See also C10.34.3.2.1 (1997). pression. In these cases, the lightly loaded stiffener can be
more slender without concern for local buckling of the stiff-
C10.34.4 Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners ener. The local buckling capacity of the stiffener can be tied
to the required load the stiffener must support by setting the
C10.34.4.2 local buckling capacity equal to the vertical tension field
load, which yields the new Equation (10-32a). The local
An editorial revision is indicated to clarify the defini- buckling capacity of the stiffener, Fcr, is given by Equation
tion of the handling requirement (referred to in following (10-32b). The upper limit on b/t of 16 currently specified in
articles). A subsequent article explicitly indicates that the Article 10.34.4.10 is retained for lightly loaded stiffeners.
handling requirement need not be applied to longitudi-
nally stiffened girders. Therefore, it is no longer necessary C10.34.5 Longitudinal Stiffeners
to repeat that statement in this article.
C10.34.5.2
C10.34.4.4
Equation (10-34) is modified to use the yield strength
The word tensile is added to the definition of the bend- of the longitudinal stiffener in determining the required
ing stress, Fs, for use in Equation (10-30) to agree with the thickness of the longitudinal stiffener. The revised Equa-
definition of the same term in this same equation given in tion (10-34) is equivalent to the LFD requirement. The
the AISC ASD Specifications. stress in the longitudinal stiffener is controlled directly by
the provisions of Article 10.34.5.3, and therefore, need not
C10.34.4.7 be indirectly controlled through the width-to-thickness re-
quirement, as is currently the case.
An editorial revision is indicated to clarify that the mo-
ment of inertia of a transverse stiffener(s) is to be taken C10.34.5.5
about the plane that is explicitly defined in Article
10.34.4.8. The mid-plane of the web is to only be used This revision states that the maximum spacing of trans-
when there is a pair of stiffeners. verse stiffeners on longitudinally stiffened girders be lim-
The definition of the transverse stiffener spacing is ited to 1.5 times the web depth rather than 1.5 times the
modified to remove the word actual in front of the words maximum subpanel depth (both for intermediate stiffen-
distance between stiffener. Earlier versions of the Stan- ers and at end panels). There is no known theoretical
dard Specifications indicated that the required stiffener reason for using the subpanel depth in this requirement.
spacing was to be used in calculating the term J given by Using the subpanel depth unnecessarily complicates the
Equation (10-32). When the required spacing (which must provision.
be greater than or equal to the actual spacing) is used to
compute J, the smallest possible required moment of in- C10.34.5.6
ertia results. However, in situations where the actual stiff-
ener spacing is used to compute J and I, the stiffener mo- This revision eliminates the requirement to use the
ment of inertia that is provided may not be sufficient if the maximum subpanel depth instead of the total panel depth
stiffener was originally designed based on the earlier cri- when designing the transverse stiffeners on longitudinally
teria. Therefore, to avoid potential problems, the word ac- stiffened girders. There is no known theoretical reason for
tual is removed. using the subpanel depth in these requirements. The effect
Reference to the use of the maximum subpanel depth of the longitudinal stiffener is not considered in deter-
in designing transverse stiffeners on longitudinally stiff- mining the shear capacity of a girder and it has not been
studied in enough detail to do so. Using the subpanel load factor of approximately 1.82 (1/0.55) is applied to the
depth in this requirement may lead to confusion and un- unfactored dead loads. The corresponding LFD lateral-
intentional design errors. torsional buckling check (Article 10.61.3) is made using
a load factor of 1.3 applied to the unfactored dead loads.
C10.36 COMBINED STRESSES Thus, the current ASD constructibility check applies 1.4
(1.82/1.3) times more dead load. To reduce this significant
Table C10.36A Bending-Compression Interaction inherent conservatism in the ASD constructibility check
Coefficients and make it more equivalent to the LFD check (for reasons
discussed previously under the Commentary to the revi-
The current lower limit of 0.4 on the Cm coefficient con- sion to Article 10.34.2.1.5), the current ASD equation for
tained in the amplification factor for members under com- the lateral-torsional buckling capacity in Table 10.32.1A
bined bending and axial force comes into effect for end should be multiplied by 1.4 when making this check.
moment ratios less than or equal to 20.5. The Cm factor Similarly, the ASD web shear buckling check for con-
with the lower limit of 0.4 was originally adopted from the structibility in this article implicitly assumes that a load
factor of approximately 1.75 (0.58/0.33) is applied to the
work of Austin (Reference 8), who originally intended the
unfactored dead loads. The corresponding LFD shear
factor to apply to lateral-torsional buckling of beams, and
buckling check (Article 10.61.2) is made using a load fac-
not to the determination of second-order in-plane bend-
tor of 1.3 applied to the unfactored dead loads. Thus, the
ing strength of beam columns. Unfortunately, the work of
current ASD constructibility check applies 1.35 (1.75/1.3)
Austin was misinterpreted and his factor was applied to
times more dead load. To reduce this significant inherent
approximate the results of more exact in-plane second-order
conservatism in the ASD constructibility check and make
analyses of beam-columns. AISC then introduced a Cb
it more equivalent to the LFD check, the current ASD
moment-gradient correction factor for handling lateral- equation for the shear buckling capacity should be multi-
torsional buckling of beams, which happens to approx- plied by 1.35 when making this check, which results in the
imately equal the inverse of the Cm factor presented by revised Equation (10-57a). It is also specified that the sum
Austin with the lower limit of 0.4. Zandonini (Refer- of the noncomposite and composite dead-load shears be
ence 9) subsequently pointed out that the Cm factor could used in making this check. Both the noncomposite and
indeed be used effectively to determine the second-order composite dead-load shears are critical in checking the
bending strength of beam columns if the 0.4 limit was stability of the web during construction.
eliminated. Subsequently, AISC removed the lower limit See also C10.38.1.7 (1997).
of 0.4 in the first edition of the AISC LRFD Specifications
(Reference 10). Thus, it is recommended that the lower limit C10.38.4 Stresses
be eliminated in the Standard Specifications as well. A
similar revision has been implemented in Article 4.5.3.2.2b C10.38.4.3
of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
This article specifies the ASD requirement for minimum
C10.38 COMPOSITE GIRDERS longitudinal reinforcement in the concrete deck. Because of
the effect of moving live loads, points of deadload con-
C10.38.1 General traflexure have little meaning in continuous bridges. Both
positive and negative live load moments are applied at
C10.38.1.6 nearly all points along a girder. The negative-moment re-
gion of a continuous span is often implicitly taken as the re-
Language is added to indicate that concrete on the ten- gion between points of dead-load contraflexure, but under
sion side of the neutral axis can also be considered for moving live loads, the concrete deck can experience signif-
computing fatigue stress ranges and fatigue shear ranges icant tensile stresses outside the points of dead-load con-
in ASD as permitted under the revised provisions of Arti- traflexure. Placement of the concrete deck in stages can also
cles 10.3.1 and 10.38.5.1 (see the Commentary discussion produce negative moments during construction in regions
related to those articles). where the concrete deck has hardened that are primarily
subject to positive dead load moments in the final condition.
C10.38.1.7 Thermal and shrinkage effects can also cause tensile
stresses in the deck in regions where such stresses might not
The AASHTO ASD lateral-torsional buckling check otherwise be anticipated. The current specification language
for constructibility in this article implicitly assumes that a does not recognize the state of stress in the concrete deck in
determining the requirement for longitudinal deck rein- puting Q) and the moment of inertia of steel girder plus the
forcement; the tensile strength of the concrete is ignored. reinforcement (in computing I) between points of dead-
To address at least some of these issues, this revision load contraflexure. However, as indicated, the resulting
states that the minimum 1% longitudinal reinforcement be pitch between points of dead-load contraflexure is not to ex-
placed wherever the longitudinal tensile stress in the deck ceed the maximum pitch specified in Article 10.38.5.1.
due to either the construction loads or the design loads ex- Shear connectors are designed for shear; the design
ceeds the allowable tensile stress for the concrete, ft, speci- moment in the girder is not relevant. The maximum lon-
fied in Article 8.15.2.1.1. In addition, the required longitu- gitudinal fatigue shear range is produced by placing the
dinal reinforcement is to be No. 6 bars or smaller spaced at fatigue live load immediately to the left and to the right
not more than 12 inches to ensure adequate distribution of of the point under consideration. The influence line for
the reinforcement to control the crack size. By controlling moment shows that for the load in these positions, posi-
the crack size in regions where adequate shear connection tive moments are produced over significant portions of
is provided, the concrete deck can be considered to be the girder length. As a result, the concrete deck is in com-
effective in tension for serviceability checks (e.g. fatigue) pression over a significant portion of the girder length for
as long as adequate shear connection between the deck and the fatigue shear loading and the use of the full compos-
the girders is also provided. As a result of this requirement, ite section (including the concrete deck) along the entire
the minimum longitudinal reinforcement will likely need to span is reasonable. Also, the horizontal shear force in the
be extended beyond the dead-load points of contraflexure. deck is most often considered to be effective along the
Several approaches have been used to compute the entire span in the analysis. Such an assumption was also
area of the concrete slab to use in the preceding require- made in the development of the new wheel-load distrib-
ment. To ensure some consistency, this revision also states ution factors given in an AASHTO Guide Specification.
that the area of the concrete slab to be used in this re- In order to satisfy this assumption, the shear force in the
quirement be defined in the specification as the structural deck must be developed along the entire span.
thickness times the entire width of the deck. The intent of
this provision is to control cracking of the deck. Cracks C10.38.5.1.2 Ultimate Strength
do not occur just within the effective deck width as de- An upper limit on the ultimate strength of a stud shear
fined by the specification; the entire deck is, actually par- connector (in pounds) is specified. The upper limit on ul-
ticipating in resisting longitudinal stress. Thus, the min- timate strength is taken equal to the specified minimum
imum 1% longitudinal reinforcement (including the tensile strength of a stud shear connector (in ksi), equal to
longitudinal distribution reinforcement) computed using 60,000 psi (refer to Article 11.3.3.1 of Division II), times
the full deck area should be distributed across the entire the cross-sectional area Asc of an individual stud. A simi-
deck and not just within the effective width.
lar upper limit is specified in Article 6.10.7.4.4c of the
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
C10.38.5 Shear
C10.38.5.1 Horizontal Shear C10.39 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS
C10.38.5.1.1 Fatigue C10.39.4 Design of Bottom Flange Plates

In the design of shear connectors for fatigue, this revi-
C10.39.4.2 Compression Flanges Unstiffened
sion requires that the statical moment Q and moment of
inertia I (used to compute the shear range) be calculated
C10.39.4.2.2
using the full composite section (including the transformed
concrete deck) along the entire length of the girder if the Equation (10-74) for the allowable stress of unstiff-
transformed concrete area is considered to be fully effective ened box-girder compression flanges is to apply between
for negative moment in computing the longitudinal range b/t ratios of 6,140/ Fy and 13,300/ Fy to be consistent
of stress (as permitted under the provisions of revised Arti- with similar LFD provisions for unstiffened compression
cle 10.3.1 in ASD and revised Article 10.58.1 in LFD). Ac- flanges. The currently specified upper limit of 60 for the ap-
cordingly, the word ‘compressive’ is removed from in front plication of Equation (10-74) is specified to be a preferable
of the words ‘concrete area’ in the paragraph following the overall upper limit for unstiffened compression flanges in
definitions of Q and I. Should the concrete not be consid- Article 10.39.4.2.4. If 60 is used as an upper limit for the
ered fully effective for negative moment in computing the application of Equation (10-74), a gap in b/t ratios exists be-
longitudinal stress range, an option is provided to allow the tween the application of Equations (10-74) and (10-75) for
engineer to include only the area of reinforcement (in com- steels with a yield stress below 50 ksi.
C10.39.4.2.6 stress as the web at their vertical location on the web and
must have sufficient rigidity and strength to resist bend-
Current specification requirements only consider the ef-
buckling of the web. Thus, yielding of the stiffeners should
fect of shear lag in box-girder bottom flanges subject to ten-
not be permitted.
sion. Article 10.39.4.1 states that box-girder bottom flanges
in tension shall only be considered fully effective if the
C10.40.2.2 Shear
flange width does not exceed 1⁄5 of the span length. For con-
tinuous spans, the span length is defined as the length be-
This primarily editorial revision is to ensure that the
tween points of contraflexure. Box-girder bottom flanges in
specified minimum yield strength of the web is used to
compression are also susceptible to the effects of shear lag,
compute the allowable shear stress for a hybrid girder in
if not more so than tension flanges. Thus, revisions are in-
ASD.
dicated for box-girder bottom flanges in compression in
Article 10.39.4.2.6 (for unstiffened flanges), Article
C10.40.3 Plate Thickness Requirements
10.39.4.3.7 (for flanges stiffened longitudinally), and Ar-
ticle 10.39.4.4.9 (for flanges stiffened longitudinally and
This revision ensures that only the computation of the
transversely) to refer the engineer to the provisions of
permissible compression-flange width-to-thickness ratio
Article 10.39.4.1 to determine the effective width of the
for a hybrid girder (in ASD) is affected by the hybrid re-
flange. The effective width is only to be used to calculate
duction factor R. Flange stresses are increased by yield-
the flange bending stress. To compute the allowable bend-
ing of the web. It is considered to be too conservative to
ing stress for the flange, the full flange width is to be con-
use this increased computed flange stress to check for
servatively used.
local buckling of the web. The language is also revised to
indicate that fb in the width-to-thickness ratio requirement
C10.39.4.3 Compression Flange Stiffened Longi-
is to be taken as the lesser of the calculated bending stress
tudinally
in the compression flange divided by R or the allowable
bending stress for the compression flange.
C10.39.4.3.7
See C10.39.4.2.6 above.
C10.45 ASSUMPTIONS
C10.39.4.4 Compression Flange Stiffened Longi-
C10.45.4
tudinally and Transversely
Language is added to indicate that the tensile strength of
C10.39.4.4.9
the concrete is to be neglected in flexural calculations, ex-
See C10.39.4.2.6 above. cept for computing overload stresses, fatigue stress ranges,
and fatigue shear ranges in LFD as permitted under the re-
vised provisions of Articles 10.58.1, 10.58.1, and 10.58.2.2
C10.40 HYBRID GIRDERS
(see the Commentary discussion related to those articles).
Note: Article 10.58.2.2 refers back to ASD Article 10.38.5.1
C10.40.2 Allowable Stresses
for the computation of fatigue shear ranges.
C10.40.2.1 Bending
C10.48 FLEXURAL MEMBERS
C10.40.2.1.3
This revision changes the heading of this LFD article
This article is added to indicate that the hybrid fac-
from ‘SYMMETRICAL BEAMS AND GIRDERS’ to
tor R is to be taken as 1.0 at sections where the computed
‘FLEXURAL MEMBERS’. The word ‘SYMMETRICAL’
bending stresses in both flanges do not exceed the allow-
in the existing heading is a misnomer since many of the
able bending stress for the web since web yielding is as-
provisions in this article can be applied to both symmetric
sumed not to occur in this case.
and singly symmetric girders. New wording is also added
at the beginning of this article to indicate that some of the
C10.40.2.1.4
provisions of the article may be superseded by require-
A new Article 10.40.2.1.4 is added, which states that ments in subsequent Articles 10.49 through 10.61 deal-
longitudinal web stiffeners preferably shall not be located ing specifically with singly symmetric flexural members,
in yielded portions of the web of a hybrid girder. Longi- composite sections, box-girders, hybrid girders, and con-
tudinal web stiffeners are subject to the same flexural structibility. Additional language is also added to this arti-
cle to specify recommended minimum flange proportions of those elastic support moments to more lightly loaded
for fabricated I-shaped girders. This revision parallels the positive moment sections at Overload and Maximum
revision to ASD Article 10.34.2.1.1 (see the earlier discus- Load. The current language infers that the entire beam
sion of the revision to Article 10.34.2.1.1). An upper limit must be compact.
of 24 is also specified on the b/t ratio of tension flanges for Also, language has been added to indicate that the 10%
reasons discussed previously. redistribution of moment is not permitted for compact sec-
tions of AASHTO M 270 Grade HPS70W (ASTM A 709
C10.48.1 Compact Sections Grade HPS70W) steel. Although research has indicated that
compact sections composed of these steels can reach the
Revisions to this article clarify that only sections of plastic moment, Mp, it has not been demonstrated that these
properly braced constant-depth flexural members without sections have adequate inelastic rotation capacity at Mp to
longitudinal web stiffeners, without holes in the tension redistribute interior-pier moments to more lightly loaded
flange (refer to the commentary to Article 10.18.2.1.5), and positive-moment sections.
with high resistance to local buckling can qualify as com-
pact sections. Sufficient research has not yet been con- C10.48.2 Braced Noncompact Sections
ducted on sections of variable-depth members with or
without longitudinal web stiffeners, sections of constant- Editorial revisions are indicated to clarify that the term
depth members with longitudinal web stiffeners, or on ‘braced noncompact sections’ indeed refers to ‘sections’
sections of variable- or constant-depth members with holes and not to ‘members’. The word ‘I-shaped’ is removed
in the tension flange to determine if these sections can since Article 10.51.1 on composite box-girders refers
achieve the full plastic moment capacity. The term ‘prop- back to the provisions of Article 10.48.
erly braced’ infers that the bracing is sufficient to resist This article applies to the computation of the maxi-
lateral-torsional buckling of the member according to the mum bending strength of symmetric and singly symmet-
revised language specified in Article 10.48.1.1 (see ric braced noncompact sections. Since singly symmetric
below). Other editorial revisions are indicated to clarify sections are encompassed, the maximum bending strength
that the term ‘compact sections’ indeed refers to ‘sections’
(expressed in terms of moment capacity) must be taken as
and not to ‘members’. The word ‘I-shaped’ is also re-
the lesser of the moment capacities computed based on
moved since Article 10.51.l on composite box-girders
the stresses in the tension and compression flanges; new
refers back to the provisions of Article 10.48.
Equations (10-98) and (10-99) respectively. As indicated
See also C10.48.1 (1997).
in the new Equation (10-98), the tension-flange capacity
is based on the yield stress Fy. If the lateral bracing satis-
C10.48.1.1
fies Equation (10-101), the compression-flange capacity
is given by a new Equation (10-99) based on a critical
Equations (10-93) and (10-95) are modified to use the
full compression-flange width b in place of the project- flange stress Fcr, which depends on the slenderness of the
ing compression-flange width b’ in computing the flange compression flange. Therefore, Fcr represents a critical
slenderness ratio. Basing the slenderness ratio on the full compression-flange local buckling stress, which cannot
flange width is easier and is consistent with the computa- exceed Fy. As a result, a compression flange with a larger
tion of this ratio in the ASD Specifications, the LRFD Spec- slenderness (up to the limiting value of 24 specified in Ar-
ifications and the AISC Specifications. Table 10.48.2.1A is ticle 10.48.2.1(a)) can be used at more lightly loaded sec-
modified accordingly. tions. To achieve Fcr equal to Fy at critical sections, the
compression-flange slenderness (based on the full flange
C10.48.1.2 width b) cannot exceed the limiting values indicated in re-
vised Table 10.48.2.1A. The compression-flange capacity
AASHTO M 270 Grade HPS70W (ASTM A 709 Grade is also modified by the flange-stress reduction factor Rb in
HPS70W) steel has been added to the list of steels that have Equation (10-99). Rb accounts for the increase in com-
the demonstrated ability to reach the plastic moment ca- pression-flange stress that results due to local web bend-
pacity Mp. buckling and is to be computed according to the provi-
sions of Article 10.48.4.1. To provide some additional
C10.48.1.3 relief at more lightly loaded sections, Rb is to be computed
using the actual factored compression-flange bending
An editorial revision to this article clarifies that stress fb in place of the term Mr/Sxc when Rb is computed
negative-moment support sections must qualify as com- using Equation (10-103b) in Article 10.48.4.1. fb cannot
pact in order to invoke the permissible 10% redistribution exceed Fy.
In keeping with the current convention of expressing this limit, Rb is equal to 1.0. Since Rb has now been directly
the maximum bending strength of braced noncompact included in determining the maximum compression-flange
sections in terms of a moment capacity, it is implicitly in- capacity according to new Equation (10-99), this web
ferred that the provisions of this article should only be ap- thickness requirement is no longer necessary since it is
plied to braced noncompact noncomposite sections. For a implicitly included in the computation of Rb by Equation
noncompact composite section (where stresses must not (10-103b) in Article 10.48.4.1. Instead, the revised article
exceed the yield stress), dead- and live-load moments are simply refers to the existing overall web thickness limits
applied to different sections. As a result, the principle of for symmetric and singly symmetric transversely stiff-
superposition does not apply to moments (at stress levels ened girders with and without longitudinal web stiffeners
up to the yield stress), whereas the principle of superposi- given in subsequent articles.
tion does apply to stresses. Therefore, the maximum bend-
ing strength of noncompact composite sections should be C10.48.2.1(c)
computed according to the revised provisions of Articles
10.50.1.2 or 10.50.2.2, as applicable (see below), which Language is added in this article to indicate that if the
express the maximum bending strength of noncompact lateral bracing requirement given by Equation (10-101) is
composite sections in terms of stress. not satisfied, the maximum compression-flange capac-
ity calculated from Equation (10-99) cannot exceed the
C10.48.2.1(a) lateral-torsional buckling capacity Mu determined by
the provisions of Article 10.48.4.1 for partially braced
In the indicated revision to this article, a new Equation members.
(10-100) is given to specify the limiting compression-
flange slenderness ratio. The slenderness limit is based on C10.48.2.2
the full flange width b rather than the projecting flange
width b’ (to be consistent with an earlier revision). The The revised b/t limits in Table 10.48.2.1A represent the
limiting flange slenderness ratio is 24 (independent of the compression-flange slenderness ratios below which Fcr is
yield stress), which corresponds to the upper limit of 24 equal to Fy, where Fcr is defined in revised Article 10.48.2
specified in ASD. The slenderness limit no longer needs (and discussed above). For sections with a b/t ratio above
to be specified as a function of Fy since the maximum these limits, Fcr will be less than Fy. The revised b/t limits
bending strength of the compression flange is computed are expressed in terms of the full flange width rather than
based on the actual value of the slenderness in the new the projecting flange width. The table also refers back to
Equation (10-99). To achieve a maximum bending strength the upper b/t limit given in Article 10.48.2.1(a). The cur-
equal to FySxcRb at critical sections (and thus prevent local rent D/tw limits in the table are removed since existing
buckling of the compression flange prior to reaching that Equation (10-100) has been eliminated for reasons dis-
capacity), the compression-flange slenderness b/t must cussed previously. Instead, the table refers to the applica-
not exceed the limiting values specified in the revised ble D/tw limits specified in the referenced articles.
Table 10.48.2.1A, which are derived from the equation
for Fcr given in revised Article 10.48.2. At more lightly C10.48.2.3
loaded sections, a larger value of b/t may be used (up to
the specified limiting value of 24) in combination with Based on the revisions discussed above, this article is
a corresponding reduction in Fcr. The existing language no longer necessary and is removed.
allowing an increase in the slenderness limit by the ratio
of M u M is no longer necessary since it attempts to C10.48.3 Transitions
accomplish essentially the same result as the changes
described above. The word ‘members’ is replaced with the more appro-
priate word ‘sections’ in this article.
C10.48.2.1(b)
C10.48.4 Partially Braced Members
The current web thickness requirement given by exist-
ing Equation (10-100) is eliminated. This equation does not The name of this article is changed from ‘Unbraced
indicate an overall web slenderness limit for braced non- Sections’ to ‘Partially Braced Members’ to indicate that all
compact sections, but is simply the slenderness limit below members must be braced. Also, although a member may be
which local web bend-buckling theoretically does not adequately braced, the bracing may not be located directly
occur. Therefore, when the web slenderness Dc/tw is below at the particular section under investigation. Thus, the term
‘members’ is deemed to be more appropriate than the term The yield stress Fy is replaced with the factored bend-
‘sections’ here. At other locations throughout this article, ing stress in the compression flange fb in determining
the word ‘members’ is changed to ‘sections’ where the whether or not the load-shedding factor Rb is equal to 1.0
use of the word ‘sections’ is felt to be more appropriate. for a longitudinally stiffened girder. As in ASD, the
This article is used to compute the maximum bending compression-flange stress is used in checking for local
strength, Mu, for the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling, web bend-buckling since web bend-buckling is controlled
as indicated by the new language added to Article 10.48.4.1. by flange strain. Since this limit does not represent the
The bracing must provide restraint against both lateral maximum permitted web slenderness, but is only used to
displacement and twisting of the cross section. Bracing determine if local web bend-buckling has occurred, an
is particularly important prior to hardening of the deck upper limit on the web slenderness is not specified.
concrete. The hardened deck concrete in conjunction with In addition, lower limits are placed on the bend-
the cross bracing provides bracing against lateral deflection buckling coefficient k for a longitudinally stiffened girder
of the bottom flange and twist of the section, in addition to for reasons discussed previously (see commentary on re-
adequate bracing of the top flange. visions to Article 10.34.3.2.1).
The presence of cross frames does not ensure that the The values of the constant l given in the article reflect
longitudinal girders are adequately braced. The cross brac- different assumptions of support provided to the web by
ing must be anchored in some manner. Since there is usu- the flanges to prevent local web bend-buckling. For com-
ally no convenient anchor on girder bridges, it is necessary posite sections in positive moment regions, using the area
prior to hardening of the deck concrete to restrain the rel- of the steel top flange by itself (which is typically smaller
ative longitudinal movement of the girders so that cross than the bottom flange) to determine which value l to use,
bracing is effective in restraining lateral displacement and is too conservative because of the support offered to the web
twist. Lateral bracing between at least one pair of girders by the top flange and concrete deck acting together. Thus,
over a portion of each span may provide the necessary it is indicated that the depth of the web in compression Dc
shear restraint to prevent the girders from deflecting later- relative to D/2 instead be used to determine which value
ally in unison. Lateral and longitudinal restraint proof λ should be used to better handle composite sections.
vided by bearings can also be considered to help provide Language is also inserted at the end of this article to in-
restraint against both twist and lateral deflection. The dicate that sections of partially braced members must sat-
cross frames acting alone in plan with the girders through isfy the web thickness limits given by Equations (10-104)
Vierendeel truss action may be adequate for smaller bridges. or (10-109), as applicable, subject to the requirements of
For other cases, the contractor may find it necessary to pro- Article 10.49.2 or 10.49.3 (with the exception noted below
vide some form of temporary longitudinal restraint to the for constructibility—see the commentary to the revisions to
girders until the concrete deck hardens. Article 10.61.1). As a result, the upper limit on web slen-
AASHTO does not currently give specific requirements derness in the statement immediately above Equation (10-
for the design of the bracing. Reference 11 provides some 103d) is redundant and need not be specified. Because this
guidance in this regard. Generally, a larger number of par- web slenderness limit is removed, footnote b to Article
allel girders requires stronger bracing than would a fewer 10.48.4.1 is no longer required and the lateral-torsional
number of girders. The required bracing strength is a func- buckling equations in this article can be applied to any gen-
tion of the force in the compression flange being braced. eral case (including the constructibility case). Language
Since bracing is essentially resisting the tendency of the similar to the language in the existing paragraph at the end
compression flange to move, it is most effective when at- of Article 10.48.4.1, which referred to footnote b, has been
tached as close as possible to the flange. The restraining inserted in Articles 10.48.5.1 and 10.49.2 instead.
force must be applied to the flange along some path be- Sections of partially braced members must also satisfy
tween its point of connection and that flange. It should the compression-flange slenderness requirement given by
also be mentioned that Reference 11 can provide guidance the revised Article 10.48.2.1(a).
on unusual cases of partially braced members not handled
directly by current specification equations. C10.48.5 Transversely Stiffened Girders
C10.48.4.1 C10.48.5.1
The language regarding violation of the web thickness It is indicated in this article that the web thickness of
requirement in Article 10.48.2.1(b) is eliminated in this transversely stiffened girders is also subject to the thick-
article because this condition is now handled sufficiently ness requirement specified in Article 10.49.2, which ap-
and more clearly by the direct incorporation of the Rb fac- plies to singly symmetric transversely stiffened sections
tor in new Equation (10-99) in Article 10.48.2 (see above). where Dc exceeds D/2.
Language is also added to indicate that if the web slen- As for transversely stiffened girders without longitudi-
derness D/tw of a symmetric transversely stiffened girder nal stiffeners, the yield stress Fy in the denominator of
exceeds the upper limit given by Equation (10-104), either Equation (10-109) is not replaced with the factored bend-
the section must be modified to comply with the limit or ing stress in the compression flange fb, because the current
longitudinal stiffeners must be provided. Similar language slenderness limit (based on Fy) defines a somewhat arbi-
was formerly located at the end of Article 10.48.4.1. trary upper bound below which fatigue due to excessive
The yield stress Fy in the denominator of Equation lateral web deflections is not considered to be a concern.
(10-104) is not replaced with the factored bending stress To exceed this upper bound, it is felt that additional spec-
in the compression flange fb because the current slender- ification requirements would need to be inserted to di-
ness limit (based on Fy) defines a somewhat arbitrary rectly control local web bend-buckling under the fatigue
upper bound below which fatigue due to excessive lateral loading. It was decided not to include these additional
web deflections is not considered to be a concern. To ex- specification requirements at this time.
ceed this upper bound, it is felt that additional specifica- See also C10.48.6.1 (1997).
tion requirements would need to be inserted to directly
control local web bend-buckling under the fatigue load- C10.48.6.2
ing. It was decided not to include these additional specifi-
cation requirements at this time. For completeness, reference to Articles 10.50.1.2
(Noncompact Composite Sections in Positive Bending),
C10.48.5.2 10.50.2.2 (Noncompact Composite Sections in Negative
Bending), 10.51 (Composite Box Girders), and 10.53
For completeness, reference to Articles 10.50 (Com- (Hybrid Girders) is added for the computation of the max-
posite Sections), 10.51 (Composite Box Girders), and imum bending strength of longitudinally stiffened girders.
10.53 (Hybrid Girders) is added for the computation of The existing reference to Article 10.48.8.1 is replaced
the maximum bending strength of transversely stiffened with the correct reference to Article 10.48.8.2 (see similar
girders. reference given in Article 10.48.5.2).
C10.48.5.3 C10.48.6.3
The current reference in this article to Article 10.48.8.1

The indicated revisions to this LFD article parallel the
is changed to the more correct reference to Article
revisions to ASD Article 10.34.4.7 (see the earlier dis-
10.48.8, which parallels a similar reference given in Arti-
cussion on the revisions to Article 10.34.4.7). A definition
cle 10.48.5.3.
of do is added without making a distinction between the ac-
tual and required spacing, for reasons discussed previously. C10.48.6.3(a)
As a result of the revisions to the area requirement for
transverse stiffeners in the new Equation (10-106a) (see the The indicated revision to this article clarifies that the
earlier discussions on the revisions to Article 10.34.4.7), the width-to-thickness ratio for a longitudinal stiffener is to be
previous Equation (10-104) has been replaced with a revised checked using the yield strength of the longitudinal stiff-
upper limit of 16 on the slenderness ratio in new Equation ener in Equation (10-105). Also, a provision is added that
(10-105). The previous Equation (10-104) was intended to the factored bending stress in the longitudinal stiffener is
ensure that local buckling of the stiffener would not occur if not to exceed the yield strength of the longitudinal stiff-
the stiffener were loaded to its yield load. However, in many ener, which parallels a similar requirement given in ASD
cases, the stiffener is not required to support any axial com- Article 10.34.5.3.
pression. Therefore, the local buckling capacity is now tied
to the required load the stiffener must support through the C10.48.6.3(b)
uses of the new Equations (10-106a) and (10-106b).
A definition has been added to clarify that the moment
C10.48.6 Longitudinally Stiffened Girders of inertia of the longitudinal stiffener is to be taken about
the edge of the stiffener in contact with the web plate.
C10.48.6.1
C10.48.6.3(c)
The existing language in this article refers to the re-
quirements for symmetrical girders only. Therefore, lan- This revision eliminates the requirement to use the
guage is added at the end of this article to indicate that maximum subpanel depth instead of the total panel depth
singly symmetric sections are subject to the requirements when designing the transverse stiffeners on longitudinally
of Article 10.49.3. stiffened girders. There is no known theoretical reason for
using the subpanel depth in these requirements. The effect C10.49.2 Singly Symmetric Sections with
of the longitudinal stiffener is not considered in deter- Transverse Stiffeners
mining the shear capacity of a girder and it has not been
studied in enough detail to do so. Using the subpanel The word ‘unsymmetrical’ is replaced with the words
depth in this requirement may lead to confusion and un- ‘singly symmetric’ in the heading to this article. Language
intentional design errors. is also added at the end of this article to indicate that if
Also, the words ‘at D/5’at the end of this requirement are the web slenderness Dc/tw for the singly symmetric sec-
considered superfluous and are removed since the longitu- tion exceeds the upper limit given by Equation (10-120),
dinal stiffener does not necessarily have to be located at D/5. either the section must be modified to comply with the
A modification is made to indicate that only the radius of limit or else longitudinal stiffeners must be provided. Sim-
gyration, r, and not the moment of inertia, I, of the longitu- ilar language was formerly located at the end of Article
dinal stiffener is to be computed including a web strip up to 10.48.4.1.
18tw in width. The additional web strip contributes little to
the moment of inertia of the stiffener. Also, the allowable C10.49.3 Longitudinally Stiffened Singly
stress design provisions, which do not include a radius of gy- Symmetric Sections
ration requirement, do not permit the inclusion of the web
strip when calculating the moment of inertia of the stiffener. The word ‘unsymmetrical’ is replaced with the words
‘singly symmetric’ in the heading to this article.
C10.48.8 Shear
C10.49.3.1
C10.48.8.1
The word ‘unsymmetrical’ is replaced with the words
Editorial revisions are indicated in this article to be ‘singly symmetric’.
consistent with the editorial revisions to previous arti-
cles discussed above. The word ‘I-shaped’ is removed C10.49.3.2
since the shear provisions in this article also apply to
box-girders. Other revisions are made to clarify the ex- The word ‘unsymmetrical’ is replaced with the words
isting provisions. ‘singly symmetric’.
See also C10.49.3.2 (1997).
C10.48.8.2
C10.49.4 Singly Symmetric Braced Noncompact
Equation (10-118a) is added to this article to better ac- Sections
commodate composite non-compact sections. The maxi-
mum bending strength of these sections is now expressed Editorial revisions are made to the heading and to the
in terms of the maximum strength Fu of the compression wording in this article for consistency with revisions to
and tension flanges, expressed in terms of stress rather preceding articles. The current reference in this article to
than moment, in revised Articles 10.50.1.2 and 10.50.2.2. Article 10.48.2.1 is changed to the more correct reference
The moment-shear interaction relationship for these sec- to Article 10.48.2.
tions is revised accordingly.
C10.49.5 Partially Braced Members with Singly
C10.48.8.3 Symmetric Sections
The indicated revisions to this LFD article parallel the Editorial revisions are made to the heading and word-
revisions to ASD Articles 10.34.4.2 and 10.34.5.5 (see the ing in this article for consistency with revisions to pre-
earlier discussion on the proposed revisions to Articles ceding articles.
10.34.4.2 and 10.34.5.5).
C10.50 COMPOSITE SECTIONS
C10.49 SINGLY SYMMETRIC SECTIONS
The heading for this LFD article is changed from
The heading for this LFD article is renamed from ‘UN- ‘COMPOSITE BEAMS AND GIRDERS’ to the more ap-
SYMMETRIC BEAMS AND GIRDERS’ to ‘SINGLY propriate heading of ‘COMPOSITE SECTIONS’ since all
SYMMETRIC SECTIONS’ to more appropriately reflect the provisions in this article apply to ‘sections’. The words
the fact that the provisions under this heading refer to ‘sec- ‘beams and girders’ are changed to the word ‘sections’ in
tions’that are symmetric about one axis of the cross section. the first sentence of this article for consistency.
C10.50.1 Positive Moment Sections to moments whereas it does apply to stresses. As a result,
it becomes more convenient and more correct to express
The words ‘of Composite Beams and Girders’ are con- the maximum strength in terms of stress. For tension
sidered redundant and are removed form the heading for flanges, the sum of the accumulated factored stresses is
this article for consistency with the revision to the head- not to exceed the maximum strength, Fu, of the flange
ing for Article 10.50. taken equal to Fy. For compression flanges, the maximum
strength, Fu, of the flange is taken equal to FyRb. The
C10.50.1.1 Compact Sections flange-stress reduction factor Rb accounts for the increase
in compression-flange stress that results due to local web
The words ‘beams and girders’ are changed to the bend-buckling and is to be computed according to the pro-
word ‘sections’ in the first sentence of this article for visions of Article 10.48.4.1. To provide some additional
consistency. Also, AASHTO M 270 Grade HPS70W relief at more lightly loaded sections, Rb is to be computed
(ASTM A 709 Grade HPS70W) steel has been added to the using the actual factored compression-flange bending
list of steels that have the demonstrated ability to reach the stress fb in place of the term Mr/Sxc when Rb is computed
plastic moment capacity Mp. using Equation (10-103b) in Article 10.48.4.1; fb cannot
exceed Fy.
C10.50.1.1.2 In addition, for composite sections in positive moment
regions, the revised article states that the area of the com-
Revisions to this article clarify that only composite pression flange Afc in Equation (10-103b) for the compu-
sections of constant-depth flexural members without lon-
tation of Rb is to be taken as the transformed area of the
gitudinal web stiffeners and without holes in the tension
top flange and concrete deck that yields the depth of the
flange (refer to the commentary to Article 10.18.2.1.5) can
web in compression Dc calculated in accordance with
qualify as compact sections for positive bending. Suffi-
Article 10.50(b).
cient research has not yet been conducted on composite
sections of variable-depth members with or without lon- The effective transformed Afc, can be derived as
gitudinal web stiffeners, composite sections of constant- follows:
depth members with longitudinal web stiffeners or on
composite sections of variable- or constant-depth mem- Atot = Aft + Aw +Afc (1)
bers with holes in the tension flange to determine if these
where:
sections can achieve the full plastic moment capacity in
positive bending. The maximum bending strength of com- Atot = total area of section
posite sections in positive flexure of variable-depth mem- Aft = area of tension flange
bers, or with longitudinal web stiffeners, or with holes in Aw = area of web
the tension flange is to be determined from the provisions
Arc = effective transformed area of compression
of Article 10.50.1.2 (see below).
flange and concrete deck
The words ‘beams and girders’ are changed to the word
‘sections’ throughout this article for consistency. An edi- Using the web depth D for simplicity instead of the dis-
torial change is also indicated immediately above Equa- tance between the centerline of Aft and Afc to compute the
tion (10-129d). The former Article 10.50(f) is now Article distance to the neutral axis from the effective top flange,
10.50(c). which is equivalent to Dc in this case, gives (referring to
Finally, the b factor of 0.7 in the definition of D' for Figure 1):
Equation (10-129a) has been extended to include Grade
HPS70W and 70W steels based on research at the Univer-
sity of Nebraska at Lincoln.
C10.50.1.2 Noncompact Sections
C10.50.1.2.1
This article is revised to express the maximum strength
of non-compact composite sections in terms of stress
rather than moment. For a composite noncompact girder,
dead- and live-load moments due to the factored loads are
applied to different sections and should not be directly
summed when at elastic stress levels (up to and including
Fy); that is, the principle of superposition does not apply FIGURE 1
Essentially, the calculated load-shedding factor to be

applied to the effective transformed area is first propor-
(2) tioned to the steel flange and is then used to compute a
modified (smaller) load-shedding factor for the flange. It
should be noted that in most cases, the above procedure
will only need to be implemented for composite non-
Rearranging Equation (2) yields: compact sections in positive flexure with longitudinally
stiffened webs that have relatively large values of Dc. For
composite sections in positive bending without longitudi-
nal web stiffeners, either the section will typically qualify
(3) as compact, or should the section be noncompact, the Rb
factor calculated from Equation (10-103b) will typically
exceed 1.0 (and must therefore be set equal to 1.0) unless
Dc is unusually large.
Substituting Equation (3) into Equation (1) and solv- Lastly, the revised article states that the revised web
ing for the effective transformed Afc gives: thickness requirement of Article 10.48.2.1(b) shall apply.
When conventional cast-in-place composite decks are used,
the lateral bracing requirement of Article 10.48.2.1(c)
and the compression-flange slenderness requirement of
(4) Article 10.48.2.1(a) need not be checked. However, when
precast decks are used with the stud shear connectors
clustered in pockets several feet apart, the Engineer may
wish to limit the maximum bending strength of the top
The use of this effective Afc in Equation (10-103b) for (compression) flange according to Equation (10-99) in
Rb is more appropriate for composite sections in positive Article 10.48.2 and check the limiting b/t ratio specified
bending and is more consistent with the original deriva- in Article 10.48.2.1(a) in order to ensure that local buck-
tion of Rb, which results in a less critical value of Rb for ling of the flange will not occur in the regions between the
these sections. shear connectors.
The revised Article 10.50.1.2.1 also states that the re-
sulting Rb factor be distributed to the top flange and con- C10.50.2 Negative Moment Sections
crete deck in proportion to their relative stiffness. When
the top flange is composite, the stresses that are shed from The words ‘of Composite Beams and Girders’ are con-
the web to the flange are resisted in proportion to the rel- sidered redundant and are removed from the heading for
ative stiffness of the steel flange and the concrete deck. this article for consistency with the revision to the head-
The Rb factor is to be applied only to the stresses in the ing for Article 10.50. The current references to Articles
steel flange. Thus, whenever Equation (10-103b) is ap- 10.48 and 10.49 are replaced with the more correct refer-
plicable to a composite section under positive moment, a ences to Articles 10.50.2.1 or 10.50.2.2, as applicable, for
modified Rb factor for the top flange (termed Rb) can be the computation of the maximum bending strength. Arti-
computed as follows: cles 10.50.2.1 and 10.50.2.2 refer back to the appropriate
provisions of Article 10.48 where necessary.
C10.50.2.1 Compact Sections

(5)
Revisions are proposed to clarify that compact com-
posite sections of constant-depth flexural members with-
out longitudinal web stiffeners and without holes in the ten-
where:
sion flange (refer to the commentary to Article 10.18.2.1.5)
Rb = factor computed from Equation (10-103b) can qualify as compact sections for negative bending. Suf-
using the effective transformed Afc from Equa- ficient research has not yet been conducted on composite
tion (4) sections of variable-depth members with or without lon-
Atf = area of the top flange gitudinal web stiffeners, composite sections of constant-
Afc = transformed area of the top flange and con- depth members with longitudinal web stiffeners, or on com-
crete deck from Equation (4) posite sections of variable- or constant-depth members with
holes in the tension flange to determine if these sections gradient correction factor Cb in Article 10.48.4.1, the
can achieve the full plastic moment capacity in negative smaller and larger factored compression-flange bending
bending. stresses, fb, at each end of the unbraced segment of the
Also, AASHTO M 270 Grade HPS70W (ASTM A 709 beam are to be substituted for the smaller and larger end
Grade HPS70W) steel has been added to the list of steels moments M1 and M2, respectively.
that have the demonstrated ability to reach the plastic mo-
ment capacity Mp. C10.50.2.3
C10.50.2.2 Noncompact Sections This article specifies the LFD requirement for mini-
mum longitudinal reinforcement in the concrete deck.
This article is revised to correspond with the above re- To address at least some of the issues discussed above
visions to Article 10.48.2 for braced noncompact sections, under ASD Article 10.38.4.3, it is proposed that the min-
except that the maximum strength is specified separately imum one-percent longitudinal reinforcement be placed
for the tension and compression flange and is expressed in wherever the longitudinal tensile stress in the deck due
terms of stress rather than moment for reasons discussed to either the construction loads or the overload specified
previously. in Article 10.57 exceeds 0.9fr, where fr is the modulus of
When all requirements of Article 10.48.2.1 are satis- rupture for the concrete specified in Article 8.15.2.1.1.
fied (including the lateral bracing requirement), the The factor 0.9 represents a conservative resistance factor
maximum strength, Fu, of the tension flange is taken applied to the modulus of rupture to provide additional
equal to Fy and the maximum strength, Fu, of the com- assurance against concrete cracking. In addition, the re-
pression flange is taken equal to FcrRb. Fcr represents a quired longitudinal reinforcement is to be No. 6 bars or
critical compression-flange local buckling stress, which smaller spaced at not more than 12 inches to ensure ade-
is determined based on the actual slenderness of the quate distribution of the reinforcement to control the crack
compression flange as specified in Article 10.48.2 and size. By controlling the crack size, the concrete deck can
cannot exceed Fy. Therefore, a compression flange with be considered to be effective in tension for serviceability
a larger slenderness (up to the limiting value of 24 speci- checks (e.g. fatigue and overload) as long as adequate
fied in Article 10.48.2.1(a)) can be used at more lightly shear connection between the deck and the girders is also
loaded sections. To achieve Fcr equal to Fy at critical sec- provided (see discussion on Article 10.58.1). As a result
tions, the compression flange slenderness (based on the of this requirement, the minimum longitudinal reinforce-
full flange width b) cannot exceed the limiting values in- ment will likely need to be extended beyond the dead-load
dicated in revised Table 10.48.2.1A. The compression- points of contraflexure.
flange capacity is also modified by the flange-stress re- The area of the concrete slab to be used in this require-
duction factor Rb. The flange-stress reduction factor Rb ment is also defined in the specification as the structural
accounts for the increase in compression-flange stress that
thickness times the entire width of the deck for reasons
results due to local web bend-buckling and is to be com-
discussed previously (see the earlier commentary on the
puted according to the provisions of Article 10.48.4.1. To
revisions to Article 10.38.4.3).
provide some additional relief at more lightly loaded sec-
tions, Rb is to be computed using the actual factored com-
pression-flange bending stress fb in place of the term C10.51 COMPOSITE BOX GIRDERS
Mr/Sxc when Rb is computed using Equation (10-103b) in
Article 10.48.4.1; fb cannot exceed Fy. C10.51.5 Compression Flanges
When all requirements of Article 10.48.2.1 are satis-
fied, except for the lateral bracing requirement given by C10.51.5.4
Equation (10-101), the maximum strength, Fu, of the com-
pression flange is again taken equal to FcrRb. However, in C10.51.5.4.4
this case the calculated maximum strength of the com-
pression flange cannot exceed the maximum strength The equation for the buckling coefficient for a longitu-
for the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling, which is dinally stiffened bottom flange plate in the current speci-
to be calculated as the limiting stress Mu/Sxc, where Mu fications assumes that the plate and stiffeners are infinitely
and Sxc are determined according to the provisions of long and ignores the effect of any transverse bracing or
Article 10.48.4.1 for partially braced members. Mu in stiffening. As a result, when the number of stiffeners ex-
Article 10.48.4.1 includes the flange-stress reduction ceeds two, the moment of inertia of the stiffeners required
factor Rb. For consistency, when computing the moment- to achieve the desired k value increases dramatically so as
to become impractical. In new designs where an excep- states that Fy is to be taken as the yield strength of the lon-
tionally wide box flange is required, it may indeed be- gitudinal stiffener. The revision to Article 10.48.6.3(a)
come necessary to provide more than two longitudinal further states the factored bending stress in the longitudi-
stiffeners. Rating of older bridges with more than two lon- nal stiffener is not to exceed the yield strength of the stiff-
gitudinal stiffeners becomes problematic if the current re- ener, which eliminates the need to limit the stress in the
quirements are employed because the longitudinal stiff- stiffener indirectly by using Fy of the adjacent flange in
eners are not likely to provide enough moment of inertia checking the stiffener width-to-thickness and radius of
to satisfy the unrealistically high requirement. gyration requirements.
Thus, the revision to this article indicates that the num- An additional revision regarding the placement of lon-
ber of longitudinal flange stiffeners preferably shall not gitudinal web stiffeners in yielded portions of the web
exceed two. For cases where the number of longitudinal parallels a similar revision given in a new ASD Article
stiffeners exceeds two, it is suggested that additional trans- 10.40.2.1.4 (see the earlier discussion on the new Article
verse stiffeners (beyond the recommended transverse stiff- 10.40.2.1.4).
eners placed near points of dead load contraflexure) be
added to reduce the required size of the longitudinal stiff- C10.53.1 Noncomposite Hybrid Sections
eners to a more practical value. Current ASD specifications
contain provisions for the design of flanges stiffened both The word ‘girders’ is replaced with the more appropri-
longitudinally and transversely in Article 10.39.4.4, which ate word ‘sections’ in the heading for this article.
can be modified for use with the strength design method.
Included are requirements related to the spacing and stiff- C10.53.1.1 Compact Sections
ness of the transverse stiffeners. The bottom strut of the
transverse interior bracing in the box can be considered to An editorial revision is made to clarify the definition
act as a transverse stiffener for this purpose if the strut sat- of Fyf.
isfies the appropriate stiffness requirements.
C10.53.1.2 Braced Noncompact Sections
C10.51.5.6
Existing Equation (10-146) is revised to correspond
The indicated revisions in this new LFD article paral- with the revised Equation (10-98) in Article 10.48.2. A
lel the revisions to ASD Article 10.39 (see the earlier dis- new Equation (10-146a) is also added to this article,
cussion on the proposed revisions to Article 10.39). which represents the new Equation (10-99) in Article
10.48.2 with the hybrid factor R added. In addition, lan-
C10.51.7 Design of Flange to Web Welds guage is added to indicate that the hybrid factor R is to be
taken as 1.0 at sections where the stress in both flanges
This new LFD article on design of flange-to-web welds caused by the maximum design load does not exceed the
for box girders parallels the existing ASD Article 10.39.5. specified minimum yield strength of the web since web
The same requirements should be applied to box girders yielding is assumed not to occur in this case.
designed by ASD or LFD.
C10.53.1.3 Partially Braced Members
C10.53 HYBRID GIRDERS The heading for this article is revised to correspond to
the revised heading for Article 10.48.4. The language in
This article states that for hybrid girders, Fy is to be taken this article is also revised for consistency with the revised
as the specified minimum yield strength of the element language of Article 10.48.2 that refers to the requirements
under consideration with the exceptions listed. The excep- of Article 10.48.4.1 for computing the maximum permis-
tions listed under item (1) are revised to remove the refer- sible compression-flange capacity for a partially braced
ence to Article 10.48.2.1(b) (since the current equation in member.
that article has been removed) and to add a reference to
Article 10.50.1.1.2, which contains a web slenderness re- C10.53.2 Composite Hybrid Sections
quirement with Fy in the denominator. In these cases Fy of
the compression flange is to be used in calculating the web The word ‘girders’ is replaced with the more appro-
slenderness requirement. priate word ‘sections’ in the heading for this article. Lan-
The first sentence under item (2) in this article is elim- guage is also added to differentiate the computation of
inated since the above revision to Article 10.48.6.3(a) the maximum strength for compact and noncompact
composite hybrid sections in both positive and negative C10.56.1 Connectors

bending. The current article does not include provisions
for the design of compact composite hybrid sections. C10.56.1.3 Bolts and Rivets
Therefore, the appropriate language is added to permit
their use. C10.56.1.3.3
This editorial revision eliminates the reference to Table
C10.53.3 Shear
10.57A in the definition for the design shear strength of a
rivet or bolt, Fy. Table 10.57A provides slip resistances for
This new article represents the previous Article
bolts. Under combined tension and shear, slip resistance is
10.53.1.4 (Transversely Stiffened Girders), which has been
computed according to the provisions of Article 10.57.3.4.
moved here to improve the overall flow of the specification.
Article 10.56.1.3.3 computes the tensile strength of a bolt
or rivet under combined tension and shear.
C10.54 COMPRESSION MEMBERS
C10.56.1.4 Slip-Critical Joints
C10.54.1 Axial Loading
Language has been added to clarify that in addition to
C10.54.1.1 Maximum Capacity (Axial Load) checking slip at overload, the bolts in slip-critical connec-
tions must also satisfy the shear and bearing strength re-
A footnote to this article is added regarding the com- quirements of Article 10.56.1.3 under the maximum design
putation of the maximum capacity of concentrically loads in Load Factor Design.
loaded columns in LFD. The language in this footnote is
parallel to the language added in a similar footnote to
C10.57 OVERLOAD
ASD Table 10.321A (see earlier discussion of the revi-
sions to Table 10.32.1A).
A new paragraph is added to clarify the definition of
overload when considering AASHTO Group I, Group IA,
C10.54.1.2 Effective Length
or Group II load combinations.
The existing language regarding moment redistribu-
The reference to the existing footnote in this article is
tion is moved into this paragraph so it applies to both non-
revised to accommodate the addition of the new footnote
composite and composite sections.
discussed under Article 10.54.1.1.
A provision to check web bend-buckling at overload is
added. Equation (10-173) in Article 10.61.1 is used to
C10.54.2 Combined Axial Load and Bending
make the check. For composite sections, Dc is to be cal-
culated considering the accumulated bending stresses, as
C10.54.2.2 Equivalent Moment Factor C
specified in Article 10.50(b). Revised Article 10.57.2 (see
below) will allow the option to compute overload flange
The current lower limit of 0.4 on the C coefficient con-
stresses caused by loads acting on the appropriate com-
tained in the amplification factor for members under com-
posite section assuming the concrete deck to be fully ef-
bined bending and axial force (in LFD) is eliminated for
fective for both positive and negative moment if certain
consistency with the revision to Table 10.36A discussed
conditions are met. If the concrete deck is assumed to be
earlier.
fully effective in negative moment regions, more than half
of the web will typically be in compression increasing the
C10.56 SPLICES, CONNECTIONS, AND DETAILS susceptibility of the web to bend-buckling. Since the de-
sign checks at overload are considered to be serviceabil-
Table C10.56A Design Strength of Connectors ity checks, web bend-buckling at overload should be lim-
ited. Sections that do not comply with Equation (10-173)
Footnote d has been applied to the shear strength of should be modified to comply with the requirement; lon-
ASTM A 307 bolts to indicate that the joint length cor- gitudinal web stiffeners should not be added to satisfy this
rection factor also applies when determining the shear serviceability requirement.
strength of these bolts. Also, language has been added at
the end of footnote d in order to clarify the definition of C10.57.1 Noncomposite Sections
the 50-inch length used in determining whether or not to
apply the joint-length correction factor when calculating This revised article limits the maximum overload flange
the shear strength of high-strength bolts in flange splices. stress at noncomposite sections (versus girders) to 0.8Fy.
The hybrid factor R is eliminated because web yielding, C10.61.1 Web Bend-Buckling
should it occur, is limited at overload.
Language is added to indicate that if a longitudinal
C10.57.2 Composite Sections stiffener is used to comply with the web bend-buckling
check for constructibility, it must be placed at a location
This revised article limits the maximum overload flange on the web that satisfies Equation (10-173) for con-
stress at composite sections (versus girders) to 0.95Fy. The structibility and that also satisfies the strength criteria
hybrid factor R is eliminated because web yielding, should for the maximum design loads. The revised language
it occur, is limited at overload. also indicates that this location may not necessarily cor-
For consistency with other serviceability checks (e.g. respond to the recommended optimum location of the
fatigue—see the discussion on revised Article 10.58.1), stiffener specified in Article 10.49.3.2(a). The recom-
overload flange stresses caused by loads acting on the ap- mended optimum location can serve as an initial trial
propriate composite section may be computed assuming location, but the stiffener may have to be moved verti-
the concrete deck to be fully effective for both positive and cally up or down from the optimum location in order to
negative moment if: 1) shear connectors are provided satisfy both the constructibility and strength criteria—
along the entire length, and 2) the longitudinal reinforce- particularly in positive bending regions of composite
girders and in areas of stress reversal. By judicious place-
ment satisfies the provisions of Article 10.50.2.3. By pro-
ment of the longitudinal stiffener in regions of stress
viding shear connectors to ensure composite action and by
reversal, it may be possible to place only one stiffener
controlling the crack size at overload with the minimum
on the web (rather than two) such that all design crite-
longitudinal reinforcement, it is logical to consider the
ria are adequately satisfied with either edge of the web
concrete deck to be effective in tension at overload for
in compression.
loads acting on the appropriate composite section for rea- The existing language indicating that the longitudi-
sons discussed previously (see discussion on revisions to nally stiffened girder must meet the requirements of Arti-
ASD Article 10.3.1). Should the concrete deck be consid- cles 10.48.6 and 10.49.3 is considered redundant and is
ered effective in tension, for consistency, the resulting removed (see also the next paragraph below). These re-
stresses due to loads acting on the appropriate composite quirements must be satisfied when the girder is in the final
section are to be combined with the stresses due to loads condition.
acting on the noncomposite section to calculate Dc for A paragraph is added to the end of this article indicat-
checking web bend-buckling. ing that the web thickness requirements specified in Arti-
cles 10.48.5.1, 10.48.6.1, 10.49.2, and 10.49.3.2(b) are not
C10.57.3 Slip-Critical Joints to be applied to the constructibility load case. Local web
bend-buckling is explicitly checked for the constructibil-
C10.57.3.1 ity load case according to Equation (10-173). The re-
quirements in the above articles are intended to apply only
The words for H or HS truck load only have been re- when the girder is in the final condition. The use of these
moved. There is no known theoretical reason for this re- requirements (which have the yield stress Fy in the de-
quirement. The design slip force should not be exceeded in nominator) is too conservative for the constructibility load
connections subject to either H or HS truck or lane loading. case since compression stresses in the web are typically
below Fy during construction. Checking these require-
ments using the factored noncomposite dead load com-
C10.58 FATIGUE pression flange stress fb in place of Fy is redundant since
web bend-buckling is already explicitly checked, as men-
C10.58.1 General tioned earlier.
Finally, an editorial revision is made to insert the lower
The indicated revision is made in LFD to be consistent limits for the bend-buckling coefficient for longitudinally
with a similar revision made in ASD (see the previous dis- stiffened girders (see earlier discussion on the revisions to
cussion on the revisions to ASD Article 10.3.1). ASD Article 10.34.3.2.1).
C10.61 CONSTRUCTIBILITY C10.61.2 Web Shear Buckling
An editorial change is made to change the load factor It is specified that the sum of the factored non-
‘y’ to the load factor ‘g’. composite and composite dead-load shears be used in
See also C10.61 (1997). checking for shear buckling of the web during construc-
tion. Both the non-composite and composite dead-load 9. Zandonini, R. (1985), “Stability of Compact Built-Up
shears are critical in checking the stability of the web dur- Struts: Experimental Investigation and Numerical
ing construction. Simulation,” Construzioni Metalliche, No. 4.
10. Load and Resistance Factor Design, LRFD Specifi-
cation for Structural Steel Buildings and Commen-
C10.61.4 Compression-Flange Local Buckling
tary, AISC, 1st Edition, September 1, 1986.
11. Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Struc-
The b/t requirement for the compression flange in
tures, Fifth Edition, Structural Stability Research
Equation (10-174) is rewritten in terms of the full flange
Council, Edited by Theodore V. Galambos, 1998.
width b rather than the projecting flange width b’ for con-
sistency with previous revisions. A practical upper limit
of 24 is placed on the compression-flange slenderness COMMENTARY TO
limit for constructibility, which corresponds to the upper SECTION 17—SOIL-REINFORCED CONCRETE
limit of 24 specified in ASD. Should the load-shedding STRUCTURES INTERACTION SYSTEMS
factor Rb be less than 1.0, the compression-flange stress
is theoretically increased. Thus, the revised article also C17.6.4.7, C17.7.4.7, and C17.8.5.7
requires that fdl be taken as the factored non-composite
dead load compression-flange stress divided by Rb, but Consideration of thrust in determining flexural stresses
not to exceed Fy. under service load conditions can have a significant effect
on reinforcing requirements to meet the provisions of Sec-
tion 17; however, the equations to make this calculation
REFERENCES are not commonly available. As a result, excessive rein-
forcement areas are often specified. The proposed revi-
1. Barzegar, F. and S. Maddipudi. (1997). “Three- sions incorporate equations taken from ACI SP-3, 1965
Dimensional Modeling of Concrete Structures. II: and make them readily available to design engineers.
Reinforced Concrete,” Journal of Structural Engi- The proposed changes will reduce, sometimes sub-
neering, ASCE, Vol. 123, No. 10, October, 1997, pp. stantially, the amount of reinforcement in reinforced con-
1347–1356. crete sections compared to those that ignore the benefit of
2. Yen, B. T., T. Huang, and D. V. Van Horn. (1995). compressive thrust.
“Field Testing of a Steel Bridge and a Prestressed Con- See also C17.6.4.7 (1997).
crete Bridge,” Research Project No. 86-05, Final Re-
port, Vol. II, PennDOT Office of Research and Special
Studies, Fritz Engineering Laboratory Report No. COMMENTARY TO
SECTION 18—SOIL-THERMOPLASTIC
519.2, Lehigh University, May 1995.
PIPE INTERACTION SYSTEMS
3. Yura, J. A., M. A. Hansen, and K. H. Frank, “Bolted
Splice Connections with Undeveloped Fillers,” Jour-
C18.4.3.1.2
nal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 108, No.
ST12, December, 1982, pp. 2837-2849.
This change is recommended as a result of work done
4. Sheikh-Ibrahim, F. I., “Design Method for Bearing-
under NCHRP Project 4-24 as reported in NCHRP Re-
Type Bolted Connections with Fillers,” accepted for port 429 to address environmental stress cracking in
publication in a future edition of the AISC Engineering AASHTO M 294 polyethylene culverts. Approval of this
Journal. change is made provisionally pending approval by the
5. Sheikh-Ibrahim, F. I., “Development of Design Proce- AASHTO Subcommittee on Materials of those changes
dures for Steel Girder Bolted Splices,” Ph.D. Disserta- made to AASHTO M 294 that are recommended in NCHRP
tion, The University of Texas at Austin, December 1995. Report 429.
6. Zureick, A. and B. Shih. (1995). “Local Buckling of The change in cell class is made to reflect changes in
Fiber-Reinforced Polymeric Structural Members the Slow Crack Resistance (SCR) tests. The current cell
Under Linearly-Varying Edge Loading,” Report No. class number for the ESCR is “2.” This number should be
FHWA-RD, May 1995, pp. 1–113. changed to “0” if the SP-NCTL test is adopted by the
7. Timoshenko, S. P. and J. M. Gere. (1961). The Theory AASHTO Subcommittee on Materials in August 2000.
of Elastic Stability, 2nd Edition, McGrawHill Book The cell class “0” in ASTM D335 is referred to “unspec-
Company, New York, pp. 1–541. ified.” Instructions for the SP-NCTL test procedure and
8. Austin, W. J. (1961), “Strength and Design of Metal requirements will be incorporated into the appropriate
Beam-Columns,” Journal of the Structural Division, sections of the Material Specification to guide the user.
ASCII, Vol. 87, No. ST4, April 1961. See also C18.4.3.1.2 (1997).
DIVISION II C11.3.2.1 Material
COMMENTARY TO References to the AASHTO M 292 (ASTM A 194)

SECTION 7—EARTH RETAINING SYSTEMS Grades 2 and 2H nuts have been eliminated. These nuts are
primarily for pressure-vessel applications and are not
C7.3 MATERIALS widely used for bridges.
C7.3.1.4 C11.3.2.5 Alternative Fasteners
The current specifications do not provide a clear crite- Reference to the ASTM F 1852 Specification has been
ria for determining whether or not a given block has ade- added. As of this writing, there is no equivalent metric
quate freeze-thaw resistance. Furthermore, ASTM C 666 specification.
has more than one testing protocol, neither of which have
an identified acceptance criteria. ASTM C 1262 is a newly C11.4.1 Identification of Steels During Fabrication
developed protocol specifically developed for dry-cast
concrete blocks, and only just recently has information Color codes for steels as noted in the AASHTO M 160
been available to identify what the acceptance criteria (ASTM A 6) Specifications may also be used for identifi-
should be when using this protocol. ASTM C 1372 con- cation purposes. This method is being eliminated by many
tains the acceptance criteria for dry-cast concrete blocks, owners due to the complexity of the code with many new
but is not as stringent as desired. Hence, the limit of 1% material grades. Hence, Table 11.4 has been deleted.
weight loss after 150 cycles is provided in this revision.
Dry-cast concrete block durability in a freeze-thaw en- C11.4.3.3.2 Cold Bending
vironment is potentially a significant problem, as evi-
denced by the recent experience of the Minnesota DOT. The requirements of this article have been revised to cor-
Clarifying the protocol and using updated testing methods respond with the requirements given in the ANSI/
will help to minimize this problem. AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code.
C7.3.6 Structure Backfill Material C11.4.7 Straightening Material
C7.3.6.3 Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls The requirements of this article have been revised to cor-
respond with the requirements given in the ANSI/
These revisions allow the definition of nonaggressive
AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code.
soil to be moved to Division I, since the definition of
nonaggressive soil is needed for design purposes, and
C11.4.11 Annealing and Stress Relieving
is not intended for the development of construction
specifications.
Requirements for Grade HPS70W steel have been
added.
COMMENTARY TO
SECTION 11—STEEL STRUCTURES C11.4.12.2.3 Temperature
C11.3.1.1, C11.3.1.4, C11.4.1, C11.4.3.3.3, C11.4.7, The requirements of this article have been revised to cor-
and C11.4.12.2.1 respond with the requirements given in the ANSI/
AASHTO/AWS D1.5 Bridge Welding Code.
ASTM and the AASHTO Subcommittee on Materials
have adopted a specification for HPS70W steels.
Numerous highway bridges have been successfully REFERENCES
fabricated using AWS D1.5, supplemented by the provi-
sions in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Highway 1. American Concrete Institute, Publication SP-3, “Re-
Bridge Fabrication with HPS70W Steel. AASHTO M 270 inforced Concrete Design Handbook, Working Stress
(ASTM A 709) Grade HPS70W steels have been tested by Method,” 1965.
the New York State Thruway Authority (NYSTA) up to 2. NCHRP Report 429, HDPE Pipe: Recommended Ma-
1245˚F. A copy of the report of the work done by High Steel terial Specifications and Design Requirements, Y. G.
Structures for NYSTA is available from FHWA. Husan, T. J. McGrath, 1999.

Aashto 2002standard Specifications For Highway Bridges 17th

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Standard Specifications

for Highway Bridges

Adopted and Published by the

Code: HB-17 ISBN: 156051-171-0

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

President: Brad Mallory, Pennsylvania

Region I: Joseph Boardman, New York, One-Year Term

Region II: Bruce Saltsman, Tennessee, One-Year Term

Region III: Kirk Brown, Illinois, One-Year Term

Region IV: Joseph Perkins, Alaska, One-Year Term

Immediate Past President: E. Dean Carlson, Kansas

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

TOM LULAY, Oregon, Chairman

ALABAMA, William F. Conway, George H. SOUTH CAROLINA, Randy R. Cannon, Jeff

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

Major changes and revisions to this edition are as follows:

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

Additional bridges and structures publications prepared and published by other

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

SECTION 1—GENERAL PROVISIONS

1.1 DESIGN ANALYSIS AND GENERAL STRUCTURAL

SECTION 2—GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

2.6.1 Roadway Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

PART A—TYPES OF LOADS

3.1 NOTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

3.15.1 Superstructure Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

PART B—COMBINATIONS OF LOADS

3.22 COMBINATIONS OF LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

PART C—DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS

3.23 DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS TO STRINGERS, LONGITUDINAL

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

3.24.5.2 Railing Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36

PART A—GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS

4.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

PART B—SERVICE LOAD DESIGN METHOD

4.4 SPREAD FOOTINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

4.4.11.2 Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

4.5.6.7.2 Expansive Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

4.5.20 Prestressed Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .77

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

4.6.5.5.3 Tolerable Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .87

PART C—STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD

4.8 SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

4.11.3 Movement Under Serviceability Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

4.12.3.3.7a Single Pile Uplift Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104

SECTION 5—RETAINING WALLS

PART A—GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS

5.1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

5.2.1.2 Nongravity Cantilevered Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112

© 2009 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

5.8 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH WALL DESIGN . . . . . . .138