applied

sciences
Article
Applying Selective Laser Melting to Join Al and Fe:
An Investigation of Dissimilar Materials
Dinh-Son Nguyen, Hong-Seok Park * and Chang-Myung Lee
School of Mechanical & Automotive Engineering, University of Ulsan, Ulsan 680-749, Korea
* Correspondence: phosk@ulsan.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-052-259-1458




Received: 28 June 2019; Accepted: 23 July 2019; Published: 27 July 2019


Abstract: Combining aluminum and steel is a major goal of automobile manufacturers and other
industries because the hybrid material reduces the weight of components. However, differences
in chemical properties, thermal expansion, and physical characteristics of aluminum and steel are
barriers to achieving this goal. In this article, selective laser melting (SLM), which is widely used in
industrial fields, was applied to join dissimilar materials by printing aluminum on a steel substrate.
Defects of joining during the SLM process, characteristics of the intermetallic reaction layer, and the
effects of the process parameters were investigated. The analysis indicates that flake behavior could
affect the quality of joining. The phases of the intermetallic layer found in this study were in agreement
with other research, but the morphology of the layer was much different. A formula to estimate the
join quality in terms of density energy is proposed. The results indicate that the SLM process is a
promising method to manufacture a hybrid material.

Keywords: selective laser melting; dissimilar material joining; aluminum; stainless steel

1. Introduction
The joining of aluminum, a low-density material with good corrosion resistance, and steel,
a high-strength material with good formability, has great potential to meet the increasing demands of
industries such as automotive manufacturing. The combination of aluminum and steel has unique
physical and mechanical properties, such as a reduction of product weight, which is a significant
advantage of aluminum–steel bimetallic parts. However, large differences in the melting temperatures,
thermal conductivities, and thermal expansions of steel and aluminum, as well as low solubility, makes
it quite difficult to join them. A variety of methods have been applied to join dissimilar materials,
such as mechanical assembling (e.g., riveting, clinching, screwing) and heat joining (e.g., friction stir
welding [1,2], arc welding [3,4], laser welding [5–9], hot-dip aluminizing [10]).
Selective laser melting (SLM) is an additive manufacturing process that is widely used in many
industrial areas. The SLM printing process includes of a series of steps, ranging from computer-aided
design data preparation to the removal of a fabricated component from the building platform. A typical
configuration of an SLM printer is shown in Figure 1 [11]. In the beginning, the piston head is raised
to lift the material powder. At the same time, the substrate in the build cylinder is dropped to a
distance that is equal to the layer thickness. The scrapper travels from the feed container to the
overflow container to create a layer of powder on the substrate and then comes back to the initial
position. The laser scans the surface of fabricated bed area basing on each slide data. The processes
are repeated until the part has been finished. The SLM allows fabrication of complex-shaped parts
that cannot be manufactured by other traditional methods, with high density and accuracy of the
printed product. Therefore, SLM is attractive for manufacture of automotive, aerospace, and medical
components. However, most SLM printers that are currently commercially available have been
designed to produce parts from a single material. Hybrid parts manufactured by selective laser melting

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3031; doi:10.3390/app9153031 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3031 2 of 12
designed to produce parts from a single material. Hybrid parts manufactured by selective laser
melting were investigated [12]. The concept of multi-material fabrication by SLM has been reported
were investigated [12]. The concept of multi-material fabrication by SLM has been reported in the
in the literature [8–9]; however, these products were printed by physically mixing powders before
literature
layering. [8,9]; however, these products were printed by physically mixing powders before layering.

Figure [11].
1. The selective laser melting (SLM) printing process [11].
Figure 1.

Flake
Flake Behavior
Behavior
When
When investigating the printing
investigating the printing process
process parameters
parameters ofof powder
powder bedbed fusion
fusion printing, the ability
printing, the ability
to spread a sufficient new layer of powder is the major determinant
to spread a sufficient new layer of powder is the major determinant of product
product quality. However,
However,
some
some unwanted
unwanted behaviors
behaviors may
may occur
occur during
during thethe selective
selective laser
laser melting
melting process.
process. Delamination
Delamination or or
cracking of the
cracking of the support
support section (shown by
section (shown by the
the dashed circles in
dashed circles in Figure
Figure 2a,b)
2a,b) occur
occur inside
inside the
the printed
printed
part itself and are due to process parameters. However, the flaking shown in Figure
part itself and are due to process parameters. However, the flaking shown in Figure 2c occurred 2c occurred
because
because of
of material
material differences
differences additionally.
additionally.

Figure 2. Delamination (a), support cracking (b), and flaking (c).

Because of the flake, the printed section and the scrapper are conflicted. Therefore,
Therefore, the spreading
process
process can
cancreate
createaaproblem;
problem;ininthethe
worst case,
worst thethe
case, SLM process
SLM mustmust
process be stopped. Therefore,
be stopped. the flake
Therefore, the
phenomenon can represent
flake phenomenon the join
can represent the quality of hybrid
join quality materials.
of hybrid In this
materials. study,
In this thethe
study, SLMSLMprocess of
process
pure aluminum
of pure aluminum powder
powderon on
stainless steel
stainless 316316
steel L substrate was
L substrate analyzed
was analyzed byby
investigating thethe
investigating effects of
effects
process parameters and flake behavior.
of process parameters and flake behavior.

2. Materials and
2. Materials and Methods
Methods
In this study,
In this study,99.9%
99.9%pure
purealuminum
aluminumpowder
powder waswas printed
printed on on a stainless-steel
a stainless-steel 316
316 L L substrate.
substrate. The
The powder particle size of the aluminum powder was 30–45 µm. A scanning electron
powder particle size of the aluminum powder was 30–45 µm. A scanning electron microscopy (SEM) microscopy
(SEM)
image ofimage of the aluminum
the aluminum powder powder (HKK Solution
(HKK Solution Co., Ltd.,Co., Ltd.,
Seoul, Seoul,
South South
Korea) Korea) in
is shown is Figure
shown3a.in
Figure 3a. Figure 3b indicated the particle size distribution by the laser scattering analyzer
Figure 3b indicated the particle size distribution by the laser scattering analyzer LA-960. An SLM LA-960.
An SLM(MetalSys
printer printer (MetalSys 150, WinforSys
150, WinforSys co., Ltd., Gyeonggi-do,
co., Ltd., Gyeonggi-do, South
South Korea) Korea)
with with an air-cooled
an air-cooled ytterbium
 Table 1. Technical parameters of the selective laser melting (SLM) MetalSys 150.

Parameter Value
Wavelength 1075 nm
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3031 Maximum output power 200 W 3 of 12
Beam quality <1.1
Beam spot 70 µm
ytterbium fiber laser (YLR-200-AC-Y11 IPG Ytterbium
Building size Fiber Laser, 200 mm
150 × 150 × 250 W maximum output) was used
for processing. Table 1 describes the technical parameters
Maximum scanning speed of the printer.
7 m/s

Figure
Figure 3. 3.
(a)(a) SEMimage
SEM imageofofpure
purealuminum
aluminum powder
powder particles,
particles,(b)
(b)powder
powderparticle
particlesize distribution,
size distribution,
and (c) laser scanning strategy.
and (c) laser scanning strategy.

A seriesTable
of aluminum
1. Technicalcubes were of
parameters printed on the
the selective stainless-steel
laser melting (SLM) substrate
MetalSyswithout
150. support
sections. All steel substrates investigated in this study were 10 mm thick to prevent deformation
Parameter Value
during processing. Prior to printing, the substrates were polished with 2000-grit paper and cleaned
with ethanol. The printing process Wavelength
used the meander-scanning 1075 nm shown in Figure 3c, in which
pattern
the laser scan direction wasMaximum
parallel tooutput power
the x-axis in every layer. 200 W thickness was 20 µm for every
Layer
Beam quality <1.1
experiment. The fabricating chamber was set at 28 °C initially. The argon gas was pumped into the
Beam spot 70 µm
chamber at 25 L/min of flow rateBuilding
and 0.05size
MPa of pressure to obtain an oxygen level below less than
150 × 150 × 250 mm
0.1 percent. After achieving a setup oxygen
Maximum scanning speed level, the gas supply was cut off and atmosphere in the
7 m/s
manufacturing chamber was recycled.
Because SLM printing is an accumulative process, the flake was evaluated by observing the
quantity ofofpossible
A series aluminum cubes
printed werebefore
layers printedthey
on the stainless-steel
reached the surface substrate without support
of the substrate. sections.
The printing
Allprocess
steel substrates
was stopped immediately at the occurrence of flake. After printing, the samples wereduring
investigated in this study were 10 mm thick to prevent deformation cut
processing. Priorelectrical
using wire-cut to printing, the substrates
discharge machining. were polished
Then, they were withhot-press
2000-gritembedded
paper and in cleaned with
an electro-
ethanol. The printing
conductive process
resin, ground withused
SiC the meander-scanning
abrasive paper with a grit pattern
range shown in Figure
up to 4000, 3c, in which
and polished with athe
laser scan direction
diamond wasan
paste having parallel
averagetograin
the size
x-axis
of 2inµm.
every
Final layer. Layer
polishing thickness
used was
a colloidal 20 µm
silica for every
suspension
experiment. ◦ C initially. The argon gas was pumped into the
of 0.04 µm.The fabricating
Scanning chamber
electron was set
microscopy at 28and
(SEM) energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) were
chamber
used for atintermetallic
25 L/min of observation
flow rate and and 0.05 MPa of pressure
microstructural to obtain an oxygen level below less than
characterization.
0.1 percent. After achieving a setup oxygen level, the gas supply was cut off and atmosphere in the
3. Results andchamber
manufacturing Discussionwas recycled.
Because SLM printing is an accumulative process, the flake was evaluated by observing the
3.1. Deformation in the Selective Laser Melting (SLM)
quantity of possible printed layers before they reached the surface of the substrate. The printing
processDuewas to the layer-by-layer
stopped immediatelyprinciple of the SLM
at the occurrence printing
of flake. process,
After the the
printing, printed section
samples were becomes
cut using
increasingly
wire-cut thicker,
electrical and products
discharge machining. are formed progressively.
Then, they were hot-pressTherefore, to obtain
embedded a cubic
in an thickness of
electro-conductive
10 mm,
resin, the process
ground with SiCmust complete
abrasive paper thewith
riskiest period
a grit range first,
up before
to 4000,a 10
and× polished
10 mm plate withofametal is
diamond
formed.
paste having an average grain size of 2 µm. Final polishing used a colloidal silica suspension of
0.04 µm. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) were used
for intermetallic observation and microstructural characterization.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Deformation in the Selective Laser Melting (SLM)

Due to the layer-by-layer principle of the SLM printing process, the printed section becomes
increasingly thicker, and products are formed progressively. Therefore, to obtain a cubic thickness of
10 mm, the process must complete the riskiest period first, before a 10 × 10 mm plate of metal is formed.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3031 4 of 12

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 12

Residual stress is always present in products printed by SLM [9,10], as presented in Figure 4.
Because
Appl.newResidual
Sci. 9, xstress
layers
2019, is always
are PEER
FOR printed onpresent
REVIEW in products
other solidified printed
layers, flakebybehavior
SLM [9,10], as presented
is the result of an in accumulative
Figure 4.
4 of 12
Because new layers are printed on other solidified layers, flake
process. After printing a layer shown in Figure 4a, the solidified layers increase, creating a sheet behavior is the result of an
accumulative
indicated Residual
in Figure process.
stress After
4b. isInalways printing
present
the first in
severala products
layer
layers,shownthe in
printed Figure
by SLM4a,
thickness the solidified
of[9,10],
the as presented
printed layers increase,
in Figure
layers was too4. thin;
creating
Because a sheet
new indicated in Figure 4b. In the first several layers, the thickness of the printed layers
therefore, there waslayers are temperature
no steep printed on other
gradient solidified layers, flake
with thickness. During behavior is the
heating, resultcompressive
thermal of an
was too thin; process.
accumulative therefore,After
thereprinting
was no asteeplayertemperature gradient
shown in Figure 4a,with
the thickness. Duringincrease,
solidified layers heating,
stresses develop in the printed layers, which results in a large amount of thermo-elastic strain, possibly
thermal compressive stresses develop in the printed layers, which results
creating a sheet indicated in Figure 4b. In the first several layers, the thickness of the printed layersin a large amount of
producing local thermo-elasto-plastic
thermo-elastic strain, possibly buckling
producing local of the material. When
thermo-elasto-plastic the laser
buckling of the beam of the
material. Whenprinter
was too thin; therefore, there was no steep temperature gradient with thickness. During heating,
passes,
thethe
thermal buckle
laser beamis ofgenerated
compressive the printer along
stressespasses, the
the direction
develop buckle
in the is of laser
generated
printed scanning
along
layers, [13].
the direction
which results inofalaser scanning
large amount[13].of
thermo-elastic strain, possibly producing local thermo-elasto-plastic buckling of the material. When
the laser beam of the printer passes, the buckle is generated along the direction of laser scanning [13].

FigureFigure 4. Temperature
4. Temperature gradient
gradient mechanism[11]:
mechanism [11]: schematic
schematic of
ofthe
theSLM
SLMprocessing (a) created
processing a new
(a) created a new
layer on other solidified layers (b), thermal expansion generated by heated new layer (c)
layer on other solidified layers (b), thermal expansion generated by heated new layer (c) and shrinkage and
shrinkage
Figure
process process
coolingduring
4. Temperature
during cooling
(d).gradient (d).
mechanism [11]: schematic of the SLM processing (a) created a new
layer on other solidified layers (b), thermal expansion generated by heated new layer (c) and
After
Aftershrinkageachieving
achieving a certain
a certain
process during thickness,
thickness,
cooling because
(d). because of heating,
of heating, a steep gradient
a steep thermal thermal ingradient in the
the manufactured
manufactured layers leads to differences in thermal expansion throughout the thickness. At the initial
layers leads to differences in thermal expansion throughout the thickness. At the initial stage, the top
stage, the top
After surface is
achieving a heated
certainbecause it faces
thickness, the laser
because of shown
heating,in Figure
a steep4c.thermal
Rapid thermal expansion
gradient in the
surface is heated because it faces the laser shown in Figure 4c. Rapid thermal expansion of the top solid
of the top solidlayers
manufactured layersleads
in contrast to the bottom
to differences solid
in thermal layers, asthroughout
expansion well as restriction by the At
the thickness. surrounding
the initial
layersmaterial,
in contrast to the
creates bottom downward
a concave solid layers, as well
shape. as restriction by the surrounding material,
degree creates
stage, the top surface is heated because it faces theAtlaser
a certain
showntemperature, the shape
in Figure 4c. Rapid and
thermal expansion of
a concave
bendingdownward
produce shape.
maximum At a certain
elastic strain. temperature,
Any additional the shape
thermal and
expansiondegree
is of bending
converted
of the top solid layers in contrast to the bottom solid layers, as well as restriction by the surrounding into produce
plastic
maximum elastic
compression.
material, createsstrain.
After theAny
a concave additional
laserdownward
moves away, thermal
cooling
shape. expansion
At ensues, and
a certain is converted
shrinkage
temperature, theinto
occurs plastic
shown
shape compression.
in Figure
and degree 4d.
of
Afterbending
the laser moves away, cooling ensues, and shrinkage occurs shown in Figure
produce maximum elastic strain. Any additional thermal expansion is converted into plastic 4d.
3.2. Intermetallic
compression. Layer
After the laser moves away, cooling ensues, and shrinkage occurs shown in Figure 4d.
3.2. Intermetallic Layer
The printing process creates molten aluminum on the solid substrate. That aluminum melts on
3.2.
the Intermetallic
solid surface Layer
of the creates
substrate to create a diffusionon area
The printing process molten aluminum thecalled
solidan intermetallic
substrate. Thatlayer, which exists
aluminum melts on
as the
the solid The interface
printing
surface between
of the process the printed
creates
substrate section
tomolten and
create aluminum the substrate.
a diffusiononareathe solidFormation
calledsubstrate.of the intermetallic
That aluminum
an intermetallic phases
layer, melts
which onexists
between
the solid the solid
surface of theiron/steel
substrate and
to liquid
create a aluminum
diffusion area depends
called an on the chemical
intermetallic layer, reaction
which and
exists
as the interface between the printed section and the substrate. Formation of the intermetallic phases
interdiffusion
as the interfaceof the elemental
between constituents.and
the printed Figure substrate.
5 demonstrates the SEM
of themorphology
intermetallicand EDS
between the solid iron/steel and liquid section
aluminum the depends on the Formation
chemical reaction phases
and interdiffusion
mapping the
between results of a iron/steel
solid sample, whichand indicate
liquid aaluminum
distribution of Fe in Figure
depends on the5bchemical
and Al shown in Figure
reaction and
of the5celemental
elements. The
constituents.
results
Figure 5the
show that
demonstrates
Fe element
the SEM morphology and EDS mapping results
interdiffusion of the elemental constituents. Figurediffused into molten
5 demonstrates the aluminum
SEM morphologyto a larger
andextent
EDS
of a sample,
than the which
mapping Al element
results
indicate
of a diffused
a distribution
into the
sample, which
ofa Fe in substrate.
stainless-steel
indicate
Figureof5b
distribution
and Al shown in Figure 5c elements.
Fe in Figure 5b and Al shown in Figure
The results show that the Fe element diffused into molten
5c elements. The results show that the Fe element diffused into molten aluminumaluminum to a larger to extent
a largerthan the Al
extent
element
thandiffused into the
the Al element stainless-steel
diffused substrate. substrate.
into the stainless-steel

Figure 5. (a) Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) image, (b) Fe element distribution, and (c) Al
element distribution.
Figure
Figure 5. Energy
5. (a) (a) Energy dispersivespectroscopy
dispersive spectroscopy (EDS)
(EDS) image,
image,(b)
(b)FeFeelement distribution,
element and and
distribution, (c) Al(c) Al
element distribution.
element distribution.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3031 5 of 12

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 12

Figure 6 shows an EDS point analysis of a flaked sample with 31.11 at% iron and 68.89 at%
aluminum. The6 analysis
Figure shows anconfirms
EDS pointthat the Feof
analysis 2 Al phasesample
a5flaked exists in the31.11
with intermetallic
at% iron layer. Theat%
and 68.89 results
aluminum. The analysis confirms that the Fe Al phase exists in the intermetallic layer.
agree with previous research using other methods [14–17]. However, the morphology of the reaction
2 5 The results
agree
layer withthe
during previous
SLM research
process using other methods
is different from the [14–17]. However,
previous the morphology
methods. Although of the reaction
previous studies
layer tongue-like,
reported during the SLM process isor
needle-like, different from[18–21]
wave-like the previous methods.
morphology, theAlthough previous
SLM process studies
shows a more
reported tongue-like, needle-like, or wave-like [18–21] morphology, the SLM process
chaotic morphology of the reaction layer, as indicated in Figure 7. The chaotic morphology can be shows a more
chaoticby
explained morphology
the moltenofmaterial
the reaction
flowlayer,
duringas indicated
melting and in Figure 7. The chaotic
evaporation duringmorphology can be [22].
the SLM process
explained by the molten material flow during melting and evaporation during the SLM process [22].
Additionally, denudation [23], where a laser interacts with metal powder, results in non-repetitive
Additionally, denudation [23], where a laser interacts with metal powder, results in non-repetitive
formation of an intermetallic layer.
formation of an intermetallic layer.
formation of an intermetallic layer.

Figure 6. Results
Figure ofofthe
6. Results theEDS
EDSpoint
pointanalysis of the
analysis of theintermetallic
intermetalliclayer
layer
of of a flaked
a flaked sample.
sample.

Figure 7. Morphology of the intermetallic layers formed during the selective laser melting process.
 Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3031 6 of 12

Figure 7. Morphology of the intermetallic layers formed during the selective laser melting process.
The intermetallic layer thickness was determined by detecting the Fe-Al change, as shown by the
The intermetallic layer thickness was determined by detecting the Fe-Al change, as shown by
two dashed lines in Figure 8. The thickness is associated with the SLM process parameters of time
the two dashed lines in Figure 8. The thickness is associated with the SLM process parameters of time
and temperature. An increase in laser power increases the thickness of the reaction layer, whereas an
and temperature. An increase in laser power increases the thickness of the reaction layer, whereas an
increase in laser speed decreases the thickness of the metallic layer. An increase in laser power causes
increase in laser speed decreases the thickness of the metallic layer. An increase in laser power causes
an increase in energy and thus an increase in peak temperature. Higher temperatures and longer
an increase in energy and thus an increase in peak temperature. Higher temperatures and longer
reaction times increase the thickness of the reaction layer. Moreover, a higher laser scanning velocity
reaction times increase the thickness of the reaction layer. Moreover, a higher laser scanning velocity
results in in
results a lower
a lowerpeak
peaktemperature
temperatureandandleads
leads to
to aa reduced thicknessof
reduced thickness ofthe
thebimetallic
bimetalliclayer.
layer.The
The EDS
EDS
results show
results thatthat
show the thickness of theofmetallic
the thickness layer ranges
the metallic from 3 µm
layer ranges to 370µm
from µm.toWhen the intermetallic
70 µm. When the
layer
intermetallic layer is thin, the mechanical performance of the joint is not yet detrimental, asinshown
is thin, the mechanical performance of the joint is not yet detrimental, as shown Figurein8a.
However, the joint will fail when the reaction layer thickens, as shown in Figure 8b. These results
Figure 8a. However, the joint will fail when the reaction layer thickens, as shown in Figure 8b. These agree
with previous
results agreestudies [24]. studies [24].
with previous

Figure 8. Intermetallic
Figure layerlayer
8. Intermetallic thickness determined
thickness by EDS
determined byline mapping
EDS analysis: analysis:
line mapping (a) a thin intermetallic
(a) a thin
layer [11] and (b)
intermetallic a thick
layer reaction
[11] and (b) a layer that creates
thick reaction layera that
flake.
creates a flake.

3.3. Influence of Process Parameters on Join Quality of Dissimilar Materials

3.3. Influence of Process Parameters on Join Quality of Dissimilar Materials
In In
thethe
SLMSLM process,
process,thetheintermetallic
intermetallicreaction
reaction layer plays aacrucial
layer plays crucialrole
roleagainst
againstthethe residual
residual stress
stress
generated
generated by the thermal gradient. The intermetallic layer is brittle in the area close to the side of thethe
by the thermal gradient. The intermetallic layer is brittle in the area close to the side of
substrate
substrate [25], and
[25], and thethestrength
strengthdepends
dependson onits
its thickness.
thickness. A A thinner
thinnerintermetallic
intermetalliclayerlayer hashas greater
greater
strength, and vice versa. Therefore, to prevent a low joining strength, the
strength, and vice versa. Therefore, to prevent a low joining strength, the thickness of the reaction thickness of the reaction
layer should
layer should bebelimited
limited[26].
[26].The
Theflake
flakebehavior
behavior was was investigated
investigated by byobserving
observingthe thenumber
number ofof layers
layers
that could
that couldbebe printed
printed before
beforeflaking
flakingoccurred.
occurred. Figure showsthe
Figure 9 shows theexperimental
experimentalresults
resultsofofthethe observed
observed
quantities
quantities of of
printed
printed layers
layersininthetheboundary
boundaryarea areain in which
which the flaking
flaking occurred.
occurred.
AtAt thethe beginningofofthe
beginning theprocess,
process,when when the
the printed
printed section
section isis not
notthick
thickenough,
enough,residual
residual stress
stress
from
from thethe thermal
thermal gradientininthe
gradient theXXand andYYdirections
directions is overwhelming;
overwhelming;thus, thus,ananintermetallic
intermetallic layer
layercancan
prevent
prevent cracking.
cracking. OurOurexperiment
experimentshowedshowed thatthat flaking
flaking appeared
appearedaroundaroundthe the11th layer
11th layerbutbutnono
sooner.
sooner.
When
When thethe printed
printed section
section became
became increasingly
increasingly thicker,
thicker, thethe temperature
temperature difference
difference between
between thethe
toptop
and
and intermetallic layers was greater. The intermetallic layer also suffers from
intermetallic layers was greater. The intermetallic layer also suffers from greater residual stress created greater residual stress
by created by the
the thermal thermalingradient
gradient in the direction.
the thickness thickness direction.
However,However,
when the whenprintedthesection
printedachieved
section a
achieved
certain a certain
thickness, thethickness,
effect of thethe effect of the
top layer ontop
thelayer on the intermetallic
intermetallic layer was layer was reduced,
reduced, and the risk and of
the risk of flaking decreased. It is reasonable to assume that further flaking did not occur after the
flaking decreased. It is reasonable to assume that further flaking did not occur after the 25th layer.
25th layer.
Figure 9a demonstrates the laser power effect at 1.5 m/s, 2 m/s, and 4 m/s presented by the triangle,
Figure 9a demonstrates the laser power effect at 1.5 m/s, 2 m/s, and 4 m/s presented by the
circle, and rectangle makers, respectively. As shown, the printed layers decreased when the laser
triangle, circle, and rectangle makers, respectively. As shown, the printed layers decreased when the
power increased. Increasing laser power results in a high peak temperature, increasing the residual
laser power increased. Increasing laser power results in a high peak temperature, increasing the
stress by increasing
residual the thermal
stress by increasing thetransient in each layer.
thermal transient in eachIncreasing laser power
layer. Increasing results
laser power in a flaked
results in a
happening sooner. Figure 9a also shows that, at a fixed laser power,
flaked happening sooner. Figure 9a also shows that, at a fixed laser power, flaking occurred flaking occurred also sooner
also at
a lower laser scanning speed. At a certain printed thickness, a lower laser velocity creates a weaker
thermal transient between the top layer and intermetallic layers, reducing residual stress. Additionally,
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3031 7 of 12
sooner at a lower laser scanning speed. At a certain printed thickness, a lower laser velocity creates a
weaker thermal transient between the top layer and intermetallic layers, reducing residual stress.
aAdditionally,
reduction in alaser velocity
reduction inraised the peakraised
laser velocity temperature.
the peak Higher temperatures
temperature. Higherand longer reaction
temperatures and
times lead to an increase of reaction layer thickness and an easier flaked appearance.
longer reaction times lead to an increase of reaction layer thickness and an easier flaked appearance.
The
The influence
influence ofofhatch
hatchdistance
distanceon onflaking
flakingisisshown
shownininFigure
Figure9b.9b.
Laser power
Laser powerwas investigated
was investigatedat
100 W, 150 W and 180 W displayed by the rectangle, circle and triangle shapes, respectively.
at 100 W, 150 W and 180 W displayed by the rectangle, circle and triangle shapes, respectively. Increasing
the hatch distance
Increasing increased
the hatch distance theincreased
number of thelayers
numberthat of
could be printed.
layers that could Increasing the Increasing
be printed. hatch distance
the
also
hatchreduced
distancethe heating
also reduced timetheinheating
certaintime
printed areas, printed
in certain reducing the thermal
areas, reducingtransient in a transient
the thermal printing
layer and residual
in a printing layer stress.
and residual stress.

Figure 9. Effects of laser power (a), and hatch distance (b) on flaking.

The function
function of of the
theintermetallic
intermetalliclayer
layerisistotoactact
asas protection
protection against
against thethe residual
residual stress
stress force.
force. As
As mentioned in the previous section, high temperature tends to cause
mentioned in the previous section, high temperature tends to cause concave bending in concave bending in the printed
layers,
layers, which
whichleads
leadsto tothe
theflake
flakephenomenon.
phenomenon.The Theinitial residual
initial stress
residual force
stress is not
force enough
is not enough to disrupt the
to disrupt
surface of the
the surface ofsubstrate because
the substrate of the of
because thintheprinted layers. layers.
thin printed During During
accumulative processes,
accumulative an increase
processes, an
of printed layers causes the residual stress force to increase. With an unsuitable
increase of printed layers causes the residual stress force to increase. With an unsuitable process process parameter,
the residualthe
parameter, stress force overwhelms
residual the opposingthe
stress force overwhelms force existingforce
opposing in the intermetallic
existing layers and leads
in the intermetallic to
layers
flaking. However, when the printed layers achieve a certain thickness, concave
and leads to flaking. However, when the printed layers achieve a certain thickness, concave bending bending transforms
into convex into
transforms bending [27],bending
convex which is [27],
an advantage
which is of anflaking. In our
advantage ofcase, experimental
flaking. In our case,results show that
experimental
the 11thshow
results and 25th
that layers
the 11th areand
the 25th
lowerlayers
and upper
are theboundaries
lower andofupperflaking behavior, of
boundaries respectively.
flaking behavior,
respectively.

3.4. Join Quality in Term of Energy

Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3031 8 of 12

3.4. Join Quality in Term of Energy

Relationship between supplied energy and join quality was investigated. The energy, E,
is described by laser power, P, and volume of molten material, V, as E = P/V. Other studies [28,29]
calculated energy as follows:
P
E1 = (1)
v.h.t
Here, v, h, and t are laser scanning speed, hatch spacing, and layer thickness, respectively. However,
Equation (1) can present a rough estimation for comparable process parameters [30]. Meanwhile,
by assuming that the melt tracks are semi-circular, energy is calculated as follows [31]:

P
E2 = (2)
h2
 
v. 12 π t2 + 4

Figure 10a,b illustrates a comparison between experimental observation and energy calculated by
E1 , E2 respectively. The orange color represents a flaked area, whereas the green color represents a
non-flaked area. In this case, laser power was kept at 180 W and layer thickness was fixed at 20 µm.
The results indicate that it is easier to obtain a good joining when laser velocity and hatch distance are
increased, as mentioned in Figure 9. This can be explained by a decrease in the reaction layer when
laser scanning speed and hatch space are increased, or energy is reduced. The diagonal stripes in
Figure 10 indicate energy calculated by the formulas. The diagonal striped areas cover not only the
non-flaked area, but also broadly cover the flaked space. The more covering of the flaked area, the less
the accuracy of the formula. Figure 10a,b indicate that the energy formulas E1 E2 cannot be used to
describe the flake behavior and become less accurate as the flaked area increases.
Moreover, in the SLM process, hatch overlap (d/h) was investigated as an important parameter [32]
(here, d is laser spot size). Figure 11 illustrated the effect of the hatch overlap. The current line track
nth of a laser generates a post-heating zone during printing, which reheats the solidified material
of the last scan line n − 1th, as well as a pre-heating zone, which affects the melting process of the
next scanning line n + 1th. Finally, hatch overlap affects melt geometry, heat-affected zone, formation
of a solidification microstructure, and residual stress. In this analysis, the hatch overlap parameter
was considered to affect energy. Combined with the assumption that the melt track is semi-circular,
the following formula was generated:

P
E3 = (3)
h2 d
 
v. 21 π t2 + 4 h

Figure 10c illustrates the fit of the E3 formula calculation and experimental area. Although there
is an existing small gap between the calculated area and experimental result, the E3 formula could
be applied to determine the relationships between joining quality and process parameters in terms
of energy.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3031 9 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 12

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Comparison
Comparison between
between experimental
experimental results
results and
and energy
energy calculated
calculated by (a)E𝐸11, ,(b)
by (a) (b)E𝐸22, ,and
and
(c)E𝐸3 formulas.
(c) formulas.
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 3031 10 of 12
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 12

Figure
Figure 11.
11. Schematic
Schematic representation
representation of the hatch overlap effect.

4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
Joining of
Joining of pure
pure aluminum
aluminum and and stainless
stainless steel
steel by
by the
the SLM
SLM printing
printing process
process was
was analyzed. In the
analyzed. In the
SLM method, the flake behavior could be represented by Al-Fe join strength.
SLM method, the flake behavior could be represented by Al-Fe join strength. Process parameters such Process parameters such
as laser
as laser power,
power, laser
laser scanning speed, and
scanning speed, and hatch
hatch distance
distance significantly
significantly affect
affect the
the final
final hybrid-material
hybrid-material
join quality.
join quality. The
The results
results indicate
indicate aa high-risk area between
high-risk area between the the 11th and 25th
11th and 25th layers,
layers, where
where wewe should
should
be most concerned about flaking behavior. After the 25th layer, bimetallic joining
be most concerned about flaking behavior. After the 25th layer, bimetallic joining can be guaranteed. can be guaranteed.
The
The intermetallic
intermetalliclayer
layerplays
playsa significant
a significantrolerole
in the
incombination
the combinationof hybrid materials
of hybrid by the SLM
materials process.
by the SLM
The results showed the Fe Al phase existing in the intermetallic layer of the flaked
process. The results showed the Fe2Al5 phase existing in the intermetallic layer of the flaked samples.
2 5 samples. That was
agreed with other joining methods. The research figured out the dependence
That was agreed with other joining methods. The research figured out the dependence of the flake of the flake behavior and
the applied
behavior energy:
and the increasing
the applied energy: the energy leads toenergy
increasing a sooner disruption
leads the join.
to a sooner The research
disruption found
the join. The
out that the hatch overlap affected to Al-Fe join strength. Based on investigating
research found out that the hatch overlap affected to Al-Fe join strength. Based on investigating the the hatch overlap as
an effective factor, the formula
hatch overlap as an effective factor, E 3 = P/V can
the formula
3 be 𝐸 = 𝑃⁄𝑉 can be used to estimate the approximate
used to estimate the approximate values of process
parameters to achieve
values of process a good to
parameters join qualitya of
achieve aluminum
good and of
join quality stainless
aluminumsteel.and stainless steel.

Author Contributions: D.-S.N. and H.-S.P. conceived the idea of this study. D.-S.N. developed, validated,
Author Contributions: D.-S.N. and H.-S.P. conceived the idea of this study. D.-S.N. developed, validated, and
and performed the experimental works. D.-S.N. wrote the manuscript and H.-S.P. and C.-M.L. revised it.
performed
All authorsthe experimental
discussed works.
the results andD.-S.N. wrote on
commented thethe
manuscript and H.-S.P. and C.-M.L. revised it. All authors
manuscript.
discussed the results and commented on the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the ICT R&D program of MSIP/IITP [B0101-14-1081, Development of
ICT-basedThis
Funding: software
workplatforms and service
was supported by thetechnologies for medical
ICT R&D program of 3D printing[B0101-14-1081,
MSIP/IITP application]. Development of
ICT-based software platforms and service technologies for medical
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. 3D printing application].

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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