applied
sciences
Article
Fundamental Study on Underwater Cutting of 50 mm-Thick Stainless
Steel Plates Using a Fiber Laser for Nuclear Decommissioning
Kwan Kim 1 , Moo-Keun Song 2 , Su-Jin Lee 3 , Dongsig Shin 3 , Jeong Suh 3






Citation: Kim, K.; Song, M.-K.; Lee,
S.-J.; Shin, D.; Suh, J.; Kim, J.-D.
Fundamental Study on Underwater
Cutting of 50 mm-Thick Stainless
Steel Plates Using a Fiber Laser for
Nuclear Decommissioning. Appl. Sci.
2022, 12, 495. https://doi.org/
10.3390/app12010495
Academic Editors: Luca Poletto and
Eunkyung Lee
Received: 19 November 2021
Accepted: 30 December 2021
Published: 5 January 2022
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 495. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12010495
and Jong-Do Kim 4, *
1 Department of Convergence Study on the Ocean Science and Technology, School of Ocean Science
and Technology, Korea Maritime & Ocean University, Busan 49112, Korea; kykwan707@gmail.com
2 Laser Advanced Mache Support Center, Korea Maritime & Ocean University, Busan 49112, Korea;
mksong@kmou.ac.kr
3 Busan Machinery Research Center, Korea Institute of Machinery & Materials, Busan 46744, Korea;
leesj@kimm.re.kr (S.-J.L.); dsshin@kimm.re.kr (D.S.); jsuh@kimm.re.kr (J.S.)
4 Division of Marine System Engineering, College of Maritime Sciences, Korea Maritime & Ocean University,
Busan 49112, Korea
* Correspondence: jdkim@kmou.ac.kr
Abstract: With nuclear power plants worldwide approaching their design lifespans, plans for de-
commissioning nuclear power plants are increasing, and interest in decommissioning technology is
growing. Laser cutting, which is suitable for high-speed cutting in underwater environments and is
amenable to remote control and automation, has attracted considerable interest. In this study, the
effects of laser cutting were analyzed with respect to relevant parameters to achieve high-quality
underwater laser cutting for the decommissioning of nuclear power plants. The kerf width, drag line,
and roughness of the specimens during the high-power laser cutting of 50 mm-thick stainless steel in
an underwater environment were analyzed based on key parameters (focal position, laser power,
and cutting speed) to determine the conditions for satisfactory cutting surface quality. The results
indicated that underwater laser cutting with a speed of up to 130 mm/min was possible at a focal
position of 30 mm and a laser power of 9 kW; however, the best-quality cutting surface was obtained
at a cutting speed of 30 mm/min.
Keywords: high-power laser cutting; underwater cutting; nuclear power plant decommissioning;
fiber laser; stainless steel
1. Introduction
As of December 2020, 192 nuclear reactors have been permanently shut down, and
313 reactors have been connected to the power grid for more than 30 years [1]. Hence, the
global nuclear decommissioning market is expected to grow in the future. The decom-
missioning of nuclear power plants is conducted in the following order: preparation for
decommissioning, decontamination, cutting, waste treatment, and environmental restora-
tion [2]. In particular, cutting technology is a key factor in the decommissioning of nuclear
power plants [3]. Cutting technologies for nuclear decommissioning can be roughly divided
into mechanical cutting technologies, such as saw cutting, and thermal cutting technologies,
such as plasma and laser cutting [4,5]. Among them, laser cutting technology is attracting
attention as a next-generation nuclear power plant dismantling technology because it has
various advantages [6–11]. Laser cutting has a faster cutting speed than saw cutting and
produces less aerosol than plasma cutting, which generates a large amount of it [12,13].
Considering that remote dismantling is performed in an underwater environment, the
advantage of laser cutting is that it can be remotely controlled and automated [14].
When repairing and dismantling inside reactors, underwater welding and cutting
techniques are used to provide radiation shielding [15,16]. Underwater laser cutting has
some process differences compared to cutting in air [17]. When conducting underwater
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 495 2 of 11

laser cutting, a local dry cavity is required. The high-pressure assist gas that prevents the
laser beam from being absorbed by water forms a local dry cavity and secures the path of
the laser beam. Local dry cavities are also formed when machining with underwater laser
welding [18–20] or laser cladding [21,22] used in the construction and repair of nuclear
reactors [23,24]. In addition, underwater laser cutting requires greater laser power than
cutting in air. The reason that the underwater cutting ability is lower than in air is that the
specimen is rapidly cooled by the surrounding water [25].
Decommissioned reactor structures are disposed of in a radioactive-waste facility
through a process involving storage and transportation after being decontaminated, pack-
aged, and subjected to various treatment steps to prevent the spread of contaminants. In
this process, in order to increase the efficiency of the storage space of waste, it is necessary
to reduce the load volume by increasing the cutting quality when dismantling the structure.
Therefore, the cutting surface quality is also important when nuclear power plants are
decommissioned using underwater cutting with a laser heat source.
However, only a few studies have been conducted on the cutting surface quality of
thick stainless steel plates during underwater laser cutting. Wandera et al. studied the
optimization of parameters such as cutting speed, focal position, and focal length to achieve
high-edge-quality laser cutting on a 10 mm-thick stainless steel plate [26]. Although their
study provided meaningful results in terms of laser cutting parameters and cutting quality,
their findings are not applicable to the thick stainless steel plates used in nuclear power
plants. Meanwhile, Lopez et al. studied the effects of cutting parameters considering
C-Mn steel with thicknesses of 60–70 mm; however, they did not conduct experiments in
underwater conditions [27]. Oh et al. studied supersonic and dual nozzles [28,29], while
Shin et al. studied the step-like cutting method [30] and oblique cutting to increase the
maximum laser cutting speed and thickness [31]. However, these studies did not discuss
the cutting surface quality under optimal conditions.
Therefore, in this study, underwater laser cutting experiments on a 50 mm-thick
stainless steel specimen were conducted using a fiber laser with a maximum power of
20 kW to improve the cutting surface quality and increase the spatial efficiency of waste
storage containers. The kerf width, drag line, and roughness of specimens were analyzed
with respect to key cutting parameters, such as focal position, laser power, and cutting
speed, to determine the optimal conditions for a satisfactory cutting surface quality [32].

2. Materials and Methodology

2.1. Experimental Materials and Methods
STS304L steel plates with a thickness of 50 mm, length of 100 mm, and width of 50 mm
were used to prepare the experimental specimens. This material was selected because the
main structure of the reactor internals (core support barrel assembly) on which underwater
laser cutting is typically performed is composed of austenitic stainless steel. The chemical
composition of the test specimen is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Chemical composition of STS304L (wt %) received from the manufacturer of the test specimen.

Element Fe C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo N Co Cu
Mass fraction Base 0.022 0.39 1.64 0.03 0.004 18.16 8.04 0.14 0.067 0.22 0.28

Figure 1 shows the configuration of the equipment used for the underwater laser
cutting experiments, which consists of a laser system (YLS-2000; IPG Photonics Corporation,
Oxford, MA, USA) and a water tank. The laser head is connected to a process fiber for
long-distance transmission of the laser beam and an assist gas supply line for the discharge
of molten metal and the securing of the laser beam path with a local dry cavity. A normal
plate-type nozzle with a 3 mm diameter (dN ) is used. The laser head is fixed to the Y-Z stage
and moved along the cutting direction (Y) and inside the tank (Z). As shown in Figure 1b,
the laser head is covered with a watertight acrylic cover for waterproofing. Additionally, a
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 11

Appl. Sci. from the high gas pressure and vibration during laser cutting. On the jig, the specimen
Appl.2022, 12, 12,
Sci. 2022, x FOR
495 PEER REVIEW 3 of 11
was placed at a water depth of 300 mm (Figure 1c).

jig is installed inside the tank to minimize specimen movement, resulting from the high gas
from the high gas pressure and vibration during laser cutting. On the jig,
pressure and vibration during laser cutting. On the jig, the specimen was placed at a water
the sp
was placed
depth of 300 mmat a(Figure
water1c).
depth of 300 mm (Figure 1c).

Figure 1. Experimental setup; (a) Laser head & water tank, (b) Laser head, (c) Cutting process.

Table 1. Chemical composition of STS304L (wt %) received from the manufacturer of the test spec-
imen.

Element Fe C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo N Co Cu
Mass fraction Base 0.022 0.39 1.64 0.03 0.004 18.16 8.04 0.14 0.067 0.22 0.28
Figure1. 1.
Figure Experimental
Experimental setup;setup; (a)head
(a) Laser Laser headtank,
& water & water tank,
(b) Laser (b)(c)
head, Laser head,
Cutting (c) Cutting
process. proc
As shown in Figure 2, the specimen length in the cutting direction was 50 mm, but
the specimen
As shown was laser-cut
in Figure at aspecimen
2, the length oflength
40 mm, starting
in the cuttingfrom its tip.
direction wasTo50improve
mm, butthe
Table 1. Chemical composition of STS304L (wt %) received from the manufacturer of the t
cutting performance,
the specimen the initial
was laser-cut at a15 mm section
length wasstarting
of 40 mm, provided with
from its atip.
specimen-preheating
To improve the
imen. and
section
cutting was cut atthe
performance, a low speed
initial 15 mm of 5section
mm/min,waswhile the remaining
provided 25 mm section was
with a specimen-preheating
section
at theand
setwas cut at a shown
low speed of 5 mm/min, whilebeam
the remaining
diameter25 atmmthe section was
Element Fe C cutcut at
Si
the set
speed.
Mn As
speed. As
P in
shown
in Figure
S 3,3,the
Figure
the laser
Cr
laser beam
Ni
diameter
Mo
at the
focal position
focal
Nposition Co
was 470 μm, and the stand-off distance, which is the distance from the nozzle tip to the
Mass fraction Base 0.022specimen
was 0.39
470 µm, 1.64
and
surface, the 0.03Nitrogen
wasstand-off
1 mm. 0.004
distance, which
was 18.16
is the
used 8.04
distance
as the gas,0.14
assistfrom the nozzle
and 0.067
it was tip to the0.22
supplied at
a specimen
pressure (Psurface, was 1 mm. Nitrogen was used as the assist gas, and it was supplied
G) of 10 bar. The focal position (fd), which was the primary parameter consid-
at ain
ered pressure
As
thisshown(PG ) of
in 10
experiment, bar. set
Figure
was The focalspecimen
2,inside
the position
the (f length
specimen.d ), whichinwas
The laserthe the primary
cutting
power (P) was parameter
direction was 50 m
varied from
considered in this experiment, was set inside the specimen. The laser power (P) was varied
7 the
to 13specimen
kW, while the cutting speed (v) was varied from 30 to 150 mm/min.
was laser-cut at a length of 40 mm, starting from its tip. To impr
from 7 to 13 kW, while the cutting speed (v) was varied from 30 to 150 mm/min.
cutting performance, the initial 15 mm section was provided with a specimen-pre
section and was cut at a low speed of 5 mm/min, while the remaining 25 mm sect
cut at the set speed. As shown in Figure 3, the laser beam diameter at the focal
was 470 μm, and the stand-off distance, which is the distance from the nozzle ti
specimen surface, was 1 mm. Nitrogen was used as the assist gas, and it was sup
a pressure (PG) of 10 bar. The focal position (fd), which was the primary parameter
ered in this experiment, was set inside the specimen. The laser power (P) was vari
7 to 13 kW, while the cutting speed (v) was varied from 30 to 150 mm/min.

Figure 2. Schematic diagrams of specimen collection of cutting surface and cross-section; (a) Cut
Figure 2. Schematic diagrams of specimen collection of cutting surface and cross-section; (a) Cut
specimen,(b)
specimen, (b)Cutting
Cutting surface,
surface, (c)
(c) Cross-section.
Cross-section.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 495 4 of 11

Figure
Figure 3. 3. Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram of underwater
of underwater laser
laser cutting cutting
process. process.
2.2. Laser Cutting Quality Analysis Methods
2.2. The
Laser Cutting Quality Analysis Methods
front and rear surfaces, cutting surface, and cross-section of the specimen were
Theto front
observed analyzeand
the rear
cuttingsurfaces, cutting
quality. The cuttingsurface, and cross-section
surface shows of the specim
a characteristic periodic
striation repetition and can be divided into three regions according to
observed to analyze the cutting quality. The cutting surface shows a characteristicthe shape of the
drag line: the upper area, where the cutting by the laser beam is dominant; the middle
striation repetition and can be divided into three regions according to the shap
area, where the melting is dominant near the focal position; and the lower area, where the
drag line:
cutting by thetheheatupper
transferarea,
of thewhere
molten the
metal cutting by the laser beam is dominant; the
is dominant.
area,
Thewhere the melting
morphology is dominant
of the cutting nearobserved
surface was the focal position;
using and the lower
a high-resolution opticalarea, w
3D surface microscope (VHX-7000; KEYENCE Corporation,
cutting by the heat transfer of the molten metal is dominant. Osaka, Japan). The length
of each drag line area was measured, and line roughness was measured along the depth
The morphology of the cutting surface was observed using a high-resolution
direction (Z) of the cutting surface.
3D surface
The asperitymicroscope (VHX-7000;
of the cutting surface wasKEYENCE Corporation,
visually inspected based on theOsaka, Japan). The l
topographic
eachdistribution
color drag line ofarea was measured,
the cutting surface. Theand line roughness
cross-section was measured
observed perpendicular along th
to the
direction
cutting (Z) of35the
direction, mmcutting
away from surface.
the starting point of the cutting, was measured along
with the front- and rear-surface kerf
The asperity of the cutting surfacewidths. The taper
was value, which
visually indicates the
inspected difference
based on the topo
between the front- and rear-surface kerf widths, was also calculated and compared with
color distribution of the cutting surface. The cross-section observed perpendicul
each cutting parameter.
cutting
In thisdirection,
study, the 35 mm away
low-drag from theand
line roughness starting point
low-taper ofofthe
value thecutting, was measure
cutting surface,
with theupon
observed front- and rear-surface
minimizing the laser heatkerf widths.
input The taper
to the cutting value,
surface, which
indicated indicates th
excellent
cutting quality based
ence between the on the foregoing
front- analysis. kerf widths, was also calculated and co
and rear-surface
with
3. each
Results andcutting parameter.
Discussions
In this
3.1. Effects study,
of Focal theon
Position low-drag
Kerf Widthline roughness and low-taper value of the cutting
observed upon
An earlier minimizing
study showed thatthe laserthe
during heat
laserinput toofthe
cutting cutting
stainless surface,
steel, indicated e
the cutting
cutting
quality quality based
is improved onfocal
when the the position
foregoing analysis.
is located further inside the material [33]. How-
ever, because the study was not conducted in an underwater environment, we examined
the effect of the
3. Results and focal position during underwater laser cutting. When the focal position
Discussions
was located near the front surface of the specimen, non-cut or poor cutting surfaces were
3.1. Effects
obtained; whenof the
Focal Position
focal positionon Kerf
was Width
located too far inside the material, the cutting experi-
ments were impossible to perform owing to interference from the optical system equipment.
An earlier study showed that during the laser cutting of stainless steel, the
quality is improved when the focal position is located further inside the mater
However, because the study was not conducted in an underwater environment
amined the effect of the focal position during underwater laser cutting. When t
position was located near the front surface of the specimen, non-cut or poor cutt
. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 11

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 495 5 of 11

Figure 4 shows the cross-section and the cutting surface of specimens for different
focal positions. Based on a comparison of the kerf widths, the −20 mm focal position led
Therefore,
to a narrower in this study,kerf
front-surface we compared the characteristics
and a wider rear-surface of underwater
kerf thanlaser-cut
the −30specimens
mm position.
at focal positions of −20 mm and −30 mm.
Under the −20 mm condition, the focal position was located closer to the front surface of
Figure 4 shows the cross-section and the cutting surface of specimens for different
the specimen than it was
focal positions. Basedunder the −30 mm
on a comparison of condition; thisthe
the kerf widths, resulted
−20 mminfocal a relatively
position ledsmaller
laser beamto adiameter
narrower irradiating
front-surface thekerf specimen,
and a wider and consequently,
rear-surface kerf than athenarrower front-surface
−30 mm position.
Under the − 20 mm condition, the focal position was located
kerf. However, owing to the narrow front-surface kerf, the assist gas inflow was closer to the front surface of re-
the specimen than it was under the − 30 mm condition; this resulted
strained, and the molten metal discharge was stagnant; this resulted in excessive quanti- in a relatively smaller
laser beam diameter irradiating the specimen, and consequently, a narrower front-surface
ties of molten material, particularly near the depth of focus, which increased the temper-
kerf. However, owing to the narrow front-surface kerf, the assist gas inflow was restrained,
ature inside the material
and the molten metaland widened
discharge the rear-surface
was stagnant; this resulted kerf. In addition,
in excessive quantitiesthe maximum
of molten
thicknessmaterial,
of the melted layer
particularly formed
near was
the depth of relatively
focus, whichlarge at the
increased the−20 mm focal
temperature position.
inside the By
material and widened the rear-surface kerf. In addition, the maximum
contrast, under the −30 mm condition, the laser beam diameter irradiating the surface of thickness of the
melted layer formed was relatively large at the −20 mm focal position. By contrast, under
the specimen became relatively larger, resulting in a wider front-surface kerf. This facili-
the −30 mm condition, the laser beam diameter irradiating the surface of the specimen
tated thebecame
inflowrelatively
of assistlarger,
gas and the in
resulting discharge of moltenkerf.
a wider front-surface metal,
Thisresulting
facilitated in
theless melting
inflow
at the depth of gas
of assist focusandand a narrower
the discharge rear-surface
of molten kerf. Consequently,
metal, resulting in less melting at thethedepth
taperofvalue,
focus andthe
which indicates a narrower
difference rear-surface
betweenkerf.the Consequently, the taper value,
front- and rear-surface kerfwhich indicates
widths, decreased
the difference between
for the −30 mm focal position. the front- and rear-surface kerf widths, decreased for the − 30 mm
focal position.

Figure 4. Cut cross-section and cutting surface of specimens according to the focal position;
Figure 4. Cut
(a) f dcross-section
= −20 mm, (b) and cutting
fd = − 30 mm surface of specimens
(Processing conditions: Paccording
= 9 kW, v = to
30 the focal position;
mm/min, dN = 3 mm,(a) fd =
−20 mm, (b)
PG f=d 10
= −30 mm (Processing
bar, Nozzle conditions:
type = Normal plate). P = 9 kW, v = 30 mm/min, dN = 3 mm, PG = 10 bar,
Nozzle type = Normal plate).
Based on a comparison of the drag lines for the two conditions, an appropriate drag
line was formed in the upper area of the cutting surface, where melting by the laser beam
Based on a comparison of the drag lines for the two conditions, an appropriate drag
was dominant for the −20 mm focal position, owing to the previously mentioned reasons;
line was formed
however, in
anthe upper
unstable area
drag ofwas
line theformed
cuttinginsurface, where
the middle, and amelting by thesurface
rough cutting laser beam
was dominant for the
was formed −20
at the mmarea.
lower focalByposition, owing
contrast, for to mm
the −30 the focal
previously
position,mentioned
the drag linereasons;
in
however,theanupper area became
unstable drag longer
line wasowing to the unhampered
formed discharge
in the middle, andofa molten
roughmetal, and surface
cutting a
generally satisfactory cutting surface was formed.
was formed at the lower area. By contrast, for the −30 mm focal position, the drag line in
the upper area became longer owing to the unhampered discharge of molten metal, and
a generally satisfactory cutting surface was formed.
When the front- and rear-surface kerf widths, taper values, and cutting surface
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 495 6 of 11

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 11

When the front- and rear-surface kerf widths, taper values, and cutting surface
shapes were all considered, the cutting quality achieved with the −30 mm focal position
was superior.
3.2. Effects of Laser Power on Cutting Surface Morphology
To examine
3.2. Effects the
of Laser effectonofCutting
Power the laser power
Surface on underwater laser cutting, the focal posi-
Morphology
tion was fixed at the
To examine −30 effect
mm, andof the the laser
laser power
power onwas varied from
underwater laser7cutting,
to 13 kW theatfocal
2 kW inter-
position
vals. The front- and rear-surface kerf shapes, the kerf width and taper
was fixed at −30 mm, and the laser power was varied from 7 to 13 kW at 2 kW intervals.values, topographic
color distribution
The front- of the cutting
and rear-surface kerf surface,
shapes, theandkerf
the width
measured roughness
and taper of topographic
values, the drag linecolor
are
shown in Figures 4–7. The variation in the front- and rear-surface kerf shapes
distribution of the cutting surface, and the measured roughness of the drag line are shown with laser
power is illustrated
in Figures in Figure in
4–7. The variation 5, the
which shows
front- and that the shape
rear-surface of shapes
kerf the front-surface
with laser kerf
power didis
not change in
illustrated regardless
Figure 5,of the laser
which shows power. However,
that the shape of upon comparing the
the front-surface kerfrear-surface kerf
did not change
shapes, the of
regardless rear-surface kerf width
the laser power. tended upon
However, to increase with the
comparing thelaser power owing
rear-surface to the
kerf shapes,
increase in the heat
the rear-surface kerfinput
width totended
the material. Furthermore,
to increase the quantity
with the laser of the to
power owing molten metal
the increase
increased, and the amount of dross that adhered to the backside tended
in the heat input to the material. Furthermore, the quantity of the molten metal increased, to increase as
well.
and the amount of dross that adhered to the backside tended to increase as well.

Front kerf

Rear kerf
Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure
Figure5.5.Front
Frontand
and rear
rear surface
surface of specimen
specimen according
accordingto
tofocal
focalposition;
position;(a,e)
(a,e)PP==77kW,
kW,(b,f)
(b,f)P P= =9 9kW,
kW,
(c,g) P = 11 kW, (d,h) P = 13 kW (Processing conditions: f d = −30 mm, v = 30 mm/min, ddNN == 33 mm,
(c,g) P = 11 kW, (d,h) P = 13 kW (Processing conditions: f d = −30 mm, v = 30 mm/min,
mm,
PG =P10G = 10 bar, Nozzle type = Normal plate).
bar, Nozzle type = Normal plate).

This can be quantitatively confirmed from Figure 6, which plots the changes in kerf
width. As the focal position was not changed, the front-surface kerf width was generally
similar regardless of the laser power, while the rear-surface kerf width increased with the
laser power. Therefore, the taper value, which represents the difference between the front-
and rear-surface kerf widths, was the lowest under the 9 kW power condition.
Figure 7 shows the shape of the cutting surface according to the laser power, with
similar drag line lengths and surface shapes at the upper, middle, and lower areas under
all conditions. However, as the laser power increases, the unevenness of the drag line be-
comes more conspicuous, and the surface roughness of the drag line (Figure 8) also exhib-
its an increasing trend in general. This can be attributed to the relatively constant front-
surface kerf width, even though the amount of melting inside the material increases with
laser power. The higher the laser power, the higher the assist gas mass flux required.
However, with the same front-surface kerf width, the assist gas inflow remains un-
changed; hence, the molten metal discharge is hampered. This ultimately increases the
roughness of the drag line.
The best cutting quality was obtained with a laser power of 9 kW, considering the
front- and rear-surface kerf widths, taper value, and cutting surface shape and roughness.

Figure 6. Variation in kerf width and taper according to the laser power.
Figure 6. Variation in kerf width and taper according to the laser power.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 495 7 of 11
Figure 6. Variation in kerf width and taper according to the laser power.

Figure 7. Topographic color distribution of cutting surface according to the laser power; (a) P = 7 kW,
(b) P = 9 kW, (c) P = 11 kW, (d) P = 13 kW (Processing conditions: f d = −30 mm, v = 30 mm/min,
Figure
dN = 3 mm,7. PTopographic color distribution of cutting surface according to the
G = 10 bar, Nozzle type = Normal plate).
las
kW, (b) P = 9 kW, (c) P = 11 kW, (d) P = 13 kW (Processing conditions: fd = −30 m
This can be quantitatively confirmed from Figure 6, which plots the changes in kerf
dwidth.
N = 3 mm, PG = 10 bar, Nozzle type = Normal plate).
As the focal position was not changed, the front-surface kerf width was generally
similar regardless of the laser power, while the rear-surface kerf width increased with the
laser power. Therefore, the taper value, which represents the difference between the front-
and rear-surface kerf widths, was the lowest under the 9 kW power condition.
Figure 7 shows the shape of the cutting surface according to the laser power, with
similar drag line lengths and surface shapes at the upper, middle, and lower areas under all
conditions. However, as the laser power increases, the unevenness of the drag line becomes
more conspicuous, and the surface roughness of the drag line (Figure 8) also exhibits an
increasing trend in general. This can be attributed to the relatively constant front-surface
kerf width, even though the amount of melting inside the material increases with laser
power. The higher the laser power, the higher the assist gas mass flux required. However,
with the same front-surface kerf width, the assist gas inflow remains unchanged; hence,
the molten metal discharge is hampered. This ultimately increases the roughness of the
drag line.
The best cutting quality was obtained with a laser power of 9 kW, considering the
front- and rear-surface kerf widths, taper value, and cutting surface shape and roughness.

3.3. Variation in the Drag Line length with Laser Cutting Speed
Based on the previous experiment, we conducted other experiments, changing the
cutting speeds to 30, 50, 90, 130, and 150 mm/min at the focal position of −30 mm and the
laser power of 9 kW. At the cutting speed of 150 mm/min, the material was not completely
cut, owing to a delay in cutting. Therefore, the results for cutting speeds up to 130 mm/min
were compared and are shown in Figures 8 and 9.
Figure 8. Variation
Figure 9 shows thein roughness
front- by thekerf
and rear-surface distance
widths from thevalues
and taper frontassurface accordin
functions
of the laser cutting speed. The front-surface kerf widths were generally similar for all
conditions, and no clear trend could be observed with respect to the parameters. However,
the rear-surface kerf width tended to decrease as the laser cutting speed increased. This is
 Figure 9 shows the front- and rear-surface kerf widths and t
of the laser cutting speed. The front-surface kerf widths were gene
ditions, and no clear trend could be observed with respect to the
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 495 the rear-surface kerf width tended to decrease as the laser 8 of cutting
11

because the mass flux of the assist gas into the kerf decreased wi
Figure 7. Topographic color distribution of cutting surface according to
to thethe
because high
mass speed,
flux of the and theintomolten
assist gas metal with
the kerf decreased wasthenot heatcompletely
input owing dis
kW, (b) P = 9 kW, (c) P = 11 kW, (d) P = 13 kW (Processing
to the high speed, and the molten metal was not completely discharged. Therefore, the conditions: fd
smallest difference between the front- and rear-surface kerf width
dN = 3 mm,
smallest PG between
difference = 10 bar,the Nozzle
front- and type = Normal
rear-surface plate).
kerf widths was at a cutting speed
of3030
of mm/min.
mm/min.
Figure 10 shows the cross-section and topographic color di
surface at different laser cutting speeds. As the cutting speed inc
drag line gradually decreased in the middle area, which can be o
section and the cutting surface. The drag line in the middle area
ated when a large quantity of metal is melted near the depth of
direction is changed from downward to partially backward. This
length in the middle area can be attributed to the increase in cut
in the corresponding heat input, as well as the reduced effect of
roughness of the cutting surface, which can be confirmed based o
distribution, increased as the mass flux of the assist gas into the
creasing cutting speed.
These results using a stand-off distance of 1 mm were com
study [25] conducted under the condition of a standoff distance
was possible to obtain a high-quality cutting surface with a relativ
roughness of the cutting surface as the inflow of the assist gas into
Figure 8. Variation in roughness by the distance from the front surface according to the laser power.
Figure 8. Variation in roughness by the distance from the front surface ac

Figure 9. Variation in kerf width and taper according to the cutting speed.
Figure 9. Variation in kerf width and taper according to the cutting spee
Figure 10 shows the cross-section and topographic color distribution of the cutting
surface at different laser cutting speeds. As the cutting speed increased, the length of
the drag line gradually decreased in the middle area, which can be observed from the
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 495 9 of 11

cross-section and the cutting surface. The drag line in the middle area indicates the region
created when a large quantity of metal is melted near the depth of focus and the melt
flow direction is changed from downward to partially backward. This decrease in the
drag line length in the middle area can be attributed to the increase in cutting speed, the
decrease in the corresponding heat input, as well as the reduced effect of the depth of focus.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW roughness of the cutting surface, which can be confirmed based on the topographic
The 9 of 11
color distribution, increased as the mass flux of the assist gas into the kerf decreased with
increasing cutting speed.

Figure 10. Cross-section and topographic color distribution of cutting surface according to the cutting
Figure
speed; 10.
(a) Cross-section
v = 30 mm/min,and(b)
topographic color distribution
v = 50 mm/min, of cutting
(c) v = 90 mm/min, (d)surface
v = 130according to the cut-
mm/min (Processing
ting speed; (a) v = 30 mm/min, (b) v = 50 mm/min, (c) v = 90 mm/min, (d) v = 130 mm/min
conditions: f d = −30 mm, P = 9 kW, dN = 3 mm, PG = 10 bar, Nozzle type = Normal plate). (Processing
conditions: fd = −30 mm, P = 9 kW, dN = 3 mm, PG = 10 bar, Nozzle type = Normal plate).
These results using a stand-off distance of 1 mm were compared with Shin et al.’s
4.study
Conclusions
[25] conducted under the condition of a standoff distance of 10 mm. As a result, it
was Inpossible to obtain
this study, a high-quality
the underwater lasercutting
cuttingsurface
of 50with a relatively
mm-thick STS304L small taper andwas
specimens low
roughness while
performed of the varying
cutting surface
the keyasparameters
the inflow of the assist gas into
laser beam to the kerfawas
obtain increased.
high-quality
cutting surface. The technique employed is applicable for the decommissioning of nuclear
4. Conclusions
power plant structures. The following conclusions were drawn by analyzing the changes
in theIn this
kerf study,drag
width, the underwater laser cutting
line, and roughness of theoflaser-cut
50 mm-thick STS304L
specimens withspecimens
respect to wasthe
performed
cutting while varying the key parameters of the laser beam to obtain a high-quality
parameters:
cutting surface.
(1) To The technique
understand employed
the effect is applicable
of the focal positionforof the
thedecommissioning
laser beam on the ofcutting
nuclear
power plant structures. The following conclusions were drawn by
quality, underwater laser cutting was performed at focal positions fd = −20 mm and fd = analyzing the changes
in the
−30 mm.kerf
A width, drag line, andkerf
larger front-surface roughness of the laser-cut
was observed when thespecimens
diameter withof therespect to the
laser beam
cutting parameters:
irradiated on the specimen surface was relatively large at fd = −30 mm. This facilitated the
(1) Toofunderstand
discharge the moltenthe effect
metal of thetofocal
owing position oflarge
the relatively the laser
inflow beam on the
of the cutting
assist quality,
gas, result-
underwater laser cutting was performed
ing in a generally satisfactory cut formation; at focal positions f d = − 20 mm and f d = − 30 mm.
A larger front-surfacelaser
(2) Underwater kerfcutting
was observed when thewhile
was performed diameter of thethe
varying laser beam
laser powerirradiated
P fromon 7
the specimen surface was relatively large at f d = − 30 mm. This facilitated
kW to 13 kW. The results indicated that the front-surface kerf width changed minimally the discharge
of the
as the laser
molten metalincreased,
power owing to butthe the
relatively large inflow
rear-surface of the assist
kerf became wider gas,
owingresulting
to the inin-a
generally satisfactory cut formation;
creased melting caused by the increased heat input. However, sufficient molten metal
(2) Underwater laser cutting was performed while varying the laser power P from
could not be discharged, causing an increased drag line roughness. Thus, the best cutting
7 kW to 13 kW. The results indicated that the front-surface kerf width changed minimally
quality was obtained when P = 9 kW;
as the laser power increased, but the rear-surface kerf became wider owing to the increased
(3) The cutting speed during underwater laser cutting considerably influences the
melting caused by the increased heat input. However, sufficient molten metal could not be
heat input and the mass flux of the assist gas; as the cutting speed increases, the heat input
discharged, causing an increased drag line roughness. Thus, the best cutting quality was
and the mass flux of the assist gas decrease, the rear-surface kerf width decreases, and the
obtained when P = 9 kW;
drag line roughness increases because the molten metal is not smoothly discharged.
(3) The cutting speed during underwater laser cutting considerably influences the heat
(4) Consequently, underwater laser cutting was possible up to a cutting speed of v =
input and the mass flux of the assist gas; as the cutting speed increases, the heat input and
130 mm/min under fd = −30 mm and P = 9 kW; however, the best-quality cutting surface
was obtained under v = 30 mm/min.
In the future, we plan to study the effects of changes in the assist gas pressure, stand-
off distance, and nozzle shape during underwater laser cutting, as well as the cutting char-
acteristics of stainless steel with increasing thickness.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 495 10 of 11

the mass flux of the assist gas decrease, the rear-surface kerf width decreases, and the drag
line roughness increases because the molten metal is not smoothly discharged.
(4) Consequently, underwater laser cutting was possible up to a cutting speed of
v = 130 mm/min under f d = −30 mm and P = 9 kW; however, the best-quality cutting
surface was obtained under v = 30 mm/min.
In the future, we plan to study the effects of changes in the assist gas pressure, stand-
off distance, and nozzle shape during underwater laser cutting, as well as the cutting
characteristics of stainless steel with increasing thickness.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.K. and J.-D.K.; methodology, K.K. and J.-D.K.; val-
idation, K.K., M.-K.S. and J.-D.K.; investigation, K.K. and S.-J.L.; resources, S.-J.L., D.S., J.S. and
J.-D.K.; writing—original draft preparation, K.K.; writing—review and editing, M.-K.S. and J.-D.K.;
visualization, K.K.; supervision, J.-D.K.; project administration, J.-D.K.; funding acquisition, J.-D.K.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: This paper was supported by the National Research Council of Science and
Technology (Project number: NK232A, 2021, KOREA) and by the Korea Institute for Advancement of
Technology (KIAT) grant funded by the Korean Government (MOTIE) (P0008763, The Competency
Development Program for Industry Specialist), and is a revised and expanded version of a paper
entitled “Fundamental study for underwater cutting of 50 mm thick stainless steel using fiber laser in
nuclear decommissioning” presented at the International Symposium on Marine Engineering and
Technology 2021.
Conflicts of Interest: No conflict of interest.

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