About two thirds of the exam questions will be from Modules 3 and 4.

A third of the exam

questions will cover nutrition basics, scientific method, cells, nutrient utilization, and
homeostasis from Modules 1 and 2.

Module 1 (chapter 1)

 Nutrition is the Study of interactions that occur between living organisms and food.
 Foods could be any of the following: plants, animals, microorganisms (do you know of
any examples?), minerals and water.
 Nutrients are chemical substances in foods that provide energy, Substances for body
structure
 Substances for regulation [Look at Figure 1.6 in text for examples]
 The Science of Nutrition studies the physiologic function of nutrients and their
requirements from the diet.
 Macronutrients are nutrients needed by the body in large amounts like water, Energy-
yielding nutrients: Carbohydrates, Lipids and Proteins.
 Micronutrients are nutrients needed by the body in small amounts: Vitamins and
Minerals.
 Nutrient density is the measure of the nutrient a food provides compared to its energy
content.
 Typically, less processed foods are higher in nutrient density. Why? What is a processed
food? Can you think of examples from the foods you are familiar with?
 In Nutrition Research, all aspects of nutrients are studied:
o what they do in the body
o where they are found in foods
o how much we need for optimal physiological functioning
o consequences of consuming lesser or greater amounts of nutrients
o across all species of animals
o all things related to eating food
 The Scientific Method- What is it? What kinds of questions can be answered by
employing the scientific method?
o It is a systematic, unbiased approach to investigation
o Results of well-designed and carefully controlled experiments are (among other
things) used to:
 determine functions of nutrients
 make recommendations for nutrient requirements
 recommend food choices that will promote optimal nutritional health
 5 Steps to the Scientific Method
o Observation (this is where it all starts)
o Hypothesis: An educated guess made to explain an observation or to answer a
question. (Posing your question with an indication of your prediction)
o Experiments: (this is testing your prediction)
 Designed to test a specific hypothesis
  Must be designed to provide objective results that either:
 Support the hypothesis
 Fail to support the hypothesis
o Data Analysis (studying your data; looking for answers)
o Conclusions (what you conclude at the end of your process)

 Types of Nutrition Research

o Laboratory studies such as Cellular level, Biochemistry, Molecular Biology. They
are conducted in controlled environment so that all extraneous variables can be
eliminated.
o Animal studies such as Animal models used to study both animal and human
nutrition. They are used as a substitute for humans when it is not practical or
possible to experiment on humans
o Epidemiology such as
 Cross-sectional studies: Data collected from cross-section of population
at one point in time.
 Longitudinal studies: Data collected from same individuals over a long
period of time.
 Case-control studies: Compares individuals with a particular condition
with similar individuals without the condition.
o Human Intervention studies or clinical trials.
 Testing may occur in a large group of humans after much initial
laboratory work
 Change nutrient intake through either supplements or diet (independent
variable) and study the physiological effect (dependent variable)
 In the Scientific Method
o Objective measurements are: Quantifiable, Valid, Reliable and Unbiased
 o Subjective measurements are: Not easily quantifiable, based on opinions, Based
on feelings and often anecdotal.
o Part of an experiment
 Variable: A factor or condition that may change (in your example identify
the variable)
 Types
o Independent variable: What the researcher is
manipulating or is different between groups
o Dependent variable: Outcome you are studying/measuring
that is potentially influenced by the independent variable
 Experimental controls: Things considered when designing an experiment
to make sure that only the variable you are interested in is influencing
the outcome of study (in your experiment what are the controls? Is there
a control group?)
 Types:
o Placebo
 Indistinguishable from the real treatment
 Has no biological effect
 Placebo effect is when the sham treatment causes
a physiological effect due to the subject believing
he/she is getting a treatment
o Single-bling study
 either subjects or the researchers do not know who
got the treatment and who got placebo
o Interpretation of results is limited by the design of the study
 “Peer review” makes sure that scientific evidence is correctly interpreted
 Peer-review consists of usually an anonymous review of the design,
results, and interpretation of the study by experts in the field who did not
participate
o Ethical considerations: Institutional Review Board, Animal Care and Usage
Committee
o
 The Atomic Basis of Life – The Atomic Basis of Nutrition
o All atoms contain nucleus (protons + and neutrons), electrons (orbit nucleus in
“shells”- 8 electrons in a shell), and many nutrients (Ca, P, K, Na, Cl, Mg, Fe).
o Atoms make up more complex molecules.
 Water (made up of hydrogen and oxygen)
 Alanine (an example of an amino acid)
 Glucose (a sugar which is a simple carbohydrate)
o Atoms have a three-dimensional structure
o When atoms interact with each other, they form bonds. There are various types
of bonds.
 Covalent bonds: occur within molecules.
  One or more pairs of electrons shared by 2 atoms
 The number of bonds formed depends on the number of
electrons needed to fill outer shell
o Hydrogen can make 1 bond
o Oxygen 2 bonds
o Nitrogen 3 bonds
o Carbon 4 bonds
 Each atom has a characteristic number of bonds that can form
with other atoms
 Ionic bonds: results from the electrostatic attraction between + ions
(cations) and - ions (anions)
 One atom donates to another: more-or-less permanent loan
 Hydrogen bonds: when 2 molecules share an atom of hydrogen not an
electron like in the previous case
 Sharing is not equal. One molecule is a Hydrogen donor and the
other is the Hydrogen acceptor
 Common in virtually all biological substances like proteins and
DNA
o Properties of molecules
 Polarity: In atoms that share electrons through covalent bonds, the
electrons (e-) may tend to spend more time around the nucleus of one
atom than around the nucleus of the other
 Solubility: Water is polar and therefore particles in water behave
differently. They can be soluble in water or not!
 Determinants: molecular size, polarity, non-polar solute
molecules in dissolution
o Common chemical reactions
 Precipitation-solution reactions
 Acid-base reactions
 Oxidation and reduction reactions

Module 2 (chapter 3, 95-100)

 Structural organization of life

o Human body is composed of billions of highly specialized cells.
 Cells vary greatly between organs
 No cell can be called “typical”
o But, a number of structures (called organelles), are common to most cells
 Cell structure
o Human and animal cells are eukaryotic
 Have a membrane barrier that encloses intracellular organelles where
essential functions happen
 o Bacteria are prokaryotic
 Have external membrane but no nuclear membrane. So, there is less
organization inside the bacterial cell

 Some prominent structures of a cell

o Nucleus: Contains DNA (genetic code). RNA is made from DNA (DNA must be
transcribed into RNA before it can code for the proteins/ molecules needed by
our cells/body)
o Mitochondria: Here is where energy-¬‐supplying macronutrients are converted
to ATP (cell’s energy currency). It is called the “Powerhouse” of the cell
o Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): Maze-like structure which appears “rough”
because ribosomes are attached to it. Ribosomes make protein.
o Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Smooth maze-like structure. It is involved
in lipid synthesis and modification
o Golgi complex: Appears like a “stack of pancakes”. Here is proteins and other
molecules are modified and processed. Golgi is the “packaging center” of the
cell. “Pinches off” vesicles full of cell products. Vesicles are like little “transport
shuttles”
o Lysosomes & Peroxisomes: Vesicles that store enzymes that degrade proteins
and other complex molecules
o Cytoskeleton: System of filaments and tubules. Helps parts of the cell to move
and provides a scaffold.
 General activities of the cell
o Molecule transport: Active & passive transport, etc.
o Reproduction: Mitosis (cell division) and Meiosis (gamete formation)-¬‐-¬‐not
covered in this course
o Energy conversion: Production of ATP molecules from macronutrients
o Protein synthesis: Cell must make its own “equipment”
 Specialized cell functions
o e.g., Pancreas Beta cells make insulin, Alpha cells make glucagon. Lots of RER and
Golgi to make proteins & secrete into blood
o e.g., Fat cells mostly just store fat. Most organelles are sidelined and relatively
inactive
o
 Cells and Plasma membrane
o Primarily made up of phospholipids and proteins
o Phospholipids
 Head contains a charged phosphate and is relatively water soluble
(polar, hydrophilic)
 Tails are relatively insoluble in water (nonpolar, hydrophobic)
o Bilayer
 Membrane is 2 layers thick with the heads on the outside (where they
will interact with water) and the tails hanging out together on the inside
o Also contains cholesterol
o The plasma membrane is described as “fluid mosaic”
 Membrane functions and transport
o Endocytosis (into the cell)
 Cell membrane engulfs molecules and brings them into the cell
  Membrane-enclosed vesicle is transported inside the cell
 Once inside the cell, the contents can be broken down
 Phagocytosis – large multimolecular complexes are engulfed
 Pinocytosis – large molecules (proteins) along with extracellular fluid is
engulfed
o Exocytosis (out of the cell)
 When a vesicle is exported to cell membrane and contents are released
outside the cell
o A membrane is semipermeable
 Allowing some substances to pass through it and excluding others
 Lipid bilayers are selectively permeable

 Types of membrane transport

o Diffusion
 Movements of small particles from a region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration
 Molecules move spontaneously without requiring energy or carrier
 “Simple diffusion”
 This is the way that molecules move into and out of cells
o Facilitated Movement Processes
 2 types: Facilitated Diffusion and Facilitated Transport
 Both move particles to areas of lesser concentration from an area of high
concentration
o Facilitated transport
 Hydrophilic molecules or substances cross cell membrane through
highly-selective channels
o


Module 3 (chapter 3, 69-94, 101-104)
Module 4 (chapter 4)