•Genetics /2nd stage ‫ اﻟﻮراﺛﺔ ﻫﻮ ﻓﺮع ﻣﻦ ﻋﻠﻢ اﻷﺣﻴﺎء اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻲ ﺑﺪراﺳﺔ اﻟﺠﻴﻨﺎت‬:‫ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﻮراﺛﺔ • اﻟﺘﻌﺮﻳﻒ‬

Dr. Hams Hussain Hashim ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺮﻏﻢ ﻣﻦ أن اﻟﻮراء ﻗﺪ‬.‫واﻻﺧﺘﻼف اﻟﻮراﺛﻲ واﻟﻮراﺛﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻜﺎﺋﻨﺎت اﻟﺤﻴﺔ‬
‫ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻘﺮن اﻟﺘﺎﺳﻊ‬،‫ واﻟﻘﻠﻴﻢ‬،‫ اﻟﻌﺎﻟﻢ‬،‫ إﻻ أن ﺟﺮﻳﺠﻮر ﻣﻨﺪل‬،‫ﻟﻮﺣﻈﺖ ﻵﻻف اﻟﺴﻨﻴﻦ‬
• Genetics .‫ أول ﻣﻦ ﻳﺪرس ﻋﻠﻢ اﻟﻮراﺛﺔ ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺎ‬،‫ﻋﺸﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺑﺮﻧﻮ‬

•Definition: Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with the study of

genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms. Though heredity had
been observed for millennia, Gregor Mendel, scientist and friar working in
the 19th century in Brno, was the first to study genetics scientifically.

The bacterial genome:

• :‫اﻟﺠﻴﻨﻮم اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮي‬ ‫ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﻴﻨﻮم‬٪50 ‫ ﻳُ ﻌﺘﻘﺪ أن ﻣﺎ ﻳﻘﺮب ﻣﻦ‬، ‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﺸﺮ‬
• chromosome
• ‫اﻟﻜﺮوﻣﻮﺳﻮم‬ ‫ﺟﻴﻨﻲ ﻣﺘﺤﺮك‬
• plasmids
• ‫اﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻴﺪات • اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺔ‬ ‫ ﻫﻲ ﺗﺴﻠﺴﻼت اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي‬:(MGEs) ‫اﻟﻌﻨﺎﺻﺮ‬
• ‫ﺗﺴﻠﺴﻼت اﻹدﺧﺎل‬ ‫ وﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻋﺪد‬، ‫اﻟﺘﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ أن ﺗﺘﺤﺮك ﺣﻮل اﻟﺠﻴﻨﻮم‬
• bacteriophage
‫اﻟﻴﻨﻘﻮﻻت‬ ‫ وﻏﺎﻟ ًﺒﺎ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺆﺛﺮ ﻋﻠﻰ‬، ‫ﻧﺴﺨﻬﺎ أو ﺑﺒﺴﺎﻃﺔ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﻮﻗﻌﻬﺎ‬
• insertion sequences ‫ ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ‬:‫ وﻫﻲ ﺗﺸﻤﻞ‬.‫ﻧﺸﺎط اﻟﺠﻴﻨﺎت اﻟﻘﺮﻳﺒﺔ‬
.‫ واﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻴﺪات وﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺔ‬، ‫اﻟﻨﻮوي اﻟﻘﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﻘﻞ‬
• transposons

In humans, approximately 50% of the genome is thought to be Mobile genetic

elements (MGEs) : are DNA sequences that can move around the genome,
changing their number of copies or simply changing their location, often affecting
the activity of nearby genes. They include : DNA transposable elements, plasmids
and bacteriophage elements.

The bacterial genome:

.‫ ﻳﺘﻜﻮن ﻣﻌﻈﻤﻬﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻛﺮوﻣﻮﺳﻮم داﺋﺮي واﺣﺪ‬:‫اﻟﺠﻴﻨﻮم اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮي‬
 Most consist of a single, circular chromosome

◦ Some have several chromosomes, and a few have linear chromosomes

 Very little “extra” DNA between genes

 Single copy of most genes

 Plasmids

◦ Small, circular, extra-chromosomal DNA

‫ وﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﻳﺤﺘﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ ﺻﺒﻐﻴﺎت ﺧﻄﻴﺔ‬، ‫◦ ﻳﺤﺘﻮي ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺪة ﺻﺒﻐﻴﺎت‬
‫◦ اﻟﻘﻠﻴﻞ ﺟﺪً ا ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي "اﻹﺿﺎﻓﻲ" ﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﺠﻴﻨﺎت ﻧﺴﺨﺔ واﺣﺪة ﻣﻦ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ اﻟﺠﻴﻨﺎت اﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻴﺪات‬
DNA ‫ ﺧﺎرج اﻟﻜﺮوﻣﻮﺳﻮﻣﺎت‬، ‫ داﺋﺮي‬، ‫ﺻﻐﻴﺮ‬
 •Genetics /2nd stage ‫ﻋﺎدة ﻣﺎ ﺗﻜﻮن ﻏﻴﺮ ﺿﺮورﻳﺔ ◦ اﻟﻨﺴﺦ اﻟﻤﺘﻤﺎﺛﻞ‬
Dr. Hams Hussain Hashim ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﻞ ﻋﻦ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي اﻟﺼﺒﻐﻲ‬
‫ﻟﻬﺎ أﺻﻞ ﺧﺎص ﺑﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺴﺦ اﻟﻤﺘﻤﺎﺛﻞ‬
 Usually non-essential

◦ Replicate independent of chromosomal DNA

‫• اﻟﺘﺒﺎﻳﻦ اﻟﻮراﺛﻲ‬
Have their own origin of replication
‫ ﻧﻘﻞ‬- ً‫ أوﻻ‬:‫ﻳﺘﻢ إﻧﺘﺎج اﻟﺘﺒﺎﻳﻦ اﻟﺠﻴﻨﻲ ﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺘﻴﻦ‬
• GENETIC VARIATION .II ‫ اﻛﺘﺴﺎب اﻟﺠﻴﻨﺎت ﻣﻦ ﻧﻮع آﺧﺮ‬/ ‫اﻟﺠﻴﻨﺎت‬
Genetic variation is produced in two ways: ‫ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮات وراﺛﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺴﻠﺴﻞ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ‬/ ‫ﻃﻔﺮة‬
I - Gene transfer / Acquiring genes from another species ‫اﻟﻨﻮوي‬
II. Mutation / Heritable changes in DNA sequence
‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ أن ﺗﻨﺘﺞ اﻟﻄﻔﺮات ﻋﻦ أﺧﻄﺎء‬.‫• اﻟﻄﻔﺮة اﻟﻄﻔﺮة ﻫﻲ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺗﺴﻠﺴﻞ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي‬
‫ أو‬، ‫ أو اﻟﺘﻌﺮض ﻟﻺﺷﻌﺎع اﻟﻤﺆﻳﻦ‬، ‫ﻧﺴﺦ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﺪث أﺛﻨﺎء اﻧﻘﺴﺎم اﻟﺨﻼﻳﺎ‬
• Mutation
.‫ أو اﻟﻌﺪوى ﺑﺎﻟﻔﻴﺮوﺳﺎت‬، ‫اﻟﺘﻌﺮض ﻟﻤﻮاد ﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ اﻟﻤﻄﻔﺮات‬
A mutation is a change in a DNA sequence. Mutations can result from DNA
copying mistakes made during cell division, exposure to ionizing radiation,
exposure to chemicals called mutagens, or infection by viruses.
• Spontaneous mutation
‫• اﻟﻄﻔﺮة اﻟﻌﻔﻮﻳﺔ‬
Spontaneous mutations occur with non-zero probability even given a
‫ﺗﺤﺪث اﻟﻄﻔﺮات‬
‫اﻟﻌﻔﻮﻳﺔ ﺑﺎﺣﺘﻤﺎﻟﻴﺔ‬
healthy, uncontaminated cell. Naturally occurring oxidative DNA damage is
‫ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺻﻔﺮﻳﺔ ﺣﺘﻰ‬estimated to occur 10,000 times per cell per day in humans and 100,000
‫ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ وﺟﻮد‬times per cell per day in rats. Spontaneous mutations can be characterized
‫ ﺧﻠﻴﺔ ﺻﺤﻴﺔ ﻏﻴﺮ‬by the specific change:
‫ ﻳُ ﻘﺪر أن ﺗﻠﻒ‬.‫ ﻣﻠﻮﺛﺔ‬Tautomerism – A base is changed by the repositioning of a hydrogen
‫اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي‬
atom, altering the hydrogen bonding pattern of that base, resulting in
‫اﻟﻤﺆﻛﺴﺪ اﻟﺬي‬
‫ﻳﺤﺪث ﺑﺸﻜﻞ‬
incorrect base pairing during replication.
‫ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻲ ﻳﺤﺪث‬Depurination – Loss of a purine base (A or G) to form an apurinic site (AP
‫ ﻣﺮة ﻟﻜﻞ‬10000 site).
‫ﻳﻮﻣﻴﺎ ﻓﻲ‬
ً ‫ ﺧﻠﻴﺔ‬Deamination – Hydrolysis changes a normal base to an atypical base
100000 ‫ اﻟﺒﺸﺮ و‬containing a keto group in place of the original amine group.
‫ﻳﻮﻣﻴﺎ‬
ً ‫ﻣﺮة ﻟﻜﻞ ﺧﻠﻴﺔ‬
Slipped strand mispairing – Denaturation of the new strand from the
‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ‬.‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻔﺌﺮان‬
‫وﺻﻒ اﻟﻄﻔﺮات‬
template during replication, followed by renaturation in a different spot
‫"( اﻟﻌﻔﻮﻳﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺮ‬slipping"). This can lead to insertions or deletions.
:‫اﻟﻤﺤﺪد‬
Tautomerism - ‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺆدي إﻟﻰ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻧﻤﻂ اﻟﺘﺮاﺑﻂ اﻟﻬﻴﺪروﺟﻴﻨﻲ ﻟﺘﻠﻚ‬، ‫ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ اﻟﻘﺎﻋﺪة ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻣﻮﺿﻊ ذرة اﻟﻬﻴﺪروﺟﻴﻦ‬
‫ ﻓﻘﺪان ﻗﺎﻋﺪة اﻟﺒﻴﻮرﻳﻦ‬- ‫ اﻟﺘﻨﻘﻴﺔ‬.‫ ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺆدي إﻟﻰ اﻻﻗﺘﺮان ﻏﻴﺮ اﻟﺼﺤﻴﺢ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻋﺪة أﺛﻨﺎء اﻟﻨﺴﺦ اﻟﻤﺘﻤﺎﺛﻞ‬، ‫( اﻟﻘﺎﻋﺪة‬A ‫ أو‬G) ‫ﻟﺘﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ‬
‫ ﻣﻮﻗﻊ( أﺑﻮرﻳﻨﻲ‬AP). ‫ ﻳﻐﻴﺮ اﻟﺘﺤﻠﻞ اﻟﻤﺎﺋﻲ اﻟﻘﺎﻋﺪة اﻟﻄﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ إﻟﻰ ﻗﺎﻋﺪة ﻏﻴﺮ ﻧﻤﻄﻴﺔ ﺗﺤﺘﻮي ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻛﻴﺘﻮ ﺑﺪﻻً ﻣﻦ‬- ‫ﻧﺰع اﻷﻣﻴﻦ‬
‫ ﻣﺘﺒﻮﻋً ﺎ‬، ‫ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻃﺒﻴﻌﺔ اﻟﺨﺼﻠﺔ اﻟﺠﺪﻳﺪة ﻣﻦ اﻟﻘﺎﻟﺐ أﺛﻨﺎء اﻟﻨﺴﺦ اﻟﻤﺘﻤﺎﺛﻞ‬- ‫ اﻟﺘﺰاوج اﻟﺨﺎﻃﺊ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺨﻴﻂ اﻟﻤﻨﺰﻟﻖ‬.‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ اﻷﻣﻴﻦ اﻷﺻﻠﻴﺔ‬
‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ أن ﻳﺆدي ﻫﺬا إﻟﻰ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎت اﻹدراج أو اﻟﺤﺬف‬.("‫ﺑﺈﻋﺎدة اﻟﺘﺸﺒﻊ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻜﺎن ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ )"اﻻﻧﺰﻻق‬.
 :‫ﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﺠﻴﻨﺎت اﻷﻓﻘﻲ ﻧﻮﻋﺎن ﻣﻦ اﻟﺨﻼﻳﺎ‬
•Genetics /2nd stage
‫ ﻳﻨﻘﻞ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي إﻟﻰ‬:‫ اﻟﻤﺘﺒﺮع‬-‫أ‬
Dr. Hams Hussain Hashim ‫ ﻳﺘﻠﻘﻰ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ‬:‫ اﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻲ‬-‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻠﻢ ب‬
‫اﻟﻨﻮوي‬
Horizontal Gene Transfer
 Two types of cells:
‫ اﻟﺘﺤﻮل → اﻣﺘﺼﺎص اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي اﻟﻤﺠﺎﻧﻲ )ﻃﺒﻴﻌﻲ أو‬-1
A- Donor: transfers DNA to recipient
‫ اﻻﻗﺘﺮان → ﺧﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺤﻮﻳﻞ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي اﻟﺨﻠﻮي‬-2 (‫ﻣﺴﺘﺤﺚ‬
B- Recipient: receives the DNA ‫ ﻧﻘﻞ → اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي اﻟﺬي ﺗﻢ ﺗﺴﻠﻴﻤﻪ ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬-3
(‫ اﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺼﺔ‬،‫اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎوﻓﺎج )اﻟﻤﻌﻤﻢ‬
1- Transformation → uptake of free DNA ( natural or induced)
2- Conjugation → cell to cell DNA transfer
3- Transduction→ DNA delivered by bacteriophage (generalized,
specialized)

‫ ﻧﻘﻞ‬- ‫إﻋﺎدة اﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺐ اﻟﻮراﺛﻲ‬

‫اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي ﻣﻦ ﻛﺎﺋﻦ واﺣﺪ‬
‫ ﻗﺪ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺑﻌﺪ‬.(‫)اﻟﻤﺎﻧﺢ( إﻟﻰ آﺧﺮ )ﻣﺘﻠﻘﻲ‬
‫ذﻟﻚ دﻣﺞ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي اﻟﻤﺎﻧﺢ‬
‫اﻟﻤﻨﻘﻮل ﻓﻲ ﻧﻮﻳﻮود اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻠﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ‬
‫آﻟﻴﺎت ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ )ﻣﺘﺠﺎﻧﺴﺔ )وﺟﻮد‬
‫ ﻏﻴﺮ‬،(‫ﻧﻔﺲ ﺗﺴﻠﺴﻞ اﻟﻨﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﺗﻴﺪ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ‬
(‫ﻣﺘﺠﺎﻧﺴﺔ‬.
 Genetic recombination - transfer of DNA from one organism (donor) to
another (recipient). The transferred donor DNA may then be integrated into
the recipient's nucleoid by various mechanisms (homologous(having nearly
the same nucleotide sequences), non-homologous).

Transformation:
- In transformation, pieces of DNA released from donor bacteria are taken
up directly from the extracellular environment by recipient bacteria.
- Recombination occurs between single molecules of transforming DNA
and the chromosomes of recipient bacteria.
‫ ﻳﺘﻢ أﺧﺬ ﻗﻄﻊ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي اﻟﻤﻨﺒﻌﺜﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻤﺎﻧﺤﺔ ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮة ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﻴﺌﺔ ﺧﺎرج اﻟﺨﻠﻴﺔ ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ‬، ‫ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﺤﻮل‬:‫اﻟﺘﺤﻮل‬
.‫اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻴﺔ‬
.‫ ﻳﺤﺪث إﻋﺎدة اﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺟﺰﻳﺌﺎت ﻣﻔﺮدة ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي اﻟﻤﺤﻮل وﻛﺮوﻣﻮﺳﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻴﺔ‬-
 500 ‫ ﻳﺠﺐ أن ﻳﻜﻮن ﻃﻮل ﺟﺰﻳﺌﺎت اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي‬، ‫ ﻟﻜﻲ ﺗﻜﻮن ﻧﺸﻄﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﺤﻮل‬-
، ‫ﻧﻴﻮﻛﻠﻴﻮﺗﻴﺪ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻷﻗﻞ‬
•Genetics /2nd stage ‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺪﻣﻴﺮ ﻧﺸﺎط اﻟﺘﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﺑﺴﺮﻋﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ ﻣﻌﺎﻟﺠﺔ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﻧﻮﻛﻠﻴﺎز‬-
Dr. Hams Hussain Hashim .‫دﻳﻮﻛﺴﻲ رﻳﺒﻮن‬
.‫ ﺟﺰﻳﺌﺎت ﺗﺤﻮﻳﻞ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي ﺗﺘﻮاﻓﻖ ﻣﻊ ﺷﻈﺎﻳﺎ ﺻﻐﻴﺮة ﺟﺪً ا ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﺮوﻣﻮﺳﻮم اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮي‬-
- To be active in transformation, DNA molecules must be at least 500
nucleotides in length,
- transforming activity is destroyed rapidly by treating DNA with
deoxyribonuclease.
- Molecules of transforming DNA correspond to very small fragments of
‫ ﻣﺎ ﻟﻢ ﺗﻜﻦ‬، ‫ ﻣﻦ ﻏﻴﺮ اﻟﻤﺤﺘﻤﻞ أن ﻳﻜﻮن اﻟﺘﺤﻮل اﻟﻤﺸﺘﺮك ﻟﻠﺠﻴﻨﺎت ﻏﻴﺮ ﻣﺮﺟﺢ‬-
the bacterial chromosome. .‫وﺛﻴﻘﺎ ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﺸﻔﻴﺮﻫﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﺰء واﺣﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي‬ ً ‫ارﺗﺒﺎﻃﺎ‬
ً ‫ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ‬
- Cotransformation of genes is unlikely, therefore, unless they are so closely
linked that they can be encoded on a single DNA fragment.
- Transformation was discovered in Streptococcus pneumoniae and occurs
in other bacterial genera including Haemophilus, Neisseria, Bacillus, and
‫ وﻳﺤﺪث ﻓﻲ أﺟﻨﺎس ﺑﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺔ أﺧﺮى ﺑﻤﺎ‬Streptococcus pneumoniae ‫ﺗﻢ اﻛﺘﺸﺎف اﻟﺘﺤﻮل ﻓﻲ‬
Staphylococcus. .Staphylococcus ‫ و‬Bacillus ‫ و‬Neisseria ‫ و‬Haemophilus ‫ﻓﻲ ذﻟﻚ‬
- The ability of bacteria to take up extracellular DNA and to become
transformed, called competence ‫ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ اﻟﻜﻔﺎءة‬، ‫ ﻗﺪرة اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻣﺘﺼﺎص اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي ﺧﺎرج اﻟﺨﻠﻴﺔ واﻟﺘﺤﻮل‬-
- varies with the physiologic state of the bacteria. Many bacteria that are
not usually competent can be made to take up DNA by laboratory
‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺟﻌﻞ اﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﻏﻴﺮ‬.‫ ﻳﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺑﺎﺧﺘﻼف اﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ اﻟﻔﻴﺰﻳﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ‬-
manipulations. .‫اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺼﺔ ﻋﺎد ًة ﻗﺎدرة ﻋﻠﻰ اﻣﺘﺼﺎص اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ اﻟﺘﻼﻋﺐ اﻟﻤﺨﺘﺒﺮي‬

Transduction: TransductionVia Bacteriphages

• Transduction: using phage to transfer genes to bacteria or to map bacterial
genes
‫ اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺔ ﻟﻨﻘﻞ اﻟﺠﻴﻨﺎت إﻟﻰ‬:‫ اﻟﺘﻨﺒﻴﻎ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺠﺮاﺛﻴﻢ • اﻟﺘﻨﺒﻴﻎ‬:‫اﻟﺘﻨﺒﻴﻎ‬
‫اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ أو ﻟﺮﺳﻢ ﺧﺮﻳﻄﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﻴﻨﺎت اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺔ‬
 .‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻧﻘﻞ أي ﺟﻴﻨﺎت‬:‫• اﻟﺘﻨﺒﻴﻎ اﻟﻌﺎم‬
•Genetics /2nd stage
‫ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻧﻘﻞ ﻋﺪد‬:‫• اﻟﺘﻨﺒﻴﻎ اﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺺ‬
Dr. Hams Hussain Hashim
‫ﻗﻠﻴﻞ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺠﻴﻨﺎت‬

• General transduction: any genes can be transferred

• Specialized transduction: only a few genes can be transferred

Virus: Replicating structure (DNA/RNA) + protein coat

Bacteriophage: viruses infect bacteria ‫ ﻃﺒﻘﺔ‬+ (DNA / RNA) ‫ ﺑﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﻨﺴﺦ اﻟﻤﺘﻤﺎﺛﻞ‬:‫اﻟﻔﻴﺮوس‬
‫ اﻟﻔﻴﺮوﺳﺎت ﺗﺼﻴﺐ اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ‬:Bacteriophage ‫اﻟﺒﺮوﺗﻴﻦ‬
Virulent phages: reproduce through the lytic cycle, and always kill the host cells.

Temperate phages: inactive prophage–phage DNA integrates into bacterial

chromosomes.
.‫داﺋﻤﺎ اﻟﺨﻼﻳﺎ اﻟﻤﻀﻴﻔﺔ‬
ً ‫ وﺗﻘﺘﻞ‬، ‫ ﺗﺘﻜﺎﺛﺮ ﺧﻼل اﻟﺪورة اﻟﻼﻳﺘﻴﺔ‬:‫اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺎت اﻟﺨﺒﻴﺜﺔ‬
.‫ دﻧﺎ اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺎت ﻏﻴﺮ اﻟﻨﺸﻄﺔ ﻳﻨﺪﻣﺞ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻜﺮوﻣﻮﺳﻮﻣﺎت اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺔ‬:‫اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺎت اﻟﻤﻌﺘﺪﻟﺔ‬
 •Genetics /2nd stage ‫ ﻣﻠﺘﻬﻤﺔ ﻋﺎﺛﻴﺔ ﺗﻤﺘﺺ‬.1 ‫ﺳﺒﻊ ﺧﻄﻮات ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﻨﺒﻴﻎ اﻟﻤﻌﻤﻢ‬
Dr. Hams Hussain Hashim .‫ﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﺣﺴﺎﺳﺔ‬
‫ ﻳﻮﺟﻪ اﻟﺠﻴﻨﻮم آﻟﻴﺔ‬.‫ ﻳﺪﺧﻞ ﺟﻴﻨﻮم اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺔ اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ‬.2
Seven steps in Generalised Transduction ‫اﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻞ اﻟﻐﺬاﺋﻲ ﻟﻠﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻊ ﻣﻜﻮﻧﺎت اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ‬
‫واﻹﻧﺰﻳﻤﺎت‬
1. A lytic bacteriophage adsorbs to a susceptible bacterium.

2. The bacteriophage genome enters the bacterium. The genome directs the
bacterium's metabolic machinery to manufacture bacteriophage components and
enzymes ‫ ﻳﺘﺠﻤﻊ رأس اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺔ أو اﻟﻘﻔﻴﺼﺔ ﺣﻮل ﺟﺰء ﻣﻦ ﻧﻮاة‬، ‫ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻷﺣﻴﺎن‬.3
.‫اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻤﺎﻧﺤﺔ أو ﺣﻮل اﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻴﺪ ﺑﺪﻻً ﻣﻦ ﺟﻴﻨﻮم اﻟﻤﻠﺘﻬﻤﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ اﻟﺨﻄﺄ‬
3. Occasionally, a bacteriophage head or capsid assembles around a fragment of
donor bacterium's nucleoid or around a plasmid instead of a phage genome by
mistake. .‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﺮﻳﺮ اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺎت‬.4
4. The bacteriophages are released. ‫ ﺗﻤﺘﺺ اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﻣﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي ﻟﻠﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ‬.5
‫اﻟﻤﺎﻧﺤﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻴﺔ‬
5. The bacteriophage carrying the donor bacterium's DNA adsorbs to a recipient
bacterium

6. The bacteriophage inserts the donor bacterium's DNA it is carrying into the
recipient bacterium . ‫ ﺗﻘﻮم اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺔ ﺑﺈدﺧﺎل اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي ﻟﻠﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻤﺎﻧﺤﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﻤﻠﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ‬.6
‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺒﺎدل اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي ﻟﻠﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻤﺎﻧﺤﺔ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي‬.7 .‫اﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻴﺔ‬
7. The donor bacterium's DNA is exchanged for some of the recipient's DNA. ‫ﻟﻠﻤﺘﻠﻘﻲ‬

‫ ﻋﺎﺛﻴﺔ ﻣﻌﺘﺪﻟﺔ ﺗﻤﺘﺺ‬.1 ‫ﺳﺖ ﺧﻄﻮات ﻓﻲ اﻟﻨﻘﻞ اﻟﻤﺘﺨﺼﺺ‬

Six steps in Specialised Transduction ‫ ﺗﻘﻮم اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺔ ﺑﺈدﺧﺎل‬.2 .‫ﺑﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﺣﺴﺎﺳﺔ وﺗﺤﻘﻦ ﺟﻴﻨﻮﻣﻬﺎ‬
.‫ﺟﻴﻨﻮﻣﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻮاة اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ ﻟﺘﺼﺒﺢ ﻧﻔﺎذة‬
1. A temperate bacteriophage adsorbs to a susceptible bacterium and injects its
genome .

2. The bacteriophage inserts its genome into the bacterium's nucleoid to become a
prophage. ‫ ﻳﺘﻢ اﻟﺘﻘﺎط ﻗﻄﻌﺔ ﺻﻐﻴﺮة ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي ﻟﻠﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ‬، ‫ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻷﺣﻴﺎن أﺛﻨﺎء اﻟﺘﺤﺮﻳﺾ اﻟﺘﻠﻘﺎﺋﻲ‬.3
.‫اﻟﻤﺎﻧﺤﺔ ﻛﺠﺰء ﻣﻦ ﺟﻴﻨﻮم اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺔ ﺑﺪﻻً ﻣﻦ ﺑﻌﺾ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي ﻟﻠﻌﺎﺛﻴﺔ اﻟﺬي ﻳﺒﻘﻰ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻮاة اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ‬
3. Occasionally during spontaneous induction, a small piece of the donor
bacterium's DNA is picked up as part of the phage's genome in place of some of
the phage DNA which remains in the bacterium's nucleoid.

4. As the bacteriophage replicates, the segment of bacterial DNA replicates as part

of the phage's genome. Every phage now carries that segment of bacterial DNA.

5. The bacteriophage adsorbs to a recipient bacterium and injects its genome.

‫ ﻛﻞ ﻓﺠﻮة ﺗﺤﻤﻞ‬.‫ ﻳﺘﻜﺎﺛﺮ ﺟﺰء اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮي ﻛﺠﺰء ﻣﻦ ﺟﻴﻨﻮم اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺔ‬، ‫ ﻣﻊ ﺗﻜﺎﺛﺮ اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺔ‬.4
.‫اﻵن ﺗﻠﻚ اﻟﻘﻄﻌﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮي‬
.‫ اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺔ ﺗﻤﺘﺺ اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻴﺔ وﺗﺤﻘﻦ ﺟﻴﻨﻮﻣﻬﺎ‬.5
•Genetics /2nd stage
Dr. Hams Hussain Hashim ‫ ﻳﺪﺧﻞ ﺟﻴﻨﻮم اﻟﻌﺎﺛﻴﺔ اﻟﺤﺎﻣﻞ ﻟﻠﺤﻤﺾ اﻟﻨﻮوي اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮي اﻟﻤﺘﺒﺮع ﻓﻲ ﻧﻮاة‬.6
.‫اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻴﺔ‬
6. The bacteriophage genome carrying the donor bacterial DNA inserts into the
recipient bacterium's nucleoid. :‫اﻗﺘﺮان‬
‫ ﻳﺆدي اﻻﺗﺼﺎل اﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ ﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻤﺎﻧﺤﺔ واﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻴﺔ إﻟﻰ إﻧﺸﺎء ﺟﺴﺮ ﺣﺸﻮي ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ وﻧﻘﻞ ﺟﺰء أو ﻛﻞ ﺟﻴﻨﻮم اﻟﻤﺘﺒﺮع إﻟﻰ‬، ‫ ﻓﻲ اﻻﻗﺘﺮان‬-
.‫اﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻲ‬
.‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻗﺪرة اﻟﻤﺘﺒﺮع ﺑﻮاﺳﻄﺔ ﺑﻼزﻣﻴﺪات اﻗﺘﺮان ﻣﺤﺪدة ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﻼزﻣﻴﺪات اﻟﺨﺼﻮﺑﺔ أو ﺑﻼزﻣﻴﺪات اﻟﺠﻨﺲ‬-
‫ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﻦ أن اﻟﺴﻼﻻت اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻔﺘﻘﺮ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻴﺪ‬، ‫ وﻳﻌﻤﻞ ﻛﻤﺎﻧﺤﻴﻦ‬+ F ‫ ﺧﺎرج اﻟﺼﺒﻐﻴﺔ‬F ‫ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺑﻼزﻣﻴﺪ‬- (F ‫أﻳﻀﺎ ﻋﺎﻣﻞ‬ ً ‫ )ﻳﺴﻤﻰ‬F ‫ اﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻴﺪ‬-
.‫ وﺗﺘﺼﺮف ﻛﻤﺘﻠﻘﻲ‬-F ‫ ﻫﻲ‬F
Conjugation: ‫ وﺗﻮﻟﻴﻒ وﻧﻘﻞ اﻟﺤﻤﺾ‬، F pili ‫( ﺗﺤﺪد اﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ‬tra) ‫ ﺟﻴﻨﺔ ﻧﻘﻞ‬25 ‫ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼل ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻻ ﺗﻘﻞ ﻋﻦ‬F ‫ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﺪﻳﺪ اﻟﻮﻇﺎﺋﻒ اﻟﻤﻘﺘﺮﻧﺔ ﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻴﺪ‬-
.‫ و وﻇﺎﺋﻒ أﺧﺮى‬، ‫ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻌﻤﻞ ﻛﻤﺘﻠﻘﻴﻦ‬+ F ‫ واﻟﺘﺪاﺧﻞ ﻣﻊ ﻗﺪرة ﺑﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ‬، ‫اﻟﻨﻮوي أﺛﻨﺎء اﻟﺘﺰاوج‬
- In conjugation, direct contact between the donor and recipient bacteria
leads to establishment of a cytoplasmic bridge between them and transfer
of part or all of the donor genome to the recipient.
- Donor ability is determined by specific conjugative plasmids called
fertility plasmids or sex plasmids.
- The F plasmid (also called F factor)
- extrachromosomal F plasmid are called F+ and function as donors,
whereas strains that lack the F plasmid are F– and behave as recipients.
- The conjugative functions of the F plasmid are specified by a cluster of at
least 25 transfer (tra) genes which determine expression of F pili,
synthesis and transfer of DNA during mating, interference with the ability
of F+ bacteria to serve as recipients, and other functions.
- Each F+ bacterium has 1 to 3 F pili that bind to a specific outer
membrane protein (the ompA gene product) on recipient bacteria to
initiate mating.
- An intercellular cytoplasmic bridge is formed, and one strand of the F
plasmid DNA is transferred from donor to recipient,
- beginning at a unique origin and progressing in the 5′ to 3′ direction.
- The transferred strand is converted to circular double-stranded F plasmid
DNA in the recipient bacterium, and a new strand is synthesized in the
donor to replace the transferred strand.
- Both of the exconjugant bacteria are F+, and the F plasmid can therefore
spread by infection among genetically compatible populations of bacteria.
In addition to the role of the F pili in conjugation, they also function as
receptors for donor-specific (male-specific) phages.
- The F plasmid in E. coli can exist as an extrachromosomal genetic
element or be integrated into the bacterial chromosome . Because the F
plasmid and the bacterial chromosome are both circular DNA molecules,
 ‫ﺧﻄﻴﺎ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ً‬ ‫ﻳﻨﺘﺞ ﻋﻦ إﻋﺎدة اﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺐ اﻟﻤﺘﺒﺎدل ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ داﺋﺮة ‪ DNA‬أﻛﺒﺮ ﺗﺘﻜﻮن ﻣﻦ ‪ DNA‬اﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻴﺪ ‪ F‬ﻳﺘﻢ إدﺧﺎﻟﻪ‬
‫اﻟﻜﺮوﻣﻮﺳﻮم‪.‬‬
‫‪•Genetics /2nd stage‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﺗﺤﺘﻮي اﻹﺷﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ اﻟﻘﻮﻟﻮﻧﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺴﺦ ﻣﺘﻌﺪدة ﻣﻦ ﻋﺪة ﻋﻨﺎﺻﺮ وراﺛﻴﺔ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺗﺴﻠﺴﻼت اﻹدﺧﺎل ‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ ﻣﻮاﻗﻊ‬
‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻛﺮوﻣﻮﺳﻮﻣﻬﺎ وﻓﻲ ﺑﻼزﻣﻴﺪ ‪ .F‬ﺗﺆدي إﻋﺎدة اﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺐ اﻟﻤﺘﻤﺎﺛﻞ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺘﻮاﻟﻴﺎت اﻹدﺧﺎل ﻓﻲ اﻟﻜﺮوﻣﻮﺳﻮم ‪Dr. Hams Hussain Hashim‬‬
‫واﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻴﺪ ‪ F‬إﻟﻰ ﺗﻜﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﻔﻀﻴﻠﻲ ﻟﻠﺒﻼزﻣﻴﺪ ‪ F‬ﻓﻲ ﻣﻮاﻗﻊ اﻟﻜﺮوﻣﻮﺳﻮﻣﺎت ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﺗﺴﻠﺴﻼت اﻹدﺧﺎل‪ .‬ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻣﻮاﻗﻊ‬
‫اﻟﻜﺮوﻣﻮﺳﻮﻣﺎت ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﺗﺴﻠﺴﻼت اﻹدﺧﺎل ‪ ،‬ﻣﻊ ذﻟﻚ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻴﻦ ﺳﻼﻻت اﻹﺷﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ اﻟﻘﻮﻟﻮﻧﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪reciprocal recombination between them produces a larger DNA circle‬‬
‫‪consisting of F plasmid DNA inserted linearly into the chromosome.‬‬
‫‪- E. coli contains multiple copies of several different genetic elements‬‬
‫‪called insertion sequences, at various locations in its chromosome and in‬‬
‫‪the F plasmid. Homologous recombination between insertion sequences in‬‬
‫‪the chromosome and the F plasmid leads to preferential integration of the‬‬
‫‪F plasmid at chromosomal sites where insertion sequences are located.‬‬
‫‪The chromosomal sites where insertion sequences are found vary,‬‬
‫‪however, among strains of E. coli.‬‬

‫ﺗﻜﻤﻠﻪ ﺗﺮﺟﻤﻪ ﺻﻔﺤﻪ ‪9‬‬

‫‪ -‬ﺗﺤﺘﻮي ﻛﻞ ﺑﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ ‪ + F‬ﻋﻠﻰ ‪ 1‬إﻟﻰ ‪ F pili 3‬اﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﺒﺮوﺗﻴﻦ ﻏﺸﺎء ﺧﺎرﺟﻲ ﻣﻌﻴﻦ )ﻣﻨﺘﺞ‬
‫اﻟﺠﻴﻦ ‪ (ompA‬ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻴﺔ ﻟﺒﺪء اﻟﺘﺰاوج‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺸﻜﻴﻞ ﺟﺴﺮ ﺣﺸﻮي ﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﺨﻼﻳﺎ ‪ ،‬وﻳﺘﻢ ﻧﻘﻞ ﺧﻴﻂ واﺣﺪ ﻣﻦ ‪ DNA‬اﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻴﺪ ‪ F‬ﻣﻦ‬
‫اﻟﻤﺘﺒﺮع إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻲ ‪،‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻳﺒﺪأ ﻣﻦ أﺻﻞ ﻓﺮﻳﺪ وﻳﺘﻘﺪم ﻓﻲ اﺗﺠﺎه ‪ 5‬إﻟﻰ ‪ - .3‬ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﻮﻳﻞ اﻟﺨﻴﻂ اﻟﻤﻨﻘﻮل إﻟﻰ ‪DNA‬‬
‫ﺑﻼزﻣﻴﺪ ‪ F‬ﻣﺰدوج اﻟﺸﺮﻳﻄﺔ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻤﺘﻠﻘﻴﺔ ‪ ،‬وﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻊ ﺣﺒﻼ ﺟﺪﻳﺪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﺘﺒﺮع ﻟﻴﺤﻞ‬
‫ﻣﺤﻞ اﻟﺨﻴﻂ اﻟﻤﻨﻘﻮل‪.‬‬
‫‪ -‬ﻛﻼ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ ‪ exconjugant‬ﻫﻤﺎ ‪ ، + F‬وﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ أن ﻳﻨﺘﺸﺮ اﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻴﺪ ‪ F‬ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ‬
‫وراﺛﻴﺎ‪ .‬ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ إﻟﻰ دور ‪ F pili‬ﻓﻲ اﻻﻗﺘﺮان ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈﻧﻬﺎ‬
‫ً‬ ‫اﻟﻌﺪوى ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎت اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎ اﻟﻤﺘﻮاﻓﻘﺔ‬
‫أﻳﻀﺎ ﻛﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻼت ﻟﻠﻌﺎﺛﻴﺎت اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﻤﺘﺒﺮع )اﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺬﻛﻮر(‪.‬‬ ‫ﺗﻌﻤﻞ ً‬
‫‪ -‬ﻳﻤﻜﻦ أن ﻳﻮﺟﺪ اﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻴﺪ ‪ F‬ﻓﻲ اﻹﺷﺮﻳﻜﻴﺔ اﻟﻘﻮﻟﻮﻧﻴﺔ ﻛﻌﻨﺼﺮ وراﺛﻲ ﺧﺎرج اﻟﻜﺮوﻣﻮﺳﻮﻣﺎت أو‬
‫ﻳﺘﻢ دﻣﺠﻪ ﻓﻲ اﻟﻜﺮوﻣﻮﺳﻮم اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮي‪ .‬ﻷن ﻛﻼ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﻼزﻣﻴﺪ ‪ F‬واﻟﻜﺮوﻣﻮﺳﻮم اﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮي ﻋﺒﺎرة‬
‫ﻋﻦ ﺟﺰﻳﺌﺎت ‪ DNA‬داﺋﺮﻳﺔ ‪،‬‬