WEEK 11|MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY
CHAPTER 29: General Characteristics of Viruses
VIROLOGY
• Virology a branch of science that deals
with viruses and viral diseases; the study of
viruses and virus-like agents
• Viruses infect all forms of organisms
including bacteria, archaea, fungi, plants,
and animals.
• Viruses infect all living things
o We regularly eat and breathe billions
of virus particles
o We carry viral genomes as part of our
own genetic material
▪ Nearly 10 percent of the human
genome is made of bits of virus
DNA. For the most part, this viral
DNA is not harmful. In some
cases, scientists are finding, it has
a beneficial impact.
• Viruses and viral diseases have been at
the centers of science, agriculture, and
medicine for millennia
• Feschotte and his team recognized that
because viruses tend to attack the
immune system, they may be particularly
adept at manipulating immune system
genes. Ancient human genomes may
have evolved in response. Feschotte
believes it is possible that the genomes of
humans (or our ancient ancestors)
repurposed viral DNA for their own
defense, using it to spur the immune
system into action against viruses and
other foreign invaders.
• A concerted worldwide vaccination effort
against smallpox led by the World Health
Organization resulted in the eradication of
the disease by 1979.
OVERVIEW OF THE MICROBIAL WORLD
1. Bacteria
2. Parasites CELLULAR PATHOGENS
3. Fungi
4. Viruses ACELLULAR PATHOGENS
Lecturer: Sir Nathan John Jumalon
Viruses
• They are not cells; structure is very
compact and simple
• Do not independently fulfill the
characteristic of life (inactive outside of
the host cell)
• Lack enzyme for most metabolic
processes
• Lack machinery for synthesizing proteins
CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUSES
• Small infectious particles (virions) that
cannot be seen under an ordinary light
microscope.
• The study of virology (in general, taking
away the clinical aspect) is vast to say the
least.
• Many times, we can see their effects on
cell lines, such as inclusions, rounding up
of cells, and syncytium (cell fusion of host
cells into multinucleated infected forms),
where these characteristics become
diagnostic for many viral diseases.
• They are neither prokaryotic nor
eukaryotic.
• They are distinguished from living cells by
the following characteristics:
• Viruses consist of deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA), but not
both. Their genome may be double
stranded DNA (dsDNA), single-stranded
DNA (ssDNA), double-stranded RNA
(dsRNA), or single-stranded RNA (ssRNA).
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WEEK 11|MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY Lecturer: Sir Nathan John Jumalon
CHAPTER 29: General Characteristics of Viruses
• Viruses are acellular (not composed of function to reproduce. Growth (increase
cells), lack cytoplasmic membranes, and in size) does not occur in viruses.
are surrounded by a protein coat. • Viruses were first described as “filterable
• Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites agents” - small size allows them to pass
that require host cells for replication through filters designed to retain bacteria.
(increase in number does not involve • Cannot be seen under an ordinary light
mitosis, meiosis, or binary fission) and microscope.
metabolism. Because they lack enzymes, • Many times, we can see their effects on
ribosomes, and other metabolites, they cell lines, such as inclusions, rounding up
“take over” host cell function to of cells, and syncytium (cell fusion of host
reproduce. Growth (increase in size) does cells into multinucleated infected forms),
not occur in viruses. where these characteristics become
• Viruses are mostly host or host cell specific. diagnostic for many viral diseases
For example, human immunodeficiency • The poxviruses are the largest viruses (250
virus (HIV) infects T helper lymphocytes, × 350 nm), and the smallest human virus is
not muscle cells, in humans; other viruses, the poliovirus, which is 25 nm in diameter.
such as the rabies virus, can infect dogs, • Poliovirus = Picornaviridae
skunks, bats, and humans. A virus that
infects and possibly destroys bacterial
cells is known as a bacteriophage (Greek
phage: to eat).
• Viruses are becoming better known by
their DNA or RNA makeup, host disease
signs and symptoms, chemical makeup,
geographic distribution, resistance to lipid
solvents and detergents, resistance to
changes in pH and temperature, and
antigenicity (serologic methods). The
organization and type (either DNA or
RNA) of genome of the virus, how the virus
replicates, and the virion (a virus outside
of a cell) structure of the virus are used to
differentiate virus order, family, and
general
• Viruses cannot grow independently.
• Viruses are obligate intracellular
organisms.
• Viruses do not reproduce by binary fission.
• Viruses do not have plasma membrane,
ribosomes, lysosomes, and mitochondria.
o Viruses are acellular (not composed
of cells), lack cytoplasmic • At a minimum, viruses contain a viral
membranes, and are surrounded by genome of RNA or DNA (not both) and a
a protein coat. protein coat—the capsid.
• Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites o Fxn of Capsid: Protection,
that require host cells for replication Attachment, Viral antigenicity
(increase in number does not involve • The genome and its protein coat together
mitosis, meiosis, or binary fission). Because are referred to as a nucleocapsid.
they lack enzymes, ribosomes, and other o The genome can be doublestranded
metabolites, they “take over” host cell (ds) or single-stranded (ss).
• The entire virus particle is called a virion.

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WEEK 11|MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY Lecturer: Sir Nathan John Jumalon
CHAPTER 29: General Characteristics of Viruses
• Some viruses also have a phospholipid Genome
labile envelope surrounding the virion.
• Type of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)
• The RNA tumor viruses called Leukoviruses
• Strandedness (single or double)
and Rous’s viruses unusually contain both
o double-stranded DNA (dsDNA), single-
DNA and RNA as genetic material.
stranded DNA (ssDNA), double-
• The envelopes are of host origin but
stranded RNA (dsRNA), and
contain virus-encoded proteins. The
singlestranded RNA (ssRNA) viruses.
viruses acquire the envelope from the host
• Linear, circular, segmented
membrane as they bud from host cells.
o Below segmented RNA virus
Has Peplomers (projections, glycoproteins)
• Sense (positive, negative, ambisense)
• Enveloped viruses are typically more
susceptible to inactivation by high
temperature, extreme pH, and chemicals
than nonenveloped (naked) viruses.
Naked viruses are very resistant to
environmental factors – due to this
stability, typically transmitted via fecal-oral
route
• The morphology of virions is helical,
icosahedral (a geometric shape with 20
triangular sides), or complex. The
envelope masks the shape of the virion, so
most enveloped viruses are variably
shaped or pleomorphic.

Virion Morphology

• Helical
• Icosahedral – a geometric shape with 20
triangular sides
• Complex
• Enveloped*
o The envelope masksthe shape of the
virion, so most enveloped viruses are
variably shaped or pleomorphic.
o Capsid may be icosahedral or helical
o Example: Influenza virus

Helical

• Helical cord or rod-shaped

• Hollow cylinder
• Nucleic acid and protein are closely
associated
• Examples: Ebola virus, Tobacco Mosaic
Virus

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WEEK 11|MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY Lecturer: Sir Nathan John Jumalon
CHAPTER 29: General Characteristics of Viruses
Complex

• Not purely icosahedral or helical

• Examples:
o Bacteriophage
o Poxvirus – nucleic acid is inside its
membrane

VIRAL TAXONOMY

• Viruses are classified in orders, families,

genera, and species based on genome
type (RNA or DNA), number of strands in the
genome (ds or ss), morphology, and
presence or absence of an envelope.
o double-stranded DNA (dsDNA), single-
stranded DNA (ssDNA), double-
stranded RNA (dsRNA), and
Icosahedral
singlestranded RNA (ssRNA) viruses.
• 20 triangular sides in a cubic manner • As our knowledge of the nucleotide
• Appear spherical sequences grows, this also becomes a
• Example: valuable tool for the taxonomic placement
o Adenovirus – naked of viruses.
o Herpes Simplex Virus – enveloped • Originally, viruses were classified by the
diseases they caused and their host range.
• Current classification scheme
o Family = viridae
o Subfamily = virinae
o Genus = virus
o Species = common names
o Subspecies = numbers

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WEEK 11|MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY Lecturer: Sir Nathan John Jumalon
CHAPTER 29: General Characteristics of Viruses
Baltimore Classification

• Proposed in 1971; the classification of

viruses according to the genomic nature of
viruses and method by which they
replicate.
• Represented the easiest, and yet logical,
way of grouping viruses.
• Central theme of the proposal: All viruses
must synthesize positive strand mRNAs from
their genomes in order to produce proteins
and replicate in their hosts.

Group Classification Examples

I dsDNA Herpesviridae RNA VIRUSES (mnemonics)
Pozviridae,
Adenoviridae, • B – unyaviridae (Rift Valley, Sin Nombre,
Papovaviridiae Hantaan)
II ssDNA Parvoviridae • A – renaviridae (Lassa, LCM)
III dsRNA Reoviridae • T – ogaviridae (Rubella, Chikungunya,
IV (+) ssRNA Caliciviridae, Equine encephalitis viruses)
Flaviviridae, • O – rthomyxoviridae (Influenza virus types A,
Coronaviridae, B, C)
Astroviridae, • F – laviviridae (Yellow fever, dengue,
Picornaviridae,
Japanese encephalitis, West Nile)
Togaviridae
• F – iloviridae (Ebola and Marburg)
V (-) ssRNA Bunyaviridae,
Arenaviridae,
Paramyxoviridae,
Orthomyxoviridae, • P – aramyxoviridae (Parainflu 1-4, measles,
Rhabdoviridae, mumps, RSV)
Filoviridae
VI RNA RT Retroviridae • P – icronaviridae (Polio, Coxsackie, Echo,
VII DNA RT Hepadnaviridae Hepatitis A virus)
• R – eoviridae (Rotaviruses)
***See page 692 for Table 29-2 • R – etroviridae (HTLV 1 and 2, HIV 1 and 2)
• R – habdoviridae (Rabies, Vesicular
DNA VIRUSES (mnemonics) stomatitis)
• C – aliciviridae (Noroviruses)
• H – erpesviridae (HSV 1 & 2, VZV, EBV, CMV,
• C – oronaviridae (SARS)
HHV 6, 7 & 8)
• H – epadnaviridae (Hepatitis B virus)
• A – denoviridae (Adenoviruses 1-47)
• P – arvoviridae
• P – apillomaviridae
• P – oxviridae
• y

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WEEK 11|MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY Lecturer: Sir Nathan John Jumalon
CHAPTER 29: General Characteristics of Viruses
VIRAL REPLICATION

• Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites,

meaning that they must be inside a living
cell and use the host cell machinery to
replicate.
o The cell acts as a factory, providing the
substrates, energy, and machinery
necessary for the synthesis of viral
proteins and replication of the
genome. Processes not provided by
the cell must be encoded in the
genome of the virus. The manner in
IMPORTANT REMINDERS: DNA VIRUSES
which each virus accomplishes these
Generality Except steps and overcomes the cell’s
All are double stranded Parvoviridae biochemical limitations is different for
All have nuclear acid Hepadnaviridae different structures of the genome and
and Papovaviridae of the virion (whether it is enveloped or
All are naked Herpesviridae, has a naked capsid).
Hepadnaviridae, • For infection of a cell to occur, virions must
Poxviridae absorb or attach to the cell surface.
All are icosahedral Poxviridae • (1) Absorption or attachment is specific for
All replicates in nucleus Poxviridae certain cell receptors, and receptor
(cytoplasm) distribution will determine entry point into
the host.
IMPORTANT REMINDERS: RNA VIRUSES o Viral tropism – Each type of virus
specifically recognizes and attaches to
Generality Except a specific type of host cell, allowing
All are single Reoviridae infection of some tissues but not others
stranded • Most host cell receptors are glycoproteins
All are negative Caliciviridae, o the immune globulin superfamily
polarity Flaviridae, molecules (for poliovirus)
Picornaviridae
o acetylcholine (for rabies virus)
All are helical Retroviridae,
o sialic acid (for influenza virus)
Togaviridae,
o CD4 (for HIV)
Reoviridae,
Picornaviridae o complement receptor C3d (for Epstein-
All are linear Bunyaviridae and Barr virus [EBV]).
Arenaviridae • The virus attaches to specific receptors on
(circular) the surface of a susceptible cell by means
All are enveloped Calciviridae, of specialized structures on its surface,
picornaviridae, called adhesion molecules.
Reoviridae • The next step in viral replication is (2)
All replicates n Orthomyxoviridae penetration. Viruses can penetrate the cell
cytoplasm and Retroviridae by several different mechanisms and is
(nucleus and virus-dependent. Naked virions can
cytoplasm) penetrate the cell membrane directly.
Enveloped viruses may enter the cell by
fusion with the cell membrane, and a third
method of penetration is endocytosis,
whereby the enveloped virus enters the cell
in a cytoplasmic vacuole.

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WEEK 11|MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY
CHAPTER 29: General Characteristics of Viruses
o Fusion leads to syncytia
(multinucleated cells)
a. Direct penetration – negative virus
reacts with the receptor on the
cytoplasmic membrane and eventually,
viral genome is release into the host cell
b. Membrane fusion – enveloped virus
acting on the receptor on cytoplasmic
membrane, then invaginates and
nucleocapsid is released into the host
cell
Lecturer: Sir Nathan John Jumalon
• Viral glycoprotein – remain in the
cytoplasmic membrane
c. Endocytosis – interaction happens,
cytoplasmic membrane engulfs the virus
• Once inside the cell, the virus loses its
protein coat, releasing the genome. This
process is called (3) uncoating.
o RNA viruses usually release the
genome into the cytoplasm, whereas
most DNA viruses release their genome
into the host nucleus.
• The viral genome then directs the host cell
to make viral proteins and replicate the
viral genome (4 Macromolecular synthesis).
o Depending on the virus, the
metabolism of the host cell may be
completely stopped (polioviruses) or
may continue on a restricted scale
(influenza viruses).
• The next step is the (5) assembly or
maturation of the virus particles. The capsid
protein subunits aggregate to form
capsomers, and the capsomers combine to
form the capsid. The capsid and genome
associate to form the nucleocapsid.
• The new virions are then (6) released by
lysis if they are naked viruses or by budding
if they are enveloped viruses.
• During budding (which may not result in
rapid host cell death), part of the host cell
plasma membrane surrounds the viral
capsid and becomes the viral envelope.
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WEEK 11|MYCOLOGY AND VIROLOGY Lecturer: Sir Nathan John Jumalon
CHAPTER 29: General Characteristics of Viruses

The viral genome then directs the host cell to

make viral proteins and replicate the viral
genome (4 Macromolecular synthesis).

Definition and Properties of a Virus

• Viruses are filterable agents

• Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites
• Viruses cannot make energy or proteins
independently of a host cell.
• Viral genomes may be RNA or DNA but not
both.
• Viruses have a naked capsid or an
envelope morphology
• Viral components are assembled and do
not replicate by “division.”

Consequences of Viral Properties

• Viruses are not living.

• Viruses must be infectious to endure in
nature.
• Viruses must be able to use host cell
processes to produce their components
(viral messenger RNA, protein, and identical
copies of the genome)
• Viruses must encode any required
processes not provided by the cell.
• Viral components must self-assemble.

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