General Characteristics of Viruses

How do we define a virus? Viruses were originally distinguished from other infectious agents because
they are obligatory intracellular parasites- that is -they absolutely require living host cells in order to
multiply.

Typical Bacteria Viruses

Intracellular parasite No Yes
Plasma membrane Yes No
Binary fission Yes No
Pass through bacteriological No Yes
filters
Possess both DNA and RNA Yes No
ATP- metabolism Yes No
Ribosomes Yes No
Sensitive to antibiotics Yes No
Sensitive to interferon No Yes

The truly distinctive features of viruses are entities that:

(1) Contain a single type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA;
(2) Contain a protein coat (sometimes itself enclosed by an envelope of lipids, proteins and
carbohydrates) that surrounds the nucleic acid;
(3) Multiply inside living cells by using the synthesizing machinery of the cell’
(4) Cause the synthesis of specialized structures that can transfer the viral nucleic acid to other cells.

Viruses have few enzymes or no enzymes of their own for metabolism, for example they lack enzymes
for protein synthesis and ATP generation. To multiply, viruses must take over the metabolic machinery
of the host cells. This fact has considerable medical significance for the development of antiviral drugs
because most drugs that would interfere with viral multiplication would also interfere with the
functioning of the host cell and therefore are too toxic for clinical use.

Host range
The host range of a virus is the spectrum of host cells the virus can infect. There are viruses’ that infect
invertebrates, vertebrates, plants, protists, fungi and bacteria. Most viruses are able to infect specific
types of cells of only one host species. Viruses that infect bacteria are called bacteriophages or phages.
The particular host range of a virus is determined by the virus’s requirements for its specific attachment
within the potential host of cellular factors required for viral multiplication. For the virus to infect the
host cell, the outer surface of the virus must chemically interact with specific receptor sites on the
surface of the cell. The two complementary components are held together by weak bonds, such as
hydrogen bonds. For some bacteriophages, the phages, the receptor site is part of the cell wall of the
host; in other cases, it is part of the fimbriae or flagella.

Virus size
Virus sizes are determined with the aid of electron microscopy. Different viruses vary considerably in
size. Viruses range from 20 to 1000nm in length.

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Viral structure
A virion is a complete, fully developed, infectious viral particle composed of nucleic acid surrounded by a
protein coat outside of a host cell and is a vehicle of transmission from once host cell to another. Viruses
are classified by their nucleic acid.

Nucleic acid
A virus can have either DNA or RNA- but never both.
The nucleic acid of a virus can be single-stranded or double-stranded. Depending on the virus, the
nucleic acid can be linear or circular. In some viruses (e.g. influenza virus), the nucleic acid is in several
segments.

Capsid and envelope

The nucleic acid of a virus is protected by a protein coat called the capsid. The structure of the capsid is
determined by the viral nucleic acid and accounts for most of the mass of a virus, especially of small
ones. Each capsid is composed of protein subunits called capsomeres. The arrangement of capsomeres
is characteristics of particular type of virus.

In some viruses, the capsid is covered by an envelope which usually consists of some combination of
lipids, proteins and carbohydrates.
Depending on the virus, envelopes mayor may not be covered by spikes. Some viruses attach to host
cells by means of spikes. Spikes are reliable characteristics of some viruses such as influenza virus to
clump red blood cells is associated with spikes. The resulting clumping is called hemagglutination.

Viruses whose capsids are not covered by an envelope are known as nonenveloped viruses. The capsid
of a nonenveloped virus protects the nucleic acid from nuclease enzymes.

When the host has been infected by a virus, the host immune system is stimulated to produce
antibodies (proteins that react with the surface proteins of the virus). The interaction between host
antibodies and virus proteins should inactivate the virus and stop the infection.

General morphology
Viruses may be classified into several different morphological types on the basis of their capsid
architecture. There are helical, polyhedral and enveloped viruses.

Taxonomy of viruses
DNA sequencing allows the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses to group viruses into
families based on genomics and structure. The suffix –virus is used for genus names. Family names end
in -viridae and order names –ales. The family and genus names are used in the following manner:
Family Herpesviridae, genus Simplexvirus, human herpesvirus 2.
A virus species is a group of viruses sharing the same genetic information and ecological niche. The viral
species are designated by descriptive common names, such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
with subspecies (if any) designated by a number (HIV-1).

Reference:
Tortora, G.J., Funke, B.R. and Case, C.L. (2012). Microbiology- An Introduction. Pearson Education Inc.

Prof. N. Badrie