INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Viruses are non-cellular, microscopic infectious agents that can only replicate inside a
host cell.

From a biological perspective, viruses cannot be classified either a living organism or

non-living.

A virus can be an infectious agent which only replicates within a host organism.

This is due to the fact that they possess certain defining characteristic features of living
organisms and non-living entities.

In a nutshell, a virus is a non-cellular, infectious entity made up of genetic material and

protein that can invade and reproduce only within the living cells of bacteria, plants and
animals.

In a nutshell, a virus is a non-cellular, infectious entity made up of genetic material and

protein that can invade and reproduce only within the living cells of bacteria, plants and
animals.
 INTRODUCTION

For instance, a virus cannot replicate itself outside the host cell.

This is because viruses lack the required cellular machinery.

Therefore, it enters and attaches itself to a specific host cell, injects its genetic
material, reproduces by using the host genetic material and finally the host cell splits
open, releasing the new viruses.

Viruses can also be crystallized, which no other living organisms can do.

It is these factors that lead to viruses being classified in the grey area – between the
living and non-living.
History of Virus
• Living organism, unicellular,
one cell
• Larger (1000nm)
• In latin means littlesticks
• Usually treated with
antibiotics
• Not living, no cells
• Smaller (20-300nm)
• In latin meanspoison
• Antibiotics will notaffect the disease
➢ Viruses vary in their structure. A virus particle consists of DNA or RNA within a protective
protein coat called a capsid.

➢ The shape of the capsid may vary from one type of virus to another.

➢ The capsid is made from the proteins that are encoded by viral genes within their genome.

➢ The shape of the capsid serves as one basis for classification of viruses.

➢ Virally coded proteins will self-assemble to form a capsid.

➢ Some viruses have an envelope of phospholipids and proteins.

➢ The envelope is made from portions of the host’s cell membrane.

➢ It surrounds the capsid and helps protect the virus from the host’s immune system.

➢ The envelope may also have receptor molecules that can bind with host cells. They make it
easier for the virus to infect the cells
➢ Capsid is the protein shell that encloses the nucleic acid; with its enclosed nucleic
acid, it is called the nucleocapsid.

➢ Protein coat made up of many proteins ‘subunits

(capsomeres).

➢ Capsomere proteins may be identical or different.

➢ They are closely associated with the nucleic acid and reflect its configuration, either
a rod-shaped helix or a polygon-shaped.

Function:
➢ A primary function of the capsid is to protect the viral genome from environmental
conditions and ultimately to deliver the genome to the interior of a homologous host
cell.
 Helical symmetry

➢ The nucleic acid and capsomers are wound togetherin the form of
helix or spiral.
➢ Nucleic acid is inside a hollow cylindrical capsid.
➢ All filamentous viruses are helical in shape.
➢ Width usually 15-19nm
➢ length from 300 to 500nm depending on thegenome size.
➢ Eg. Rabies virus, Tobacco mosaicvirus, Ebola virus,
 Icosahedral Symmetry

➢ Many sided; icosahedron is common with 20

equilateraltriangles as sides and 12 vertices
➢ E.g; Poliovirus, Adenovirus,herpes virus
Complex Symmetry
➢ Viruses which don not show either icoshedral or
helical symmetry and due to complexity of their
structure are referred to have complex symmetry.

Examples:
Pox virus & bacteriophage
 Nucleic Acid
➢ Viral genomes exhibit extraordinary diversity with respect to nucleic acid type, size,
complexity, and the information transfer pathways they follow.

➢ Thus, viral nucleic acids can be DNA or RNA, double-stranded or single-stranded,

segmented or un-segmented, linear or circular, as short as 2 kb or up to 2500 kb long.

➢ DNA containing virusDeoxy virus.

➢ RNA containing virus Ribo virus

Functions:
1) Responsible for protein synthesis in cell.
2) Responsible for transfer of characters from one generation to another.
Nonenveloped and Enveloped
Viruses
 Classification Based on The Presence
of NucleicAcid

DNA virus
The virus, having DNA as its genetic material. There are two different types of DNA virus
Single-stranded (ss) DNA virus: e.g. Picornaviruses, Parvovirus, etc.
Double-stranded (ds) DNA virus: e.g. Adenovirus, Herpes virus, etc.

RNA virus
The virus, having RNA as its genetic material. There are two different types of RNA virus
Double-stranded (ds) RNA virus: e.g. Reovirus, etc.
Single-stranded (ss) RNA virus. It is further classified into two Positive sense RNA (+RNA) and negative
sense RNA (-RNA). Poliovirus, Hepatitis A, Rabies virus, Influenza virus are examples of single-stranded
RNA virus.
 Classification Based on The Host Range

Animal viruses
These viruses infect by invading the cells of animals, including humans. Prominent examples of animal
viruses include the influenza virus, mumps virus, rabies virus, poliovirus, Herpes virus, etc.

Plant viruses
These viruses infect plants by invading the plant cells. Replication of plant viruses is obligate and does
not happen without a host. Well-known examples of plant virus include the potato virus, tobacco mosaic
virus (TMV), beet yellow virus, and turnip yellow virus, cauliflower mosaic virus, etc.

Bacteriophage
The virus which infects bacterial cells is known as bacteriophage.
 Classification Based on The Structure
Or Symmetry

The classification based on different shapes and symmetry of viruses are as follows:

•Naked icosahedral: Hepatitis A virus, polioviruses

•Enveloped icosahedral: Herpes simplex virus, rubella virus, yellow fever virus, HIV-1

•Enveloped helical: Influenza viruses, mumps virus, measles virus, rabies virus

•Naked helical: Tobacco mosaic virus

•Complex with many proteins: some have combinations of icosahedral and helical capsid
structures. Herpesviruses, smallpox virus, hepatitis B virus, T4 bacteriophage.
 Classification on The Basis of Presence Of Envelope

The envelope is a lipid-containing membrane that surrounds some virus particles. It is acquired during viral
maturation by a budding process through a cellular membrane

Virus encoded glycoproteins are exposed on the surface of the envelope. These projections are called
peplomers.

Enveloped Virus
•DNA viruses: Herpesviruses, Poxviruses.
•RNA viruses: Flavivirus, Toga virus, Coronavirus, Hepatitis D, Orthomyxovirus, Paramyxovirus,
Rhabdovirus, Bunyavirus, Filovirus

Non-Enveloped Virus
•DNA viruses- parvovirus, adenovirus and papovavirus.
•RNA viruses- Picornavirus, Hepatitis Avirus and Hepatitis virus.
 Bacteriophage

A bacteriophage is a virus that infects a bacterial cell and reproduces inside it. They vary a lot in their shape and
genetic material.

A bacteriophage may contain DNAor RNA. The genes range from four to several thousand. Their capsid can be
isohedral, filamentous, or head-tail in shape.

Bacteriophage Structure
The bacteriophage consists of a polyhedral head, a short collar and a helical tail.

•Head- The head consists of 2000 capsomeres with double-stranded DNA enclosed within.

•Tail- The tail consists of an inner hollow tube which is surrounded by a contractile sheath with 24 annular
rings. The distal end consists of a basal plate with tail fibres at each corner. The bacteriophage attaches to the
bacteria with the help of these tail fibres.
Bacteriophage
 Bacteriophage Life Cycle

Lytic Cycle
In the Lytic Cycle, a bacteriophage infects a bacteria and kills it to release progeny virus. This cycle takes place in
the following steps:

Adsorption
The bacteriophage attaches itself on the surface of bacteria. This process is known as adsorption. The tips of the
tail fibres attach to specific receptors on the surface of the bacterial cell.

Penetration
The tail sheath of the phage contracts after adsorption. The base plate and the tail fibres are attached firmly to the
bacterial cell. The phage muramidase weakens a part of the cell wall and the hollow core is pushed downwards
through it. The DNA is injected inside the bacterial cell.
 Bacteriophage Life Cycle

Synthesis of Phage Components

The components of new virus particles are produced after the nucleic acid is released into the cell. The sub-units of
phage head, tail and late protein then appear. The synthesis is carried out by specific enzymes called early proteins.
The nucleus and the cytoplasm also contain the components of a phage.

Maturation and Assembly

On maturation, the head and tail protein of phage DNA assemble and each component of phage DNA is surrounded
by a protein coat. Ultimately, the tail structures are added forming a virion.

Release
The infected bacterial cell is lysed releasing the progeny phages. The phage enzymes weaken the cell wall of
bacteria during replication.
 INFLUENZA VIRUS

➢ The influenza virus, commonly known as the flu virus, is a contagious respiratory infection caused by
influenza viruses.

➢ There are three main types of influenza viruses: influenza A, influenza B, and influenza C.

➢ Influenza A and B are the types that commonly cause seasonal flu outbreaks in humans.

Viral Structure:
The influenza virus has a unique structure with a lipid envelope containing two main surface
proteins: hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). These proteins are used to classify influenza
viruses into subtypes.

Subtypes:
Influenza A viruses are further classified based on the combinations of HA and NA proteins they
possess. For example, the H1N1 and H3N2 subtypes are common in human influenza.
INFLUENZA VIRUS
 INFLUENZA VIRUS

Genetic Variability:
Influenza viruses are known for their ability to undergo genetic mutations and reassortment. This
genetic variability is one reason why new flu vaccines are developed each year to target the most prevalent
strains.

Transmission:
The influenza virus spreads from person to person through respiratory droplets produced when an
infected person coughs or sneezes. It can also be transmitted by touching a surface or object with the virus
on it and then touching the mouth, nose, or possibly the eyes.

Symptoms:
Influenza symptoms can range from mild to severe and may include fever, cough, sore throat,
body aches, fatigue, and respiratory symptoms. Severe cases can lead to complications such as pneumonia,
especially in vulnerable populations.
 INFLUENZA VIRUS

Seasonal Outbreaks:
Influenza is known for causing seasonal outbreaks, typically during the fall and winter
months. The severity of the flu season can vary, and different strains may dominate in different years.

Vaccination:
Vaccination is a key preventive measure against influenza. Annual flu vaccines are
recommended to provide protection against the most common strains expected to circulate in a given
flu season.
 HIV

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is a virus that attacks the immune system, specifically the CD4 cells (T
cells), which help the immune system fight off infections.

If left untreated, HIV can lead to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), a condition in which the
immune system is severely damaged, and the individual is more susceptible to opportunistic infections and
certain cancers.

Transmission:
HIV is primarily transmitted through contact with specific body fluids, such as blood, semen, vaginal
fluids, rectal fluids, and breast milk from a person who has HIV. The most common modes of transmission
include unprotected sexual contact, sharing of needles and syringes among people who use injection drugs, and
from mother to child during childbirth or breastfeeding.
 HIV

Prevention:
Prevention measures include practicing safe sex by using condoms, avoiding sharing needles or
syringes, and using pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for individuals at high risk. Additionally, there are post-
exposure prophylaxis (PEP) medications that can be used in certain situations after potential exposure to HIV.

Testing:
HIV testing is crucial for early detection and management. There are different types of HIV tests,
including antibody tests, nucleic acid tests, and combination tests that detect both antibodies and antigens. Testing
is typically confidential, and results can often be obtained quickly.

Treatment:
Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is the standard treatment for HIV. ART involves taking a combination of
HIV medicines (antiretroviral drugs) to control the virus and prevent its progression to AIDS. With proper
treatment, people with HIV can live long and healthy lives.
 Hepatitis B Virus

➢ Hepatitis B virus is an enveloped DNA virus belonging tothe family

Hepadnaviridae.

➢ The complete virion is a spherical particle that consists of an envelope around acore. The
corecomprises a nucleocapsid thatcontains the DNA genome.

➢ Othercomponents of the core area hepatitis B core antigen(HBcAg) and the hepatitis B
e antigen (HBeAg), which is alow-molecular-weight glycoprotein.

➢ The envelope of thevirus contains the hepatitis B surfaceantigen (HBsAg).

➢ It has become clear that the major mode of acquisitionis through close personal
contact with body fluids of infected individuals.

➢ HBV can cause acute and chronic hepatitis.

Hepatitis B Virus
 Hepatitis B Virus

Transmission:
HBV can be transmitted through contact with the blood or other body fluids of an infected
person. Modes of transmission include unprotected sexual contact, sharing of needles or
syringes, and perinatal transmission from an infected mother to her baby during childbirth.

Acute vs. Chronic Infection:

Most people with acute hepatitis B do not experience symptoms, and the infection
resolves on its own. However, a significant number of individuals develop chronic hepatitis B,
which can lead to more serious liver conditions such as cirrhosis or liver cancer.

Symptoms:
Acute hepatitis B symptoms can include fever, fatigue, loss of appetite, nausea,
vomiting, abdominal pain, dark urine, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin and eyes). Chronic
hepatitis B may not cause symptoms initially but can lead to long-term liver damage.
 Hepatitis B Virus

Testing and Diagnosis: Blood tests are used to diagnose hepatitis B. These tests can detect the
presence of the virus and determine whether the infection is acute or chronic. Testing is important
for early detection and appropriate medical management.

Prevention: Hepatitis B can be prevented through vaccination. The hepatitis B vaccine is safe
and effective and is usually given as a series of three or four shots. Other preventive measures
include practicing safe sex, avoiding sharing of needles or personal items that could be
contaminated with blood, and ensuring that healthcare workers follow proper infection control
procedures.

Treatment: Acute hepatitis B usually does not require specific treatment, and the body's immune
system can clear the infection. Chronic hepatitis B, however, may require antiviral medications to
slow the progression of the disease and reduce the risk of complications.
 ADENOVIRUS

Adenoviruses are a family of viruses that can infect humans and other animals. They are responsible for a
variety of illnesses, ranging from mild respiratory infections to more severe diseases. There are different
types of adenoviruses, and they are classified into various serotypes (strains) numbered 1 to 51.

Structure:
Adenoviruses have a non-enveloped, icosahedral capsid (the protein coat surrounding the viral
genetic material). The genome is made up of double-stranded DNA.

Transmission:
Adenoviruses can be transmitted through respiratory droplets, fecal-oral transmission, and
contact with contaminated surfaces. They are known to cause infections in crowded or enclosed settings,
such as schools, military barracks, and swimming pools.
 ADENOVIRUS

Clinical Manifestations:
Adenovirus infections can cause a wide range of symptoms depending on the specific serotype and
the individual's immune system. Common clinical manifestations include respiratory symptoms (cough,
fever, sore throat), conjunctivitis (pink eye), and gastrointestinal symptoms (diarrhea).

Serotypes and Diseases:

Different adenovirus serotypes are associated with different types of diseases. For example, some
serotypes cause respiratory infections, while others are linked to gastroenteritis, conjunctivitis, and more
severe conditions in immunocompromised individuals.

Immunization:
Adenoviruses have been used in vaccine development. For example, certain serotypes have been
used in the development of vaccines for military personnel to prevent respiratory infections. Additionally,
adenoviruses have been investigated as vectors for delivering vaccines against other diseases.
 ADENOVIRUS

Treatment:
There is no specific antiviral treatment for most adenovirus infections. Supportive
care, such as maintaining hydration and managing symptoms, is often recommended. Severe
cases may require hospitalization, especially in immunocompromised individuals.

Research and Gene Therapy:

Adenoviruses are also used in research and gene therapy. Modified adenoviruses
can be used as vectors to deliver therapeutic genes to target cells in gene therapy applications.

It's important to note that while adenoviruses can cause a range of illnesses, most infections
are self-limiting, and severe cases are relatively rare. If you suspect an adenovirus infection,
especially in the case of severe symptoms or complications, it is advisable to seek medical
attention for proper diagnosis and management.
 RABIES VIRUS

Rabies is a viral disease caused by the rabies virus, a member of the Lyssavirus genus. The virus
primarily infects mammals, and it is usually transmitted through the saliva of an infected animal via
bites or scratches. Rabies is a serious and often fatal disease, but it is also preventable with prompt
and appropriate medical intervention.

Virus Characteristics:
The rabies virus is a single-stranded RNA virus. It has a bullet-shaped structure and is
typically transmitted through the saliva of infected animals. The virus belongs to the Rhabdoviridae
family.

Reservoir Hosts:
Various mammals can serve as reservoir hosts for the rabies virus. In many parts of the
world, wild animals such as bats, foxes, and certain species of monkeys are common reservoirs,
domestic dogs are a significant reservoir and source of human infection.
 RABIES VIRUS

Transmission to Humans:
Humans can contract rabies through the bite or scratch of an infected animal. Transmission can
also occur if saliva or neural tissue from an infected animal comes into contact with mucous membranes or
open wounds.

Clinical Presentation:
Rabies has an incubation period that can vary but is typically several weeks to months. Once
symptoms appear, the disease progresses rapidly, leading to neurological symptoms such as anxiety,
confusion, hallucinations, paralysis, and ultimately death. There are two clinical forms of rabies:
aggressive behavior and paralytic (weakness and paralysis).

Prevention:
Rabies is preventable through post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), which includes a series of
rabies vaccinations given soon after potential exposure to the virus. PEP is highly effective if administered
promptly.
 RABIES VIRUS

Vaccination:
Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) with rabies vaccines is recommended for individuals at high risk of
exposure, such as veterinarians, laboratory workers, and people traveling to regions where rabies is endemic.
 EBOLA VIRUS

The Ebola virus is a highly contagious and often deadly virus that belongs to the family Filoviridae. The virus
causes Ebola virus disease (EVD), which is a severe and often fatal illness in humans. The Ebola virus was first
identified in 1976 in what is now the Democratic Republic of Congo near the Ebola River, from which it takes its
name.

Virus Characteristics:
The Ebola virus is a filamentous, enveloped virus with a single-stranded, negative-sense RNA genome.

Transmission:
The virus is believed to be transmitted to humans from wild animals and then spreads through human-
to-human transmission. Human transmission occurs through direct contact with the blood, secretions, organs, or
other bodily fluids of infected people, as well as surfaces and materials contaminated with these fluids.
 EBOLA VIRUS

Clinical Presentation:
Ebola virus disease is characterized by a sudden onset of fever, intense weakness, muscle
pain, headache, and sore throat. This is followed by vomiting, diarrhea, rash, impaired kidney and liver
function, and, in some cases, internal and external bleeding.

Prevention and Control:

There is no specific treatment for Ebola virus disease, but supportive care, including
maintaining hydration and managing specific symptoms, can improve outcomes. Prevention and
control measures include early detection, isolation of suspected cases, contact tracing, safe burial
practices, and the use of personal protective equipment.