Ch No.

01 Introduction to Pharmacognosy
Definition:

It is the study of crude drugs obtained from natural sources. It consist of two Greek
Words “Pharmakon” means drug and “Gignosca” means to acquire knowledge of.

The Souces from which crude drug is obtained is of 5 types.

1) Plants

2) Animals

3) Marine

4) Minerals

5) Microbes

History:

Initially pharmacognosy is known as “materia medica” The first person to use term
pharmacognosy is “C.A seydler” . Another scientist who is a physician “J.A Sehmidt” uses the
name of pharmacognosy in his Doctoral thesis titled “Analecta pharmacognostia”.

Examples of Crude Drug

Name/scientific name Parts used API (Active Pharmacological

pharmaceutical Action
Ingredient)
Rauwolfia serpentina Roots Reserpine Anti-hypertensive
ajmaline/ajmalacine

Casia angustifolia Leaves Senocide A & B

Laxative

Strychnous nux Seeds Strychnine, Brucine

vomica GI Stimulant (poison)
Cinchonasucci rubra Bark Cinchonine, Cinchodine,
Qunine, Qunidine Anti- malarial

In the early period primitive man went in search of food and ate a random plant or their parts as
no harmful effect was shown he considered them as edible and ate it as food. If he Observe other
effects by eating and consider them as in edible and according to the action he used them in
treating symptoms and diseases. Such as: If a plant cause Diarrhea it is used as Percative. i.e
Cassia angustifolia.
If plant causes vomit it is used as emetic (gastric wash) i.e Caephalis ipe cachuana. Knowledge
was imperical and was obtained by trial and error. He used drugs as such or as their infusions
and decation. The result was passed on from one generation to the other and new knowldge was
added in same way.
Civilizations in history

Ancient China:
"Shen Nung” an emperor who sort out and investigated. the medicinal value of
several hundred herbs. His book was "pantysao” has 365 drags divided into three classes

1) Emperor herbs
2) Minister herbs
3) Servent herbs

(1) Emperor herbs

They are 120 in number.
All of them are edible and non- toxic.
High quality food grade herbs and can be used for long period of time.

2) Minister herbs:
They are also 120 in number.
They were in-edible and less toxic.
All are strong therapeutically active drugs.

3) Servant herbs:

They are 125 in number

They are highly toxic.
Used in the treatment of diseases in controlled amount.

Nutraceuticals:
If a herb or a part of & herb having nutritic value as well as therapeutic
vale then such drug is considered as Nutraceutical. Such as grape fruit juice (cholestrolm
lowering)
Ancient Egypt:
Ebers papyruss in Known as most completed medical document Completed
existed as it contain 800 prescription drugs 700 surgical instructions and formulas for Cosmetics.
The Author was "Edmund smith papyrus."
Some major drugs-

Digestion: Senna, honey, thyne , juniper , cumin

Anti-thelmintic: pomegranate root, Hen bane.

Others: Myrrh, Acacia gum, saffron, turpentine.

Ancient India:
Knowledge of medicinal plant is very old and their medicinal properties are
described in Righ veda, Atharva veda.

Atharva veda develops the Ayurvedic system.

Examples: Ricinus, pepper, Lilly, velerian,

Ancient Greece and Rome:

Greek scientists Contributed much to the Knowledge of natural
history Hippocrates is reffered as the father of medicine and is remembered for his famous oath
"Adminstered to the doctors". Aristotle is a student of plato was a philospher and is known for
his writings on Animal kingdom. Theophrastus is a student of Aristotle wrote about plant
Kingdom.

Current advancement in pharmacognosy

Even up to the beginning of 20
century pharmacognosy was more often descriptive subject mainly include identification of
drugs in entire and powder condition preparation and storage of drugs the development of
pharmacognosy take place in 1934 -1960 era. By simultaneous application of various discipline
like organic chemistry phyto-chemistry, biochemistry biosynthesis pharmacology and modern
techniques of analytical chemistry
Modern techniques of analytical chemistry

Analytical chemistry

Chromatography Spectroscopic
technique technique
Types of Chromatography:
1) Paper chromatography
2) TLC (Thin layer chromatography)
3) GC Gas chromatography
4) HPLC- High performance liquid chromatography
5) Column chromatography
6) GFC- Gel filtration spectrometry

Types of Spectroscopy:
1) UV spectroscopy
2) IR spectroscopy
3) FRIR- Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy
4) Mass Spectrometry
5) NMR- Nuclear magnetic spectrometry

(Chromatography is used for isolation of plant extract

Spectroscopy is used for illustrating structures of extract)

Modernisation in pharmacognosy:
The substances from the plant were isolated their structure were
illustrated and their pharmacological active constituent studied. This development was mainly
due to the following four events:
1) Isolation of penicillin: By William flaming in 1928. Large scale production started in 1941 by
flouray and chain.

2)Isolation of reserpine: Isolation from Rauwolfia roots and conforming its hypotensive and
trancheulizing properties.

3) Isolation of Vinca Alkaloid: Isolation of Vinca alkaloid especially vin cristine and vin
blastine.

Alkaloids:
Alkaloids are basic nitrogenous compounds having definite pharmacological activity. (source of
nitrogen is amino acids)

Standard amino acids: All amino acids which take part -in protein sciences in the body.
Non- standard amino acids: All amino acids that play other function but not take part in protein
synthesis e,g ornithine in urea cycle
Types of standard amino acid
1. Aliphatic Amino Acids:
 Glycine
 Alanine
 Valine
 Lucine
 Iso- lucine
 2. Aromatic Amino Acid:
 Phenylalanine
 Tyrosine
 Tryptophane
3. Acidic Amino Acid:
 Aspartic Acid
 Glutamic acid
4. Basic Amino Acid:
 Arginine
 Histidine
 Lysine
5. Sulfur-Containing Amino Acid:
 Methionine
 cystine
6. Hydroxyl-Containing Amino Acid:
 Serine
 Threonine
7. Cyclic Amino Acid:
 Proline
 Hydroxyl proline

Alkaloidfurther eight classesEndol alkaloid

Endol alkaloid Vinca alkaloid (Catharanthus roseous)API Vinca cristine &
vinca blastine
Vinca cristine was found to be useful in treatment of Leukemia.
4) Isolation of steroid hormone: Like progesterone was isolated by partial synthesis of
Diosgenines and other steroid saponines by marker”s method. Cortisone and hydrocortisone are
obtained from progesterone by chemical and microbial reaction.
 Steroid ringCydopentenoperhydrophenthenine ring .
 DiosgenineGlycosidesPhytochemicals
 Saponine foam and foath (haemolytic)

Glycosides:
Any compound which on hydrolysis breaks into a two parts one sugar part called
Glycone and non-sugar part called Aglycone.

Cardiotonic Glycosides

Digitlis purpura
Sugar part (Digitoxose) Diosgenine(non-sugar)

Diosgeniepartial synthesisprogestroneChemical & microbial reaction  Cortisone &

Hydro cortisone

Scope of Pharmacognosy:

1) Crude drug of natural origin that is obtained from plants, animals,

microbes, minerals and marines and their active constituent are subject matter of pharmacognosy
.

2) The crude drugs are used for preparation of herbal tea mixtures all kind of tinctures, extracts,
juices, medicinal drops, Syrups, infusions ointments and liniments.

3) In second half of 19th century pure active constituent were separated from crude drugs.

4) Crude drugs and their products are of economical importance and commercially profitable
products.

5) Private industries, pharmaceutical industries, consumer product test laboratories, herbal

product industries, cosmetic industries, perfume industries, placement in Federal agencies,
medicinal plant research labs, forensic laboratories and environmental industries.

Pharmacognostical scheme:
Definition: To describe drugs in systematic manners is known as
pharmacognostical scheme it includes following:
 Biological source
 Geographical source
 Cultivation collection procedure
 Morphological characters
 Microscopical characters
 Chemical constituents
 Uses
 Substituents
 Adulterants
 Chemical identification test
Biological Source: It includes
 Botanical name. (It include two part genus and specie name)
 Family
 Parts used.
Geographical source: Name of area or country in which plant is cultivated is its geographical
source.

Procedure: Cultivation or collection.

Morphological characters:
1) Length 2) Thickness 3) Taste
4) Surface 5) Color 6) Odour

Microscopical characters:
 Xylem
 Trachieds
 Calcium oxalate crystals
 Phloem
 Cork
 Sclerenchyma cells
 Parenchyma cells
 Trichomes
 Pitch cells
 Stomata

Chemical constituents:
It is most important aspect which determines intrinsic value of drug to
which it is used. i.e Raserpine

Uses:
 Pharmaceutical uses
 Pharmacological uses
 Industrial uses
Substituents: The drug which is used during the non-availability of original drug is known as its
substituent i.e both have similar chemical constituents. It has same type of physiological
constituent but they can have different morphology.

Adulterants: With the knowledge of diagnostic character of drug the adulterants can be
deducted most of the times. This adulterant compound are devoid of physiological constituent
but they are morphological the same.

Chemical identification test: (Phytochemical identification)(preliminary phytochemical

screening test)

1) Wagner test
Alkaloids 2) Hager test
3) Mayer test
4) Dragondroff test
 1) Legal’s test
Glycosides 2) Keller’s Kiliani test

1) Molisch’s test
Carbohydrates 2) Benedict test
3) Barfoed test
4) Felling’s test
5) Osazone test (For Ketonic sugars)

1) Ninhydrin test
Protein & Amino acids 2) Million’s test

1) Gelatin test
Phenols and Flavonoids 2) Lead acetate test
3) Ferric chloride test

Sterols Shinoda test

Saponins Saponification number

Classifications of Drugs of Natural Origin:

The crude drugs of natural origin can be divided into two main categories
 Organized drugs
 Un-organized drugs
Organized drugs:
It consists of cellular organization in the form of anatomical features. All of
the morphological plant parts or entire plant can be used as organized drug example Cinchona,
Quassia, Senna, Rauwolfia.

Unorganized drugs:
They do not have morphological and anatomical organization as such. But
these products having ultimate source of plants animals, minerals Example: aloetic juice,
Exudates (pathological products of plant), Mineral source (shilajit)

Classification systems:
1) Alphabetical classification system:
It is the simplest way of classification. Crude drugs are
organized in alphabetical order of their Latin or English name or sometimes their local language
name. Some of pharmacopoeias and reference books which classify the drugs according to this
system or as follow
1. Indian pharmacopoeia
2. British herbal pharmacopoeia English Names
3. British pharmacopoeia

4. US pharmacopoeia
5. European pharmacopoeia Latin Names

Merits:
 Quick to use
 No repetition of entries
 No confusion
 Very easy location tracing
 Addition of new drug is easy

De-merits:
There is no relationship with previous and successive drug entry.

Taxonomical Classification System:

All the plants possesses different characters of morphological, microscopical, chemical,
embryological, Serological and genetics. In this system crude drugs are classified according to
their taxonomy. For example:

Taxonomy Name

Kingdom Plantae

Sub kingdom Tracheaobionta

Division Mangoliophyta
Class Magnoliopsida
Sub class Asteridae
Order Gentianales
Family Apocyanceae
Genus Rauwolfia
Specie Rauwolfia serpentina

Merits: Helpful for studying evolutionary processes or developments.

De-merits: This system does not co-relate in between chemical constituents and biological
activity of drug.
Morphological Classification System:

In this system drugs are arranged according to the morphological and external characters of
plants and animal parts.

The drugs obtained from the direct part of plants and contains
cellular tissues are called organized drugs i.e leaves, roots

The drugs which are prepared from plants by some intermediate physical processes such as
drying, extraction, incision, and not containing cellular tissues are called un-organized drugs.

Plant part Drug

Wood Sandal wood, Quercus infectoria

Leaves Cassia angustifolia, Digitalis purpurea, Atropa

belladonna.

Bark Cinchona succirubra, Cascara sagrada,

Cinamomum zeylanicum.

Flowers Cloves(Eugenia caryophyllata), Chamomile

tea, Saffron.

Fruits Citrus aurentium, Citrus limetta, Citrullus

colocynthis, Cardamom (Elettaria
cardamomum), Tamarindus indica

Roots & rhizomes Rauwolfia serpentine, Zingibar officinale,

Allium sativum, Glycyrrhiza glabra

Hair and fibers Cotton, Silk, Jute, flax, hamb.

Un-organized Drugs:

Forms Crude Drug

Dried latex Opium( Paparver somniferum)
Dried juice Aloetic juice

Dried extracts Agar, Tolu balsam, Peru balsam

Waxes Bees wax, Carnauba wax

Gums Oleo gums, Acacia gums, Tragacanth gum.

Volatile oils Turpentine, Pepper mint (Mentha piperita),

Coriander(Coriandrum sativum), Eucalyptus
globulus

Fixed oils Castor oil, Olive oil

Animal products Honey, Cod liver oil, Shellac, Gelatin

Fossil and minerals Bentonite, Kaolin, Talc

Merits:

To identify and detect adultration

De-merits:

No co-relation between therapeutic action

Repetition of drugs and plants occur.

Pharmacological classification system:

Pharmacological class:

Drug acting on GIT:

Sub class Example

Bitter Quassia( Quassia amara), Gentina(Gentina
lutea)

Carminative Cardimom(Elettaria cardamomum), Mentha

peprita

Ematic Ipe cac(Carapichea ipecacuanha)

Anti-emetic Ipe cac(Carapichea ipecacuanha), Kurchi bark

Laxative Agar, Banana, Isabgol.

Pergative Senna, Castor oil

Cathartic Senna

Drugs acting on respiratory system:

Expectorent Vasaka, Ipe cac(Carapichea ipecacuanha),

Glycyrrhiza

Anti-tussives Opium( Paparver somniferum)

Broncha dialators Tea (Camellia sinensis), Ephedra(Ephedra

sinica)

Drugs acting on CVS:

Cardiotonic Digitalis purpurea, Squills(Urgenia maritima),

Strophanthus kombe

Cardio-depressants Cinchona succi rubra, Veratrum album

Vaso-constrictor Ergot(Claviceps purpurea)

Anti-hypertensive Rauwolfia serpentina

Drugs acting on ANS:

Adrenergic Ephedra(Claviceps purpurea)

Cholinergic Physostigma venenosum, Pilocarpus jaborandi

Anti-cholinergic Datura stramonium

Drugs acting on CNS:

Central analgesic Opium ( Paparver somniferum)

CNS Depressant Atropa belladonna, Opium (Paparver

somniferum), Hyoscyamus niger

CNS Stimulant Tea, Coffee

Antispasmodic Datura stramonium, Hyoscyamus niger

Some other classes:

Anti-cancer Vinca alkaloids

Anti-rheumetic Aconite

Anthalmintic Quassia( Quassia amara)

Astringent Catechu
Anti-malarial Cinchona succi rubra, Artemisia(Artemisia
annua)

Immuno-modulatory agents Ginseng, Tulsi

Chemotherapeutic Natural antibiotics

Local anesthetics Cocaine

Merits: This system can be used for suggesting substitutes of drugs if they are not available.

Demerits: Drugs having different actions get classified separately in different groups causing
confusion.

Chemical classification system:

Chemical group Drugs

Alkaloid Cinchona succi rubra, Datura stramonium, Ipe
cac(Carapichea ipecacuanha), Strychnous nux
vomica

Glycosides Senna, Aloevera, Digitalis purpurea,

Glysyrhiza
Carbohydrates Acacia, Tragacanth, Starch, Isabgol
Volatile oils Cloves, Corrionder(Coriandrum sativum),
Cinamom(Cinnamomum verum ),
 Cumin(Cuminum cyminum)

Rasins Benzoin, Tolu balsams, Peru balsams

Tanins Tea, Ketachu

Enzymes Papain, Tripsen

Lipids Bees wax, Cocoa butter, lanolins

Merits: Popular approach for Phyto-chemical studies.

Demerits: Confusion arises when particular drug possess number of compounds belonging to
different group of compounds.

Chemotaxonomical Classification system:

This system relies on chemical similarities of taxon. It is based on the existence of relationship
between constituents of various drugs.

Example: Tropane alkaloids generally occur among the members of Solanaceae family thereby
serving Chemo-taxonomical marker.

Serotaxonomical Classification system:

It can be explained as the study about the applications and utility of serology involving the
taxonomical problems. It expresses the similarities in the taxa and this data is helpful in
taxonomy. It determine similarities between species, genera and family.