General Pharmacognosy

Introduction to Pharmacognosy-
From two Greek words, Pharmacon-a drug and gignosco- to acquire a knowledge off.
Pharmacognosy word was invented by seydler in 1815. (German scientist)
Seydler, while studding sarsaparilla, in this words titles as ‘Analecta pharmacognostica’
Definition: - “Pharmacognosy is study of crude drugs obtained from plank, animal and mineral
source.”
“Crude drugs means natural or simple or unprocessed form of a drugs.”
Modern definition of Pharmacognosy-
“Pharmacognosy is scientific and systematic study of structural, Physical, Chemicals and
biological characters of crude drugs along with their history method of Cultivation, Collection
and Preparation for the market.”
Sources of crude drugs-
Sr. Source Example
No.
1. Vegetable / plant Fennel, clove, cinnamon
2. Animal Honey, Beeswax, Lanolin
3. Mineral Chalk, Bentonite, Talc, Kaolin
4. Antibiotics Penicillin, Streptomycin, Tetracycline
5. Allergens Pollen grains, Mold spores, Feathers, webs.
6. Immunizing agents Vaccines, sera, ANTITAINS.
7. Pesticides pyrethrum, nicotine, Neem rotenone

History of pharmacognosy :-

Sr. Name of Scientist / Inventions

No. Philosophers/physicians/documents.
1. Papyrus Ebers (1500 B.C.) Is old document written in 1500 B.C. where
medicinal uses of several plants and animals also
human anatomy is described. Known as father of
medicine. And deals with Anatomy and
Physiology of human being studied on Animal
kingdom and drugs.
2. Hippocrates (460-360 B.C.) Known as father of medicine. And deals with
Anatomy and Physiology of human being studied
on animal kingdom and drugs.
3. Aristotle (384-32 B.C.) Studied on animal kingdom and drugs.
4. Theophrastus (370-287 B.C.) Studied on plant kingdom and drugs.
5. Dioscorides (78 A.D.) Described several plants & their medicinal
importance in “De material medical” which is
6. Pliny the eider (23-70 AD) He, complied 37 volumes of natural history.
Where main uses of drugs are given.
7. Galen (131-200AD) Described various methods of preparations
containing achieve constituents of crude drugs.
This branch is also known as extract of plants and
 animal drugs, is also known as Galenical
Pharmacognosy or “Extraction Pharmacy.
8. Seydler (1815) Coined the term ‘Pharmacognosy & definition of
Pharmacognosy.
9. Tschirsh He define Pharmacognosy. Scientifically &
Systematically.

Traditional Indian systems of medicine –

Indian systems of medicine is very old, 3500 BC where is suktas of Rigveda very and
Ayurveda curative properties of plants have been mentioned.
1.Charak samhita- Where medicinal plants and their used are described along with their
properties About 700 crude drugs along with their there plant properties are described at that
time.
2.Susruta samhita- Where knowledge of surgery and instruments required for surgery is
described.
3.Ayurveda- Originated in India about 3000 years ago. Is oldest system of medicine where
preventive & curative aspects of life is described. The principles of positive health and
therapeutic measures in this systems relates to mental, Physical, Social and spiritual welfare of
human beings.
Ayurveda gives knowledge of following-
1. Kayachikitra- internal medicine
2. Kumarbhitya – pediatrics
3. Tranchiktsa – Psychalogical medicine
4. Shalaka tantra- opthalmalogy, ENT
5. Shalya tantra – surgery
6. Agada tantra – toxicology
7. Rasayana tantra – geriatrics
8. Vajikarana tantra – aphrodisiacs & Eugenics.
Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia contains more than 8000 recipes mode from natural drugs,
prepared from herbal, mineral, animal and marine sources. These are used singly or in
combinations and in various forms such as, decoctions, infusions, juices, distillates,
extracts, powders, pills tablets, syrups, fermented liquids, bhasmas, medicated oils etc.
4.Siddha system of medicine-
Siddha means achievement and siddhars means saintly personalities who attained
proficiency in medicine through practice of Bhakti and yoga.
This system is identified with Dravidian culture and is largely therapeutic in nature. Like
Ayurveda this system believes that all objects in universe are made up of five basic elements
namely, Earth, Water, Sky, Fire and Air.
The identification of causative factors of diseases is done through pulse reading, colour of body,
study of voice, urine examination, and status of digest system and examination of tongue.
The literature of siddha system is mentally in Tamil.
5.Naturopathy-
Naturopathy is not merely a system of treatment, but also a way of life which is based on laws of
nature.
The attention is particularly paid to eating and living habits, adoption of prefatory measures, use
of hydrotherapy, mud pack therapy, baths, massage therapy etc.
Application of natural means &habits in the life.
6.Yoga-
The system of yoga is as old as Ayurveda. The eight components of yoga are.
1. Restraint
2. Observance of austerity
3. Physical postures,
4. Restraining of sense organs,
5. Breathing exercises,
6. Contemplation,
7. Meditation
8. Samadhi

Yoga exercises have potential in improvements of better circulation of oxygenated blood in

the body, restraining the sense organs, improvement of social and personal behavior and
induction of tranquility and serenity in the mind .
Drug-
Drugs has origin in French language ‘drogue,’ means any substance used in preparation
of medicine.
Technically & legally drugs is defined in India under Drug & cosmetics Act of 1940 as
follows.
1. All medicine for internal or external use of human beings or animals and all substance
intended to be used for or in diagnosis, treatment, mitigation or prevention of disease in
human beings or animals.
2. Such substance food intended to affect the structures or any function of the human body
or intended to be used for the destruction of vermin or animals as may specified from
time to time by the central government by notification in official Gazettes.
Hence apart from the therapeutic agents, diluting agents, vehicles, flavors, colors and
many other pharmaceutical aids from animal, vegetable or mineral confirming to above
limitations are also covered under the term drug.
Technical products –
‘Drugs from national origin are also used in confectionaries food industries, and
beverages as spice, condiments and for other purposes as technical products.’
Industrial applications of Technical products-
1. Papain, a proteolytic enzyme from papaya used in beer industry to remove chill-haze
2. Liquorices is used in chewing tobacco.
3. Oleoresin of ginger in soft drink
4. Tea and coffee as beverages.
5. Clove used as condiments
6. Oil of menthe as flavoring agent
7. Pectin used in food industry
8. Oil of linseed used in paints &vanishes.
9. Colophony in paper manufacturing.
10. Starch as sizing against in textile industry.
11. Several volatile oils in perfumery
Pharmaceutical aids-
Definition – The substances which are of little or no therapeutic value, but are essentially used in
manufacture or compounding of various pharmaceuticals, are known as pharmaceutical aids or
pharmaceutical necessities.
Sources of pharmaceutical aids-
Sr. Source Examples
no.
1. Animal Beeswax, gelatin, honey, wool fat musk, spermaceti
2. Vegetable Starch, vanilla, cardamom, coco, balsam of tolu,
peppermint
3. Mineral Kaolin,Bentonite, kieshlguhr, talk, chalk, paraffin
4. Synthetic Acetic acid, Boric acid, citric acid, lactic acid, Dextrose
Classification of pharmaceutical aids-
Depending upon the use or application pharmaceutical aids are classified as follows-
Sr. Use application Examples of crude drugs
no.
1. Acidulants Tamarind, lemon juice
2. Colouring agents Carmel, cochineal, turmeric saffron, indigo, chlorophyll.
3. Disintegrating agents Starch, CMC, Psyllum husk
4. Diluents Cinnamon water, peppermint water peanut oil, sesame oil,
glucose lactose.
5. Emulsifying agents & Acacia, agar, alginic acid, gelatin, tragacanth, guar gum
suspending agents.
6. Filter aids Talc, betonies, kieselguhr.
7. Flavoring agents Cardamom, cinnamon, rose, lemon oil, orange oil, nutmeg.
8. Harding agents Bees wax, hard paraffin
9. lubricants Talc, coca butter, magnesium stearate
10. Ointment bases Beeswax, lanolin, PEG, paraffin, wool fat.
11. Solvents Alcohol, glycerin, propyleneglycol.
12. sweating agents Honey, glycyrrhizin, sorbitol saccharin
13. Thickening agents Pectin, tragacanth, methyl cellulose.
14 Vehicles Arachis oil, honey, sesame oil.

Difference between organized and unorganized crude drugs.

Sr. Organized crude drug Unorganized crude drug

no.
1. They are organs of plant or animals They are derived from part of plants or animals
made up of cellular structure. Eg. Juices, extracts, resins etc.
Eg. Flower, seeds, fruits
2. They are solid in nature They are solid, semisolid or liquid
Eg. Oils & balsam
3. Botanical or zoological terminology Physical character such as solubility, density,
can be used to describe these drugs. option rotation, refractive index are abstract.
4. Microscopic characters are important Cinnamon water, peppermint water peanut oil,
 criteria for identification of these sesame oil, glucose lactose.
drugs
5. Example- digitalis, fennel, clove, Example- acid, honey, agar, castor oil, bees wax,
ephedra cinchona lanolin.

Classification of crude drugs-

For pharmacognostic studies crude drugs are classified as follows-
1. Alphabetical classification
2. Taxonomical classification
3. Morphological classification
4. Pharmacological classification
5. Chemical classification
6. Chemotaxanomical classification
1.Alphabetical classification-
In this Latin or English names are taken classify the crude drugs. This classification is
adopted by the following official books-
a. British pharmacopoeia (English)
b. Britishpharmacopoeial index (English)
c. United states pharmacopoeia (English)
d. Pharmacopeia international (Latin)
e. Indian pharmacopeia 1955 (Latin)
f. Indian pharmacopeia 1966 (English)
g. British herbal pharmacopeia (English)
Advantage / merit – 1. Useful method for official books 2. Location & tracing of drug is easy.
3. Addition of drug is easy.
Disadvantage / Demerit – 1. This classification does of help indistinguishing the drug of plant,
animal & mineral sources. 2.It does not indicate whether crude drugs are organized or
unorganized.
2.Taxonomical classification / biological / Botany classification-
This classification mainly covers the cruds drugs from plant sources. It gives the p the
physical order,, family, genus and species of crude drugs, for example, 1. Crude day orange peel
belong to family- Rutaceae, order-Rutale sand division- angiosperm.
2.crude-drug fennel belong to family-umbelliferae order-umbelliflorae and division-
dicotyledonae.
Advantage/merit- it gives complete botanical representation of crude drugs from plant origin.
Disadvantage / demerit- 1. Most of crude drug denies represent whole plants or animal 2.
Minerals drugs are not described in this 3. Animal drugs are classified as fishes, arthropods,
mammals. 4. It does not recognizes the organized & unorganized nature of crude drugs and their
morphological studies.
3. Morphological classification-
In this crude drugs are divided into the parts of plants like leaves, fruits, flower woods,
barks, dried lattices, extracts, gums etc. as follows-
Sr.no. Part of plants Drugs
1. Woods acacia, sandal wood
2. Barks Arjuna, cinchona, cinnamon, kurchi
3. Flowers Clove, rose, pyrethrin, saffron
4. Leaves Senna, vasaka, digitalis, Datura
5. Fruits Fennel, coriander, lemon
6. Seeds Linseed, nuxvomica
7. Subterranean parts Ginger. Turmeric, Aconite, , rauwolfia, rhubarb
8. Entire organism Ephedra, Egret, cannabis, lobelia, belladona herb
9. Gums Acacia, Tragaceuth, guar gum, Ghatti gum,
10. Lattices Opium, papaya, Rubber.
11. Dried juices Aloe, Petrocarpus, Kino, red gum.
12. extracts Catechu, agar, gelatin.
Advantages –
1) It is useful for practical purposes.
2) It is useful to identifying the adulterants.
Disadvantages –
1) After operations like collection, drying storage. Some drugs changes their shape and size
so difficult to classify them.
2) No idea about chemical and biological behavior of crude drug.
4. Pharmacological classification –
In this crude drugs are classified according to the pharmacological actions of their chief
constituents thus drugs having similar actions are placed together.
For Ex.
Pharmacological action Examples
Carminatives Coriander, Cinnamon, Clove, Fennel.
Purgatives Aloe, Senna, Rhubarb, Isapghula.
Cardio tonic Digitalis, Arjuna, Squill.
Anthelmentic Male ferm, Quassia, Artemisia.
Anticancer Vinca, Podophillum.
Anti-spasmodic Datura, Hyscymus, Stramonium.
Anti-amoebic Ipecacuanha, Kurchi.
Bitters Cinchona, Nuxvomica, Gentian
Advantages – Even if content of crude drug is not known they can be classified properly on the
basis of therapeutic property.
Disadvantages -1.No place for the drug from pharmaceutical aids. 2.No idea about morphology,
chemical nature. 3.For some crude drugs having different actions are difficult to classify for e.g.
cinnamon is antimalerial and bitter tonic, Nuxvomica is bitter and stimulant. 4.Some crude drugs
are dissimilar in their mechanism of action even also put together e.g. bulk laxatives and
purgatives.
5.Chemical classification –
In this classification crude drugs with similar chemicals are listed together as follows,
Types of chemicals Examples
Alkaloids Cinchona, nuxvomica, Ipecae, Opium, Vinca.
Glycosides Digitalis, senna, Aloe, liquorice.
Lipids Castor oil, Peanut oil, Cod-liver oil.
Volatile oil Clove, Peppermint, eucalyptus oil.
Tannins Catechu, amla, Kina
Vitamins Cod liver oil, shark liver oil, yeast
Resins Benzoin, storax, Asafetida, myrrh.
Carbohydrates Agar, honey, starch, Acacia
Advantages –
1) It is useful for phytochemical studies
2) At present importance is given to this classification because drugs form various
morphological origins are grouped together for the purpose of study.
3) Crude drugs form animal and plants source if they passes similar type of chemicals are
placed together.
Disadvantages –
This classification makes no proper placement of drugs containing two different types of
chemicals.
Ex. Cinchona contain alkaloids and glycosides.
Nutmeg contains fixed oil and volatile oil.
So it makes difficult to categories.
6. Chemotaxanomical classification –
This is the recent approach to study the crude drugs. Where in equal importance is
given to their taxonomical and biogenesis. There is a close relationship between chemical
contents of plants and its taxonomical status.
This classification is union of chemical and taxonomical classifications. This is the most
recent method of crude drugs.

Scheme of pharmacognostic studies ---

Pharmacognostic crude drug study involves following technical terms ----
1) Official title
2) Synonyms
3) Biological source
4) Geographical source
5)Cultivation collection
6) Plant protection
7) Preparation of crude drugs for the market
8)Morphology or macroscopy
9) Histology or microscopy
10)Chemical constituents
11) Chemical tests
12)Therapeutic and pharmaceutical uses
13) Commercial varieties, substituents and adulterants
14) Storage
1) Official title –
It is the title of crude drug which given in the official book i.e. Indian pharmacopoeia in IP 55
official title are in Latin while in IP 66 official title are in English language.
Ex. Amylum is in IP 55 as Latin name and starch is in IP 66 as English name.
2) Synonyms –
These are different names or generic or alternative terms or frequently used name of crude drugs
in different languages for region to region. IP gives only English and Hindi synonym.
Ex. Liquorice is in English or glycyrrhiza in Latin. Mulethi in Hindi and jasthmadh in Marathi.
3)Biological Source-
Biological origin causes the detail of the following points
A) Nature of drug- whether it is dry or fresh or unripe or half ripe i.e. form of drug is
studied.
B) Part of the plant used—that is ,it is flower ,bark, root, seed ,wood leaves is mentioned
in this.
C) Systematic name—this is botanical or zoological name of drug with depending upon
source of drug with family, varieties, species if any are given in this.
D) Limits of active constituents—This is as per the official monographs one has to mention
the percentage of chemical constituents given in IP.
E) Miscellaneous details—When required it is the given is official books like when to
collect drug season of collection, cultivation, preparation method is it is collected from
cultivated tree or nut like this .
Example:
1) Fennel consists of dried ripe fruits of foeniculum vulgage, Family- umbelliferus. It should
be contains not less than 1.4 % of volatile oil.
2) Castor oil consists of fixed oil obtained from dried seeds of ricinus communis. Family –
euphorbiaceous. Prepared by cold express method.
4) Geographical distribution and history –
This gives where from drug is obtained their habitat. This also gives history
of transplantation and original source from which country state the crude drug belongs.
5)Cultivation and collection—
Most of crude drugs are obtained from cultivated plants as there yield is more so
cultivating measures as studied. The normal requirements required for cultivation are nature
of soil, rain fall, altitude and climatic condition should be known
Collection of crude drugs stands on knowledge of the chemical constituents. When the
drugs reaches to the maturity. Then only the crude drugs are collected. Also seasons and
times of collection is to be mentioned in case of volatile constituents is taken.
For.eg:
Leaves of aloe are collected when they sufficient thick flowers are collected before
pollination. Barks are generally collected in spring or early summer. Rhizomes are
collected after full vegetable growth of plant. Resins, gums, lattices are collected as soon as
they ooze out of plant.
6) Plant protection—
Cultivated crude drugs are required to be protected from destructive pests like
pathogenic fungi, insects, rodents and other animals to be mention their purity plants are
insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides etc.
a) Mechanical method— In this operation like burning of pests infested part of plant or
trapping of pests collections of insects. Cutting part of plant etc. done.
b) Biological method – It depends on type of pests.
Ex. Flies, rabbits, rats, are trouble some to plants so their natural enemies’ cats, owls, hawks
are used on insects. This are natural biological methods. Recently pests are controlled by
using juvenile hormone.
c) Chemical method— several organic and inorganic compound are used to destroy or inhabit
the pests. Insecticides are of two types contact insecticides and stomach poisons.
 Contact insecticides are DDT, BHC, endrine, parathion, Malathion etc. Stomach poisons are
Thimet, arsenic, trioxides, Paris greenflurosides etc.
d) Agriculture method – In this method crop breeding is developed in such way that could
resist attack of pests in recent days. This method is largely used and is successful.
7) Preparation of crude drugs for the market –
Before marketing a crude drug it is necessary to process properly so as to preserve it for
large time and to acquire better elegance.
A) Drying—Depending upon the type of constituents method of drying can be used for
crude drugs. The drying can be of two types.
1) Natural drying ( sun drying )
2) Artificial drying
1) Natural drying (sun drying) – It may be either direct sun drying or drying in shade for two
protect volatile. Principles and natural colour of drug, drugs are dried in shades.
Eg. Peppermint, digitalis, clove, senna, whereas gums, seeds and fruits are dried directly.
2) Artificial drying – This includes drying of drugs in
a) Oven i.e. tray dryness
b) Vacuum dryness
c) Spray dryness
a) Tray dryer – Crude drug which do not contain volatile oil and are stable to heat or
which need the deactivation of enzymes are dried in tray dryer in this hot air is
circulated through dryers. Eg. Cinchona barks, belladona roots, tea, gums are dried by
this method.
b) Vacuum dryer – Crude drugs are sensitive to higher temperature are dried by this
process.
Eg. Tannic acid & digitalis leaves dried by this method.
c) Spray dryers – crude drugs highly sensitive to atmospheric conditions and also to
temperature of vacuum drying are dried by spray drying.
B) Garbling (dressing) – This is the next step after drying of a crude drugs.
“Garbling is process of removal of sand, dirt, foreign matters, parts of some
plants which is present on drug”
It is cleaning or dressing of a drug.
C) Packaging – While packing crude drug one has to take care of chemical nature use effect
of climatic conditions.
For eg. Aloe is packed in goat skin colophony and Balsams of tolu are packed in
kerosene tins, asafetida is stored in well closed containers to prevent loss of volatile oil,
cod liver oil is sensitive to sunlight should be stored in umber colored bottle. Digitalis
egret and squill are protected from moisture using dehydration agents in a container.
8) Morphology or macroscopic characters --
(Organoleptic studies) --- Identification of crude by organoleptic characters is one of the
important aspect of study of crude drug. Important morphological characters studied are
as follows -
Colour, Odour, Taste, Size, shape, Form, Texture, Touch Appearance of crude drugs
some special features of drugs are also studied.
9) Micrscopical characters (Histology) ---
This is specially performed for organized type of crude drugs. In this transverse section
longitudinal sections of crude drugs are taken and characters are studied such as
 arrangement of tissues types of cells cell content presence or absence of stomata,
trachoma’s, starch, grains are there specific characters also the presence or absence of
fibers stone cells, size of cells are studied.
10) Chemical constituents:-
The activity of drugs is due to presence of activity chemical constituents in it which is
responsible for therapeutic activity knowledge of active as well as inactive constituents
should be known to the pharmacognosist.
For eg. Caraway contains volatile oils, fixed oil and proteins but volatile oil is the active
constituents.
11) Chemical Test:-
Chemical tests are specially performed for unorganized crude drugs for their
conformation certain physical character solubility tests with confirmatory test, are performed.
For. Eg. Castor oil solubility tests with ethyl alcohol is performed for Identification of
powdered chemical tests are also performed organized drugs.
12) Therapeutic and pharmaceutical uses:-
Crude drugs are used as for two different purpose that is,
1) Curative use or therapeutic use or pharmacological use.
2) Pharmaceutical use or preventive use or preventive use or diagnostic use or prophylactic
use.
 Therapeutic use means the action of drugs on human or animal body with specific
intention to cure disorder
For. Eg. Senna is purgative,
Fennel is carminative, digitalis is cardio tonic.
 Pharmaceutical use of a drugs means drugs may give colour odour, taste of thickness
to pharmaceutical preparations
For. Ex. Cinnamon is flavoring agent Turmeric is coloring agent. Honey is sweetening
agent.
13) Commercial species, verities, substitutes and adulterants:-
Verities – They are official as per I.P. with very similar morphological chemical and
pharmacological aspects of official drug recorded.
Ex. Digitalis has several verities such as digitalis lanota, digitalis thapsi and digitalis lutea.
Substituents: - If official drug is not available substituents are used they are some what similar
in morphological, chemical and in uses of to that of official drugs. Therapeutically they are less
effective. For. Ex. Cinnamon Zeylanicum is substituted by cinnamomum burmanil
Adulterants:- They are very similar to official drug only morphologically but there is no any
similarity in chemical and pharmacological status to the official drugs.
For, Eg. Seeds of strychnous nuxvomica are adulterating with seeds of strychnous nuxblenda and
strychonous potatorum.
14) Storage of crude drugs:-
Storage of crude drugs is highly important to maintain their efficassy proper storage is
necessary for maintain the potency of drug for this knowledge of chemical constituents is
necessary.
For, Ex.
1) Calophoney is required be stored in big masses as it is get oxidized and loses its solubility in
either if powdered.
2) Digitalis is very sensitive to moisture should be stored in a containg dehydrating agents.
3) Volatile oils in tightly closed container.

Adulteration and methods of adulterating the crude drugs –

 Definition – adulteration is the debasement of an article.
 Reasons for adulteration of crude drugs –
1) Where from drug is obtained from India or from other countries.
2) Less availability of the drug in market.
3) High price of the drug in market.
4) To gain high profit.
5) When drug are sold illegally.
6) Adulteration may be deliberate or accidental
7) Adulteration involves conditions such inferiority spoilage and substitution.
Different means / methods of adulterating drugs ---
Various methods of adulteration of crude drugs are as follows:
1.Replacement of exhausted drugs – This is observed in case of costly drugs such as cloves,
saffron , tea, fennel, ginger etc. this drugs are exhausted for their active constituents and again
used with genuine.
2.Substitution with superficially similar but inferior drugs- In the inferior quality drugs are
substituted for official drugs
For Ex. Cloves are adulterated by mother cloves. Saffron is adulterated with saf flower.
3.Substitution by artificial manufactured drugs –
In case of costly drugs this is observed. For.Ex – paraffin wax is tinged yellow and supplied as
yellow bees wax whil artificial invert sugar is mixed with natural honey.
4.Substitution by standard commercial verities – Instead of official drugs varieties are
supplied. For Ex. – red chilies are substituted by verity capsicum annum. Senna leaves are
substituted by Arabian senna. Nuxvomica substituted by strychonous nux-blenda etc.
5.Presence organic matter from same plant –In this case of advantage of similar colour, odour
and constituents is taken into consideration and other parts of same plants are added to genuine
drugs. For.Ex. cloves are mixed with cloves stalks caraway and ajuwan fruits are mixed with
other parts of inflorescence.
6.Addition of synthetic material -- many times synthetic chemicals which constituents same
chemical genuine drugs. For.Ex. – benzyl benzoate to balsam of lemon grass, camphor oil or
eucalyptus oil in oil of rosemary is added.

Drug evaluation and significance of pharmacopeial standards –

Evaluation of crude drugs means confirmation of its identity and determination
of its quality purity.
After adulteration of crude drugs we have to detect the nature of adulteration in
the crude drugs several methods are employed for defecation of adulteration in genuine
drugs which are as follows:
1) Organoleptic (morphological) evaluation
2) Microscopic evaluation
3) Physical evaluation
4) Chemical evaluation
5) Biological evaluation
1.Organoleptic / morphological / macroscopical / sensory evaluation –This evaluation of
crude drug is applicable for both oganised and unorganised type of crude drugs. This evaluation
is done by observing following characters of crude drugs – coiour, odour, taste, size, shape,
texture, touch and special features of there.
For Ex.- Aromatic odour of umbelliferous fruits sweet taste of liquorice crimson red colour.
2.Microscopic evaluation / histological evaluation ---
This evaluation is use full for organized types of crude drugs. In this more detail examination of
a crude drug is performed.
With the help of microscope we will study of following particulars for organized crude drug-
Type of cells, cell content, presence or absence of starch, calcium oxalate, fibers, stomata,
trychomes etc. Structures and their detail are studied
For Ex. – Presence of lignified trychomes in nuxvomica seed is special identifying characters.
Following are few constant gives importance of microscopic measurements.
a)Stomatal number -- It is the average number of stomata present per square mm. of the
epidermis.
Stomatal number is constant for particular species of same age. Hence it is considered as
diagnostic characters for identification of a leaf drug. Adulterationcan also be detected by
Stomatal number 087 in upper epidermis. Datura moxia have Stomatal number 141 in upper
epidermis.
b)Stomatal index – It is the percentage which the number of stomata form to form the total
number of epidermal cells. Each stomata being counted as one cell.
S × 100
(E +S )
Where, S.I - Stomatal
S.I = Index.
S - Number of stomata per unit area.
E - Epidermal cell in same area
Where ever stomatal number various with age of leaf and by climatic condition stomatal index
is relatively constant. Therefore is a diagnostic character for identification of leaf in adulteration.
For Ex. – Indian senna – S.I is 17 – 20
Alexandrian senna – S.I is 10.8 – 12.6
c)Vein islet number – It is the number of vein islet per sq. mm of leaf surface. It is constant for
a given species of a plant it usually do not change with age of leaf
For Ex. Digitalis purpurea vein islet no is no is 0.2 to 16.
d)Palisade ratio – It is the average number of palisade cells beneath one epidermal cell using
four continuous epidermal cells for count. This descent changes and is therefore considered as
identification parameter for leaf structure.
For Ex.
1) Atropa belladonna palisade ratio is 6 to 10.
2) Datura stramonium ratio is 4 to 7.
3) Digitalis purpurea palisade ratio is 3.7 to 4.2.
e)Quantitative microscopy (lycopodium spore method) – It is important analytical technique
for powered drugs specially when chemicals and other falls. Lycopodium spores are very
characteristics in shape and appearance uniform in size (25µm) another average 94000 spores per
mg are present in powdered crude drugs are evaluated by this technique. If it contains,
 1) Well defined particals which may be counted.
E.g. starch grains or pollen grains.
2) Single layered cell or tissues.
3) Objects of uniform thickness.
This method can be used for evalution of powdered clove, ginger,
cardamom, nutmeg and umbelliferous fruits.
3. Physical evalution –
There are certain physical standard are determined for drug which are constants in the
pure form of a drugs. Therefore they are considered as the criteria to judge the purity of a drug
some are as follows.
A)Moisture containt – Moisture content of a drug should be determined and also controlled to
make the solution of definite strength. Moisture content of a dug should be chemical change or
either due to microbial combination. Moisture content is determined by heating a drug at 105° C
in an oven to a constant weight for volatile drug toluene distillation method is used.
Ex. Aloe contains < 10 % w/w moisture contain.
Digitalis contain < 5 % w/w moisture content.
Acacia contains < 15 % w/w moisture content.
B)Viscosity – viscosity of a liquid is constant at a given temperature hence it can be used as a
means of standardization of liquid drugs.
Ex. Liquid paraffin has viscosity > 64 centistokes.
C)Melting point – it is the one of the parameter to judge the purity of drug. In the purity of are
very sharp and constant.
Ex. Cocoa butter have melting point 30° to 33° C.
Bees wax have melting point 62°to 65° C.
Wool fat have melting point 34°to 40° C.
D)Optical relation – some substance have found to have the property of rotating the plane of
polarized light in pure state are known as optically active. This property is known as optical
rotation. Plane of polarized light may rotated towards right. (+ Dextrorotatory) or left (-
laevorotatory) optical rotation is determined at 25°C using sodium lamp as source of light.
e.g. optical rotation of honey is +3° to -15°
E)Refractive index – when ray of light passes from one medium to another of different density.
It is bent from original path. This ratio of velocity of light in vacuum to its velocity in the
substance termed as refractive index of second medium
Depending upon purity it is constant for a liquid and can be considered as one of the criteria for
its standardization. Refractive index of compound various with wave length of right temperature
pressure. Refractive index for some compounds measured using sodium light and a temperature
of 25§§§§C are as follows,
Arachis oil R.I. is 1.4678 to 1.4698.
Caraway oil R.I. is 1.4838 to 14858.
Many times drug is identified by its diagnostic characters is of standard quality due to either
faulty collection or in correct storage thus to prove its acceptability as a drug following tests can
be applied wherever possible.
a)Ash content – The residue remaining after incineration is a ash content of drug.
Total ash usually consists of carbohydrates phosphate, silicates and silica.
Ex. Aloe total ash is 5 % w/w.
Clove total ash is 7 % w/w.
Ginger total ash is 6 % w/w.
Acid insoluble ash which is part of total ash insoluble in dilute hydrochloric drugs.
Adhering dirt and sand may be determined by acid insoluble ash content.
Ex.
1) Acid insoluble ash for Agar is 1 % w/w.
2) Acid insoluble ash for clove is 0.75 % w/w.
3) Acid insoluble ash for Cardamon is 3.5 % w/w.
b)Extractives – Extracts obtained by exhausting crude drugs are indicative of approximate
measures of certain chemical constituents. They contain various solvents are used for
determination of extractives solvent used must have ability to dissolve the appreciable quantities
of substances. Following are some methods used to find out the extractive values.
1.Water soluble extractives – This method is applied to drugs which contains water soluble
active constituents of crude drugs such as tannins, sugar, plant acids, mucilage, glycosides etc.
Ex - Aloe -- > 25 % w/w extractives.
Glycyrrhizin -- > 2 % w/w extractives.
Ginger -- > 10 % w/w extractives.
2.Alcohol soluble extractives – Alcohol is ideal solvent for tannins, resins etc. generally 95 %
ethyl alcohol is used for determination of alcohol soluble extractives
Ex. Aloe < 10 % w/w extractives
Ginger <4.5% w/w extractives , Rhubarb< 30 % w/w extractives
Alcohol insoluble extractives are applicable to some resinous drug as
Myrrh < 70% w/w extractives, Benzoin < 24 % w/w extractives
3.Ether soluble extractives -- Two types of ether soluble extractives values determined for
evaluation of crude drugs as volatile and non-volatile ether soluble fractions.
The volatile ether soluble extractives represents volatile oil content of drug while non-volatile
ether soluble extractive represent resin fixed oil or coloring matter present in drugs the limits are
applicable for following drugs.
Limit for non-volatile ether soluble for linseed is 25 % w/w.
Limit for non-volatile ether soluble for cocoa is 22 % w/w.
c)Volatile oil content - Efficacy of several drugs is due to their odorous principles ( Volatile
oils ) For e.g. Clove contains > 15% w/w vol. oil , Fennel contains > 1.4%w/w vol.oil ,
Cardamom contains > 4%w/w vol. oils.
Different chromatographic techniques such as TLC, HPLC, GC, Column
chromatography, Gel Chromatography also technique like IR, NMR, Spectroscopy,
Radioimmunoassay are used for physical evulation.