DEFINATION, HISTORY AND SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY

Pharmacognosy:

In 19th century, the term “Materia Medica” was used for the subject now used as
“Pharmacognosy”. The term Pharmacognosy was coined by a German scientist, Seydler in
1815 in the title of his work “Analecta Pharmacognostica”.

The word pharmacognosy has been derived from two Greek words viz. Pharmakon
meaning a drug and Gignosco meaning to acquire the knowledge of.

The term pharmacognosy may be defined as a branch of bioscience which treats in detail
medicinal and related products of crude or primary type obtained from plant, animal and
mineral origins. In short, it is an objective study of crud drugs from natural sources treated
scientifically and it encompasses of knowledge of the history, distribution, cultivation,
collection, processing for market and preservation, the study of sensory, physical, chemical
and structural characteristics and the uses of crud drugs. Pharmacognosy also includes study
of other materials used in pharmacy such as suspending, disintegrating and flavouring agents,
filtering aids etc. and substances like antibiotics, allergens, hallucinogenic and poisonous
plants, immunizing agents, pesticides, raw materials for the production of oral contraceptives
etc.

History of Pharmacognosy:3

Scope of Pharmacognosy:

Importance of Pharmacognosy:

Phytopharmaceuticals:

Natural Sources of Crude Drugs:

Traditional Systems of Medicine:

1. Ayurveda:

It is based on hypothesis that everything in the universe is composed of five basic elements
viz. air, space, energy, liquid and solid. They exist in the human beings in the combined
forms like Vata (space and air), Pitta (Energy and liquid) and Kapha (Liquid and solid).
These three elements are together called Tridosha meaning three pillers of life. It is believed
that they are in a harmony with each other, but in every human being one of them is
dominating which in turn is called Prakruti of that parson. Tridosha exist in human beings in
seven forms called Saptadhatu viz. Rasa (Lymph), Rakta (Blood), Meda (Adipose tissue),
Mamsa (Flesh), Majja (Nervine tissue), Shukra (Riproductive tissue) and Asthi (Bones).
These tissues are subjected to wear and tear so that mala is formed (Excretory material).
When Tridosha, mala and saptadhatu are in balance with each other, it is called healthy
condition while imbalance causes pathological condition. It is hypothesised that five
characters of medicinal herbs viz. rasa, guna, virya, vipak and prabahva can be applied to
treat various pathological conditions.
2. Unani system of Medicine:

This system is based on two theories viz. Hippocratic theory of four humours and
Pythagorian theory of four proximate qualities. The four humours are blood, phlegm, yellow
bile and black bile, while four qualities are the states of living human body like hot, cold,
moist and dry. They are represented as earth, water, fire and air. The Greek ideas were put
by Arabian physicians as seven working principles (Umur-e-Tabia) and included elements,
temperaments, humours, organs, life, spirit, energy and actions. They believed that these
principles are responsible for the body constitution and its health, as well as the diseased
conditions.

The Unani system of medicine aims as treating the cause of disease and not its symptoms.
For this purpose, through the history of patient is recorded in addition to his pulse, urine and
stool examinations. The diseased condition is considered to be due to the imbalance between
humours and accordingly, treatment is given.

3. Homeopathic system of Medicine:

This system of medicine has been developed in 18th century by a German physician and
chemist Samuel Hahnemann.

In this system, the drug treatment is not specified, but the choice of drug depends on the
symptoms and clinical condition of the patient. It is based on the concept of proving and
prover. In a healthy person called prover. The symptoms created by different doses of the
drug extracts are noted which is called proving, and it specially considers physical, mental
and emotional changes on the prover. Consequently, these symptoms are compared with a
patient with similar symptoms and accordingly, same type of extract is given for treatment.

4. Siddha System of Medicine:

The term Siddha means achievement and Siddhars were saintly personalities, who
attained proficiency in medicine through the practice of Bhakti and Yoga. According to
traditional belief Lord Shiva unfolded the knowledge of medicine to his wife Parvati
which was then passed to Siddhars. This system is of pre- Vedic period identified with
Dravidian culture and is largely therapeutic in nature. Like Ayurveda, this system
believes the role of three humours viz. vatta, pitta and kapha and all the humans in the
universe are made up of five basic elements namely earth, water, sky, fire and air. The
identification of causative factor of disease is through pulse reading, colour of the body,
study of voice, urine examination, and status of digestive system and examination of
tongue.

5. Naturopathy and Yoga:

It is not merely the system of treatment, but also a way of life, which is based on laws of
nature. The attention in particularly paid to eating and leaving habits, adoption of
purificatory measures, use of hydrotherapy, mud pucks, massage etc.
The system of yoga is an old Ayurveda. The eight components of yoga are restraint,
observance of austerity, physical postures, restraining of sense organs, breathing
exercises, contemplation, mediation and Samadhi. Yoga exercises have potential in
 improvement of social and personal behaviour and induction of tranquillity and serenity
in the mind.

6. Bach Flower Remedies:

Bach flower remedies were discovered by Edward Bach, a physician in early decades of
20th century. These include 28 remedies prepared from flowers of wild plants, bushes or
trees. The remedies are prescribed as per the patient’s state of mind like depression,
anger, worry etc.

7. Aromatherapy:
It is one of the ancient healing arts and traces its origin to 4500 B.C.,
Prof. Gantle Fosse, a French cosmetic chemist coined the term “Aromatherapy” and
described healing properties of essential oils. Different essential oils from various sources
are massaged into the skin to treat a range of diseases as well as have an effect on the
mind and emotions. They are massaged in toe skin, inhaled or taken as bath. They have
been shown to heal wounds, promotes formation of scar tissues, disorders of headache,
stress, insomnia etc.

Differences between organised and unorganised drugs:

s.n. Organised Drugs Unorganised Drugs

1. As the term indicates these are These are derived from parts of plants or
organs of plants or animals and are animals by some process of extraction
made up of cells or definite structure. and followed by purification, if
These drugs are named as flowers, necessary. E.g. Juices, extracts, resins
fruits, insects etc etc.
2. These are solid in nature These are solid, semisolid or liquid in
nature. E.g. oils, gums and balsams.
3. Botanical or zoological terminology Such terminology is inadequate to
can be used to describe these drugs. describe them, but one has to look for
their physical characters, such as
solubility in various solvents, density,
optical rotation, refractive index etc
whichever is applicable.
4. Microscopic characters are one of the Chemical tests and physical standards
important criteria for the are confirmatory tests.
identification of organised drugs.
5. Examples: Digitalis, cinchona, Examples: Aloe, agar, colophony,
clove, fennel, ephedra etc. opium, castor oil, bee- wax, pepsin etc.
 CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

Crude Drug:

The term Crude drug generally applies to the products from plant and animal origin
found in a raw form. However, the term is also applied to inclusion of pharmaceutical
products from mineral kingdom in original form and not necessarily only of organic origin
such as kaolin, bentonite etc. The term crude drug is referred in relation to the natural product
that has not been advanced in value or improved in condition by any process or treatment
beyond that which is essential for its proper packing and prevention from deterioration.

Crude drugs are further grouped as organised (cellular) drugs and Unorganised
(acellular) drugs. Organised drug comprise those crude drug materials which represent a
part of the plant and are therefore made up cells. Unorganised drugs are s diverse group of
solid and liquid materials which do not consists of parts of plants and are obtained from
natural sources by a variety of extraction procedures.

Classification:

In pharmacognosy, the crude drugs may be classified according to:-

1. Alphabetical status
2. Taxonomy of plants and animals
3. Morphology
4. Chemical nature of their active constituents
5. Chemo- taxonomical status
6. Pharmacological actions and therapeutic uses

1. Alphabetical Classification:

In this type of classification the crude drugs are arranged according to order of their Latin and
English names. Some pharmacopoeias like IP, BP, British Herbal Pharmacopoeia, BPC,
European Pharmacopoeia etc follow this method o classification.
Example:
A:- Acacia, Aconite
B:- Belladona , Benzoin, Brahmi
C:- Cinnamon,Cinchona, Clove,
D:- Digitalis, Dill

2. Taxonomical (Biological) Classification:

In this type of classification the drugs are classified according to plants or animals from
which they are obtained in phyla, orders, families, genera, species, subspecies etc. This
method of classification is based on the considerations of relationship or phylogeny among
the plants or animals. The crude drugs of plant origin are classified on the basis of one of the
accepted systems of botanical classification. In case of animals, all arthropods are grouped as
are all mammals, fish or other phylogenetic types.
Example:- Nuxvomica is classifies as:-
Division: Angiosperm
Class: Dicotyledon
Order: Gentialis
Genus: Strychnos
Species: nuxvomica

Drawback:
➢ It fails to recognise the organised and unorganised nature of the crude drugs.
➢ This system fails to take into an account chemical nature of active constituents and
therapeutic significance of crude drugs.

3. Morphological Classification:
In this system of classification, the crude drugs are grouped according to the part of the
plant or animal represented into organised and unorganised drugs. The organised drugs
are divided into parts of plants like leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, woods, barks, roots and
rhizomes. The unorganised drugs are dried latex, gums, extracts etc.
Examples:
Seeds: Nux- vomica, Isapgol, castor oil
Leaves: Senna, Digitalis, Vasaka, Eucalyptus
Barks: Cinchona, Cinnamon, Kurchi
Woods: Sandalwood, Quassia, Sassafras
Roots: Rawolfia, Aconite, Jalap
Rhizomes: Turmeric, Ginger, Valerian
Flowers: Clove, Saffron, Pyrethrum
Fruits: Coriander, Fennel, Beal
Dried juices: Aloes, Kino, Red gum
Gums: Acacia, Tragacanth, Gaur gum
Dried Extracts: Gelatine, Agar, Catechu

4. Chemical Classification:
In this type of classification the crude drugs are grouped according to the chemical nature
of the most important constituents. Since the pharmacological activity and therapeutic
action of crude drugs are based on the nature of their Chemical constituents, it would
appear that chemical classification of crude drug is preferred method of study. The cude
drugs containing alkaloids are grouped together, regardless of their morphology and
taxonomical relationship.
Examples:-
Glycosides: Digitalis, Senna, Liquorice
Alkaloids: Nux- vomica, Ergot, Cinchona, Datura
Volatile oils: peppermint, clove, Eucalyptus
Carbohydrate: Acacia, Agar, Gaur gum, Honey
Protein: Casein, Gelatin, Papain
Lipids: Castor oil, bee wax, cod liver oil, cocoa butter
5. Pharmacological (Therapeutic) Classification:
This system of classification involves the grouping of crude drugs according to the
pharmacological action of their chief active chemical constituent or therapeutic uses.

Examples:-
a. GI- acting drugs:
Carminative: Dill, menthe, cardamom
Bulk laxatives: Agar, Ispaghula, Banana
Purgatives: Senna, castor oil
Bitters: Gelatin, Quassia, Chincona

b. Drugs acting on respiratory system:

Expectorants: Liquorice, Vasaka
Antiexpectorants: Stramonium leaves (Atropine)
Anti- tussive: Opium
Bronchodilators: Ephedra, Tea

c. Drugs acting on cardiovascular system:-

Cardio tonics: Digitalis, Squill
Cardiac depressants: Cinchona, Varatrum
Vasoconstrictors: Ergot

d. CNS acting drugs:-

Central analgesics: Opium
Analeptics: Nux- vomica, Belladona, opium

e. Antispasmodics:
Skeletal muscle relaxants: Curare
Smooth muscle relaxants: opium, Datura, Hyocyamus

f. Anticancer:- Vinca, Podophyllum, Taxus

g. Anthelmenthic:- Quassia, Male fern, Vidang

6. Chemotaxonomic Classification:
This classification is combined form of chemical and taxonomical classification i.e. drugs
are classified based on the taxonomical features as well as the presence of active
Chemical constituents. Chemotaxonomy establishes a relationship between position of
the plant and attempts to utilise chemical facts for more exact understanding of the
biological evolution and relationships. The characters more often studied in
chemotaxonomy are secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, glycosides, flavonids etc.

Example:- Berberine alkaloid belonging to family Rutaceae where:-

Rutein: Active chemical
Rutaceae: of citric fruit family
7. Sero- taxonomical Classification:
This classification is based on the proteins present in the plants as antigens. In this
process the proteins are extracted from different species of same family which acts as
antigen. These antigens are injected into the lab animals which in turn produce response
as a result of antigen- antibody reaction inside the body of lab animals which can be
estimated by laboratory blood test. Based on the response the drugs are classified. E.g.
Anti IgE drugs.
 Cultivation, Collection, processing and storage of crude drugs

Methods of Cultivation:

Medicinal plants can be propagated by two usual methods. These methods are referred as
sexual method and asexual methods of propagation or cultivation.

1. Sexual Method (Seed Propagation):

It is a method of propagation of plants in which the plants are raised from seeds and such
plants are known as seedlings. For this purpose, the seeds must be the seeds must be of
good quality. They should be capable of high germination rate, free from disease and
insects and also free form other seeds, used seeds and test etc. The germination capacity
of seed is tested by rolled towel test, excised embryo test etc.
Before germination, sometimes a chemical treatment is given with stimulants like
gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, thiourea, potassium niutrate or sodium hypochloride.
To enhance the germination, special treatments to seeds are given such as soaking trhe
seeds in water e.g. castor seeds and other slow germinating seeds. Sometimes the seeds
are soaked in sulphuric acids e.g. henbane seeds.
The seed propagation can be done in following ways:-
a. Broadcasting Method:
This method is used for those seeds which are of extremely small size. This is done either
manually or with the help of seed drills. In this method, the seeds are spread over the
surface of ploughed soil. If the seeds are sown deeply or are covered thickly by soil, then
they may not germinate due to the lack of respiration.

b. Dibbling method:
This method is applicable for those seeds which are average in size and weight. In this
method, seeds are sown by placing in them in holes made in soil. In each hole, 2-6 seeds
can be placed. E.g. fennel, castor and papaya seeds.

c. Other methods:
Most of the plants are grown by sowing in the nursery beds. After 2-3 months, seedlings
are transplanted to farms for further development. Plants like cinchona, cardamom, clove
etc. are cultivated by this method.

Advantages:

• Seedlings are long lived and bear more heavily.

• Plants bear more fruits.
• Seedlings are comparatively cheaper and easy to rise.
• In case of plants where other vegetative methods cannot be utilised, propagation from
seed is only the method of choice.
• The plants so obtained are stronger and healthier.
• Propagation of plants with highly superior varieties like orange and papaya.

Limitations:

• Generally seedling- trees are not uniform in their growth and yielding capacity
compared to grafted trees.
• They require more time to bear.
 • The cost of harvesting, spraying of pesticides etc is more as compared to grafted trees.
• It is not possible to avail of modifying influence of root stocks on scion, as in case of
vegetative propagation.
• Implementation of modern techniques is not possible.

2. Asexual Method (vegetative propagation):

In this method the vegetative parts of plants such as stem, root, leaves, roots, barks etc are
placed in such an environment that it develops into complete new plant. The vegetative
propagation can be done in following ways:-

A. Natural method:
In this method, the new plants are raised by sowing various vegetative parts like steams,
roots, shoots, corms and bulbs.
Examples:-
Bulbs: Squill, Onion
Rhizomes: Garlic, ginger
Tuber: Potato, Jalap, Aconite
Runners: Peppermint, Oxalis

B. Artificial methods:
Following are some artificial methods of propagation of vegetative parts:-
a. Cutting:
In this method, portions of plants which are capable of developing into new plants are
separated by cutting. The separated portions are then placed in the soil for the
development of roots.
Examples:- Berberry from stem, brahmi from root etc.

b. Layering:
In this method, part of the plant that has grown from the stem is partially silt from the
main plant. The silt is made in such a way that it exposes the inner ground tissue. The silt
is maintained open by means of a toothpick or piece of wood. The silt portion is then
planted in a trench. The portion begins to develop roots when it comes in contact with the
soil. The process of the root development can be enhanced by addition of any plant
hormone which favours the development of root. Eventually, a new plant develops from
the layered portion.
Examples:
• Simple layering is employed for lemon and guava plants.
• Serpentine layering is used in jasmine and clematis.

c. Grafting:
In this process, a piece is cut and removed from a living plant and fixed in a cut made into
another plant, so that two cut surfaces grow together. The new plant is known as stock.
Example:- cinchona yield a new plant containing large amount of quinidine alkaloids.

d. Budding:
In this process, a T- shaped cut or a cavity is made in the stock bark in order to introduce
a piece of bark which consists a bud.
Example:- citrus species like sweet orange.
e. Fermentation:
It is chemical breakdown of a substance by bacteria, yeast or other micro- organisms
which is used in the manufacture of antibiotics.

f. Inoculation:
It is the introduction of micro- organisms, infective material etc. into the tissues of living
plant. Example:- in the propagation of ergot plant, fungal spores are injected in the rye.

g. Micro- propagation:
It is a new method of cultivation of medicinal plants. In this, a small segment of a plant is
developed into a new plant under aseptic conditions in an artificial medium. This artificial
medium is provided with nutritional and hormonal requirements, which facilitate the cell
growth.

Advantages of Vegetative Propagation:

➢ The new plant which is grown from the vegetative part is same and undifferentiated
from parent plant.
➢ Yielding capacity and growth of these plants is uniform.
➢ Processing like harvesting and marketing are easy due to uniformity in the fruit
quality.
➢ Production of parthenocrapic (seedless) fruit is possible only by the vegetative
propagation.
➢ Disease resistant plant can be obtained by budding and grafting.
➢ Compared to seedlings, plant grown by vegetative propagation bear fruit earlier.

Disadvantages:

➢ Rapid growth and production of long lasting varieties is not possible.

➢ Development of new varieties is not possible.

Factors affecting Cultivation:

1. Altitude:
Altitude is one of the most important factors influencing cultivation. Different types of
plants need different altitudes to be served with favourable climate and nutritional sources
for their growth and development. Some of the examples of plants cultivated in different
altitudes are as followings:-

Tea:- 1000- 1500 m.

Cinchona:- 1000- 2000 m
Camphor:- 1500- 2000 m
Cinnamon:- 250- 1000 m
Cardamom:- 600- 1600 m
2. Temperature:
Plants need favourable temperature for their proper growth and development. Excessive
temperature as well as frost can also affect the quality of medicinal plants.camphor and
coffee cannot withstand frost whereas, saffron needs only cold climate and pyrethrum
requires dry weather for cultivation. Followings are some examples of different plants
requiring different range of temperature:-
Cinchona: 60- 75 oC
Coffee: 55-70 oC
Tea: 70-90 oC
Cardamom: 50-100 oC
3. Rainfall and irrigation:
Except the xerophytic plants like aloe, acacia and few others, most of the plants need
either proper irrigation or sufficient rainfall for their favourable development. In few
cases, well distributed rainfall throughout the year may be required.

4. Soil and soil fertility:

Soil is the most important natural resource that supports the growth of all the plants. Soil
provides mechanical anchorage as well as water and essential plant food elements for the
growth and development of plants.
Any type of soil containing less than 0.5% of organic matter is described as poor soil. If
more than 1.5% of organic matter is present, it is described as rich soil. The soil with 0.5 -
1.5 % of humus is termed as intermediate soil. A good soil for plant growth should have
half of the pore spaces filled with water and rest with air.
The PH of the soil decides favourable growth of plants and presence of micro- organisms.
The maximum availability of plant nutrients is in between the PH range of 6.5- 7.5. Acidic
soils are not suitable for leguminous plants due to poor development of nodular bacteria.
Ground nut, sunflower seeds, cotton and rice grow better in alkaline soil whereas tobacco,
cinchona, tea and potato grow in acidic soil.
Depending upon the percentage covered by clay the soil may be classified as
followings:-
s.n. Types of soil Percentage covered
(Clay)
a. Clay soil >50%
b. Loamy soil 30-50%
c. Silt loam soil 20-30%
d. Sandy loam soil 10- 20%
e. Sandy soil >70%
f. Calcarious soil >20% of lime

Soil fertility is defined a the capacity of soil to provide nutrients in adequate amounts and in
balanced proportions to the plants. If cropping if done without fortification of the soil with
plant nutrients, soil fertility gets lost. Soil fertility can be maintained by addition of animal
manures, nitrogen fixing bacteria or by application of chemical fertilizers.

5. Fertilizers and Manures:

Plants need various types of nutrients which are categorised into primary nutrients and
secondary nutrients. Primary nutrients include nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
whereas secondary nutrients include magnesium, calcium and sulphur. Plants also need
 some trace elements like copper, manganese, iron, boron, molybdenum, silica, zinc.
Plants get carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and chlorine from water and air naturally. Each
nutrient has its own importance. Deficiency of such nutrients may haem the growth and
development of plants.
Farm yard manure, castor seed cake, poultry manures, neem and karanj seed cake vermin
composits etc are some examples of manures. Oil cake and compost normally consists of
3-6% nitrogen, 2% phosphate and 1-1.5% potash. Bone meal, fish meal, biogas slurry,
blood meal and press mud are the other forms of organic fartilizers.

Bio- fertilizers can be also used for the cultivation of plants. These consists of different
types of micro- organisms and lower organisms which fix the atmospheric nitrogen in soil
and plants can use them. Examples:- Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azolla etc.

6. Pest and Pest Control:

Pest is an undesired animal or plant species and pesticides are chemicals derived from
synthetic and natural sources effective in small concentrations against pests. The different
types of pests infecting the medicinal plants are as followings:-

a. Fungi and virUses:

Different types of problems with medicinal plants arising du tot fungi and viruses
are mentioned below:-

Fungal Infecrions:
s.n. Fungi Condition Disease
a. Ascochyta atropae Formation of greyish- white Leaf Necrosis
irregular spots in leaf.
b. Cercospora atropea Formation of round to angular Leaf spot
brown spots with chestnut
coloured margins in leaves
c. Phytophthora Drying of whole apical portion, Phytophthora root-
nicotiana yellowish leaves specially in rot
Belladona.
d. Phytopphthora Damping of young seedlings and Phytophthora rot
erythrosceptica wilt in mustard plants. disease

Many different viruses are also the causes of some diseases in plants. They are mosaic
causing necrosis of leaves, petioles and stem on different solanaceous plants. Tobacco
Mosaic Virus, Cucumber Mosaic Virus and Tobacco Ring Spot Virus are observed in
digitalis and a strain of Cucumber Mosaic Virus is detected on Hyoscyamus.

b. Insects:
Various insects may also lead to disease conditions in some medicinal plants. Rawolfia is
attacked by Diaphania nilgirica, Indomia cretaceous, Plantia viridicolis and various
beetles. Dill is affected by Papilio machon and Hyadaphis coriandri. Belladonna looses
leaves due to Gonocephalum specie and Argotis flammarta.
Other insectrs causind damage to the plants are caterpillar, cutworms, termites, weevil,
Hessain fly, Grass hoppers, Spiders, Ticks and mites.
c. Weed:
The weeds are undesired plants. If the problem of control of weeds is not handled
properly, it leads to loss of nutrients, water, light and spaces, increase in cost of labour,
low product quality and prob;ems in marketing. They amy also enhances the chances of
microbial attack to the plants.
Examples:- Ragweed, Pyrethrum, mediacanta etc.

d. Non- insect Pests:

They are grouped into two catagories:-
• Vertebrates:- rat, monkey, birds, rabbit, deer, pigs squirrel.
• Invertebrates:- nematodas, crabs, snail, mite etc.
•

Plant Growth Regulators:

These are the organic compounds, other than nutrients which affect the morphological
structure and / physiological processes of plants in low concentrations.

Phytohormones or plant hormones are naturally occurring growth regulators which in low
concentrations control physiological processes in plants. The term Plant Growth Regulator is
used because it includes both the native (Endogenous) and the synthetic (Exogenous)
substances, which modify plant growth.

Native plant growth regulators include Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins, Abscisic acid and
Ethylene. They acts by causing cell division, cell enlargement, cell differentiation,
organogenesis, senescence and dormancy.

1. Auxins:
Auxin is a chemical substance that promotes the elongation of coleptile tissues in plants.
There are mainly two types of auxins viz. natural auxin and synthetic auxin. The natural
auxins are produced by the plants whereas the synthetic auxins are prepared in laboratory.
Examples:-
Natural Auxins:- Indole Acetic Acid (IAA), Indole- 3 acetonitrile (IAN), 4- chloroindole-
3 acetic acid and Phenyl acetic acid.
Synthetic Auxins:- Indole- 3- butyric acid (IBA), 2- nepthyloxyacetic acid (NOA), α-
nepthyl acetic acid (NAA), 1- nepthyl acetamide (NAD) etc.

Functions:-
Auxins are involved in different growth processes in plants like internode elongation, leaf
growth, initiation of vascular tissue, cambial activity, fruit setting in absence of
pollination, fruit growth, apical dominance, inhibition of root growth, influencing
physical and chemical properties in the leaf abscission and inhibition of lateral buds.

2. Gibberellins:
These belong to the class of endogenous plant growth regulators. They are present in
different organs and tissues like roots, shoots, buds, leaves, floral apices, root nodules,
fruits and callus tissues. Currently, 50 Gibberellins are known out of which 40 occur in
green plants and rest of 10 occurs in some fungi. The commercial formulations of
 Gibberellins are used currently for promoting vegetative and fruit growth, breaking
dormancy, flower initiation and induction of parthenocrapy.
The effect of gibberellins in the cell division is an increase in cell size similar to the
effect of auxins. It is observed that gibberellins are more effective in intact plants while
auxins are effective excised organs.
The mechanism of action of gibberellic acid appears mainly to induce the activity of
gluconeogenic enzymes during early stages of seed germination which causes rapid
conversion of lipid to sucrose, which is further used in supporting growth and
development of embryonic axis to all components of root and shoot system. Gibberellins
also induce synthesis of α- amylase and other hydrolytic enzymes during germination of
monocot seeds. They are also involved in mobilising seed storage reserves during
germination and seedling emergence.

3. Cytokinins:
These are either natural (zeatin) or synthetic (kinetin) compounds with significant growth
regulating activity. Zeatin has effect on cell division and leaf senescence and kinetin are
useful in promoting lateral bud development and development and inhibition of
senescence.
They acts by promoting cell division, participates in orderly development of embryos
during seed development, influencing the expansion of cell in leaf discs and cotyledons,
delaying breakdown of chlorophyll and degradation of proteins in ageing leaves.
Examples:-
Natural :- Zeatin, N6 dimethyl amino purine and N6 –delta2- isopentenyl aminopurine.
Synthetic:- Kinetin, adenine, 6- benzyl adenine benzimidadole etc.

4. Ethylene:
It is simple organic molecule present in form of volatile gas and shows profound
physiological effects. It is present in ripening fruits, stems, tubers and seeds. It is
produced by incomplete burning of carbon rich substances like natural gas, coal and
petroleum.
Ethylene shows broad array of growth response in plants, which include fruit ripening
abscission, steam swelling, leaf bending, flower petal decolouration and inhibition of
stem and root growth. It is commercially used in promotion of flowering and fruit
ripening, induction of abscission, breaking dormancy and stimulation of latex flow in
rubber trees.

5. Abscisic Acid (ABA):

It is a type of plant growth inhibitor. It interacts with other plant growth substances
causing inhibition to their action. It inhibits GA- induced synthesis of α- amylase and
other hydrolytic enzymes. During maturation, ABA accumulates in many seeds and helps
in seed dormancy. ABA concentration is enhanced during stress condition, like mineral
deficiency, injury, drought and flooding. ABA serves as an important role as potential
antitranspirant by closing stomata, when applied to the leaves.
Collection (Harvesting) of crude drugs:

Crude drugs can be collected from both the commercially grown plants and from those grown
wildly. Following factors must be considered during the collection of crude drugs:--

➢ These should be collected when the levels of active constituents are maximum.
➢ Environmental conditions i.e. temperature, humidity, etc. during collection should
be considered.
The various techniques involved in the collection of crude drugs are as followings:-
a. Roots and rhizomes:
Roots are collected in the beginning of the spring season i.e. just before flowering.
Rhizomes are collected during the reproductive phase i.e. when they contain maximum
amount of reserve food stores and active constituents.

b. Bark:
Bark is collected during spring, early summer, winter or in autumn season. Period of
collection differs among plants. There are three different methods for collecting barks.
❖ Felling method:- In this method, trees are cut from the base and the bark is peeled
out from the felled trees.
❖ Uprooting method:- The entire tree is uprooted i.e. pulled out along with roots.
The bark is then removed from the roots and branches.
❖ Coppicing method:- This method is highly economical and rapid and most
commonly used method. It involves cutting of plant at a certain distance from soil,
thereby leaving a stump known as the stool. The root system is left intact. The stool
gives out many shoots which are cut off to collect the bark. E.g. cinnamon, cascara.
c. Gums and latex:
These are obtained by making incision on the plant parts and are collected
immediately as they ooze out.
d. Leaves:
Leaves of the plants are collected before the plant reaches flowering stage.
e. Flowers:
Flowers of the plants are collected before pollination takes place. They are collected
when the weather is dry and especially during morning hours.
f. Fruits:
Fruits are collected from the plant when they are fully grown in size. T hey may be
collected in ripe or unripe condition.

Drying of crude drugs:

After processing out the drugs, they must be dried. There are various methods of drying.
a. Air drying
b. Natural/ sun drying
c. Pressing of plants
d. Drying by artificial means
❖ Tray dryers
❖ Vacuum dryers
❖ Spray dryers
Packing of Crude Drugs:
Following factors are to be considered while packing the crude drugs:-
a. Morphological and chemical nature of drugs.
b. Surrounding environmental conditions.
c. Desired temperature and humidity during transportation.
d. Conditions of storage.

Storage of Crude Drugs:

Storage is a method of proper preservation of crude drugs in suitable containers. It is an
important parameter which is essential in preventing the deterioration of drugs. The various
factors to be considered during storage of crude drugs are as followings:-
a. Storage of crude drugs in such a way so that it should not get contaminated with
dust, animal bodies, wings, insects, microbes etc.
b. It should be stored in such a way so that the temperature, humidity, moisture and
air external to it should no degrade it.
c. Selection of proper container.
d. The drugs should be stored away from direct sunlight and radiations.

Adulteration:

Adulteration is a practice of substituting original crude drug partially or wholly with other
similar looking substances but the later is either free form or inferior in chemical and
therapeutic properties. Adulteration involves different conditions such as deterioration,
admixture, sophistication, substitution, inferiority and spoilage.

Detorioration:- Impairment of quality of drug.

Admixture:- Addition of one article to another due to ignorance or carelessness or by
accident.
Sophestication:- Intentional or deliberate type of adulteration
Substitution:- Addition of totally different substance in place of original drug.
Inferiority:- Refers to any standard drug
Spoilage:- Attack of microorganisms

Types of Adulterants:
1. Substitution with standard commercial varieties:
➢ Adulterants resemble original crude drugs by morphologically, chemically or
therapeutically but are substandard in nature and cheaper in cost.
➢ E.g.:- Strychnos nuxblanda or S. potatorum in place of S nuxvomixca, Capsicum
minimum replaced by C. annuum,medicinal ginger by African, Japanese or Cochin
ginger.

2. Substitution with superficially similar inferior drugs:

➢ The adulterants morphologically resemble but may or may not be similar in chemical
and therapeutic characters.
 ➢ E.g. Belladona leaves are substituted with Ailanthus leaves, Saffron is admixed with
dried flower of Carthamus tinctorius, mother clove and cloce stalks are mixed with
clove etc.

3. Substitution with artificially manufactured substances:

➢ This practice is followed for most costlier drugs.
➢ E.g. compressed chicory in place of coffee, paraffin wax made yellow coloured and
substituted for bee wax, properly cut and shaped basswood for nutmeg etc.

4. Substitution with exhausted drugs:

➢ Same drug is admixed but is devoid of Chemical constituents as they are already
exhausted out.
➢ E.g. fennel, clove, coriander etc. admixed with exhausted products of similar kind.
➢ Sometimes natural characters of exhausted drugs like colour and taste are manipulated
by adding other additives and then it is substituted , e.g. exhausted gelatine made bitter
with aloes, artificial colouring of saffron etc.

5. Presence of vegetative matter from same plant:

➢ Other miniature plants growing along with medicinal plants are mixed with drug due
to their resembling colour, odour and constituents.
➢ E.g. the lower plant like moss, liver worts and epiphytes growing on the bark portion
are mixed with cascara or cinchona. The stem portions are mixed alongwith leaf drugs
like stramonium, lobelia and senna.

6. Harmful adulterants:
➢ Pieces of amber colour glass in colophony, limestone in asafoetida, lead shot in opium,
white oil in coconut oils, cocoa butter mixed with stearin or paraffin.

7. Adulteration of powders:
➢ Dextrin in ipecacuanha, powdered liquorice or gelatine admixed with powdered olive
stones, exhausted gingerin powdered ginger, red sanders wood in capsicum.
8. Other adulterants:
➢ Use of synthetic chemicals to enhance the natural character as in case of addition fo
benzyl benzoate to balsam of peru.
➢ Citral to citrus oils like oil of lemon and orange oil etc.
 Natural Fibres
Fibres:
In the terms of pharmacognosy, fibres are referred as elongated thick walled cells with
pointed ends whose cell wall consist of cellulose and may or may not contain lignin. In
medical practice they are used in surgical dressings, filter media, manufacture of sutures and
ligatures etc.

Sources of Fibres:
1. Natural fibres:-
a. Plant Fibres:- jute, flax, hemp, cotton, banana
b. Animal fibres:- silk, wool
2. Artificial fibres:
These are obtained from regenerated carbohydrates and proteins. E.g. Viscose rylon,
alginate yarn, aridil and fibrolin.
3. Synthetic fibres:- Nylon, terylene
4. Mineral fibres:- glass, asbestos

COTTON:
Synonym: Raw cotton, surgical cotton

Biological Source: It consists of the epidermal trichomes or hairs of the seeds of Gossypium
herbaceurre or gossipium barbadense.

Family: Malvaceae

Chemical constituents:
➢ Raw cotton consists of 90% cellulose, 7-8 % moisture, wax, at and remains of
protoplasm.

Chemical Test:
a. Soak cotton fibre in iodine water and dry

Few ml of 80% sulphuric acid

Trichomes assumes purplish- blue or blueish green colour

b. Cotton is insoluble in dilute ammonium hydroxide solution and dilute HCl but soluble
in 66% sulphuric acid.
c. Ammonical copper oxide solution (Cuoxam reagent) dissolves raw cotton fibres with
the formation of balloons while absorbent cotton dissolves completely with uniform
swelling.
Uses:
➢ Filtering media
➢ Surgical dressing
➢ Used as insulating material
➢ Absorbent cotton absorbs blood, mucous, pus and prevents the wounds from
infections.
Preparation:
➢ Bolls (seed capsule covered with hair) are collected, dried and pressed by ginning
press to separate the seeds.
➢ Short and long hairs are separated.
➢ The short length hairs are called linters and are used for manufacturing absorbent
cotton while long hairs are used for preparation of cloth.
➢ The impurities like wax, fat, colouring matter etc. are separated out.
➢ Followed by the treatment with dilute soda ash solution under the pressure of 1-3 atm.
pressure for 10-15 hours.
➢ Washed with water and bleached with 5% chlorinated lime followed by washing and
treating with dilute HCl and then dried and carded into the flat sheets.

JUTE:
Synonym: Gunny

Biological Source:- It consists of phloem fibres of the stem bark of Corchorus olitorius Linn.

Chemical constituents:-
➢ Cellulose (53%)
➢ Hemicelluloses (20%)
➢ Lignin (10%)
➢ Lignocelluloses
➢ Fat and waxes

Chemical Test:
➢ The middle lamella is highly lignifies and gives red colour with phloroglucinol and
hydrochloric acid.
➢ Jute + iodine+ H2SO4 Yellow colour
➢ Jute + iodine + zinc + chlorine Yellow colour
Uses:
➢ Manufacture of tows, paddings, filtering and straining medium.
➢ Manufacture of gunny bags, chair covering, caaprts etc.

Preparation:
Jute is prepared by a process called Retting process. In this method, the stem barks of the
jute plants are separated from the leaves, branches and roots. Further, the barks are made into
bundles which are then subjected for soaking into water tanks filled with water. The bundles
are held into the water for 7-10 days with the load of stones. During these days the
fermentation process takes place which in turn loosens the fibres. The bundles are then taken
out of water tank and followed by biting with stones for taking out the fibres. The fibres are
then dried and packed.
HEMP:
Synonym:- Indian Hemp, ganga, bhang
Biological Source:- it consists of stem bark of Cannabis sativa.
Family:- Canabinaceae (Moraceae)
Chemical constituents:
➢ Cannabinol
➢ Cannabigerol
➢ Cannabidiol
➢ D-9- Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
➢ Cellulose
➢

Uses:
➢ Making ropes and carpets
➢ Manufacture of ropes and carpets.
➢ Preparation of nets and webbings.
➢ Textile and clothing industry
➢ Used as biofuel and manufacturing of paper

Preparation: By Retting Process.

SILK:

Biological Source:- These are the fibres obtained from cocoons of Bombyx mori(Mulberry
silkworm).

Family:- Bombycidae
Chemical constituents:
➢ It contains a protein known as fibroin. Fibroin on hydrolysis yields amino acids like
glycine and alanine.

Chemical Test:
➢ It gives negative result when treated with lead acetate solution because it does not
contain sulphur.
➢ Fibres are soluble in dilute NaOH and HCl.
➢ Silk fibre + few ml of 80% H2SO4 no purplish or bluish- green colours.

Uses:
➢ Manufacturing of special type of sutures, ligatures and sieves.

Preparation:
The mouth gland of larva produces gum like substance called fibroin which later surrounds
the entire larva and forms cocoon. The further development of cocoon is restricted here to
obtain the fibres. The cocoons are then subjected for boiling or steaming which in turn
dissolves the waxy substances present in it. The fibres are then separated and individually
isolated and dried.
WOOL:
Biological Source:- animal fibres obtained from sheep called Ovis aries.

Family:- Bovidae

Chemical constituents:
➢ Sulphur containing protein called Keratin which is rich in sulphur containing amino
acid called cysteine.
Chemical Test:
➢ Fibres + lead acetate + caustic soda Blsck ppt. due to sulphur
➢ Wool + ammonical copper oxide solution separation of scales and fibres turn
blue.
Uses:
➢ Straining and filtering media.
➢ Preparation of crepe bandage, flannel and dressing like domette.

Preparation:
The fibres are first separated from animal source. Then they are boiled followed by the
addition of dilute HCl or H2SO4 to kill the pathogens and remove the dust particles. The
fibres are then dried and bleached by exposing in the direct sunlight or by artificial method.
 Study of Crude Drugs
1. FENNEL:
Synonym:- Bari sauf, Fructus foeniculum

Biological Source:- it consists of dried ripe fruits of plant known as Foeniculum vulgare.

Family:- Umbelliferae

Morphology
➢ Colour: green to yellow- brown.
➢ Odour: sweet aromatic
➢ Taste: Strongly aromatic
➢ Shape: Glabrous, elliptical or oblong. Cremocarp with long pedicel and stylopod.
➢ Size: - 5-10 x 2-4 mm

Chemical constituents:

➢ Volatile oil (3-7%)

o Ketone, fenchone
o Phenolic ether anethole
o Phelladrene, limonine, methyl chavicol
o Anisic aldehyde
➢ Protein (20%)
➢ Fixed oil (20%)

Uses:

➢ Carminative
➢ Respiratory stimulant
➢ Expectorant
➢ Flavouring agent
➢ Mouth and dental preparations
➢ Anti- helmenthic for hook worms.

Adulterants:

➢ Exhausted fennel

Preparation:

Fennel is cultivated by dibbling method. Quality of good fruit germination is just before spring. Free
branching of the stems and leaves needs plenty of space between two plants. Four or five seeds are put
at a time in holes maintained at distance of 25 cm in between them. well drained and soil in sunny
situation is favourable for the proper growth of the plants. When the fruits are ripe, the crops are
harvested and seeds are separated out by thrashing and dried.
2. CORIANDER:

Synonym:- Dhania

Biological Source:- They are the fully dried ripe fruits of plant Coriandrum sativum Linn.

Family:- Umbelliferae

Morphology

➢ Colour: yellowish- brown – brown

➢ Odour: Aromatic
➢ Taste: Spicy and characteristic
➢ Size: 2-4 mm in diameter and 4- 30 mm in length
➢ Shape: Sub- globular, Cremocarp with pecicel

Chemical constituents:

➢ Volatile oil (0.3- 1%)

o D- linalool (Coriandrol) 90%
o Coriandryl acetate
o L- borenol, Geraniol, Pinene
➢ Fixed oil (13%)
➢ Proteins (20%)
➢ Leaves contains Vitamin A

Uses:

➢ Aromatic, carminative, stimulant

➢ Flavouring agent
➢ Used along with purgatives to prevent gripping.
➢ Used as ingredient of spirit of orange and cascara elixir.

Adulterants:

➢ Bombay coriander containing less volati;e oil

Preparation:

For the cultivation of coriander it needs light to heavy black soil. It is sown by drilling method. Crop
is ready for harvesting after 100 days of growth. The fruits are separated and dried.

3. CLOVE:

Synonym:- Lavang, Caryophylli

Biological Source:- It consists of dried flower buds of Eugenia caryophyllus.

Family:- Myrtaceae

Morphology

➢ Colour: crimson to dark brown

➢ Odour: slightly aromatic
➢ Taste: pungent and aromatic followed by numbness.
➢ Size: about 10- 17.5 mm in length, 4 mm wide and 2 mm thick.
 ➢ Shape:- lower portion is called hypanthium and upper bulbar part is crown.

Chemical constituents:-

➢ Volatile oil (15-20%)

o Eugenol acetate
o Caryophyllines
o Ester, ketones and alcohol
➢ Tannins (10-13%)
➢ Resin, chromone and eugenin

Uses:

➢ Dental analgesic, carminative, stimulant

➢ Flavouring agent
➢ Aromatic and antiseptic
➢ Preparation of cigarettes
➢ Manufacture of vanillin
➢ Clove oil preparation

Adulterants:

➢ Mother cloves
➢ Blown cloves
➢ Clove stalks
➢ Exhausted cloves

Preparation:

For the cultivation o clove it requires deep rich loamy soil with high humus content. It requires an
annual rainfall in the range of 150- 250 cm. they are cultivated in the locations ranging from sea level
upto 900 m.

It is propagated by seed propagation. The seeds are sown from August- October. The seeds are
placed in nursery beds at the distance of 10 cm. it take 4-5 weeks for germination. After 6 months the
seedlings are transplanted to the pots where they are allowed to grow for a year. After that they are
transplanted to the field and are provided with the shed in the initial stage of growth. The plants are
provided with suitable fertilizers like ammonium sulphate, super potash and potash. The plants start
bearing after 7-8 years. The buds are handpicked or collected by beating with bamboos. This
operation os commenced when the cloves start changing their colour from green to slightly pink. The
cloves are dried in sunlight and made free from foreign material and graded.

4. GINGER:

Synonym:- Sunthi

Biological Source:- it consists of wholr or cut, dried scrapped and unscrapped rhizomes of Zingiber
officinale.

Family:- Zingiberaceae
Morphology

➢ Colour: buffed colour

➢ Odour: Agreeable and aromatic
➢ Taste: Agreeable and pungent
➢ Size: 5- 15 x 1.5- 6.5 cm.
➢ Shape:- laterally compressed, bearing short, flat, ovate or oblique branches on upper side, with
bud and apex. There is presence of fractures and nodes & internodes.

Chemical constituents:

➢ Volatile oil (1-4%)

➢ Starch (40-60%)
➢ Fat (10%)
➢ Inorganic material (6%)
➢ Residual moisture (10%)
➢ Fibre (5%)
➢ Acid resinous matter (8%)
➢ Ginger oil
o Zingiberene, Zingiberol
o Bisabolene, curcumene

Uses:

➢ Stomachic, aromatic, carminative

➢ Stimulant and flavouring agent
➢ Ginger oil is used in preparing mouth washes, ginger beverages and liquors.
➢ Ginger powder is used in motion sickness.
➢ It has potenty to control parasitic infections like schiostosomiasis.

Adulterants:

➢ Exhausted ginger

Preparation:

It is cultivated at the altitude of 1000- 1500 m. proper irrigation is necessary if there is no sufficient
rainfall. It requires sandy or red loamy or clay soil for the cultivation of ginger. It is cultivated by
sowing rhizomes in the month of June. It is ready for harvesting in about 6 months, when the leaves
become yellow. Harvesting is done by digging rhizomes. They are washed properly and then dried to
improve colour and to prevent growth. The rhizomes are scrapped, dried and coated with inert
material like calcium sulphate.

5. EPHEDRA:

Synonym: Ma- Huang

Biological Source:- It consists of young dried stems of Ephedra geradiana.

Family:- Ephedraceae (Gentaceae)

Morphology

➢ Colour: Straw Coloured

➢ Odour: Odourless
➢ Taste: Bitter and aromatic
 ➢ Shape: Cylindrical and branched with fractures. Presence of nodes and internides.

Chemical constituents:

➢ Amino alksloids
o Ephedrine
o Nor- ephedrine
o N- methyl ephedrine and pseudo ephedrine
➢ Macrocyclic alkaloids
o Ephedradines
➢ Oxazolidone

Uses:

➢ Used as bronchodilator in treatment of asthma and Hay fever due to its sympathomimmetic
effect.
➢ To treat Low BP because it causes peripheral contraction of arterioles.
➢ For hypotensive effects.
➢ Used as mydriatic agent.

Adulterants:

➢ Ephedra senega
➢ Ephedra major
➢ Ephedra intermedia

Preparation:

It can be cultivated in an altitude of 2500- 3000 m. annual rainfall should not exceed 560 cm. it is
propagated by seed propagation or by layers or by division of root stocks. Seeds are sown early in the
spring season at a distance of 5 cm, keeping the distance of 1 m between two rows. The plants are
collected after attaining the age of 4 years for the extraction of alkaloids. The alkaloid content of the
drug varies season to season. It is found to be maximum in autumn when plants and twigs are dark in
colour. Twigs are generally dried in the sunlight or even by artificial ways. After drying, they are
stored in dry and well closed containers, away from the light.

6. NUX-VOMICA:

Synonym: Crow- fig, Poison nut tree

Biological Source:- It consists of dried ripe seeds of Strychnos nuxvomica.

Family:- Loganiaceae

Morphology

➢ Colour: greenish- brown

➢ Odour: odourless
➢ Taste: Intensely bitter
➢ Size: 10- 30 mm in diameter and 4- 6 mm in thickness
➢ Shape: disc shaped, somewhat flat or irregularly bent and concavo- convex.
Chemical constituents:

➢ Nitter indole alkaloids (1.5 – 5%)

➢ Strychnine and brucine
➢ Α- colubrine, β- colucrine
➢ Pseudostrychnine

Chemical Test:

a. Stain transverse section of seed with ammonium vanadate and sulphuric acid (Manddin’s
Reagent). The endospermic cells become purple due to presence of strychnine.
b. Stain transverse section of seed with conc. Nitric acid. Endospermic cells take yellow colour
due to presence of brucine.
c. Strychnine with sulphuric acid and potassium dichromate gives violet colour which turns to
red and finally yellow.

Uses:

➢ As bitter stomachic and tonic, due to its intense bitter taste.

➢ Used as CNS stimulant
➢ Recommended in certain cases of cardiac failure as it raises BP.
➢ Used as respiratory and cardiovascular stimulant
➢ Brucine is used in denaturing alcohol and inedible fats and also as dog poison.

Adulterants:

➢ Strychnos nuxblanda and strychnos potatorum

➢ Strychnos wallichiana
➢ Strychnos ignatii
Preparation:
The seeds are usually collected from wild grown plants by local tribal community. Fruits of
the plants are orange yellow. Each fruit contains 4- 5 seeds and heavy bitter pulp. The ripen
fruits are collected and seeds are made free of pulp. They are washed with water thoroughly.
Unripened seeds are separated by floating test in water. The seeds are dried on amt and
packed in gunny bags for marketing. The collection of seeds is usually carried out in the
month of November.

7. DATURA:

Synonym:- Datura herb

Biological Source:- it consists of dried leaves and flowring tops of Datura metel.

Family:- Solanaceae

Morphology

➢ Odour: Ulpleasent
➢ Taste: Bitter
➢ Shape: Drug contains entire broken, wrinkled, crushed leaves along with stem fragments and
floral parts. The entire leaf has length of 9-18 cm and width of 8-13 cm. the leaf is covered with
minute hairs, lower surface is slightly pale in colour and the leaf has a thin texture.
Chemical constituents:

➢ Alkaloids (0.5%)
o Hyoscine (Scopolamine) m/c
o Atropinr and scopoline in less quantities.

Chemical Test: (Vitali- Morin Test)

a. The tropane alkaloid is treated with fuming nitric acid, followed by evaporation to dryness
and addition of methanolic potassium hydroxide solution to an acetone solution of nitrated
residur.
b. On addition of silver nitrate solution to the solution of hyoscine hydrobromide, yellowish-

Uses:

➢ Dhatura is used as parasympatholytic agent because of its anticholinergic and nervous system
depressant effects.
➢ Used in cerebral excitement.
➢ Along with morphine it is used as preoperative medication.
➢ Used in treatment of asthma and cough.
➢ Hyoscine hydrobromide is used in motion sickness, gastric and duodenal ulcers.
➢ Mydriatic purpose, antispasmodic, antimuscarinic agent
➢ Antisiallogouge agent (drug inhibiting salivary flow)

Preparation:

The drug is cultivated by sowing the seeds. The germination is normally very slow. If the seeds are
soaked in water and kept overnight, the rate of germination increases. The seeds require about 15- 20
days for germination. Weeding and thinning are necessary and performed when plants reach about 10-
15 cm height. The distance kept in between two plants is about 75- 100 cm. the plants should be
supplied with organic fertilizers and proper irrigation. The drugs are collected after 4 months of
cultivation. The leaves and branches are removed, drugs are dried in sunlight, packed and marketed.

8. CINNAMON:

Synonym:- Calmi- Dalchini

Biological Source:- Cinnamon consists of dried inner bark of the shoots of coppiced trees of
Cinnamomum zeylanicum.

Family:- Lauraceae

Morphology

➢ Colour: outer surface is dull yellowish brown, while the inner surface is dark yellowish- brown.
➢ Odour: Fragrant
➢ Shape: Found in the form of compound quills.
➢ Size: about 1 m in length and 1 cm in diameter. Thickness is approx 0.5 mm.
➢ Taste: aromatic and sweet followed by warm sensation.
➢ Fracture: splintery
Chemical constituents:

➢ Volatile oi (0.5- 1%)

➢ Tannins (1.2%) i.e. phlabotannins
➢ Mucilage
➢ Calcium oxalate
➢ Starch and mannitol (sweet substance)
➢ Cinnamaldehyde, eugenol, benzaldehyde, cuminaldehyde
➢ Terpenes like:- phellandrene, pinene, cymene, caryophyllene.

Chemical Test:

➢ On addition of a drop of ferric chloride solution to a drop of volatile oil, a pale green colour is
produced. With ferric chloride, cinnamic aldehyde gives brown colour and eugenol gives blue
colour, resulting in the formation of pale green colour.

Uses:

➢ Carminative, stomachic and mild astringent.

➢ Flavouring agent, stimulant, aromatic and antiseptic.
➢ Preparation of candy, dentifrices and perfumes.
➢ Used in spices and condiments.

Adulterants:

➢ Jungle cinnamon
➢ Cinnamon chips
➢ Saigon cinnamon
➢ Java cinnamon

Preparation:

It can be propagated by both the seed propagation and vegetative propagation. However, generally
seed propagation is employed. It needs sandy or siloconous soil with admixture of humus. It requires
altitude of 800- 1000 m. sheltered situation with annual rainfall of 200- 250 cm is ideal requirement.
The seeds are sown in nursery beds usually in June and July. The seeds are sown at distance of 10 cm
and covered with small layer of soil and irrigated properly. It takes approx 20 g=days for germination.

Seedlings are provided with shades and are allowed to grow for about 10- 12 months.
Transplantation is dine during Oct- Nov or in rainy season keeping distance of 2 m between two
plants. Fertilizers are applied appropriately.

Trees are coppiced to induce the formation of shoots. The trees are allowed to grow the further unless
they turn into uniform brown by the formation of cork. Harvesting is done in rainy season.
Longitudinal lesions are made on the shoots and transverse marking is given so as to form ring of
nodes, which also connect the longitudinal incision producing the strips, which are then peeled off.
Strips are made into bundles, wrapped in coir matting and allowed to ferment for 24 hours.
Fermentation results in loosening of outer cortex, which is then removed by scrapping with curved
brass knives. During drying the bark contracts and gets converted into quills. The smaller quills are
inserted into the larger quills to form compound quills. Quills are collected, packed and marketed.