INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOGNOSY AND SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY

Pharmacognosy is the study of drugs on natural origin.

These drugs include drugs from:
• plants eg zingeberene and zingiberol from Ginger (Zingiber officinale)
• animals e.g. codliver oil from Codfish (Gadus morhua L.)
• mineral e.g. kaolin, chalk, bentonite.

The American Society of Pharmacognosy defines Pharmacognosy as the study of the:

• physical
• chemical
• biochemical and
• biological properties of drug, drug substances of natural origin
• as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources.
 WHAT DOES PHARMACOGNOSY MEAN?

• The term Pharmacognosy was introduced by C.A. Seydler a medical student in Germany in 1815.

• The name is formed from 2 Greek words

• “Pharmakon” meaning “drug”

• “gnosis” meaning “to acquire a knowledge of”.

• The term Pharmacognosy and Pharmacodynamics were probably first coined by Johann Adam Schmidt

(1759-1809) in his hand written manuscript Lehrbuch der Materia Medica published in Vienna in 1811 after

his death.
HOW HAS IT DEVELOPED?

It has developed from ancient civilizations which used parts of plants and animals to concoct various

portions to eliminate pain, control suffering and counteract disease e.g.

• Western Medicine with origins in Mesopotamia and Egypt,

• the Unani (Islamic)

• Ayurvedic (Hindu) systems in Western Asia and the Indian Subcontinent as well as those of the

Orient (China, Japan, Tibet etc).

The various aspects of Pharmacognosy include
• phytochemistry,
• microbial chemistry,
• biosynthesis of secondary metabolites.

The study of Pharmacognosy predates all other Pharmaceutical sciences such as Pharmaceutical Chemistry
Pharmaceutical technology, Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Biopharmacy and clinical Pharmacy.

Pharmacognosy is intimately associated with phases of Pharmacy administration that deal with prescription
pricing.
The relationship of Pharmacognosy to dispensing Pharmacy and clinical Pharmacy is obvious considering
the number of naturally derived drugs handled by Pharmacists in this age of drug specialities.
The study of Pharmacognosy as a pharmaceutical science is now re-defined to include the following:
• The study of naturally occurring substances with medicinal action.

• Natural and synthetic fibres (Surgical dressings are derived from these)

• Flavouring and suspending agents

• Filtering and support media

• Allergens, immunizing biological, insecticides, rodenticides and herbicides

Pharmacognosy now includes:

• History, distribution, cultivation, collection, selection, preparation, commerce,

identification, preservation and the use of drugs

• Structural elucidation i.e. IR (Infrared spectroscopy), UV (Ultraviolet spectroscopy), NMR

(Nuclear Magnetic resonance) of medicinally important chemical compounds isolated from
natural products.

• Practice of traditional medicine (i.e. the scientifically explicit aspect)

• Screening of medicinal plants for their pharmacological activity eg anti-hypertensive, anti-

diabetic and anti-HIV activities.
 The study of Pharmacognosy will help the Pharmacist to achieve the following:

a. Identification of the source of material forming the drug

b. Determination of the morphological nature of the drug

c. Investigation of the potency, purity of the drug

d. Devise the method of cultivation to give improved drug

e. Prescription of the details of the processes of collection and preparation

f. Study of the constituents of the drugs and the investigation of their chemical reactions
CRUDE DRUGS
Crude drugs are vegetable or animal or mineral dugs that consist of natural substances that have
undergone only the processes of collection and drying.
They may be divided into 2 groups:
Organised /cellular drugs
Unorganised drugs/ acellular

Organised/Cellular drugs- these drugs possess definite cellular structures and can be classified based
on their morphology

Morphological classification of organised drugs include:

Leaves eg Senna Bark eg Cinchona, cinnamon
Flowers eg Clove Rhizome eg Ginger, turmeric
Fruits eg Fennel, Kolanut Root eg Rauwolfia, Fagara
Seeds eg Anise, Castor oil seed
Woods eg Guaiacum
Herbs eg. (Entire plant: Stramonium
 Unorganised crude drugs/Acellular: These drugs do not possess cellular structures i.e. they are not composed of
cells built into definite plant or animal organs. They are usually obtained from plants and animals by extraction.
They are normally classified based on their origin and nature as:

1. Dried latex eg Opium

2. Dried juice eg Aloes
3. Extracts eg Catechu
4. Gums eg Acacia, Tragacanth
5. Resins eg Colophony
6. Gum resins eg Myrrh
7. Waxes eg beeswax
8. Oils and fats eg castor oil, Lard
9. Volatile oil eg Clove oil, Peppermint oil
10. Balsams eg Balsam of Tolu
 TERMS USED IN PHARMACOGNOSY
Drug: This refers to a. articles/substances recognised in official Pharmacopoeias and
Formularies
b. Articles intended for use in diagnosis, cure, treatment or
prevention of disease in man and animals
c. Articles other than food intended to affect the structure or any
function of the body of man or animal
d. articles/substances intended for use as a component of any
article specified in a-c.

The term vegetable drug can be applied to that part of a medicinal plant (leaf, bark etc) used for therapeutic
purposes.

Crude drug: vegetable or animal or mineral dugs that consist of natural substances that have undergone only the
processes of collection and drying.

Natural substance: These are substances found in nature which comprise of whole plants/animals, their parts or
organs or secretions, extracts and other constituents which have not had changes made in their molecular structure
as found in nature.
Constituents: These are chemical substances present in the cell of some plants or animal organs. Those
constituents which exert some physiological/Pharmacological action on organisms are known as active
constituents/ active principles.

Medicinal plant: is any plant which in one or more of its organs, contains substances that can be used for
therapeutic purposes or which are precursors for the synthesis of useful drugs.

Materia medica: This refers to medicinal plants derived from natural sources.

Pharmacopoeia: This is an official publication which lists various drugs and their therapeutic agents of current use
and specifies standards for them. Many countries have their own publications stating their required standards e.g.
BP (British Pharmacopoeia), AP (African Pharmacopoeia), EP (European Pharmacopoeia) and IP (International
Pharmacopoeia).
Monograph: is a written material describing any drug, therapeutic agent or preparation which is included in the
Pharmacopoeia. The monograph of a crude drug includes the following information: name of drug, official titles,
synonyms, definitions, description, conditions for collection or preparation for the market, identity tests, tests for
adulterants, method of assay, storage requirements, amount of foreign organic matter, uses and doses.

Official drug: This is the drug (crude or prepared) that is included in the current issue of a Pharmacopoeia.

Unofficial drug: A drug which has been recognised in the Pharmacopoeia but has not been included in the current
issue.

Non-official drug: This is a substance which possesses some medicinal or therapeutic property but has never
appeared in a Pharmacopoeia or any official publication.

Extractive: Mixture of chemical substances that can be removed from plants or animals by an extraction process.
Secondary metabolites: are substances produced or synthesized by plants as by-products during their
normal metabolic activities. Some of these are responsible for the characteristic odour, pungency and colours
of plants as culinary and medicinal values. Apparently, they are of no primary use to the plants and are
therefore regarded as waste products of metabolism which are accumulated in various parts of the plant and
may/may not be physiologically active eg alkaloids, terpenes, steroids and flavonoids.

Flora: This is the plant population of a particular geographical area or country.

Indigenous: Plants growing in their native countries are said to be indigenous to that region e.g. Cocoa in
Nigeria and Pinus palustris in Southern United States

Naturalized: Plants are said to be naturalized when they grow in a foreign land or in a locality other than
their native homes e.g. Datura stramonium introduced to the United States from Europe. Cocoa in Ghana,
Brazil and Ecuador
Proprietary drugs: These are drugs that can be purchased in a Pharmacy.
They normally have a trade name and are protected by a patent (i.e. can be produced and sold only
by the company holding the patent).
Most of them have their origin from crude drugs e.g. in capsules, tablets.
Some of these drugs contain excipients (additives).

Excipients: These are inactive substances which they do not elicit any pharmacological action and are used as a carrier
of the active constituents or medications.
They are used to bulk up formulations that contain very potent active ingredients to allow for convenient, active dosage
e.g. Lactose is the excipient used in Aston and Paston’s teething powder.
Excipients can also be used in the manufacturing process to aid in the handling of the active constituent concerned.
Depending on the route of administration and form of medication, different excipients may be used eg tablets and
capsules for oral administration and suppositories for rectal administration
 Excipients may be of different types and these include:

a. Binders (help to hold the ingredients in a tablet together)

b. Coating (protect tablet ingredients from deterioration by moisture)

c. Disintegrants (expand and dissolve when wet causing the tablet to break apart in the digestive tract,

releasing the active ingredients for absorption)

d. Fillers and diluents (fillers fill out the size of a tablet or capsule making it practical to produce and

convenient for the user)

e. Flavours (used to mask unpleasant tasting ingredients)

f. Colourant (used to improve appearance of a formulation)

g. Lubricants (prevents ingredients from clumping together)

h. Preservatives

i. Sorbents (used for moisture-proofing)

j. Sweetners

k. Antiadherent (used to reduce adhesion between the powder (granules). They also protect the tablets

from sticking)

l. Glidants (use to promote powder flow by reducing interparticle friction and cohesion)
THE SCIENCE OF BOTANY

AND

ITS APPLICATION

IN PHARMACY
• For many centuries, humans have relied on plants for
survival and pleasure

• this reliance continues even till today as we use plants and

their products for food, furniture, strings, clothes etc.

• E.g. green plants and algae generate oxygen and sugar

which sustains life on earth.

• Egyptians made beer from barley as early as 500 B.C.

• The world’s popular beverages (tea and coffee) are
from plants.

• Plant extracts and plant like organisms are used to

make paints, soap, oils, adhesive, waxes, dyes, spices
and drugs such as morphine, aspirin, quinine,
vinblastine and taxol.
• Pharmacy involves such branches as Pharmacognosy
(which deals with information on the sources and
constituents of natural drugs), Pharmacology (deals with
the actions and effects of such drugs), Pharmaceutics and
Pharmaceutical chemistry.
• All these branches are one way or another linked with the
research into drugs of natural origin.
• Pharmacognosy forms a link between pharmacology and
medicinal chemistry as well as between pharmaceutics
and clinical pharmacy.
 WHAT IS BOTANY?
• Botany is the study of plants and its stresses the
relation of plants structure and function, evolution
and diversity as well as the importance and uses of
plants.

• Hence the study of botany includes plant ecology,

plant biochemistry and plant physiology.
Pharmacognosy is multidisciplinary and studying a plant
in pharmacognosy is to:
• define its identity,
• describe its morphology and anatomy,
• to know its origin and production methods,
• to appreciate their impact on plant quality,
• to determine its chemical composition and factors
which may affect it,
• to know the structure, physico-chemical properties
and pharmacological activity of the active principles,
• to identify the variables which objectively reflect
quality and
• to develop methods to control it and
• finally to come to grips with all the problems linked to
the optimal utilization of plants and their products,
indications, contraindications, side effects and drug
interactions.
• Pharmacognosy can then be defined as an applied science
which is concerned with acquiring knowledge of all
aspects of crude drugs and other substances of
pharmaceutical importance by the application of various
scientific disciplines.

• It also involves the study of plant history and medicinal

use
• Information on the use of medicinal plants has been
obtained from herbalists, herb sellers and indigenous
people in Africa over many years, and some of these have
been published and can be consulted in the PHARMEL
database in Brussels
NAPRALERT database is also another source of
information for natural products),

• identification (careless or ignorance on the part of a

collector can result in complete or partial substitution
which will cause a lot of confusion in working with the
plant as some plants have similar characteristics but
belong to different genera and hence will vary in
activity),

• distribution,
• cultivation (cultivation/ artificial propagation is
necessary to enable sustenance of supply and avoid
extinction from over-exploitation e.g. supply crisis
occurred at the clinical stage trial of taxol isolated
from Taxus brevifolia),

• collection (the proper time of harvesting or collecting

is important as the nature and quantities of
constituents vary in some species according to the
season.)
• preparation,
• evaluation,
• storage
i. proper storage and preservation are important inmaintaining
a high degree quality of the drug.
ii. Excessive moisture will increase the drug weight and reduce
the percentage of active constituents as well as favour
enzymatic activity and fungal growth which is detrimental to
the drug.
iii. Improper storage may also result in insect attack which will
lead to deterioration of the drug),

• use and commerce.

Pharmacognosy has developed mainly on the botanical
side, being particularly concerned with the description and
identification of drugs, both in the whole state and in
powder, and with their history, commerce, collection,
preparation and storage.

Scientific research in botany and organic chemistry and

their offshoots has in recent times, lead to the
revitalization of Pharmacognosy.
CONCLUSION

Familiarity with the language of botany, fluency in

organic chemistry are necessary prerequisites for
pharmacists/ pharmacognosists, to make valuable
contributions in their field.
 ELEMENTARY

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

AND

GROSS MORPHOLOGY
 Gross morphology

Morphology is a science which deals with form and

structure of living things

Physiology deals with the study of life processes or

functions of plants.
Plant morphology involves the plant structure or parts and
is divided into the following:

a. Macromorphology or gross anatomy of plants which

deals with the external characters of plants and their
parts or organs.

b.Micromorphology /plant anatomy/plant histology- which

looks into the microscopic structure of plants and its
tissues.

c. Plant cytology which deals with plant cells and their

contents
Drugs maybe classified based on
a. families and chemical constituents
b. morphological groups such as barks, roots, leaves, seeds etc.
Some drugs constitute more than one morphological part-
whole herbs and commercial roots(i.e. rhizomes and roots).

Plant forms range from unicellular plants eg yeasts and some

green algae to more differentiated higher plants.
These higher plants consist of
a. leaves with flowers
b. roots and stems in the vegetative phase
c. fruits and seeds forming stages in the reproductive
cycle.

Modifications of the above structures are sometimes

present
a. rhizomes (underground stem),
b. stolons (runners with stem structure),
c. stipules, bracts (modified leaves)
d. tendrils (modified stems)
LEAVES AND TOPS (HERBS)

These consist of stems and leaves often associated with flowers and
young fruits.

LEAF:
• an above ground plant organ specialized for photosynthesis

• complete when it consists of a lamina, a petiole and stipules.

It is important to note the following:
1.Arrangement (Phyllotaxy)- the manner in which the leaves
are attached or arranged on the stem eg whether alternate,
opposite or decussate ie in pairs alternately at right angles (eg
peppermint), verticillate /whorled when 3 or more leaves
occur at a particular node.

2. when borne in clusters or bundles on short shoots, they are

said to be fascicled or tufted and each termed a fascicle.

3. Leaf position- the position of the leaf could be radical ie at

the crown of the shoot or cauline when positioned on the aerial
stem.
A. Duration:
i. Leaves which remain on a plant for a year or more
are said to be persistent/evergreen
ii. those which remain on a plant for a single growing
season are said to be deciduous.

The terms caduceus and fugacious are applicable

more to stipules and flower parts such as sepals and
petals which fall rather early in the growing season.
 B. Lamina

1.Composition: Simple (pinnate/palmate)

Compound (paripinnate (ie with an equal
no of leaflets) or Imparipinnate

2. Incision: The leaf maybe more or less cleft, the amount being
indicated by adding – fid, -partite or –sect to a prefix denoting
whether leaf is of a pinnate or palmate type.
Shape: Leaves may be described as

i. acicular,
ii. elliptical,
iii. oval,
iv. oblong,
v. round,
vi. linear,
vii. lanceolate,
viii. ovate.
Venation:
The lamina of a leaf possesses a skeleton of veins
which are strands of vascular (conducting) cells
usually accompanied by elongated supportive cells
known as fibres, hence the functions of the veins are
for conduction and support.

Venation refers to the arrangement of these veins

within the leaf blade or lamina and may be said to be
Parallel, pinnate (ie feather-like), palmate, or
reticulate (net-veined).
Margin: This refers to the edge of the leaf blade and
could be said to be entire (unbroken), serrate, dentate,
crenate, sinuate etc
Apex: This refers to the tip of the leaf and can be
described as emarginate, recurved, retuse, truncate,
obtuse, acute etc
Leaf base:
The leaf is said to be stipulate when stipules are present
and exstipulate when they are absent. Note the shape of
the stipule when present and if sheath is present (eg
amplexicaul- ie stem clasping)
Surface:
Both the adaxial and abaxial surfaces (ie upper and
lower) may vary in character and differ from one
another.
It is important to note the following:
• Colour
• Glabrous (ie free from hairs/smooth)
• Pubescent (presence of leaf hairs and trichomes):
hispid (with rough hairs)
Hirsute (with long distinct hairs) or
with Glandular hairs.
Punctate (dotted with oil glands)
Texture: This is use to describe the character of the
leaf surface

a. membraneous (thin and pliable),

b. succulent (thick and fleshy),
c. coriaceous (rather thick and leathery),
d. brittle,
e. papery etc.
Anatomy of the leaf
A study of the leaf anatomy reveals a basic structural
pattern having characters which enable the presence of a
leaf to be detected in a powder and knowledge of these
diagnostic characters permits the detection of
contaminants and substitutes.

The leaf is made up of the following:

1.A protective epidermis that covers the upper and lower
surfaces.
2.A parenchymatous mesophyll and
3.An arrangement of veins (the vascular tissue) which
make up the vascular system
Shape, size and wall structure of the epidermal cells;

form, distribution and relation to epidermal cells of the

stomata as well as the form,

distribution and abundance of epidermal trichomes

ARE ALL OF DIAGNOSTIC IMPORTANCE.

The mesophyll may/may not be differentiated into spongy
and palisade tissue, however palisade tissue may occur
below both surfaces or only below the upper epidermis.

The mesophyll cells in all green leaves are rich in

chloroplasts.

The mesophyll may also contain groups of collenchyma or

sclerenchyma, oil or mucilage cells, secretion ducts or
hydathodes which are water pores.

Cells may also contain crystals of calcium oxalate whose

form, size, and distribution may be of importance.
The vascular system of leaves is divided into 2 main
classes:

a. The reticulate venation-typical of dicots

a. Parallel venation- typical of monocots

Structural investigation of the leaf should include
examination of transverse sections of the lamina and
midrib as well as portions of the whole leaf including the
margin, cleared in chloral hydrate.

They can also be stained for cellulose and lignin and

presence of volatile oil, calcium oxalate or carbonate.
POWDERED LEAVES
This will consistently have the following: epidermis with stomata,
cellulose parenchyma, small sized vascular elements (not very
abundant) and chlorophyll (except in bulb leaves).

Frequently present are: epidermal trichomes, glands, palisade cells,

crystals of calcium oxalate, collenchyma and pericyclic fibres.

For closely aligned leaves determination of vein-islet number,

stomatal number and index as well as palisade ratio may be
necessary.
INFLORESCENCE AND FLOWERS
Inflorescence: This is the arrangement of flowers and
their position on the stem.

The flower stalk is known as the pedicel

Its prolongation beyond the point where the flowers or

branches begin to appear is called the rachis or axis of the
inflorescence
Types of Inflorescence (Racemose,cymose or mixed)
a.Racemose eg Digitalis, Lobelia – Here the terminal bud of
the flower cluster continues to develop and increase the
length of the stem indefinitely. As the stem elongates, new
flower buds arise behind the terminal bud in the axils of
reduced foliage leaves called bracts, so that the oldest bud is
at the base of the flower cluster and the youngest one is
nearest the apex.
b. Cymose eg Ricinus communis- This is the form in
which the opening of the terminal bud as a flower
determines or completes the growth of the stem of the
flower cluster. The oldest flower is therefore at the center
of the inflorescence.

c. Mixed inflorescence: is a combination of the racemose

and cymose type inflorescence.
FLOWERS

A flower is the reproductive structure found in

flowering plants.
A plant can be said to be Monoecious (where
unisexual male and female flowers appear on the
same plant) or dioecious(i.e. an individual plant is
either male or female)
Flowers can be described as follows: Flower type
1. Bisexual/hermaphroditic or unisexual (having only either
male (stamens) or female (pistil) parts.

2. Actinomorphic/zygomorphic- A flower is said to be

actinomorphic or regular, if when the perianth is bisected
through the central axis from any point, symmetrical halves are
produced e.g. rose or trillium. When flowers are bisected and
produce only one line that produces symmetrical halves the
flower is said to be irregular or zygomorphic. e.g. snapdragon
or most orchids.
3. Hypogynous, perigynous and epigynous:

Hypogynous flower is one in which the sepals, petals and

stamens are attached near the base of the receptacle while the
pistil or the carpels are arranged over the upper portion of the
receptacle eg Strawberry. The ovaries of this type of flower are
superior.

Perigynous flower: the sepals, petals and the stamens are

inserted on the edge or summit of a saucer or cup-shaped
receptacle while the pistil or carpels are inserted at the bottom of
the receptacle. The ovaries of this type of flower are superior.
Epigynous flower: the receptacle is greatly hollowed out in
vase shaped manner, its summit overarching the top of the
ovary and bearing sepals, petals and stamens above the
ovary. The ovary of such a flower is inferior
 Parts of the flower

- Receptacle of the flower (thalamus or torus)

– is the extremity of the peduncle on which
the calyx, corolla etc are inserted.
When the receptacle is elongated below the
calyx- Hypanthium or if below the ovary, a
gynophore or stalk of the ovary.

- Calyx- is the outer whorl of modified

leaves. Its parts are called sepals;
typically these are green, but are petal-
like in some species and hence said to
be petaloid..
If they are distinct or separated from one another, the calyx is said to
be chorisepalous,aposepalous or polysepalous.If the sepals are more
or less united at their margins, the calyx is called gamosepalous or
synsepalous

Corolla –the inner floral envelope, usually thin, soft and colored to
attract insects that help the process of pollination. Its parts are called
Petals. When the petals are not united with each other, the corolla is
said to be choripetalous, apopetalous or polypetalous.
When the petals are more or less united into a tubular structure, it is
gamopetalous often called synpetalous. When the calyx closely
resembles the corolla in structure and colouring the two together are
called the perianth.
 Androecium – one or two whorls of male organs, situated above or
within the corolla. It is composed of stamens.
A complete stamen consists of more or less slender stalk portion
called a filament and a terminal appendage called the anther. The
anther is vertically halved by an up growth of the filament called the
connective dividing the anther into 2 lobes.
When few in no, the stamens are said to be definite and indefinite
when very numerous.
Monandrous- for a flower with but 1 stamen
Diandrous- for a flower with 2 stamens
Triandrous – for a flower with 3 stamens
Tetrandrous – For a flower with 4 stamens
Pentandrous – for a flower with 5 stamnes
Hexandrous- for a flower with 6 stamens
Polyandrous for a flower with indefinite number of stamens
•Gynoecium or pistil system (from Greek gynaikos oikia: woman's
house)
This is the female system of organs of flowering plants.
It may consist of one or more modified leaves called carpels.

The carpel is the female reproductive organ- this contains an ovary

with ovules (which contain female gametes).

In Angiosperms, the carpel is composed of 3 parts namely, the ovary

containing the ovules or rudimentary seeds, the stigma (the apical
portion which receives the pollen grains, and the style or connective
which unites these two.
When the gynoecium consists of a number of separate
carpels, it is said to be apocarpous eg Water lily.
However when these carpels are united to form a single
structure, they are said to be syncarpous eg flowers of
Orange.
The placenta is the nutritive tissue connecting the ovules with the wall
of the ovary and the various placental arrangements include:

a) Marginal placentation: This is a simple type of placentation that

may be found in the simple pistil. The longitudinal placenta develops
on the ventral suture of the ovary bearing one or two rows of ovules.
The ovary is said to be unilocular e.g. Cassia

b) Parietal placentation: It occurs in syncarpous (compound pistils) in

which the ovary is unilocular. The placentae develop along the fused
margins of the adjacent carpels on the parietal wall of the ovary. The
number of placentae is equal to the number of fused carpels eg
Papaver
c) Axile placentation: This is found in a compound ovary which is
two or more chambered, usually as many as the number of carpels.

The placentae bearing the ovules develop from the central column
or axis which is formed by the fusion of margins or carpels. In some
cases, the number of chambers may increase due to the false septum
formation eg Datura, Tomato

d) Free central placentation: This is found in a compound pistil in

which the ovary is unilocular.

The placenta bearing the ovules is present in the centre of the ovary
forming a central column. It has no connection with the ovary wall
eg Dianthus, Primulaceae and Plantaginaceae.
e) Basal placentation: Here the ovary is unilocular and placenta
develops directly from torus bearing a single ovule at the base of the
ovary eg Leguminosae.

Sometimes an ovule is attached at the apex of the unilocular ovary

and hangs downwardly and this is described as Apical placentation
eg Cannabis, Ceratophyllum

Basal Placentation Apical Placentation

f) Superficial placentation: Here the ovary is multilocular
and the placentae develop all around the inner surface of
the partition walls bearing ovules eg Nymphaea.
Style: this is the portion of the carpel which connects the
stigma to the ovary. It is usually threadlike but maybe
thickened eg the enlarged base of the styles in
Umbelliferae is called a stylopod.

Stigma: This functions as a pollen receptor and when

absent between the ovary and the stigma , the stigma is
said to be sessile as in Poppy.
Ovule: This vary in number from 1 to hundreds.
When the shape of the ovule is straight- orthotropous
whn bent or curved-------campylotropous
When partly inverted---amphitropous
when inverted----------- anatropous

Based on the position of the ovary, when compared with the

position of the sepals, petals and stamens, the ovary is either
superior or inferior
 Anatomy of the flower

The flower stalk or pedicel exhibits a stem structure and in the

powdered form exhibits similar elements

The bracts, calyx, and to a lesser extent, the corolla have a leaf
structure and yields such elements such as epidermis with stomata,
glandular and covering hairs, mesophyll cells, oil glands and crystals.

The epidermal cells of the corolla show a papillose or striated cuticle.

Delicate coloured fragments of the corolla can often be distinguished
in coarsely powdered drugs.

A characteristic pappilose epidermis may sometimes be present on

the stigmas of the gynaecium.
Characteristic fragments of the anther wall are diagnostic of the
presence of flowers.

Occurrence, size, shape and wall structure of the pollen grains

are of utmost importance.

For powdered flowers, the pollen grains, portions of fibrous layer

of the anther wall and the papillose epidermis of the stigmas are
features readily present.
A floral formula is a way to represent the structure of a flower
using specific letters, numbers, and symbols. Typically, a general
formula will be used to represent the flower structure of a plant
family rather than a particular species. The following
representations are used:

KINDLY SEE ATTACHED NOTES

FRUITS
The fruit consists of the mature pistil (carpel or carpels) and its
contents, or ovarian portion thereof, but may include other
organs of the flower which frequently are adnate to and ripen
with it.

Classification of fruits (based on their structure)

A. Simple fruits : are formed from a gynaecium with one pistil
eg Tomato, Banana

B. Aggregate fruits: formed from more than one pistil eg

Raspberry, Strawberry

C. Collective or multiple fruits: formed not from one flower but

from an inflorescence eg Pineapple and fig
Simple and compound fruits are either dry or fleshy (succulent).

The dry ones are further divided into:

i. dehiscent (those which split open when ripe)
ii. indehiscent (those which do no split open when ripe).

Simple fruits can be subdivided thus:

Dry: I. Capsular (dehiscing)
II. Schizocarpic (splitting)
III. Achenial (Indehiscent)

Succulent: IV. Baccate (berries) e.g. Orange and lemon

V. Drupaceous (stone fruits) e.g. almond and Prune
Simple, dry, indehiscent fruits include the following:
1. Achene: This is a small hard indehiscent fruit usually formed
from 1 carpel (the term can also be used for those formed from
2 carpels or termed as cypsela) eg fruit of the Labiatae

2. Nut: is a 1-celled, 1 –seeded fruit with a leathery or stony

pericarp. Similar to the achene but is typically formed from 2-3
carpels eg dock fruit, Oaks, Chestnuts, Palms.

3. Caryopsis: usually a 1-celled fruit in which the pericarp and the

seed coat (testa) are fused. This fruit is easily mistaken for a
seed. Eg Wheat, Corn, barley, Oats and other members of the
Gramineae family.
 Dry indehiscent fruits

Samara Caryopsis Achene

Nuts
Simple, dry, dehiscent fruits can be subdivided into the
following:

1. Legume: usually formed from one carpel and splits along both the
dorsal and ventral sutures eg Senna, Peas, Beans.
2. Follicle: fruit formed from one carpel which dehisces by the inner
suture only. They are usually found in aggregates eg Strophantus
and aconite
3. Capsules: are fruits formed of two or more carpels composing a
compound pistil which dehisce longitudinally or by apical teeth or
valves eg Poppy.
Some bear special names (eg the siliqua and silicula found in the
Cruciferae and pyxis or pyxidium found in Hyoscyamus, Plantago
and Portulaca. The latter is a capsule which opens by means of a lid.
 Dry dehiscent fruits

Follicle Capsule Schizocarp

Legumes

silicula
The Pericarp
This is the ripened wall of the ovary and consists of 3
layers of different texture namely;
---epicarp (the outer layer),
---mesocarp (the middle layer) and
---endocarp (the inner layer).

When the mesocarp is fleshy, it referred to as sarcocarp eg

in Peach
when the endocarp within the sarcocarp is hard, forming a
shell or stone, it is termed a putamen
Fruit anatomy
The pericarp is bounded by inner and outer epidermis which
resemble those of the leaves and the outer epidermis may bear
hairs and stomata.
The pericarp of medicinal fruits usually contain secretory tissues
such as vittae, oil ducts or cells, and latex tissue.
The internal tissue of fleshy fruits is mainly parenchymatous,
resembling the mesophyll of leaves while both the dry and fleshy
fruits usually contain fibres and sclereids.

The husk of cardamoms can be detected by the presence of pitted

fibres, spiral vessels and abundant parenchymatous
cells. Also the almond which is sometimes used as an adulterant
consists mainly of sclereids.
SEED
A seed is a fertilized and matured ovule containing an embryo.
They may be produced from orthotropous, campylotropous or
anatropous ovules.

The seed consists of a kernel surrounded by 1,2, or 3 seed coats.

An average seed has 2 seed coats,an outer testa and an inner
tegmen.
The testa, if hard and thick is said to be crustaceous, if smooth
and glossy, it is said to be polished and if roughened, may be
pitted, furrowed, hairy, reticulate etc.

The seed may contain one or two seed leaves known as

cotyledons
The seed is attached to the placenta by a stalk or funicle and
the scar left on the seed where it separates from the funicle is
known as the hilium.

In more or less anatropous ovules, a ridge of fibrovascular

tissue is fomed by adhesion of the funicle and the testa and
this is called the raphe.

The microphyle is the seed coat opening which marks the

radicle position.
The seed is said to be exalbuminous when the kernel consist of
the embryo plant alone albuminous when the embryo is
surrounded by endosperm (tissue containing he food reserve and
formed inside the embryo sac) or perisperm (tissue containing
the food reserve and formed outside the embryo sac) or both.
Anatomy of the seed
The testa of seed contain a diagnostic sclerenchymatous layer and its
epidermis is composed of highly characteristic, thick walled cells and
may bear characteristic hairs.

The perisperm and endosperm and in some cases, cotyledons are

composed of uniform cells containing cell contents such as aleurone,
starch, calcium oxalate, fixed oil.

The radicule, plumule and leaf-like cotyledons have little diagnostic

significance to the powdered drug.

Aleurone grains, carbohydrate reserves and a little vascular tissue are

constantly present in seeds.
Fruits yield similar characters but have a higher amount of vascular
tissue and lignified elements of the pericarp are often present.
Stem
This that part of the plant axis which bears leaves or modifications
of leaves and they grow toward the light.

Their principal function is to

a. bear and support leaves, branches and reproductive organs;
b. connect roots with leaves;
c. to conduct water with minerals in solution from roots to leaves:
d. to transport elaborated plant foods from the leaves to the roots;
e. to store reserve foods.

Nodes and internodes: Nodes are the joints of stems and they
represent the parts of the stem from which leaves or branches arise
while the internodes are the parts of stems between nodes.
Bud – is a short young undeveloped stem or specialized
growing point of a stem with rudimentary leaves compactly
arranged on them
They may be terminal, axillary, adventitious, accessory or
subpetiolar according to their positions on the stem.

A stem is said to be procumbent when lying wholly on the

ground;
decumbent, when the stem trails and the apex curves upward
repent when it creeps upon the ground and roots at the nodes.
Stems can be classified into the following:
1. Above ground or aerial stems
2. Underground stems

Underground stems include:

-Tuber – a short and excessively thickened underground stem
borne usually at the end of a slender, creeping branch and
having numerous axillary buds (or eyes).

Corm- is excessively thickened and characterized by production

of buds from the center of the upper surface and rootlets from
the lower surface

-Bulb- a very short underground stem invested by fleshy scales

which represent storage leaves. Produces rootlets from its lower
face and leaves from its upper face.
-Rhizome- a creeping underground stem, more or less scaly,
sending off roots from its lower surface and stems or leaves from
its upper surface.

The aerial stems include the following:

-Culm (jointed stem of the grasses)
-Climbing or scandent stem (grows upward and attaches itself to
some support by means of aerial rootlets, tendrils, petioles)
-Scape (stem rising from the ground and bearing flowers but no
leaves) eg Violet, Dandelion
-Tendril (a modification of some special organ, as of a leaf
stipule, leaflet or branch capable of coiling spirally and used by
the plant in climbing
-Spine or thorn

- Prickles – outgrowths of the epidermis and cortex as seen on

stems of roses

- Stolon or runner – a prostate or reclining branch, nd of which

on coming in contact with the soil, takes root so giving rise
to a new plant.

- Bulbel or bulbil- a small, bulb shaped, young aerial shoot

which serves as an organ of vegetative multiplication by
falling off the stem and developing into a new plant.
Anatomy of the stem
The stem of an annual dicot plant is made up of the following:
1. Epidermis- a single layer of flattened cells. Some cells show
outgrowth as hairs. Stomata also occur.
2. Primary cortex- composed of an outer region of narrow thick
walled cells (hypodemis) and a broad zone of larger, thin-
walled cortical parenchyma cells, many of which contain
chloroplast.
3. Endodermis, the innermost layer of the cortex (not generally
distinguishable)
4. Pericycle
5. Vascular bundles consisting of an outer phloem, a cambium
called intrafascicular cambium and an inner xylem
6. Pith-composed of parenchyma cells.
Barks
These consist of all tissues outside the cambium. In botany, the term may
be restricted to the outer bark (ie the periderm and the tissues lying
outside it)

A young bark is composed of the following tissues:

1. Epidermis- a layer of closely fitting cuticularized cells with occasional
stomata
2. Primary cortex: with chlorophyll containing collenchyma and
parenchyma
3. Endodermis/inner layer of the cortex – normally containing starch
4. Pericycle: maybe composed of parenchyma or fibres. Fibres groups
often occur opposite each group of phloem.
5. Phloem: consisting of sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem
parenchyma separated by radially arranged medullary rays.
The activity of the cambium and cork cambium
(phellogen) have greatly modified the above structures in
commercial barks.
Growth of new tissues produced by the cambium causes
the tissues of the primary bark to be tangentially stretched,
compressed on torn and during this process groups of
parenchymatous cells in the cortex and phloem may be
thickened into sclerenchymatous cells
Cork cambium may arise in the epidermis, primary cortex or
pericycle.

The phellogen produces on its outerside cork and on its inner

suberized cells containing chlorophyll which form the
secondary cortex or phelloderm.
These 3 layers are known as the periderm.

Lenticels replace stomata for gaseous exchange and as the cork

increases, the amount of chlorophyll containing tissue
decreases.
The curvature of barks can be described as flat, curved, channeled,
single, double or compound quill.

The fracture of barks maybe described as short, fibrous, splintery or

granular and depends largely on the number and distribution of
sclereids and fibres.

A transverse surface of the bark when stained with phloroglucinol and

hydrochloric acid will show arrangement of the lignified elements,
medullary rays and cork.
Anatomy of the bark
In the anatomical examination of barks the following features
should be carefully noted:

-Presence/absence of outer bark (cork, phellogen and phelloderm)

-Structure, amount and site of origin of the cork
-Cell structure and cell contents of the cortex
-Presence/absence, distribution, size and form of sclereids,
phloem fibres and secretion cell
-width, height, distribution and cell structure and contents of the
medullary rays.
-presence/absence of calcium oxalate, their form and distribution.
Powdered barks

Powdered barks always possess sieves tubes and cellulose

parenchyma.

Chlorophyll and aleurone grains are absent while cork, fibres,

sclereids, starch, calcium oxalate and secretory tissues are
frequently present.

Xylem tissues are absent or only present in very small amount.

Woods
Wood consists of the secondary tissues produced by the cambium
on its inner surface.

These tissues are composed of vessels, tracheids, wood fibres and

parenchyma and may not all be lignified eg in the wood of
belladonna root the non-lignified elemts pre-dominate.

In trees, the cells of old wood are filled with waste products such
as tannins, colouring matter and resins and hence frequently
become coloured.

The central region is called the heart wood while the outer wood is
known as the sapwood.
Commercial guaiacum wood and logwood consist of
heartwood.

Woods maybe described based on their size, colour, relative

density, hardness and behavior when split as well as their
transverse and longitudinal surfaces.
Roots
This is the part of the plant that grows into or towards the soil.
It never develops leaves, rather rarely produces buds and whose
growing apex is covered by a cap.

Its chief functions are absorption, storage and support.

Its principal function is the absorption of nutriment and to this

end it has branches called rootlets that recovered with roothairs
which largely increase the absorbing surface.

The portion of the epidermis which bears root hairs is called the
piliferous layer.
Roots are classified into: primary, secondary and adventitious roots

Anatomy of the root

1. Epidermis – a single layer of cells which give rise to the hairs
2. Hypodermis
3. Cortex- consisting of parenchyma cells which contain starch
grains
4. Endodermis- their walls are thickened through infiltration of
suberin and lignin
5. Pericycle
6. Vascular bundles
7. Medulla or pith- composed of parenchyma cells containing starch
Plant physiology
Production of food required by the plant is the main function of
leaves i.e. the conversion of inorganic into organic matter and
this takes place ordinarily in the green parts, containing
chlorophyll, when these are exposed to sunlight.

The functions of a leaf include:

a. Photosynthesis
b. Assimilation
c. Respiration
d. Transpiration
Photosynthesis:
• This is carried out by cells of all green leaves or other green parts of
plants to build up sugar, starch or other complex organic substances by
means of chlorophyll and sunlight.

• Though this process takes place in nature only during sunlight but it will
also occur in artificial light.

• Carbon dioxide is taken into the leaf through the stomata and passes into
the intercellular air spaces between the chlorenchyma cells.

• It diffuses through the cell walls of these into the protoplasts, where it
passes into solution and enters the chloroplastids along with water from
the soil.
• The chloroplasts which contain chlorophyll absorbs light energy
which is then used either by the chlorophyll or by the whole
chloroplast to unite the CO2 with the H20 to form carbon
compounds. These contain stored or potential energy.

• The kinetic energy of the sun’s rays become stored as potential

energy and O2 is given off.

IN SUMMARY
In photosynthesis, sunlight is the power, chloroplasts the working
machinery or energy transformers, the chlorenchyma cells the
factories, CO2 and H20 the raw materials and glucose, starch or oil
the finished products, while oxygen is a waste product.

The production of glucose is represented by the equation below:

6 H 0 + 6 CO + Light = C H O + 6 O
Assimilation:
• Process of converting food material into protoplasm.
• The chlorenchyma cells of the leaf synthesize proteins from
carbohydrates.
• In this process molecules of glucose derivatives containing CHO
are united with nitrogen absorbed from the soil as nitrates to form
amino acids.
• The amino acids combine to form polypeptides which are later
built into simple proteins.
• The simple proteins are joined with sulphur or phosphorus, or
both, to form complex proteins.
• The latter enter into the formation of protoplasm.
Transpiration: is the action of giving off watery vapor.

• The greater portion of the crude sap consisting very largely of water is
conveyed upward as a transpiration stream through the tracheids of the
roots and stems into those of the leaves.

• The latter pervade the soft, green leaf parenchyma and end in
proximity to air spaces between the green cells.

• A portion of the crude sap diffuses into the leaf parenchyma cells and
is utilized in the nutritive processes, such as photosynthesis, digestion
and assimilation, occurring there.
• The remainder which normally constitutes the larger part,
passes through the intercellular air spaces and out of the
leaves as watery vapor.

• Hence about 90% of the water transpired escapes through the

stomata, and the remainder through the epidermal surface.
Respiration: is the process which takes place in all living plant and
animal cells, whereby complex carbon compounds are oxidized
with an accompanying release of energy.

• In higher green plants, oxygen is taken in through the stomata of

leaves, lenticels of stems, and root hairs.
• It passes into the intercellular air spaces which communicate
with each other throughout the entire plant and
• diffuses through the various cell walls in contact with these air
spaces, and passes into the interior of the cells.
• Here it oxidizes some of the carbohydrates, breaking these down
into carbon dioxide and watery vapor.
• These in turn diffuse out of the cells into intercellular air
spaces and pass out of the plant through the same channels as
oxygen entered.

• Respiration goes on both in light and darkness, organic

compounds are broken down, oxygen is absorbed and carbon
dioxide set free and potential energy is transformed into
kinetic energy.
PLANT ANATOMY
• This is also known as micro morphology of plants
• is concerned with the microscopic structure of the tissues, cells and
organs of plants.

It is important to understand the anatomy of plants in order identify drug

plants and detect adulteration.

Cell wall: The protoplast secretes the cell wall and this may undergo
various chemical modifications which change its physical properties during
differentiation. Some of these changes include deposition of cellulose,
hemicellulose and incrustation of the wall by lignin, cutin or suberin.
Various types of cell walls and their reaction to microchemical
reagents
Nature of wall Where found Identification tests
1. Cellulose wall Parenchyma cells, trichomes a. Chlor-zinc-iodine gives
eg cotton blue colour with true
celluloses
Walls which have these
different proportions stain
blue, violet, brownish-
violet, brown.
Similar colours obtained
with iodine followed by
concentrated acids.
B. Iodine: gives no colour with true celluloses when used alone. Blue,
when hemicelluloses are present.

C. Ammoniacal solution of copper oxide- dissolves true celluloses and

these celluloses are precipitated when the alkaline solution is poured into
dilute sulphuric acid.
Wall having hemicelluloses are incompletely soluble in this reagent.

D. Phloroglucinol and Hydrochloric acid gives no pink or red colour

with cellulose walls
2. Lignified Woody parts of plants a. Schultze’s macerating
wall such as stone cells, fluid–show cellular reaction
phloem fibres, pericyclic
Lignin is a fibres, cortical fibres, b.Acid aniline sulphate-
strengthening wood fibres and many walls become bright yellow.
material and vessels as well as in the
impregnates middle lamellae c. Phloroglucinol and HCl-
cell walls of walls stain pink or red.
tracheids, Similar reaction observed
vessels, fibres when pentose sugars are
and sclereids of warmed with this reagent.
vascular plants
d. Chlor-zinc-iodine- walls
stain yellow.
3. Suberized and Suberin thickenings found in a. Chlor-zinc-iodine gives
cutinized walls cork cells and endodermal cells yellow to brown colour.
and some secretion cells.
Suberin and cutin b.Sudan-glycerin: colours both
waterproof cells in Cutin forms outer walls of suberin and chitin red
which they occur. many epidermal cells especially on warming.

Waxes usually c. Strong solution of potash:

occur with suberin stains both yellow. On
and cutin but wax warming with suberin with
melt on warming 20% potash solution, yellow
and is extractable droplets exude but cutin is
with fat solvents. resistant..
d. Diluted tincture of alkanna: walls stain red

e. Concentrated sulphuric acid- Does not dissolve suberin or

cutin.

f. Conc. chromic acid solution: has little effect except when

heated with potassium chlorate and nitric acid, in which case
walls change into droplets soluble in organic solvents or in dilute
potash.
4. Mucilaginous Stems of Prunus, Citrus Alcoholic or glycerin
cell walls and Astragalus and testa solution of methylene:
of many seeds wall gives blue colour.
5. Chitinous a. Gives no reaction for
walls cellulose or lignin

b. When treated with 50%

potash at 160-1700C for
1h, it is converted into
chitosan, ammonia and
acids.

Chitosan gives violet

colour when treated first
with 0.5% solution of
iodine in potassium iodide
and afterwards in1%
sulphuric acid.
Parenchyma:
• This is the soft, primitive tissue of plants
• consisting of nearly equal length, breadth and thickness (isodiametric)
with usually thin, cellulose cell walls enclosing cytoplasm and a nucleus
• and frequently substances of a non-protoplasmic nature.
• It is capable of cell division after maturity.
• The pith, cortex and rays of plant axis and the mesophyll of leaves are
composed in part of parenchyma.
• The mesophyll cells often contain abundant chloroplasts and may be
differentiated into spongy and palisade mesophyll.
Four general types of Parenchyma are recognized:
1. Ordinary parenchyma- usually composed of thin-walled cells and may
compose the soft tissues of roots, stems and barks.
2. Assimilation parenchyma (Chlorophyll parenchyma and chlorenchyma) –
this is found in foliage leaves, floral leaves and in the outer region of
young green stems and fruits. Its cells are thin and vary in shape from
isodiametric to irregular and elongated forms.
3. Conducting parenchyma- this type functions in the rapid translocation of
food materials to distant regions in the plant. Their cells differ from the
ordinary parenchyma by being more elongated.
4. Reserve parenchyma – The cells here are usually filled with starch, protein
crystals or oil globules and is usually found in seeds, fleshy roots or
underground stems such as tubers, corms and bulbs.
Collenchyma:
• This form of tissue, directly derived from the parenchyma has greater
mechanical strength and the cells are more elongated than that of the
parenchyma.
• The walls are thickened being composed of cellulose and laid down in
longitudinal strips usually located at the angles of the cells.
• Like the parenchyma cells, they also contain cytoplasm , a nucleus and
frequently chloroplasts.
• In transverse section, they are 4-6 sided and axially elongated in
longitudinal sections. Their walls being composed of cellulose have
considerate plasticity hence collenchyma makes us the mechanical tissue
of herbaceous stems, petioles and midribs of leaves.
• It is also present both below and above the midrib bundle in many leaves
eg Senna, Digitalis as well as in the cortex of cascara bark.
The Epidermis:
• This is the outer covering tissue of a plant which consists of a
single layer of cells usually flattened parallel to the surface,
square or rectangular in shape in transverse sections
• is protective in function.
• It provides against mechanical injury and loss of water is replaced
by cork during secondary growth of old stems and roots.
• they are devoid of chloroplasts.
• Their outer walls are convex and thickened.

The epidermis of stems of trees and shrubs is usually obliterated

early by the development of a cork cambium however they persist on
stems of herbaceous plants, leaves, fruits and seeds and are of high
diagnostic importance.
Stomata:
Among the epidermal cells of leaves and young green stems may be found
numerous pores or stomata surrounded by pairs of crescent shaped cells,
called guard cells.

The guard cells contain chloroplasts.

The function of the stomata is to give off watery vapor (transpiration) and
take in or give off carbon dioxide and oxygen.

The stomata may be surrounded by cells resembling the other epidermal

cells or have definite subsidiary cells.
The types of stomata include:
1. Anisocytic type (formerly known as Cruciferous) –in which the stoma is
surrounded by 3 or more subsidiary cells, one of which is smaller than the
others eg in Belladonna and the Cruciferae

2. Paracytic type (formerly Rubiaceous)- in which the stoma is surrounded by

two subsidiary cells having their ling axes parallel to the stomatal pore eg in
Senna and Coca.

3. Diacytic type (formerly caryophyllaceous type) – in which the stoma has

two subsidiary cells with their axes at right angles to the stomatal pore eg in
Mints.

4. Anomocytic type (formally ranunculaceous type)- in which the cells

surrounding the stoma resemble the other epidermal cells.
Other variations also occur eg

Actinocytic type – in which the subsidiary cells are arranged along the radii of a
circle.
There is great variation in the distribution of the stomata between the upper and
lower epidermis. The stomata may only occur at the lower epidermis eg Ficus
species, Coca while some may occur only on the upper epidermis eg floating
leaves of aquatic plants.

It is important to note the following when observing leaves:

1. Shape of the epidermal cells
2. Nature and distribution of the wall thickening
3. Presence or absence of cuticle at its form
4. Distribution and structure of stomata, presence/absence of well differentiated
subsidiary cells.
5. Presence/absence of epidermal trichomes, water pores
6. presence of characteristic cell inclusions eg cystoliths
 Epidermal hairs or trichomes: are elongated outgrowths of one or more
epidermal cells. These hairs maybe more than 1 type and be grouped into the
following:
1. Non-glandular or clothing hairs – which maybe unicellular (which vary from
papillose outgrowths to large robust structures) or multicellular (maybe
uniseriate when they consist of a single row of cells eg Digitalis, Stramonium
or multiseriate when they consist of or more rows of cells eg Corolla of
Calendula)

2. Glandular hairs- these comprise those whose terminal cell/s are modified into
a more or less globular gland for gummy, resinous or oily deposits.
They are generally composed of a a stalk and a head region although
rarely the stalk may be absent.

The stalk maybe unicellular, bicellular, uni or multiseriate. Eg

biseriate hairs in Labiatae, glandular hairs in Solanaceae
Trichomes have various functions which include

- Physical and chemical protection for the leaf against microbial

organisms, aphids and insects.

- Maintenance of a layer of still air on the leaf surface to combat

excess water loss by transpiration

- Absorbtion of nourishment in the form of moisture and mineral

matter in solution eg root hairs

- Prevention of clogging of the stomata by accumulation of dust eg

dense covering of hairs
Some secretion of glandular trichomes are constitute important

materials for the perfumery, food and pharmaceutical industries

eg sesquiterpenes from glandular trichomes of Helianthus annus

are antimicrobial in nature.

Some secretions contain narcotic resins while some may cause

skin allergies.
The Endodermis: is the layer of cells constituting the innermost
layer of the cortex.

Roots, aquatic and subterranean stems as well as aerial stems of

certain families eg Cucurbitaceae and Labiatae present a typical
endodermis

leaves and aerial stems often show starch sheath, probably

representing a modified endodermis.

It usually resembles other parenchyma layers of cortex in

angiosperm stems except that it frequently contains starch.
The endodermal walls maybe thin or thick but their radial and end
walls are usually thickened with deposits of waterproof material
representing cutin or suberin.

In transverse sections, the cells of the endodermis appear to be 4

sided, oval or elliptical and often extended in the tangential direction.

The endodermis seems to give protection to the stele (ie tissues

within it) so as to reduce permeability between primary cortex and
stele and to serve as an air dam, preventing clogging with air of the
water-conducting elements.
Cork tissue:
As the plant axis increases in diameter, a cork cambium or
phellogen arises which produces new protective cells known
collectively as periderm which replaces the epidermis and part or
the entire primary cortex.

The cork cambium cells undergo tangential divisions which give

rise externally to the phellem or cork tissue and internally to
phelloderm or secondary cortex.

The cork tissue is usually devoid of intercellular air spaces

• In roots, cork cambium arises in the pericycle
• In stems, cork cambium arises in the the epidermis or sub-
epidermal layer.

• The 1st form cork cambium may function throughout the plant
life and when it increases with the increase in girth it may give
rise to a smooth bark however when it fails to increase in
diameter, it gives rise to a fissured bark eg cork oak and cork
elm.

• Cork tissue is built up of a compact mass of cells, usually

rectangular in transverse section, 5 or 6 sided in surface view
and often arranged in regular radial rows.
• When the cork cells are formed, the stomata is put out of action
and replaced by lenticels which are larger in size and smaller in
number.

• Presence of cork cells in powdered drugs may show adulteration

or use of low quality or improperly peeled drug.
Sclereids or stone cells:
• These are sclerenchymatous cells isodiametrical in shape.
• Their walls are thick, atimes showing well marked stratification
and are traversed by pit canals often funnel shaped or branched.
• They may also have contents of diagnostic importance eg prisms
of calcium oxalate in Calumba, starch grains in cinnamon.

Sclereids occur in
• the hard outer coats of seeds, fruits
• in the bark and pericyclic regions of woody stems.
• They may also occur isolated, in small/large groups or in definite
layers eg in Cinnamon and cassia bark

Their presence or absence is of diagnostic importance and aid in

their microscopical identification eg absent in Cinchona bark,
present as elongated sclereids in Ipecacuanha.
Fibres:
• When sclerenchyma is composed of cells which are greatly
elongated and more or less obtusely or taper ended, its
component elements are termed sclerenchyma fibres or fibres.

• These fibers are frequently spindle shaped and their cell wall
may be composed of almost pure cellulose or may show various
degrees of lignification.

• Most mature fibres are unicellular but occasionally transverse

septa develop eg ginger and are best differentiated on the basis
of the tissue in which they occur eg cortical fibers, pericyclic
fibres, xylem or phloem fibres.
Isolated groups of pericyclic fibres occur in eg Cinchona bark,
pericyclic fibres also occur in the midrib of the leaves of
Digitalis lutea, D. thapsi but absent in D purpurea and D.
lanata.

Xylem fibres maybe derived from tracheids while phloem fibres

may occur in both the primary and secondary phloem. Eg
phloem fibres of the bark of cinnamon occur in isolated or
irregular rows while those of cascara are accompanied by a
crystal sheath.

Fibres are absent from the phloem of gentian and ipecacuanha.

Xylem: is that part of a conduction or vascular bundle.

The structural elements of the xylem include tracheids, vessels or

trachea, xylem fibres, xylem parenchyma and rays. It frequently
contains wood fibres.

It is the principal strengthening and water conducting tissue of

roots and stems.

It is composed of the primary and secondary xylem (produced by

the cambium).
The primary xylem is made up of the protoxylem as well as the
metaxylem.

Based on the secondary wall thickening tracheid types include

annular, spiral, scalariform and reticulate tracheids.
Phloem: is a part of the vascular bundle

• its structural elements are sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem

parenchyma and secretory cells (e.g. in ginger, cinnamon and
cassia).

• It represents the principal tissue concerned with the distribution

of elaborated food stuffs. The sieve tube is the conducting
element of the phloem.
The mature sieve tube lacks a nucleus but while functional
contains cytoplasm and may be detected by recognition of callus
pads which show the following typical staining reactions:

1. Aniline Blue: stains callose blue

2. Chlor- zinc-iodine : stains callose a reddish brown
3. Solution of Ammoniacal copper nitrate BP: does not dissolve
callose
4. Solution of potash: a cold 1% solution of potash dissolves
callose.
Due to lack of lignification and their delicate structure sieve tubes
are difficult to observe in commercial drugs.

However the sieve tubes of cascara can be detected even in the

powdered drug when stained with corallin soda.

The phloem like the xylem is also made up of the primary

phloem (proto and metaphloem) and the secondary phloem
Secretory tissues
• These were formerly parenchyma cells which sooner or later lost
their protoplasm and nucleus and became receptacles for oil,
resin, oleoresin, mucilage or some other secretory substance.

• They are found in parenchyma regions of stems, roots, leaves,

flower or fruit parts and frequently possess suberized walls.

Secretory tissues include secretory cells, secretory cavities or sacs,

secretory ducts or canals and latex tissue.
-Oil cells occur in ginger, cinnamon and cassia

-Secretory cavities may arise by the separation of cells and subsequent

formation of a secretory epithelium or by breakdown of the cells
forming a cavity not bound by a definite epithelium eg Schizogenous
oil cavities in Eucalyptus and Lysigenous oil cavities in Gossypium
sp.
- Latex tissue consists of either cells or tubes which contain a fluid
with milky appearance arising from a suspension of small particles
in a liquid dispersion medium- these particles maybe hydrocarbons
composed of essential oils, resins and rubber eg papain occurs in
the latex of Carica

-Lactifers are formed by partial or complete fusion of a longitudinal

series of cells and occur in the Convulvulaceae and Campanulaceae.
Ergastic cell contents
(Of concern to Pharmacognosy are those cell content identifiable by
microscopical examination or by chemical and physical tests).

These are non-living cell contents and they include:

carbohydrates, proteins, fixed oils and fats, alkaloids, purines,
glycosides, volatile oils, gums, mucilages, resins, tannins, calcium
oxalate, calcium carbonate and silica

Starch- occurs in granules of various sizes in almost all organs of

plants- most abundant in roots, rhizomes, fruits and seeds
Proteins- storage proteins occur in form of aleurone grains seen
particularly in oily seeds eg castor seed

Aleurone grains best observed after defatting and removal of starch

after which they can be treated as follows:
1. Million’s reagent stains the protein red on warming
2. Iodine solution stains the ground substance and crystalloid
yellowish-brown but leaves the globoids unstained
3. Picric acid stains the ground substance and crystalloid yellow

Aleurone grains of the endosperm fennel contain a minute crystal of

calcium oxalate.
Fixed oils and fats- widely distributed in both vegetative and
reproductive structures and often occur in seeds

Reserve oils occur in solid masses which melt on warming.

Feathery crystalline masses of fat occur in the endosperm of
nutmeg

Oils and fats are soluble in ether-alcohol with a few exceptions eg

castor oil is sparingly soluble in alcohol

They can be tested with the following reagents:

1% solution of osmic acid- red
Diluted tincture of alkanna – red
Gums and mucilages- are polysaccharide complexes formed from
sugar and uronic acid units. Insoluble in alcohol but dissolve or
swell in water.

Official ruthenium red stains mucilage of senna leaves red. It also

stains sterculia gum but hass less action on tragacanth.

Some mucilage are stained by the BP solution of Coralline eg that

of Squill while others are stained by chlor-zinc or methylene blue
dissolved in alcohol and glycerin
Volatile oils and resins- Volatile oils occur as droplets in the cell
and are sparingly soluble in alcohol.

Resemble fixed oils in behaviour towards osmic acid and tincture

of alkanna but not saponified when treated with ammoniacal
potash.

Resins-maybe associated with volatile oil or found in irregular

masses- insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol.
Tannins- widely distributed in plants and occur in solution in the
cell sap often in distinct vacuoles.

Sections of plants containing tannins acquire a bluish-black or

greenish colour when mounted in a dilute solution of ferric
chloride.

Alkaloids and glycosides- secondary metabolites but rarely visible

in plant cells without application of specific chemical tests.
Crystals- may occur as calcium oxalate, calcium carbonate ,
hesperidin and diosmin and silica

Calcium oxalate – occur as crystals eg cascara shows cluster

crystals in the ground mass parenchyma and prisms confined to
rows of parenchymatous cells forming a sheath round the fibres
and the cells which contain them are called idioblasts.

Sections to be observed for calcium oxalate maybe cleared with

chloral hydrate or caustic alkali as they only slowly dissolve the
crystals
Calcium carbonate- may be found embedded in or incrusted in cell
walls.
Concretions of calcium carbonate found on outgrowths of the cell
wall are term cystoliths.

It dissolves with effervescence in acetic, hydrochloric or sulphuric

acid. If 50% sulphuric acid is used, needle shaped crystals of
calcium sulphate gradually separate.

Hesperidin and diosmin- occur as feathery-like aggregates or

sphaerocrystalline masses in the cells of many of the Rutaceae.
crystalline masses of diosmin are present in upper epidermal cells
of buchu leaves.

Crystals are insoluble in organic solvents but soluble in potassium

hydroxide.
Silica: occurs as an incrustation on cell walls or as masses in the
interior cells.

Silica is insoluble in all acids except Hydrofluoric acid.

It maybe examined by igniting the material and treating the ash

with HCl, the silica remaining unaltered.