PHARMACOGNOSY

Short Questions carrying 4 Marks

Q.1. Explain the following chemical tests
a) Modified Borntrager’s Test b) Gambier Fluorescein Test
c) Combined Umbelliferone test d) Vitali Morins Test
Answer
(a) MODIFIED BORNTRAGER’s TEST: This test is done for Anthracene glycosides:
1gm of sample is taken, to this 5mlof ferric chloride add 5ml dilute HCl is added and heated on a
water bath and cooled. This is then extracted with benzene. An equal volume of ammonia is
added to benzene extract. A pinkish red colour is obtained in the ammonia layer.

(b)Gambier fluorescin test:

Powdered drug is boiled with alcohol and filtered it and add 2ml of NaOH solution and 2ml of
Light petroleum to the filtered, Layer shown no green fluorescence

(c) Combined Umbelliferone test: Triturate 0.5 gm of drug and sand, and then add 5ml of HCl
and 3ml water. Filter and to filtrate add equal volume of ammonia. A blue fluorescence is
produced due to presence of Umbelliferone.

d) Vitali Morins Test: - The tropane alkaloids is treated with fuming nitric acid followed by
evaporation to dryness and addition of methanolic potassium hydroxide solution to an acetone
solution of nitrated residue. Violet colouration takes place due to presence of tropane
alkaloids.
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Q.2 - Give the botanical source & uses of one drug each containing following
Answer
a) Lysergic Acid – Ergot
Botanical Source : It is a dried sclerotium of a fungus Claviceps purpurea.
Family : Hypocreaceae
Chemical Constituent : Ergometrine, ergotamine
Uses : Used to assist delivery and to reduce post-partum haemorrhage.

b) Codeine - Opium
Botanical Source : It consists of dried Latex obtained from the unripe capsules of
the Plant Papaver somniferum.
Family : Papaveraceae
Chemical Constituent : Morphine, codeine.
Uses : Used as Narcotic analgesic, Used as an Expectorant.

c) L- Hyosyamine - Datura, Hyoscyamus

Botanical Source : It consists of dried leaves and flowering tops of Datura metal.
Family : Solanaceae
Chemical Constituent : Hyoscine, Hyoscyamine.
Uses : Used as Parasympathetic depressant, Used in the treatment of
asthma and cough.

d) Eugenol – Clove
Botanical Source : It consists of dried immatured flower buds of Eugenia Carophyllus
Family : Myrtaceae
Chemical Constituent : Eugenol
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Uses : Used as Dental analgesic and carminatives
e) Vitamin C – Amla
Botanical Source :It consist of dried as well as fresh fruits of the plant Emblic officinalis
Family : Euphorbiaceae
Chemical Constituent : Vitamin - C
Uses : Source of vitamin C
f) Strychnine -Nuxvomica
Botanical Source : It consists of dried ripe seeds of Strychnos Nux-vomica.
Family : Loganiaceae
Chemical Constituent : Strychnine and brucine.
Uses : Used as Bitter tonic, CNS stimulant.

g) Resionalic Acid – Castor oil

Botanical Source : It consists of fixed oil obtained by the cold expression of the
Seeds of Ricinus communis.
Family : Euphorbiaceae
Chemical Constituent : Ricinoleic acid, Isoricinoleic acid.
Uses : Purgatives and Lubricant.

h) Atropine - Datura
Botanical Source : It consists of dried leaves and flowering tops of Datura metel.
Family : Solanaceae
Chemical Constituent : Hyoscine, Hyoscyamine.
Uses : Used as Parasympathetic depressant, Used in the treatment of
asthma and cough.

i) Pyrethrin –Pyrethrum
Botanical Source : It consists of dried flower heads of Chrysanthemum cinerariefolium
Family : Compositae
Chemical Constituent : Pyrethrin
Uses : Used as contact insecticide.

j) Barbaloin – Aloes
Botanical Source : It consists of dried Juice of Aloe barbadensis.
Family : Liliaceae
Chemical Constituent : Aloe-emodin, Barbaloin
Uses : Laxatives and purgatives, used in cosmetic Preparation.
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Q.3 -Write a note on surgical dressings
Answer - The fibers are elongated thick walled cell with pointed ends, cell walls of which
consist of cellulose and may not contain lignin.
Classification: - Fibers obtained from various sources can be categorized as follows:
Plants Fibers: For Ex. Cotton jute
Animal fibers: For Ex. Silk, wool
Mineral fibers: For Ex. Glass, asbestos
Synthetic fibers: For Ex .Nylone,Terylene
Regenerated fibers: For Ex. Viscose rayons, Acetate rayons
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Q.4 -Define Pharmacognosy & write a note on history of Pharmacognosy

Answer -Pharmacognosy – It is define as the scientific & systemic study of structural, physical,
chemical and biological characters of crude drugs along with their history, method of cultivation,
collection & preparation for the market.

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History of pharmacognosy
Primitive Age – Treatment of disease started ever from the primitive age. The primitive man
made a empirical use of plants for the treatment of disease but there information
were passed only through words of mouth.
Pre-Christian Era – The available records shows that Chinese medicine is the oldest. They had
knowledge about Ephedrine ( called mahuang in Chinese) even in very early days. Important
stage in history of pharmacognosy
I. 3500 – 1500 BC – Ayurveda described the use of Medicinl plants
II. 1500 BC – Ebers Papyurs of Egypt described the medicinal value of plants
III. 460 – 370 BC – Hippocrates is known for his Oath administered to doctors
IV. 384 -322 BC – Aristotle known for his works on animal kingdom

The Era after Christ – this period in the history of pharmacognosy is marked by the following
important events
I. Description of variety of medicinal plants
II. Preparation of plant and animal drugs described by Galen in 200 Ad
III. Introduction of the term pharmacognosy by seydler in 1815

Modern pharmacognosy starting from 1815. There was rapid growth in the subject of
pharmacognosy. This is due to development of various methods of isolation & characterisation
of active principle.

SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY:
1. Pharmacognosy helps in the detailed study of drug obtained from
Plant, animal or mineral source.
2. It helps in finding out the botanical source and family i.e. origin.
3. The method of cultivation gives as knowledge about the type of soil, Climatic
condition and altitude required for the plants.
4. It also gives us information about Chemical Constituents and their Uses.
5. The drug can be evaluated to find out their quality and purity.
6. Adulterants and substituents if any can be found out.
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Q.5 -Define Crude Drug. Write the difference between organised & unorganised crude
drugs

Answer

Crude Drug: An agent which alters or changes the biological phenomenon &
obtained from plant, animal & mineral sources.
Plant Sources
Ex: Seena, Clove, Fennel
Animal Sources
Ex: Shark liver oil, Bee Wax, Wool, Silk
Mineral Sources
Ex: Bentonite, Chalk, Kaolin.

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Difference between organised and unorganized crude drugs

Organised drugs Un-Organised Drugs

1. These are the organs of plants or animals.
2. These are solid in nature. Ex: Bark, Roots,
Stem, Fruits.
3. They have well defined morphological
characters.
1. These are derived from parts of plant or
animal.
2. These are solid, semisolid or liquid in
nature. Ex: Oils & Balsams
3. They do not have definite morphological
characters.

4. These have cellular structures. 4. Do not have cellular structures.

5. It is identified by morphological characters. 5. It is identified by Chemical test & Physical

Ex Rauwolfia, Ginger, Turmeric. standards.
Ex. Acacia, Agar, Tragacanth, Benzoin

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Q.6 – Write the method of cultivation & collection of Rauwolfia.

Answer: -

Botanical source- Rauwolfia consists of dried roots of the plant known as Rauwolfia
serpentina, belonging to the family Apocynaceae.

Cultivation:
 Climate- Hot humid condition
 Soil- Clay loamy soil with large amount of humus
 ph. – acidic (around 4)
 Temperature- (10-40)ºC
 Rainfall- 250-500 cm
 Propagation – By seeds
 The healthy seeds are sown in the nursery beds. Sowing is done in the month of May.
The seedlings are then transplanted in the month of August at a distance of 16 to 30 cm.
The shrub (plant) is about 1 meter in height, with white or rose coloured flowers and
purplish black fruits.
Collection:
 3 to 4 years old plant are uprooted. The roots are cut properly, washed and dried in the
air. The average yield of roots per hectare is 1200 kg.

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Q.7 – Write the cultivation & collection of Digitalis

Answer

DIGITALIS

Cultivation
 In India, it is cultivated in Kashmir and Nilgiri Hills
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  It is biennial or perennial herb about 1-2 meters in height.
 It needs calcareous, sandy, light soil with traces of manganese.
 The soil is sterilized by steam before sowing.
 It grows suitably in shady situation at an altitude of 1600-3000 meters.
 The required temperature is 20-30 and rainfall is 30-40cm per annum.
 The seeds of digitalis are very small in size i. e 100 seeds weigh 40-70 mg.
 They are mixed with fine sand and sown in the nursery beds in March/April.
 About 2.5 kg seeds are needed per hectare.
 The young seedlings are transplanted in September to November.
 The crop is manure properly and kept free of weeds.
 The plantation is done twice a year, in the first year the plant bears rosette leaves and in
the Second year sessile leaves.
 The plant flowers in the month of April and is followed by the fruiting.
Collection
 The leaves are picked up in the afternoon during August- September in the first and the
second year, when 2/3rd of the flowers are fully developed.
 The basal leaves and the leaves at the top are collected at the end.
 The leaves are collected in dry weather.
 The dis- coloured leaves are rejected.
 After plucking leaves are immediately brought to the drying center and dried in vacuum
dryers.
 The dried leaves are packed in the air tight containers with suitable dehydrating agent.
 The digitalis leaves should not contain more than 5% moisture because destruction of the
glycoside takes place.

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Q.8 - Define & classify pharmaceuticals Aids with examples
Answer
The substances which are little or no therapeutic value, but are essentially used in manufacture
or compounding of various pharmaceutical substances.
Classification: These are classified into the following:
a) Emulsifying agents : Acacia, Tragacanth
b) Sweetening Agents : Honey
c) Colouring Agents : Turmeric
d) Disintegrating Agents : Starch
e) Flavoring Agents : Orange
f) Ointment base : Bees Wax, Lanolin
h) Lubricants : Talcum
i) Diluents : Cinnamon Water
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Q.9 -Define adulteration and give the methods of adulteration
Answer
Adulteration is a practice of substituting original crude drug partially or wholly with other
similar looking substance.
Reasons:
1. Scarcity
2. High price of drug

Method of adulteration of Drugs:

The different type of adulterants found in market is given below:

a) Substitution with substandard commercial varieties:

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 The adulterants used here may resemble original crude drug by morphological, chemical or
therapeutic characters but are substandard in nature and cheaper in cost. This is a most common
practice of adulteration.
Ex: - i) Nux-vomica or strychnos nux-vomica are adulterated with strychnos nux-blanda.
ii) Senna is adulterated with Arabian dog Senna

b) Substitution of exhausted drugs:

The drugs are exhausted for their active constituents and reuse genuine drugs. This
practice is more common in case of volatile oils.
Ex:- Fennel, coriander, caraway, dill & clove.

c) Substitution with artificially manufactures substances:

In this type of adulteration substances are artificially prepared which resembles original. Drug
is used as substitutes. Generally, this practice is used for much costlier drugs.
Ex. Artificial invert sugar mixed with honey.

d) Presence of vegetative Matter from the same plant:

In this type, other part of the same plant growing along with medicinal plant are mixed with drug
due to their resembling Colour, odour and some cases constituents
Ex. Cloves are mixed with clove stalks.
Caraway and fennel fruits are mixed with other parts of the florescence
The stem portions are mixed along with leaf drugs like Senna.

e) Adding of synthetic chemicals:

In this type the synthetic chemical which constitutes one of the chemical constituents of the drug
are added to the genuine drug.
Ex: Benzyl benzoate to balsam of Peru.
f) Harmful adulteration:
Several times wastage from the market are collected and admixed with drugs. This is observed
in case of unorganized drugs.
Example:- The pieces of amber colored glass in colophony, Lime stones in asafoetida.

g) Adulteration of powders
In some cases, the powder form of the drugs are frequently, found to be adulterated.
Example:-
* Dextrin in ipecac
* Exhausted ginger powder in powdered ginger
* Red sandal wood in capsicum
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Q.10 - Write a note on life cycle of Ergot

Answer

Life cycle of Ergot: The life cycle of ergot shows the following stages.
They are:
Sphacelia or honey dew stage.
Sclerotum stage or ergot stage or resting stage.
Ascopore stage.

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 Sphacelia or honey dew stage: The rye plant bears flowers at the end of spring. During this
period, the spores of the fungus from the ascospore stage are carried by insects or wind and
reach the flowers of Rye plant and deposit it at the base of the ovary. The spores germinate and
produce hyphae. It penetrate into the walls of the ovary by enzymatic actions and forms a white
mass known as Sphacelia. This Sphacelia secrets sweet saccharine yellowish coloured liquid
called honey dew which gets attracted by the insects and carried to the other plants by which the
disease is spread in all the Rye plants.

Sclerotum stage or ergot stage or resting stage:The hyphae gradually penetrates deeper into
the ovary & develop feeding on the mass of the ovary and finally replaced the entire mass to
dark brown colour mass called sclerotium stage. In the beginning the sclerotium is small, later it
enlarges & projects from the Rye plant.

Ascopore stage:Some sclerotia are not collected & may fall on the ground.
These sclerotia produce the stroma for the next year. This stroma has a stalk & round head. The
head contains flask shaped pockets known as Perithecia. Perithecia contain asci. Each ascus
contains eight ascospores. These ascospores are carried by insects or wind to the flowers of the
Rye plant and the cycle goes on continuous.
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Q.12 - What are tannins? Classify & give examples
Answer
Tannins are complex organic, non-nitrogenous phenolic compounds of high molecular weight.
Properties:
They combine with the proteins of animals hide and skin to give leather.
They have an astringent taste.
They are soluble in water and alcohol.
They show acidic reaction.
They precipitate protein, alkaloids and heavy metals.
Tannins give precipitate with antipyrine.
They are insoluble in either and chloroform.

Classification: They are classified as:

Condensed Tannins: These are formed by condensation of catechol units. They are called
Phlobaphenes. On dry distillation they yield catechol tannin. On reaction with ferric chloride
solution they produce brownish green Colour. Ex. Pale Catechu and Black Catechu.

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Hydrolysable Tannins: On hydrolysis they give either gallic acid and ellagic acid.On dry
distillation they yield pyrogalol. On reaction with ferric chloride solution they produce blue
colour.
Example: Clove, Rhubarb and Tannic acid.
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Q.13 -Write a note on microscopical method of evaluation of crude drugs
Answer
Microscopic Linear measurements: This involves measurements of sizes such as
i) Diameter of starch grains.
ii) Length of stomata in leaves
iii) Diameters of phloem fibers
These measurements are also helpful in identification.

iii) Quantitative Microscopy: This involves the determination of microscopic constants

such as: a) Vein islet number
b) Palisade ratio
c) Stomata index

a) Vein islet number:It is the number of vein islet present /square mm of leaf surface.
It is the constant for a given species of the plant. It is usually does not with age of plant and is
independent of the size of the leaf.
Drug vein islet number
Cassia Angustifolia 19 - 23
Digitalis purpurea 2 - 5.5

b) Palisade ratio: It is the average number of palisade cells beneath one epidermal cell
Using 4 epidermal cells continuously for the count.

Drug Palisade ratio

Digitalis purpurea 3.7- 4.2
Atropa belladonna 6 -10

c) Stomatal index: It is the percentage which the number of stomata from the total number of
epidermal cells. Each stomata being counted as one cell. It can be calculated by the following
formula
S x 100
SI = ---------------
ES
Where as:
SI = Stomata index
S = Number of stomata/unit area, E = Epidermal cells in the same area.
DRUG STOMATAL INDEX
Atropa belladonna 20.2 -- 23
Indian Senna 17 -- 20
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Q.14 - Name the drugs having the following pharmacological activity and give its botanical
source
Answer
a) Diuretics – Gokhru
Botanical Source : It consists of dried ripen fruits of the plant Tribulu trrestris
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Family : Zygophyllaceae
Chemical Constituent : Alkaloids (harmine,Harman), sponins (digosgenin,gitogenin)
Uses : Used as diuretics, used in the treatment of painful micturation.

b) Antiamoebic - Ipecac
Botanical Source : It consist of dried roots or rhizomes of Cephaelis ipecacuanha
Family : Rubiaceae
Chemical Constituent : Emetine, cephaeline
Uses : used in the treatment of dysentery, used as emetic.

c) Antirheumatics – Colchicum
Botanical Source : It consist of dried seeds of the plant colchicum luteum
Family : Liliaceae
Chemical Constituent : colchine and demecolchine
Uses : used as antiarthritic.

d) hypotensive – Rauwolfia
Botanical Source : It consists of dried Roots of the plant of Rauwolfia serpentina.
Family : Apocynaceae
Chemical Constituent : Reserpine, reserpinine, serpentine,serpentinine.
Uses : Used in the treatment of hypertension.

Q. 15 Write a note on Cardiac Glycosides.

Answer: - Cardiac glycosides are the sterol glycosides which have direct action on heart muscle.
Myocardium cardiac glycosides are very potent even in small doses. They appear mainly in
angiosperms.
Types of cardiac glycosides: - Depending on aglycon parts, they are of two types

a) Cardenoloides: - They contain a sterol nucleus & a five membered lactone ring. The
lactone of a cardenoloides contains only one double bond & is attached to steroidal
nucleus through C-17 position.
For example- Families like leguminosea, Scrophulariaceae shows the presence of
cardenoloides
b) Bufadenoloids: - They contain a sterol nucleus & a six membered lactone ring. The
lactone of a bufadenoloides contain two double bonds & is attached to steroidal nucleus
through C-17 B position.
For example- Families like liliaceae & Ranunculaceae shows presence of
bufadenoloides.
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Q.16 Define Enzymes. Give the Source & uses of Diastase & Yeast

Answer: - Enzymes are the proteineous substances which serve a role of catalyzing the
biochemical reaction.

Example: - Diastase, Yeast

Diastase

Botanical Source: - From germinating barley grains of Hordeum Vulgare belonging to the
family Graminae

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Uses: - Conversion of starch in to sugars
Yeast
Botanical Source: - Unicellular microorganism of fungal origin – Sacchromyces cerevisiae
belonging to the family Saccharomycetaceae.
Uses: - Manufacture of alcohol, source of Vitamin D, digestant.
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Q.17 Give the difference between gums & mucilage

Answer
S.No Gums Mucilage
1 These are the abnormal products of These are the normal product of plant
plant

2 They are the exudates of the plant They are not the plant exudates

3 They are obtained when plant is They are obtained normally

injured

4 They are secreted from surface of They are secreted inside the plant
stem

5 Chemically they are the mixture of Chemically they are mixture of galactouronic
aldobionic acid acid & monosaccharide
Example: - Acacia, Tragacanth Example: - Agar, Asafoetida

Q.18 Define & classify Volatile Oils/essential oils. Write the methods of isolation/separation
of Volatile oils
Answer: - The odourous volatile principles of plant & animal source are known as volatile oils.
As they evaporate when exposed to air at an ordinary temperature, they are also called as
ethereal oils.
Example: - Clove oil, Peppermint oil etc

Classification
The most acceptable classification whereby volatile oils and volatile-oil containing
drugs may be grouped together are as follows, namely:

(i) Hydrocarbon volatile oils Ex- Black Pepper

(ii) Alcohol volatile oils Ex- Peppermint
(iii) Aldehyde volatile oils Ex- Cinnamon
(iv) Ketone volatile oils Ex – Camphor
(v) Phenol volatile oils Ex – Clove

(vi) Phenolic ether volatile oils Ex- Fennel

(vii) Oxide volatile oils Ex –Eucalyptus

(viii) Ester volatile oils Ex- Lavender

ISOLATION OF VOLATILE OILS: Volatile oils are extracted by steam distillation, solvent extraction
or mechanical means such as ecuelle and enfleurage techniques.

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  HYDRO-DISTILLATION: Methods comprising of water distillation, water and steam distillation
and steam distillation are used for extraction of volatile oil from herbal drugs. The fresh material
is subjected to hydro distillation in case of the leaf drugs. air –dried subterranean parts are
extracted by steam distillation.
 ENFLEURAGE: Method is used for exteration of delicate perfumes. The fresh flower petals are
mechanically spreads on layer of fatty materials, allowed to imbibe and the exhausted petals are
replaced by fresh material. The process is continued till the fatty layer is saturated with volatile
principles which are then extracted with lipid solvent.
 ECUELLE METHODS: Is used for extraction of citrus oils, wherein oil cells in ring are ruptured
mechanically using pointed projections by twisting raw material over them in clockwise direction
either mechanically or manually.
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Q. 19 Write the difference between Volatile oil & fixed oil.

Answer-
Volatile oils Fixed Oils
(i) Volatile at room temp. Usually obtained by i. Not volatile at room temp.
distillation. ii. They can be obtained by expressional
(ii) Often evaporate and do not leave greasy method e.g. butter sunflower oil, soyabean oil.
spot. iii. Leave spot.
(iii) Can not be saponified. iv. Can be saponified.
(iv) Complex mixtures of stereoptenes and v. Esters of higher fatty acids with glycerol.
eleoptenes. vi. Low refractive index. Optically inactive
(v) High refractive index.
(vi) Optically active.

Q.20 Describe the microscopical characters of Coriander & fennel

Answer: A transverse section of fennel shows:-

1. Epicarp – Polygonal cells showing a few stomata
2. Mesocarp – in the region of primary ridges, few vascular bundles with reticulate lignified
parenchyma above and below.
3. Four vittae on the dorsal surface, two on the commissural surface
4. Endocarp – narrow elongated cells showing parquetry arrangement
5. Endosperm – cellulosic parenchyma with oil globules and aleurone grains

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LONG ASSAY QUESTIONS Carrying 14 Marks
Q.21 – Give the method of preparation of cotton & silk
Answer- Preparation of cotton- It is commonly grown for the purpose of fibers in the tropical
countries. The plant after flowering bears fruits known as capsules. The fruits are 3 to 5 celled.
Each capsule contains numerous seeds. The seeds covered with the hair are known as bolls. The
bolls are collected, dried and taken to the ginning press where in the trichomes are separated
from the seed. Various devices are used to separate the hairs. The short and long hairs are
separated from each other. The hairs with short length are known as linters and are used for the
manufacture of absorbent cotton, while long hairs are used for the preparation of cloth.

The raw cotton obtained by this full of impurities, Like wax, fat, colouring matter, vegetables
debris. It is processed to go rid of most of the impurities. It taken to the machine known as
cotton opener and followed by treatment with dilute soda solution or soda ash solution under
pressure for about 10-15 hours. The wax, fatty material & colouring matter are removed by this
treatment. It is then washed with water, dried and carded into flay sheets. It is finally packed in
wrappers and sterilized.

Q.22 -Describe the microscopical characters of clove & ginger

Answer
Microscopical Characters of Ginger

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The T.S of ginger contains:
 Cork
 Cortex
 Endodermis
 Steel
 Ground Tissue
Cork: This is divided into the outer cork and the inner cork. The inner cork is few layeredandis
dark brown in Colour and is made up of parenchymal cells which are irregular. The inner cork is
colorless made up of parenchyma cells which are arranged radially.
Cortex: It is made up of parenchyma cells with intra cellular spaces. It contains starch grains,
oleo-resin, and fibro vascular bundles.
Endodermis: It is a single layered cells .It does not contain starch.
Steel: Just below endodermis. It contains a ring of fiber less vascular bundles.
Ground Tissue: It contains fibro Vascular bundles, starch and oleo-resins.

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The T.S of Clove contains:
 Epidermis
 Cortex
 Columella

Epidermis: It is a single layered small cells with walls and has a thick cuticle.
Cortex: Three distinct zones are seen:
The peripheral region containing 2-3 layers of oil glands.
The middle region contains 1-2 rings of biocollateral bundles.
Inner region made up of loosely arranged aerenchyma.
Columella: It is central cylinder containing thick walled arenchyma with ring biocollateral
vascular bundles towards periphery. Numerous cluster crystals are found throughout the
Columella.
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Q.23 - Define & classify Alkaloids with examples. Write different tests to identify them and
methods useful in the separation of alkaloids
Answer
Alkaloids are defined as basic Nitrogenous Compounds of plant origin and have marked
physiological activity.

Properties:
They are basic in nature, they form salt with acids.
They are Colour less, crystalline solids.
They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
They are extremely bitter.
They contain C, H, N, O and sometimes sulphur.
These are optically active compounds.

Alkaloids are classified as:

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 Pyrrole & Pyrrolidine Ex. Tobacco
Tropane Alkaloids Ex. Belladona
Qunoline Alkaloids Ex. Cinchona
Isoquinoline Alkaloids Ex. Opium
Indole Alkaloids Ex. Rauowolfia
Imidazole Alkaloids Ex. Pilocarpus
Purine Alkaloids Ex. Tea & Caffeine
Alkaloidal amines Ex.Ephedra
Phenanthrene Morphine
Pyrine & Pyridine &
Lobelia,
Piperidine

True alkaloids &pseudo alkaloids

True alkaloids: The nitrogen is present inside the heterocyclic ring.

Pseudo alkaloids: The nitrogen is present outside the heterocyclic ring.

Chemical Test
 Mayer’s Test: Alkaloids + Mayer’s reagent --------- ------white ppt.
 Wagner’s Test: Alkaloids + Wagner’s Reagent ----------Brown or Reddish brown ppt.
 Dragandroffs Test: Alkaloids + Dragandroffs Reagent ----- Orang red ppt.
 Hager’s Test: Alkaloids + Hager’s Reagent -------------------Yellow Colour.

Isolation and Extraction of Alkaloids:

The drug containing alkaloid is powdered, moistened with water and mixed with lime

Acids, tannins and phenolic substances

combined with lime, so they can be
removed

The above mixture is extracted with organic solvents like ether or petroleum spirit

The organic liquid thus obtained is shaken with aqueous acid and allowed to separate. The
aqueous liquid now contains the alkaloidal salts

From alkaloidal salts, pure alkaloid is obtained by making the use of processes like steam
distillation, chromatographic technique, gradient PH technique

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Q.24 - Name different methods for evaluation for crude drugs and explain the
organoleptic, chemical & physical evaluation with examples

Answer
Evalution means the determining of identify purity and quality or activity of the drugs.
Identity, means exact name source etc.
Purity refers to absence of foreign material, moisture etc.

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Quality means concentration of the active constituents.

I. MORPHOLOGICAL EVALUTION /ORGANOLAPTIC EVALUTION

a) Colour: Leaves or herbs like lobelia should be green in Colour. If they are dried
in shade, they are green but if dried in sunlight they get bleached or pale in
colour.
b) Smell: Some drugs have charactertic smell which helps in their identification.
Leaves of different species of mentha can be identified by smells. Cantheroids
have a ammonia like smell, deteriorated clove and exhausted clove are
distinguished by smell.
c) Taste: Glycyrrhiza can be determined by sweet taste, capsicum and ginger can be
identified by pungent taste, catechu determined by astringent taste. Cinchona,
Nux-vomica, picrorrhiza is determined by bitter taste.
d) Shape: Nuxvomica consists of disc shape, cinnamon bark consists of compound quill
shape, Aconite having funnel shape (conical shape).
e) Fracture: Glycyrrhiza having fibrous fracture, the fracture of nux-vomica is hollow,
the fracture of nutmeg is oily, the fracture of ipecac is brittle.

II. PHYSICAL EVALUTION

Physical standards are to be determined for drugs whenever possible.
They are rarely constant for crude drugs but may help in evaluation of crude
drugs. They are:
a. Moisture content
b. Swelling factor
c. Melting point
d. Solubility
e. Optical rotation
f. Reflect index
g. Ash value
h. Extractive value

a) Moisture content:- It is determined by the following methods

Drying heating at 105oC to a constant weight in an over
Example:- Digitalis ------------ not more than 5%
Ergot --------------- not more than 8%
b) Swelling factor:- Example, Mucilage containing drugs like Agar.

d) Melting point:-This method is helpful in finding out the purity of the drugs.
Example:- Drug Melting Point
Bees Wax 62- 65oc
Colophony 75 -85oc
d) Solubility: -The presence of adulterant in the drug should be determined by solubility.
Example:-
Colophony is soluble in light petroleum.
Castor oil is soluble in alcohol.
Asafoetida is soluble in carbon di-sulphate.

e) Optical rotation: - Optical rotation is determined at 25% using sodium

lamp as sources of light.
Example: - Drug Optical Rotation
Caraway ----- 75 to 80
Honey ----- 3 to 15

16 PATEL COLLEGE OF PHARMACY,RAMANAGARAM

f) Reflect index:-This method is used to determine the purity of the volatile oils and
fixed oils.
Example:- Drug Refractive index
Caraway oil --- 1.4838 to 1.4858
Clove oil --- 1.527 to 1.535
g) Ash value:-These helps in finding out the care taken during collection & preparation
of the drugs.
Total ash-It is the organic ash obtained by incineration of the drug and it
consists of carbonates, silicates, Phosphate & Silica.
Acid insoluble ash-It is the part of total ash which is insoluble in dilute
hcl. Adhering matter & sand is determined by acid insoluble ash.
Example:- Drug Total Ash Acid Insoluble ash
Ginger ---- 6.0% --- 1.7%
Clove ---- 7% --- 0.75%

h) Extractive value:- It is divided into two parts:

i)Water soluble Extractive
ii)Water insoluble Extractives.

i) Water soluble Extractive: This method is applied to drugs which contain water soluble active
chemical constituents such as tannins, Carbohydrates& glycosides.
ii)Alcohol soluble Extractives: Alcohol is an ideal solvent for extraction of various
chemicals.
Ex. Alcohol, Resins, Tannins.

III. CHEMICAL EVALUTION:

In this chemical evaluation the drugs are evaluated methods and chemical tests. The following
are various methods of chemical evaluation:
a) Instrumental Methods.
b) Chemical Constants.
c) Individual Chemical Tests.
d) Instrumental Methods
f) Colorimetry for alkaloids of Solanaceae.
g) Fluorimetry for quinine and reserpine.
h) Spectrophotometry for Lobline and strychnine.
Chemical Constants: Acid Value, Iodine value and ester value are used for the
identification of fixed oils and fats.
Individual Chemical Tests: The individual chemical test given below:
i) Ergot alkaloid can be determined by Para dimethyl amino-
benzaldehyde reagent → Produces blue Colour.
ii) Gums are identified by solution of lead acetate or lead sub acetate
solution→ White precipitate
iii) Anthracene glycoside are determined by modified
Borntragers test → Pink color
iv) Carbohydrates are identified by reducing Sugar test →Red precipitate
v) Asafetida treated with H2So4 → Red color.
vi) Agar treated with ruthenium red → Pink color
vii) Solution of Gelatin treated with picric acid → Yellow color.

17 PATEL COLLEGE OF PHARMACY,RAMANAGARAM

___________________________________________________________________________

Q.25 - Discuss different methods useful in classification of crude drugs and give examples.
Write the advantages & disadvantages of different methods

Answer
The various system of classification is:
1. Alphabetical Classification
2. Taxonomical Classification
3. Morphological Classification
4. Pharmacological Classification
5. Chemical Classification
6. Chemo taxonomical Classification

1. Alphabetical Classification: The drugs are arranged according to

alphabetical order of the names in any particular language. This is the simplest form of
classification. This is adapted in the I.P, B.P.
Disadvantages:
1. It does not provide any information about the scientific nature of the
drugs.
2. It does not help ion distinguishing the drug if plant, mineral or animal
source.
3. It can’t be known whether it is Organised or unorganized.

2. Taxonomical Classification: It is the biological classification of crude drugs. Here the drug
are arranged according to the plants from which they are derived i.e. Phylum. Orders, Families,
Genus & Species.
For Example:
Phylum : Spermatophyte
Division : Angiosperm
Class : Dicot
Orders : Rosales
Family : Leguminosaea
Genus : Glycyrrhizin, Astragalus
Species : G.Glabra, A. Gummifer

Animal drugs are classified as Fish, Arthropods, mammals etc.

Advantage: It is classified based on botanical Characters.

Disadvantage: The parts of the plants cannot be identified botanically as they
may have been subjected to various processes.

3. Morphological Classification: The crude drugs are classified based on the part of the plants
like leaves, fruits, flower, woods bark, Extracts gums etc.
Parts of the Plant Drugs
Wood Quassia
Barks Cinchona
Flower bud Clove

18 PATEL COLLEGE OF PHARMACY,RAMANAGARAM

 Seeds Nuxvomica
Entire Plant Ephedra
Gum Acacia
Latex Opium

Advantages:
1. It is very useful in identifying the adulteration
2. Crude drugs from plants can be easily identified
Disadvantages:
1. It does not reflect on chemical composition of the drug

4. Pharmacological Classification: The crude drugs are classified according to the

pharmacological action of their chief constituents. The drugs with similar action are put
together.Example:
Carminatives : Coriander, Caraway
Purgatives : Senna, Rhubarb, Aloes
Cardio tonics : Digitalis, Squill.
Anthelmentic : Male ferm and Quassia

Advantages: If the Contents of the Crude drugs are not known, they can be classified
properly on the basics of therapeutics of pharmacological properties.
Disadvantages:
1. The main disadvantage is that a drug can be placed in various classes according to its
therapeutics use.Ex: cinchona can be grouped in anti-malarial and anti-arrhythmic.
2. Drug having different action but therapeutic is same are put together. Ex: Bulk purgative,
irritant purgative.

5. Chemical Classification: The method is applicable to the crude drugs containing similar
types of chemicals (or) the drugs are classified according to the chemical constituents present in
the drugs.
Example: 1. Alkaloids :Aconite, Cinchona, Belladonna
2. Glycosides : Digitalis, Senna, Squill
3. Carbohydrates : Agar, honey, Starch
4. Volatile Oil : Clove, Eucalyptus
5. Tannins : Catechu
Advantages: The drugs from animal and plant source if the posses’ similar type of constituents
is placed together.
Disadvantages: This type of classification makes no proper placement of drugs containing two
different types of chemical constituents.
___________________________________________________________________________
Q. 26 -Define and classify glycosides and explain the different tests to identify them.
Discuss the methods of isolation of glycosides
Answer
Glycosides are non-reducing organic substances which on hydrolysis give an aglycon and
glycon. The aglycon portion called as non-sugar and glycon portion known as sugar.
Classification:
i. Cardiac glycosides : Digitalis, Arjuna Bark.
ii. Anthracene Glycosides : Senna, Rhubarb.
iii. Cyanogenetic Glycosides : Bitter Almond, Wild Cherry Bark.
iv. Flavone Glycosides : Senna Leaves.
v. Saponin Glycosides : Diascorea, Shataveri.
19 PATEL COLLEGE OF PHARMACY,RAMANAGARAM
 vi. Isothiocynate Glycosides : Mustard.
Chemical Test
Baljet Test:
Glycoside + Sodium picrate reagent --- Yellow to orange Colour.
Legal Test :
Glycoside is dissolved in pyridine & sodium nitro- prusside solution make it alkaline ---- Pink or
red Colour.

Keller- Kalliani Test:

Glycoside is dissolved in glacial acetic acid & a drop of Fecl3 solution is added followed by the
addition of H2SO4 Reddish brown Colour is seen at the junction of the two liquids & upper
layer becomes bluish green.

Method of Isolation: Stas-Otto Method

Drug containing glycoside is finely powdered

Powdered is extracted by continous hot percolation, using alcohol as a solvent

During this process, various enzyme present in plant is deactivated, due to heating

The extract is treated with lead acetate to precipitate tannins

The extract is filtered, concentrated to get crude glycoside

From crude extract, pure glycoside is obtained by making use of processes like fractional
solubility, fractional crystallization and chromatographic technique
__________________________________________________________________________
Q.27- Define sutures & ligatures and explain the preparation of surgical Catgut
Answer
Sutures is a string or fiber, which is used for sewing or stitching tissues like skin, muscle and
tendon with the help of a needle.
Ligature is also a suture but it is used without a needle for tying injured blood vessels to prevent
bleeding.
Absorbable Sutures: These are absorbed and digested in the tissues of the body.
Example: Surgical Sutures, Kangaroo tendon.
Non- absorbable Sutures: They are not absorbed and remain as such in the body as
implants.
Example: Silk, Cotton, Nylon.

Preparation and Sterilization of Catgut.

 Surgical catgut is a stand or fiber prepared from intestine of sheep.
 Healthy animal is selected and slaughtered.
 The intestine is removed from the sheep and cleaned.

20 PATEL COLLEGE OF PHARMACY,RAMANAGARAM

  The intestine of sheep consists of four layers. They are
Serosa Layer, Muscular Layer, Sub Mucous Layer, Mucous Layer
 About first 7.5 meters of intestine is selected for catgut preparation.
 The Surgical catgut is prepared from the sub-mucous membrane of the
Intestine.
 The innermost layer and the outmost layers of intestine are separated out
With the help of scrapping.
 During scrapping cells are present in sub mucous membrane are arranged
regularly and have the property of tensile strength.
 Then it is split lengthwise in 2-3 ribbons. These ribbons have smooth and enough
surface.
 Smooth surface ribbons are selected for preparation catgut.

 Take 2-6ribbons are spun under tension which increases the mechanical
Strength.
 The ribbons are hardened by soaking in the solution of chromium solution and
dried.
 The hardness of the catgut is depended upon the soaking time of catgut.
 The hardening process done to delay the time of absorption catgut in body
fluids.
 The dried ribbons are then polished with the help of abrasive surface to
obtain smooth surface.
 The polishes catgut is gauged for its diameter.
 Then the catgut is sterilized and packed.
_______________________________________________________________________

Q.28 Explain the cultivation, Collection and preparation of Opium.

Answer: Botanical source: - Opium is the dried latex obtained from the unripe capsule of
Papaver somniferum belonging to the family Papaveraceae.
Cultivation:
 Opium is a narcotic drug. In India all the activities about opium & its derivatives are
controlled by Narcotic Drugs & Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985.
 So the cultivation of opium is carried out after obtaining the license from the Central
Government & also under the supervision of Central Government.
 Soil:- Loamy soil containing organic matters & Nitrogen
 Climate:- Cool weather, cloudiness & sufficient sunshine
 Temperature:- 20ºC-25ºC
 Rainfall:- 100-150 cm
 Altitude:- Sea Level valleys
 Propagation:- Seed
 Sowing of seeds is done from November to March. Before sowing, the seeds are mixed
with 3-4 parts of sand. A distance of 25 cm should be maintained between two plants.
The plants grow up to a height of 1 meter. Periodically, thinning of plants is done to get
uniform growth. Plant should be kept totally free from weeds. Fertilizers containing
nitrogen & phosphorus may be used for better yield.
 The plant should be protected from pests like cut worms, leaf minor & poppy boxer.
Collection :
 After sowing the seeds, within 3-4 months, the plant bears flowers. The flowers are
converted in to capsules within few days & attain the maturity after 15-20 days. At

21 PATEL COLLEGE OF PHARMACY,RAMANAGARAM

 maturity the Colour of the capsule changes from dark green to light green. Each plant
bears about 5-8 capsules. Latex is present in the lactiferous vessels.
 Incisions are made in the afternoon when there is no wind, rain & dew with the help of
an apparatus known as Nushtur.
 Because of incision, the latex will come out & thickened due to cold weather in night.
The dried latex is scrapped & collected in the morning by an iron scoop apparatus called
Charpala. The incision process is repeated on the same capsule for about 4 times at 4
days interval.
 The latex is collected in plastic containers & the dark liquid which is not required may be
drained off.
 The opium collected is processed at Government opium factory at Ghazipur, U.P
 Some Varieties of opium are
Indian opium: - Dark Brown Colour & Cubical form
Persian opium: - Dark brown Colour & Brick shaped
Turkish opium: - Dark brown Colour & conical, Round or fattened shape.
Chinese opium: - Dark brown Colour & fattened or oval shaped

Uses:
Used as narcotic Analgesic
Codeine is used as Anti tussives

***Good Luck***

Q.21 Define the following and write any two drugs belonging to them and write their B.S, C.C
and Uses.
a)Diuretics b)Vitamins c)Enzymes d) Antiseptics and Disinfectants e)Pharmaceutical Aids.
Q.22 Give one example for each of following and write their B.S, C.C and Uses.
a)Rhizome b)Fungus c)Kernel d)Latex e)Fruit f)Flower Bud g)Suspending Agent h)Perfuming
Agent i)Binding Agent j)Demulcent k)Colouring Agent
Q.23 Name a drug which has the following constituents and write their uses.
a)Emetine b)Glycyrrhizin c)Nicotine d)Hydnocarpic Acid e)Shatavarin f)Atropine g)Pyrethrin
h)Resinoleic Acid i)Barbaloin j)Lysergic Acid k)L-Hyoscyamine l)Eugenol m)Ajmalicine
n)Strychnine/Brucin o)D-Linalool p)Menthol q)Colchicine r)Vincristine
Q.24 Name and give C.C of the drugs belonging to the following family
a)Apocyanaceae b)Rubiaceae c)Ranunculaceae d)Rutaceae e)Leguminoceae f)Umbelliferaceae
g)Schorophulariaceae h)Lilliaceae i)Myristicaceae j)Lauraceae k)Plantaginaceae l)Loganiaceae
m)Zingeberaceae n)Papavareceae.
Q.25 Write the B.S, Family,C.C and Uses of the following:
a)Aconite b)Amla c)Sandalwood d)Shatavari e)Beeswax f)Belladona g)Colchicum h)Guggul
i)Vasaka j)Asafoetida k)Nutmeg l)Gymnema m)Tolu Balasam n)Digitalis o)Senna p)Arjuna
Bark q)Linseed r)Chaulmoogra oil s)Pyrethrum t)Nutmeg u)Ashwagandha v)Opium w)Nux
vomica x)Rauwolfia y)Liquorice z)Shankhpushpi.

(REFER FROM NOTES)

22 PATEL COLLEGE OF PHARMACY,RAMANAGARAM