MCE 552

Chapter 1
Pure Substance
A pure substance is defined as a substance having a constant and uniform chemical composition.
A homogeneous mixture of gases which do not react with one another

Ideal and Real Gases

An ideal gas is defined as a gas whose molecules are spaced far apart so that the behavior of a
molecule is not influenced by the presence of other molecules—a situation encountered at low
densities.
Real gases approximate this behavior closely when they are at a low pressure or high
temperature relative to their critical-point values

Pv = RT, the ideal-gas equation of state.

Empirical Laws Of Ideal Gases

Empirical Laws are Laws derived from investigation, observation, experimentation, or
experience, as opposed to theoretical knowledge based on logical or mathematical assumptions.
They are:
Dalton’s Law: The partial pressure of each constituent is that pressure which the gas would exert
if it occupied alone that volume occupied by the mixtures at the same temperature.
Gibbs-Dalton law: The internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy of a gaseous mixture are
respectively equal to the sums of the internal energies, enthalpies, and entropies, of the
constituents.
Amagat’s law or Leduc’s law: Thus, the volume of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the
volumes of the individual constituents when each exists alone at the pressure and temperature of
the mixture.
Mole fraction, mass fraction and volume fraction formula defined on page 1
Worked example 1 on page 1
Worked example 2 on page 2

Volumetric analysis of a Gas Mixture

Apparent molecular weight and gas constant formula defined on page 3

Specific Heats of a gas mixture

Internal energy and enthalpy defined on page 4
Worked example done on page 5 & 6, 7&8
Chapter 2
Fuel and Combustion
FUELS
Fuels are chemical substances which may be burned in oxygen to generate heat. They mainly
consist of carbon and hydrogen and sometimes a small amount of sulphur or minerals, and
May be solid, liquid, or gaseous.
 Coal and coke are examples of solid fuels.
 Petroleum oils are usually a mixture of several liquid fuels.
 Gaseous fuels may be a mixture of gases such as methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6) and so
on.
TYPES OF FUELS
Solid
Liquid
Gaseous
Nuclear

Solid Fuels
Solid fuel is a term given to various types of solid materials that provide energy. This energy is
usually released by combustion.

Coal is the most common solid fuel.

Coal is a dark brown/black sedimentary rock derived primarily from the unoxidized remains of
carbon-bearing plant tissues.
Types of coal include: Peat, Lignite, Bituminous coal, Anthracite coal.

Estimation of Composition of Solid Fuels

Composition of solid fuels can be estimated using either Proximate analysis or by Ultimate
analysis
Proximate analysis
In this type the individual constituent element such as C, H2, S, N2 etc. are not determined, only
fraction of moisture, volatile matter, ash, carbon etc. are determined. So proximate analysis is not
exact and gives only some idea about the fuel composition.
Proximate analysis of coal gives various constituents in following range, Moisture 3–30%,
Volatile matter 3–50%, Ash 2–30% and Fixed carbon 16–92%.
Ultimate analysis
The individual elements such as C, H2, N2, S and ash etc. present in the fuel are determined on
mass basis. It gives relative amounts of chemical elements constituting fuel.
In general, the percentage by mass of different elements in coal lies in the following range:
Carbon : 50 to 95%
Hydrogen : 2 to 50%
Oxygen : 2 to 40%
Nitrogen : 0.5 to 3%
Sulphur : 0.5 to 7%
Ash : 2 to 30%
Liquid Fuels
Liquid fuels are generally obtained from petroleum and its by-products. They are complex
mixture of hydrocarbons, and are obtained by refining the crude petroleum oil. Commonly used
liquid fuels are petrol, kerosene, diesel, aviation fuel, light fuel oil, heavy fuel oil etc.

Most liquid fuels are derived from fossil fuels. These can be classified according to their
volatility (the ease with which they evaporate and turn into vapor).
The most volatile fuels are gasoline and kerosene.
Ethanol produced from the fermentation of sugar is a prominent liquid fuel.

Advantages of Liquid fuel over solid fuel

(i) Better mixing of fuel and air is possible with liquid fuel.
(ii) Liquid fuels have no problem of ash formation.
(iii) Storage and handling of liquid fuels is easy compared to solid fuels.
(iv) Processing such as refining of liquid fuels is more convenient.

Gaseous fuels
These are the fuels in gaseous phase. They are also generally hydrocarbon fuels derived from
petroleum reserves available in nature.
Most common gaseous fuel is natural gas.
Gaseous fuels may also be produced artificially from burning solid fuel (coal) and water.
A mixture of methane (CH4) and ethane (C2H6) is an example of a gaseous fuel.
Some of gaseous fuels produced artificially are coal gas, producer gas etc.

Advantages of gaseous fuels

(i) The combustion of which offers more environmental friendliness over the other fossil
fuels.
(ii) It burns more readily and completely than other fuels.
(iii) Gaseous fuels are the most convenient, requiring the least amount of handling,
and are the most maintenance free.
(iv)Gas is odourless and colourless.
(v) Because gaseous fuels are in a molecular form, they are easily mixed with the air as
required for combustion, and are oxidized in less time than is required to burn other types
of fuel.

Nuclear Fuels
Fuels such as uranium or thorium that can be used in nuclear reactors as a source of electricity
are called nuclear fuels.
The energy derived during fission or fusion processes is called nuclear energy.
Examples of nuclear fuels are: 235U, 238U, and 239Pu.
Important Terms
Air fuel ratio: It refers to the ratio of amount of air in combustion reaction with the amount of
fuel. Mathematically, it can be given by the ratio of mass of air and mass of fuel.
massofair
AF 
massoffuel
Fuel-air ratio: is inverse of Air-fuel ratio. Theoretical air-fuel ratio can be estimated from
stoichiometric combustion analysis for just complete combustion.
Equivalence ratio: It is the ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to the theoretical fuel-air ratio for
complete combustion.
Lean mixture and Rich mixture: Fuel-air mixture will be called lean mixture when
equivalence ratio is less than unity while for equivalence ratio value being greater than unity the
mixture will be rich mixture.
Theoretical air: Theoretical amount of air refers to the minimum amount of air that is required
for providing sufficient oxygen for complete combustion of fuel. This theoretical air is also
called “stoichiometric air”.
Excess air: Any air supplied in excess of “theoretical air” is called excess air. Generally excess
air is 25 to 100% to ensure better and complete combustion.
Flash point: Flash point refers to that temperature at which vapour is given off from liquid fuel
at a sufficient rate to form an inflammable mixture but not at a sufficient rate to support
continuous combustion.
Fire point: refers to that temperature at which vaporization of liquid fuel is sufficient enough to
provide for continuous combustion.
Adiabatic flame temperature: Adiabatic flame temperature refers to the temperature that could
be attained by the products of combustion when the combustion reaction is carried out in limit of
adiabatic operation of combustion chamber.
 This is the maximum temperature which can be attained in a combustion chamber and is
very useful parameter for designers.
Wet and dry analysis of combustion: Combustion analysis when carried out considering water
vapour into account is called “wet analysis” while the analysis made on the assumption that
vapour is removed after condensing it, is called “dry analysis”.
Volumetric and gravimetric analysis: Combustion analysis when carried out based upon
percentage by volume of constituent reactants and products is called volumetric analysis.
Combustion analysis carried out based upon percentage by mass of reactants and products is
called gravimetric analysis.
Pour point: It refers to the lowest temperature at which liquid fuel flows under specified
conditions.
Cloud point: When some petroleum fuels are cooled, the oil assumes cloudy appearance. This is
due to paraffin wax or other solid substances separating from solution. The temperature at which
cloudy appearance is first evident is called cloud point.
Composition of air: Atmospheric air is considered to be comprising of nitrogen, oxygen and
other inert gases. For combustion calculations the air is considered to be comprising of nitrogen
and oxygen in the following proportions. Molecular weight of air is taken as 29.
• Composition of air by mass = Oxygen (23.3%) + Nitrogen (76.7%)
• Composition of air by volume = Oxygen (21%) + Nitrogen (79%)
Enthalpy of combustion: Enthalpy of combustion of fuel is defined as the difference between
the enthalpy of the products and enthalpy of reactants when complete combustion occurs at given
temperature and pressure.
  It may be given as higher heating value or lower heating value. Higher heating value
(HHV) of fuel is the enthalpy of combustion when all the water (H2O) formed during
combustion is in liquid phase.
 Lower heating value (LHV) of fuel refers to the enthalpy of combustion when all the
water (H2O) formed during combustion is in vapour form. The lower heating value will
be less than higher heating value by the amount of heat required for evaporation of water.
HHV = LHV + (Heat required for evaporation of water)
 It is also called calorific value of fuel and is defined as the number of heat units liberated
when unit mass of fuel is burnt completely in a calorimeter under given conditions.
Enthalpy of formation: Enthalpy of formation of a compound is the energy released or
absorbed when compound is formed from its elements at standard reference state.
 Enthalpy of formation will have positive (+ ve) value if formation is by an endothermic
reaction and negative (– ve) value if formation is by an exothermic reaction.
Standard Reference State: It refers to thermodynamic state at which the enthalpy datum can be
set for study of reacting systems.
 At standard reference state, zero value is assigned arbitrarily to the enthalpy of stable
elements. Generally, standard reference state is taken as 25°C and 1 atm, i.e. Tref = 25°C =
298.15 K, pref = 1 atm
Dissociation: It refers to the combustion products getting dissociated and thus absorbing some of
energy.
 Such as, the case of carbon dioxide getting formed during combustion and subsequently
getting dissociated can be explained as below,
 Combustion: C + O2 → CO2 + Heat
 Dissociation: Heat + CO2 → C + O2
 Thus generally, dissociation has inherent requirement of high temperature and heat.

CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUEL

It can be defined as the amount of heat liberated in KJ or Kcal by the complete combustion of 1
Kg of fuel at constant pressure and under ‘normal’ conditions.
It is measured either as gross calorific value or net calorific value.
• Higher calorific value (HCV) or Gross calorific value (GCV) = It is the total heat
liberated in KJ or Kcal by the complete combustion of 1 Kg of fuel.
• Lower calorific value (LCV) or Net calorific value (NCV) = It is the difference of
Higher calorific value and heat absorbed by water vapors.
LCV = (HCV – X.588.76) Kcal/Kg, Where ‘X’ is the fraction of water vapors.

Fuels should be compared based on the net calorific value.

“Bomb calorimeter” is one of the ways to get the heating value of solid and liquid fuels when
burnt at constant volume.
BOMB CALORIEMETER
Its major components are
 bomb,
 bucket,
 stirrer,
 crucible or fuel pan,
 jacket,
  thermometer etc.

GAS CALORIMETER
Gas calorimeter is used for estimating the heating value of gaseous fuels. It has burner with
arrangement to regulate and measure flow rate and pressure of gaseous fuel.
For precise estimation of heating value of gaseous fuels the procedure as specified by ASTM is
to be followed.

Heating Value of Fuels

Fossil fuels contain large quantities of chemical energy, which is released as heat during
combustion.
The amount of heat released primarily depends on:
 the type of the fuel,
 if the combustion is complete or part of the reactants do not burn, and
 whether or not any water that is formed from the combustion of hydrogen is in the liquid
or the vapor form.
The heat released during the combustion of a unit mass of fossil fuels is the lower heating value
(LHV) of the fuel. If at the end of the combustion process, the water is condensed, a higher
amount of heat is recovered, the higher heating value (HHV).
• Sometimes, the LHV is referred to as the
 heat of reaction,
 heat of combustion, and
  heat content of the fuel.
Relationship between HHV and LHV formula defined on page 10
Worked example done on page 10

COMBUSTION OF FUEL
Combustion of fuel refers to the chemical reaction that occurs between fuel and air to form
combustion products with energy release
Generic forms of combustion equation defined on page 11
HCV & LCV formulas defined on page 13

STOICHIOMETRIC AIR FUEL RATIO

The minimum amount of air required to theoretically combust a fuel completely is called
stoichiometric combustion air. During the perfect combustion process, the fuel is oxidized by the
following exothermic reactions:
 С + O2 →CO2
 2H2 +O2→ 2H2O
 S +O2→SO2
In a complete combustion the products of the combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel will be H2O and
CO2.
While in an Incomplete combustion results in products that contain H2, CO, C, and/or OH.
The following systematic method proves useful in writing chemical equation:
 Set the number of moles of fuel equal to 1.
 Balance CO2 with number of C from the fuel.
 Balance H2O with H from the fuel.
 Balance O2 from CO2 and H2O.

COMBUSTION ANALYSIS
Based on chemical reactions the mass of oxygen required per kg of element can be estimated
Mass of oxygen required for constituents;
Consider the following for example, how air required for complete burning of a fuel having
85.5% carbon, 12.3% hydrogen and 2.2% ash is calculated;
 1 kg of carbon shall require 8/3 kg of oxygen
 1 kg of hydrogen shall require 8 kg of oxygen
 Ash shall not undergo oxidation

FLUE GAS ANALYSIS

Flue gas analysis refers to the determination of composition of exhaust gases. Flue gas analysis
can be done theoretically and experimentally.
Various devices available for measuring the composition of products of combustion (flue gas)
are:
 Orsat Analyzer,
 Gas chromatograph.
 Infrared analyzer and
 Flame ionisation detector etc.
Data from these devices can be used to determine the mole fraction of flue gases
Generally this analysis is done on dry basis which may also be termed as “dry product analysis”
and it refers to describing mole fractions for all gaseous products except water vapour.

Orsat analyser
It is also called as Orsat apparatus and is used for carrying out volumetric analysis of dry
products of combustion
• It has three flasks containing different chemicals for absorption of CO2, O2 and CO
respectively and graduated eudiometer tube connected to an aspirator bottle filled with
water.
• Flask I is filled with NaOH or KOH solution (about one part of KOH and 2 parts of water
by mass).
• KOH solution absorbs CO2.
• Flask II is filled with alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid and above KOH solution.
• This solution absorbs O2.
• Flask III is filled with a solution of cuprous chloride which absorbs CO

Orsat analyzer does not give exact analysis

Worked example done on page 14
Chapter 3
Fundamentals of Power Plant
A power plant is assembly of systems or subsystems to generate electricity, i.e., power with
economy and requirements.
A power plant may be defined as a machine or assembly of equipment that generates and
delivers a flow of mechanical or electrical energy.
The major power plants, which are discussed in this course, are,
• Steam power plant
• Diesel power plant
• Gas turbine power plant
THERMAL POWER PLANT
The Steam Power Plant, Diesel Power Plant, Gas Turbine Power Plant and Nuclear Power Plants
are called THERMAL POWER PLANT
In thermal power plants, mechanical power produced by a heat engine, which transforms thermal
energy into rotational energy comes from combustion of fuel.
About 30% of all electric power is generated by use of steam turbines.
Not all thermal energy can be transformed to mechanical power, according

Classification of Thermal Power Plants

Classification by Fuel
 Nuclear Power Plants use nuclear reactor’s heat to operate a steam turbine generator
 Fossil Fuelled Power Plants may also use a steam turbine generator or in the case of
natural gas fired plants may use a combustion turbine
 Geothermal Power Plants use steam extracted from hot underground rocks
 Renewable Energy Plants may be fuelled by waste from sugar cane, municipal solid
waste, landfill methane, or other forms of biomass, use of energy from wave or tidal
motion, wind, or the energy of falling water (hydro-electric or hydel power plants).
 Solar Thermal Electric Plants use sunlight to boil water, which turns the generator
 Waste Heat from Industrial Processes is occasionally concentrated enough to use for
power generation, usually in a steam boiler and turbine.
Classification by Prime Mover
 Steam Turbine Power Plants use the dynamic pressure generated by expanding steam
to turn the blades of a turbine. Almost all large non-hydro plants use this system.
 Gas Turbine Power Plants use the dynamic pressure from flowing gases to directly
operate the turbine.
 Combined Cycle Power Plants have both a gas turbine fired by natural gas, and a steam
boiler and steam turbine which use the exhaust gas from the gas turbine to produce
electricity.
 Internal Combustion Reciprocating Engines are used to provide power for isolated
communities and are frequently used for small cogeneration plants. Hospitals, office
buildings, industrial plants and other critical facilities also use them to provide back- up
power in case of a power outage. These are usually fuelled by diesel oil, heavy oil,
natural gas and landfill gas.
 Microturbines, Stirling Engine and Internal Combustion Reciprocating Engines are
low cost solutions for using opportunity fuels, such as landfill gas , digester gas from
 water treatment plants and waste gas from oil production.
POWER DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
The history of electricity in Nigeria dates back to 1896 when electricity was first produced in
Lagos, fifteen years after its introduction in England .
The total capacity of the generators used then was 60 kW.
In 1946, the Nigerian government electricity undertaking was established under the jurisdiction
of the public works department (PWD) to take over the responsibility of electricity supply in
Lagos state.
In 1950, a central body was established by the legislative council which transferred electricity
supply and development to the care of the central body known as the Electricity Corporation of
Nigeria, ECN.
There was another body known as Niger Dams Authority (NDA) established by an act of
parliament.
The energy produced by NDA was sold to ECN for distribution and sales at utility voltages.
On first April 1972, the operation of ECN and NDA were merged in a new organization known
as National Electric Power Authority (NEPA).
The primary reasons for merging the organizations were :
 It would result in the vesting of the production and the distribution of electricity power
supply throughout the country in one organization which will assume responsibility for
the financial obligations.
 The integration of the ECN and NDA should result in the more effective utilization of
the human, financial and other resources available to the electricity supply industry
throughout the country.

Factors That Impede Electric Power Availability In Nigeria

 Burnt armoured cables, control cables, switch gears, exciters, fire out-breaks, and
explosion of current/voltage transformers and shattering of capacitor banks, etc.
 Bearing problems e.g. bearing vibration and high lubricating oil temperature.
 Generator problems (e.g. high winding temperature fault, high exhaust temperature,
combustion problems and vibration, generator field ground fault, abnormal noise, over
speed, rotor balancing and labyrinth scale problem, shaft axial position etc).
 Damaged turbine blades, inner casing problems,
 Compressor/AC problems (e.g. high compressor vibration, blade failure, low gas
pressure, hydrogen leakage, etc).
 Loss of excitation, sparking of exciter carbon brushes.
 Overhauling/Rehabilitation/installation of scrubbers and the major equipments.
Ways Forward To Sustainability of Power in Nigeria
The following factors are suggested to impact on the quality, reliability and sustainability of
electric power in Nigeria:
• Total and objective deregulation and de-bundling of PHCN, the sole provider of
electricity in Nigeria, Private ownership of the GENCOYs, TRANSCOYs, and DISCOYs
(6),
• Creating enabling environment for free-market forces to prevail in evacuation of electric
power generated; public awareness on economic pricing of electricity,
• Set in place measures that should enhance power quality and reliability, and ultimately
sustainability,
 • Perfecting the engineering, procurement and construction of gas plants so as to improve
the quality and quantity of gas available to the existing, commissioned and planned
independent thermal plants, the IPPs
• Continue to encourage greater private investors participation in the electric power sector
• Phase-out the obsolete technology for modern technology in order to reduce operational
and maintenance cost;
• Invest in capacity building by training and re-training of staff.
Review of Thermodynamics Cycles Related To Power Plants
Thermodynamics is the science of many processes involved in one form of energy being changed
into another
Laws of Thermodynamics
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics: It states that if two bodies are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third, they must also be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
• The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can’t be destroyed or created.
When one energy form is converted into another, the total amount of energy remains
constant.
• The second law of thermodynamics is the entropy law, which states that all physical
processes proceed in such a way that the availability of the energy involved decreases.
This means that no transformation of energy resource can ever be 100% efficient.
• The third law of thermodynamics is the law of unattainability of absolute zero
temperature, which says that entropy of an ideal crystal at zero degrees Kelvin is zero.
It’s unattainable because it is the lowest temperature that can possibly exist and can only
be approached but not actually reached.
Thermal power cycles
i. Steam power plants works on modified Rankine cycle in the case of steam engines
ii. In the case of I.C. Engines (Diesel Power Plant) it works on Otto cycle, diesel cycle or
dual cycle
iii. In the case of gas turbine it works on Brayton cycle,
iv. In the case of nuclear power plant it works on Einstein equation, as well as on the basic
principle of fission or fusion.
v. In the case of non-conventional energy generation it is complicated and depends upon the
type of the system viz., thermo electric or thermionic basic principles and theories.
Generation of Electrical Energy
Electric energy is the flow of electric power or charge. It is a secondary energy source, which
means that we get it from the conversion of other sources of energy, such as coal, natural gas, oil,
nuclear power, and other natural sources, which are called primary sources.
The energy sources we use to generate electricity can be renewable or non-renewable, but
electricity itself is either renewable or non-renewable.
Generation of Electricity from various Energy Resources
Conversion of one form of energy into another form of energy is essential in order to utilize the
maximum potential of energy resources.
• Figures a –d below depict various energy systems and their conversion process.
Fig. a Structure of energy systems – fossil sources

Fig. b Structure of energy systems – Nuclear fuels

Fig. c Structure of energy systems – hydro fuels

Fig. d Structure of energy systems – wind fuels

Chapter 4
Steam power plant
A Steam thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven.
• Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine, which either drives an
electrical generator or does some mechanical work.
• After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed and recycled to where it was
heated before;
• This cycle is known as the Rankine Cycle.
• Steam is the most common working fluid used in vapour power cycles because of its
many desirable characteristics, such as:
• Low cost, availability, stability at the temperature required in the plant and high enthalpy
of vaporization.
• Steam power plants are commonly referred to as coal plants, nuclear plants, or natural
gas plants, depending on the type of fuel used to supply heat to the steam.
• However, the steam goes through the same basic cycle in all of them.
• Therefore, all can be analysed in the same manner.

ESSENTIALS OF STEAM POWER PLANT EQUIPMENT

A steam power plant must have following equipment’s:
 A furnace to burn the fuel.
 Steam generator or boiler containing water. Heat generated in the furnace is utilized to
convert water to steam.
 Main power unit such as an engine or turbine to use the heat energy of steam and
perform work.
 Piping system to convey steam and water.
Main Circuits of Steam Power Plant
The flow sheet of a thermal power plant consists of the following four main circuits:
 Feed water and steam flow circuit
 Coal and ash circuit/ Solid Circuit
 Air and gas circuit
 Cooling water circuit.
Systems and components used in steam power plant
The different types of systems and components used in steam power plant are as follows:
 High pressure boiler
 Prime mover
  Condensers and cooling towers
 Coal handling system
 Ash and dust handling system
 Draught system
 Feed water purification plant
 Pumping system
 Air preheater, economizer, super heater, feed heaters.
Schematic Diagram of Steam Power Plant

STEAM TURBINE GENERATORS

The steam turbine generator is the primary power conversion component of the power plant.
The function of the steam turbine generator is to convert the thermal energy of the steam from
the steam generator to electrical energy.
Two separate components are provided: the steam turbine to convert the thermal energy to
rotating mechanical energy, and the generator to convert the mechanical energy to electrical
energy.
Typically, the turbine is directly coupled to the generator.
The purpose of turbine technology is to extract the maximum quantity of energy from the
working fluid, to convert it into useful work with maximum efficiency, by means of a plant
having maximum reliability, minimum cost, minimum supervision and minimum starting time.
OPERATING PRINCIPLES
• The operation of the steam turbine generator involves the expansion of steam through
numerous stages in the turbine, causing the turbine rotor to turn the generator rotor.
• The generator rotor is magnetized, and its rotation generates the electrical power in the
generator stator.
• High pressure steam is fed to the turbine and passes along the machine axis through
multiple rows of alternately fixed and moving blades.
• From the steam inlet port of the turbine towards the exhaust point, the blades and the
turbine cavity are progressively larger to allow for the expansion of the steam.
• The stationary blades act as nozzles in which the steam expands and emerges at an
increased speed but lower pressure.
• As the steam impacts on the moving blades it imparts some of its kinetic energy to the
 moving blades.
Types of Steam Turbine
There are two basic steam turbine types;
 impulse turbines and
 reaction turbines
Impulse Turbines
 The steam jets are directed at the turbine's bucket shaped rotor blades where the pressure
exerted by the jets causes the rotor to rotate and the velocity of the steam to reduce as it
imparts its kinetic energy to the blades.
 The blades in turn change the direction of flow of the steam however its pressure
remains constant as it passes through the rotor blades since the cross section of the
chamber between the blades is constant.
 Impulse turbines are therefore also known as constant pressure turbines.
 The next series of fixed blades reverses the direction of the steam before it passes to the
second row of moving blades.
Reaction turbines
 A turbine in which steam pressure decreases gradually while expanding through the
moving blades as well as the fixed blades is known as a reaction turbine
 It consists of a large number of stages each stage consisting of a set of fixed and moving
blades. The heat drop takes place throughout in both fixed and moving blades
 No nozzles are provided in a reaction turbine. The fixed blades act both as nozzles in
which velocity of steam increased and direct the steam to enter the ring of moving blades,
all the blades are nozzle shaped
 The steam expands while flowing over the moving blades and this gives reaction to the
moving blades. Hence the turbine is called reaction turbine
 The fixed blades are attached to the casing whereas moving blades are fixed with the
rotor
 It is also called parson’s reaction turbine
Impulse turbine is usually for high pressure stages while the reaction turbine is usually for low
pressure stages and because the pressure drops in each stage, the number of stages required in a
reaction turbine is much larger than the number of stages required in an impulse turbine of the
same capacity.
Steam Turbine Stage
In an impulse turbine a stage is a set of moving blades behind the nozzle, while in a reaction
turbine, each row of blades is called a stage. A single Curtis stage may consist of two or more
rows of moving blades
Turbine Stage Types
The expansion of the steam occurs in two types of stages:
 impulse and
 reaction.
The impulse stage can be compared to a water wheel on which a stream of water strikes the
paddles, causing the wheel to turn.
The reaction stage can be compared to a rotating sprinkler in that the jet of water from the
sprinkler causes the arms to rotate.
Impulse Stages
• An impulse stage consists of a stationary nozzle with rotating buckets or blades
 • The steam expands through the nozzle, increasing in velocity as a result of the decrease in
pressure
• The steam then strikes the rotating buckets and performs work on the rotating buckets,
which in turn decreases the steam velocity.
The impulse stages can be grouped together in
 velocity compound stages or pressure compound stages