Fotogrametri Udara – GE6225

(Genap 2020-2021)

Dipersiapkan Oleh:
Tim Dosen Kelompok Bidang Keahlian Fotogrametri
Foto Udara Dijital (CPL 7 – CPL 19)
Konten:
Pengenalan skala foto dan resolusi foto dijital terhadap tinggi terbang, pergeseran relief, dan koordinat peta.

Sasaran Indikator Capaian:

1. Ketepatan dalam memahami dan menjelaskan tentang skala dan cakupan foto udara; variasi
perubahan skala; resolusi spasial dan variasinya.
2. Ketepatan dalam memahami dan menjelaskan tentang pergeseran relief, menghitung tinggi
obyek dari pergeseran relief, dan menghitung koordinat peta dari foto udara vertikal.

Uraian:
1. Skala foto, cakupan foto, variasi perubahan skala, resolusi spasial dan GSD.
2. Perubahan relief dan tinggi obyek, koordinat peta dari foto udara vertikal.
Skala foto, cakupan foto, variasi perubahan skala,
resolusi spasial dan GSD
 Konfigurasi Kamera Udara

http://www.in.gov/indot/images/plane_4-15-11.jpg

3
1. Cameras are framing systems which aquire a
near-instantaneous ”snapshot” of an area (1),
2
of the surface.
2. Camera systems are passive optical sensors that
use a lens (2) (or system of lenses).
3. They form an image at the focal plane (3), the
plane at which an image is sharply defined.
1
 Konfigurasi Kamera Udara
Basic components of all cameras:
• Lens – to focus light on the film In aerial photography, object distances are
• Film – to record the image normally infinite, therefore most aerial
• Shutter and Aperture – to control the cameras are manufactured with their film
amount of light reaching the film plane precisely located at a fixed distance
• Body – holds the film, lens and shutter in from their lens – ”focal length” or ”camera
their correct positions constant”.
• Focal length = camera constant
• The distance from the centre of the
lens to the image plane.
• The focal length is required
forcalculating the photo scale

Exposure:
The amount of light reaching the film can
be varied by changing the diameter of the
lens opening (aperture), and/or changing
the length of time that the light is allowed
to reach the film.
 Basic Elements of a Vertical Aerial Image

Flight direction
y-axis
Format size x-axis

Fiducial mark
Fiducial center (F.C.)
Principal distance
Principal point (p.p.) = Focal length

Nadir point (n)

Flying height
Perspective center above datum (H)
 Tipe Foto Udara
Tipe-tipe foto udara berdasarkan sudut kemiringan (tilt) kamera terhadap arah gravitasi (titik nadir):
Foto udara vertical: arah pemotretan menghadap ke bawah permukaan bumi (nadir) dan sejajar dengan garis gravitasi.
Sudut tilt < 3o.
Foto udara low oblique: foto udara dengan kemiringan: 3o < tilt < 30o (atau garis cakrawala belum nampak pada foto)
Foto udara High oblique: foto udara dengan kemiringan: tilt > 30o (atau garis cakrawala (horizon) nampak pada foto)

Vertical image: Optical axis coincides with the plumb line

Arah gravitasi (plumb line)

 Foto Vertikal
• Vertical images are taken with the camera optical axis coinciding with the plumb line (True Vertical Image).
• Nearly Vertical Image: There is a tilt angle between the camera optical axis and the plumb line of +3o.
• Nadir Point (n): The intersection of the plumb (gravity) line through the perspective center with the image
plane.
• Principal Point (PP): The intersection of the normal to the image plane through the perspective center
with the image plane.
• The normal to the image plane is assumed to coincide with the optical axis.
• Principal Distance (c): The normal distance between the perspective center and the image plane (compare
with the focal length - refer to the lens equation).
• Sometimes, it is denoted as the camera constant.
• Flying Height (H): The elevation of the perspective center above the stated datum.
• X axis of the image coordinate system: The line in the image plane through opposite fiducial marks that
are almost parallel to the flight direction.
• Y axis of the image coordinate system: The line in the image plane through opposite fiducial marks that
are almost normal to the flight direction.
 Geometri Foto Udara
Bubble Level Film Type and Focal length
Clock of lens
Mask

Altimeter
(height)

Principal Point (PP) 9” (23cm)

Fiducial Marks

9” (23cm) Documentation
Geometri Foto Udara
Sistem Kordinat Foto
Fiducial mark

Principal Point of Autocollimation

(PPA) atau Principal Point (PP)

Fiducial Center
 1.Camera Coordinate System

The camera coordinate system is a 3D system with origin (0,0,0) in the

Principal Point.
Usually x’ is defined in the negative image plane to be in the flight
direction (along the base).
This is a right-handed coordinate system, so note the –c.
 Geometri Foto Udara
Kamera Udara dan Konfigurasi Pemotretan
Bidang negatif foto 3
Keterangan:
 1 dan D: Cakupan area pada
permukaan tanah saat pemotretan
2  2: Pusat Perspektif (Perspective
Centre) kamera
 3 dan d: bidang fokus / bidang foto
(negatif atau positif)
 c : Panjang fokus disebut juga
sebagai Jarak Utama (Principal
Distance), yaitu jarak tegak lurus
(orthogonal) antara bidang foto
dengan Pusat Perspektif
 H : Tinggi Terbang. Jarak antara
Pusat Perspektif dengan permukaan
1 tanah.
 W : Field of View (Sudut cakupan
kamera) . Nilainya tergantung dari
(Permukaan Tanah Datar) besaran d dan c.
 Skala dan Area Cakupan
• Skala Peta
Perbandingan antara jarak diataspeta dengan jarak sebenarnya
dilapangan.
• Skala Foto Udara
Perbandingan antara panjang fokus kamera (c) dengan tinggi terbang
pesawat dengan bidang rata-rata (H).
c
S
H
Skala ini hanya berlaku untuk foto udara vertikal dengan
daerah yang relatif datar.

Skala biasanya dinyatakan dalam nilai 1: m, misalnya 1:100, 1: 5000, dll.

Sehingga m = H / c.
m disebut sebagai faktor skala.
Semakin besar nilai m, semakin kecil skala peta.
Semakin besar nilai m, semakin luas area cakupan pada permukaan tanah
untuk foto yang sama.
 Skala dan Area Cakupan

Skala 1: 600 Skala 1: 2000 Skala 1: 6000

Skala 1: 12000 Skala 1: 35000

 Skala dan Area Cakupan
Skala Foto Udara Vertikal Diatas MSL (Datum)

Dilihat dari gambar di samping,

dari dua segitiga sebangun Lab
dan LAB, dapat dinyatakan
bahwa skala SAB adalah :
L Perspective center
ab La
S AB   Pers (2)
c AB LA

a o Juga dari segitiga sebangun LPA dan Loa,

b
H-h
La c
H  Pers (3)
LA H  h

Dengan subtitusi persamaan (3)

P kedalam Persamaan (2), yaitu :
A B
h Permukaan Tanah
Bid. Datum ab c
S AB   Pers (4)
AB H  h
 Skala dan Area Cakupan
Skala Foto Rata-rata: untuk permukaan dengan ketinggian variatif

Skala rata-rata merupakan skala pada ketinggian rata-rata medan yang

terliput oleh suatu foto udara tertentu dan dinyatakan sebagai berikut :

L
c
S rata  rata  f
H  hrata  rata a

Contoh Soal :
Misalkan titik tertinggi di medan h1,rata-
rata ketinggian medan hr, titik terendah h2 H
dalam gambar, diatas permukaan air laut
rata-rata berturut-turut sebesar 609,6 m;
457,2 m; 304,8 m. Hitunglah besarnya
skala terbesar, skala terkecil dan skala A B
rata-rata apabila tinggi terbang diatas
permukaan air laut rata-rata sebesar 3,048
km dan panjang fokus kamera sebesar
Rata-rata medan h1
152,4mm. hr
h2
 Skala dan Area Cakupan

Jawaban :

c 15,24 cm 1
S maks     1:16000
H  h1 3048  609,6 m 16000
c 15,24 cm 1
S min     1:18000
H  h1 3048  304,8 m 18000
c 15,24 cm 1
S rata  rata     1:17000
H  h1 3048  457,2 m 17000
 Skala dan Area Cakupan

Beberapa cara Lain untuk menentukan Skala Foto Udara Vertikal

Ada beberapa cara lain yang dapat digunakan dalam menentukan skala foto.
- Jika diketahui jarak mendatar (AB) antara dua buah pusat perpotongan jalan
diukur diatas tanah, serta garis tersebut tampak diatas foto udara tegak (ab).
Sehingga skalanya dapat dihitung sebagai berikut :

ab
S
AB

- Skala foto udara tegak dapat ditentukan juga apabila dapat diperoleh peta
yang meliputi daerah yang sama dengan liputan foto tersebut

jarak diatas foto

S x skala peta
jarak diatas peta
 Skala dan Area Cakupan
Contoh :
Suatu foto udara tegak hasil pemotretan diatas medan datar yang
menggunakan kamera dengan panjang fokus sebesar 6 inci (152,4
mm) pada ketinggian terbang 6.000 kaki dari atas tanah. Berapa
besarnya skala foto tersebut?

Jawab :

c 6 inci 1inci 1
S     1 : 12.000
H 6.000 kaki 1.000 kaki 12.000
2.Image Scale and it’s variations
Aerial Photographic Scale:
2.Image Scale and it’s variations
Scale Variation due to Topography:
2.Image Scale and it’s variations
Scale Variation due to Camera Tilt:
2.Image Scale and it’s variations
Scale Variation due to Camera Tilt:
 Photographic Scale (Continued)
Scale implies that one unit of distance on a photograph represents a
specific number of units of actual ground distance.
Example - a scale of 1/25,000 b´ o´ a´
Negative film
(or 1:25,000):
f
 1 mm on photograph
L (Exposure station)
represents 25 m on
f
ground H
Positive print
 1:1,000 is a larger scale (Aircraft H´ a o b
(Height
flying height)
than 1:500,000 because it above
shows ground features at terrain)
a larger, more detailed Ground
A O B
size. h (Terrain elevation)
Sea level
 Photographic Scale (Continued)
b´ o´ a´
Negative film
f
L (Exposure station)
Example 3.2, page 139: f
H
 Camera equipped with (Aircraft H´ Positive print
a o b
152-mm-focal-length lens (Height
flying height)
to take vertical above
terrain)
photograph from 2780 m
Ground
altitude. A O B
h (Terrain elevation)
 Terrain flat at elevation of Sea level
500 m.
 What is the photograph f 0.152
scale? Scale  
H  h 2780  500
1
Scale  or 1 : 15000
15000
 Photographic Scale (Concluded)
• Only case an aerial photograph can be treated as a map directly is
the case of a vertical photograph imaging uniformly flat terrain.
– Rarely the case.
– Potential geometric distortions due to tilt, scale variation, and
relief displacement.
• Failure to deal with distortions will lead to a lack of fit among
image derived and non-image derived data sources in a GIS.
• If various factors are properly addressed, extremely reliable
measurements and map products can be derived from aerial
photography.
Ground Coverage of Aerial Photographs
• Ground coverage is function of camera format size.
– 230 x 230 mm format (240 mm film) has about 17.5 times
(from (240/70)2) the ground area coverage of an image taken
with a 55 x 55 mm format (70 mm film).
• As with photo scale, ground coverage of photography is a function
of focal length and flying height above ground (H).
• For constant flying height, width of covered ground area varies
inversely with focal length.
• Photos from shorter focal length lenses have larger areas of
coverage (i.e. smaller scales) than those taken with longer focal
length lenses.
• There is a tradeoff between the ground area covered by an image
and the object detail.
 Resolusi Spasial dan GSD

Finite Field of View (FoV) merupakan sudut bukaan

lensa terhadap aperture. Besar sudut FoV diguakan
dalam menentukan besar cakupan kamera
dipermukaan tanah.

Untuk tinggi terbang yang konstan diatas permukaan

bumi yang relative datar, FoV menentukan luas cakupan
area yang terpotret dan merupakan fungsi dari panjang 𝑑
focus kamera Angular FoV = ∝= 2 tan−1
2𝑓
 Resolusi Spasial dan GSD

Resolusi adalah jumlah piksel yang terdapat pada sensor kamera (CMOS atau CCD). Untuk jumlah piksel yang sama dalam
suatu foto dijital:
• Semakin besar dimensi sensor kamera akan semakin besar ukuran sebuah pikselnya.
• Semakin besar ukuran sebuah piksel semakin besar kemampuannya untuk menangkap foton cahaya lebih banyak.
• Semakin besar ukuran sebuah piksel akan semakin jelas/tajam foto yang dihasilkan.
• Semakin besar dimensi sensor kamera akan semakin mahal kamera tersebut.
• Jumlah resolusi (megapiksel) kamera tidak menentukan ketajaman gambar yang dihasilkan.
• Resolusi kamera hanya ditentukan oleh jumlah piksel dalam fotonya dan dimensi sensor kamera.

• Ground Sampling Distance (GSD) adalah proyeksi dimensi sebuah piksel di sensor kamera pada permukaan
bumi/obyek.
• GSD tergantung dari skala foto.
• Semakin kecil nilai GSD berarti kerapatan spasialnya akan semakin tinggi.
• Semakin kecil nilai GSD akan semakin jelas kenampakan/wujud dari suatu obyek.
Resolusi Geometrik
Resolusi Geometrik= Ukuran Piksel

GSD = Ground Sample Distance,

Ukuran satu piksel pada permukaan tanah / obyek

Contoh: Foto Udara 23x23 cm, 8 bit panchromatic (Gray Values):

Resolusi Geometrik
Detection – Interpretation - Identification

An object is interpretable when its size is 20-25 times the GSD!

Resolusi Geometrik
Detection – Interpretation - Identification
Resolusi Geometrik
Detection – Interpretation - Identification

Colour images can help the interpretation to some degree.

 Resolusi Radiometric
Radiometric resolution:
Number of possible grey values
(“pixel depth”, “colour depth”).

or 12-bit (gives 4096 values).

Often 8-bit graphic (gives 256 integer values)

As a comparison, the human eye can discriminate ~ 50 shades of grey.

256 values (0-255) = 1 byte = 8 bit

Perubahan relief (relief displacement) dan tinggi
obyek
 Perbedaan Peta dengan Foto vertikal
Images have the following properties:
—Perspective projection, and
—Non-uniform scale.
Maps, on the other hand, have the following
characteristics:
—Orthogonal (parallel) projection, and
—Uniform scale.
Proyeksi Perspektif dan Orthogonal
Proyeksi Perspektif dan Orthogonal
Proyeksi Orthogonal: Proyeksi Perspektif:
 Skala Seragam  Skala Tidak Seragam
 Tidak Ada Pergeseran Relief  Ada Pergeseran Relief
Proyeksi Perspektif dan Orthogonal
Proyeksi Perspektif: Proyeksi Orthogonal:
 Skala Tidak Seragam  Skala Seragam
 Ada Pergeseran Relief  Tidak Ada Pergeseran Relief

Kenampakan Gedung Bertingkat yang dipotret dari atas secara vertikal

Perspective Versus Orthogonal Projection

Cone
Cone

Building Cylinder
Building Cylinder

Perspective Projection Orthogonal Projection

Perspective Versus Orthogonal Projection

Perspective Projection Orthogonal Projection

http://www.e-topo.com/etoposite/pages/ortho hotography.aspx
Perspective Versus Orthogonal Projection

Perspective Projection

Orthogonal Projection
Perspective Versus Orthogonal Projection

• Perspective Projection • Orthogonal Projection

http://www.swisstopo.admin.ch/internet/swisstopo/en/home/products/images.html
Relief Displacement (perubahan Relief)

• Objects not under the

principal point will lean
outward.
• As the distance from the
principal point increases,
the radial displacement
increases.
• The cooling towers closer to
the photo edge show
greater radial displacement.

(Rutgers)
 Displacement of Object Features

Cameras for aerial photography provide

instantaneous "snapshot" view of Earth
from directly overhead.
 Primary geometric distortion in
vertical aerial photographs due to
relief displacement
 Objects directly below center of
camera lens (i.e. at the nadir) will
have only their tops visible
 All other objects will appear to lean
away from the center of photo so (Relief Displacement)
that their tops and sides are visible
 Relief Displacement

• Relief Displacement exists because photos are a

perspective projection.
• Use this to determine the height of object:
h= d (H’)
r
h = height of object
d = radial distance to top of object-radial distance to
bottom of object.
r = radial distance to top of object.
H’ = height of plane above ground
2. Radial Displacement (Relief Displacement)
Relief Displacement
The shift in the photographic position of
an image point caused by the height of the
corresponding object point above or
below the datum.
From similar triangles, one gets:
da = r h A / H
Relief displacement occurs along
the radial direction from the nadir
point.
For vertical imagery over flat
horizontal terrain, the effect of relief
displacement simulates a uniform
change in the scale.
 Relief Displacement

Assumption: nadir point coincides

with the Fiducial center.
 Relief Displacement

Light pole
Relief Displacement is directly proportional to:
Relief Displacement increases with the
Radial distance from the nadir point, and radial distance
Object height above the datum.
Relief Displacement is inversely proportional to:
Flying height above the datum.
Relief displacement causes occlusion.
 Relief Displacement
Relief displacement is outward for points
whose elevations are above the datum
(diapositive). Inward displacement Outward displacement

Relief displacement is inward for

points whose elevations are below the
datum (diapositive).
Relief displacement occurs along radial
direction from the nadir point of the image.
For vertical photographs: The nadir point (n),
the principal point (PP), and the Fiducial
center (FC) are very close to each other.
Relief Displacement & Occlusion

Occluded Area
 Relief Displacement & Occlusion
Patch from the left image Patch from the right image

• Where are these patches relative to the

original images?
Impact of Variations in Terrain Elevation
• The principal point (PP) is on
ground surface directly below
the camera lens.
• The higher the elevation of an
object from the average
elevation, the farther
horizontally its image will
appear to be displaced from its
actual horizontal position away
from the PP of the photograph.
• Conversely, the lower the
elevation of an object, the more
it will be displaced toward the
principal point.
(Relief Displacement)
 Object Height Determination from Relief Displacement
Measurement

• Increase in the elevation

of a feature causes its
position to be displaced L
radially outward from the
principal point. f
• When a vertical feature is
H
photographed, the top of a´ o
the feature lies further a
d r
from photo center than
its base.
• When considering relief Datum
displacement of a vertical O
feature, datum plane A
often placed at base of h
feature. A´ R
• Flying height must be A´´ D
referenced to same
 Object Height Determination from Relief Displacement
Measurement (Continued)

• From similar triangles,

D/h=R/H L
• From scaling of photograph
d/h=r/H
f
or
h=dH/r H
a´ o
• Where a
d = relief displacement d r
r = radial distance on
photograph from PP to Datum
displaced object point O
h = height above datum of A
object point h
H = flying height above same A´ R
datum for reference h A´´ D
Object Height Determination from Relief Displacement Measurement
(Continued)
Assume relief displacement of tower at A is 2.01 mm, radial distance
from photo center to top of tower is 56.43 mm, and flying height
above
tower is 1220 m. L

The height of the tower is thus: f

H
a´ o
h = d•H / r = 2.01•1220/56.43 a
= 43.4 m d r

Datum
O
A
h
A´ R
A´´ D
 Object Height Determination from Relief
Displacement Measurement (Concluded)

Another example:

Photo relief displacement for Tank B

d = 9.5 mm
Radial distance from principal point to top of
Tank B
r = 127 mm
Flying height above terrain
H = 914 m
Height from relief displacement
d  H  9.5  914 
h    68.3 m
r  127 
(Rutgers)
Object Height Calculations
Object Height Calculations
Object Height Calculations)
Koordinat peta dari foto udara vertikal
 Digital Images captured by Digital Cameras

Ground Coordinate System:

Pixel to Image Coordinate Transformation:

Ground Coordinates from Image Coordinates