Physical Electronics A: Introduction To Quantum Mechanics

Physical Electronics A
Introduction to quantum mechanics
Mwema
University of Nairobi
August 2020
WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 1 / 52

Classical and quantum mechanics
Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

physical processes involving very short lengths or very low energy


Newtonian mechanics allows


Continuous energy distribution among particles


Continuous spatial distribution of matter e.g., tea in a teacup


Quantum mechanics treats these distributions as discrete w.r.t.


Position


Position
Energy


Position
Energy
Angular momentum, etc.

Bound electrons in an atom have discrete energy and a spatial

distribution that exhibits distinct maxima and minima


Quantum mechanics does not contradict classical mechanics


Results from both tend to converge as energy increases in the classical
limit


Results from both tend to converge as energy increases in the classical
limit
This is Bohr’s correspondence principle

Classical mechanics
Instantaneous state of a particle is completel speci…ed by

Classical mechanics

Its position, (x (t ) , y (t ) , z (t )) or (r (t ) , θ (t ) , φ (t ))

Classical mechanics

Its momentum, (px (t ) , py (t ) , pz (t )) or pr (t ) , pθ (t ) , pφ (t )

Classical mechanics

Its momentum, (px (t ) , py (t ) , pz (t )) or pr (t ) , pθ (t ) , pφ (t )
These quantities are referred to as the state variables of the particle

Classical mechanics
We consider only one spatial dimension say, x (t ), i.e., a particle with

motion constrained to the x-axis of the Cartesian coordinate system

Classical mechanics

Position and momentum are thus, x (t ) and px (t )

Classical mechanics

Position and momentum are thus, x (t ) and px (t )
For a particle of mass m, we can write,
d
px (t ) = mv (t ) = m x (t )
dt

Classical mechanics
It is also desirable to know the time evolution of the particle position
and momentum

Classical mechanics
and momentum
These are supplied by Newton’s …rst and second laws of motion

Classical mechanics
and momentum
First law: momentum of a particle is a constant in the absence of
external forces acting on the particle
d
px ( t ) = m x (t ) = const
dt

Classical mechanics
and momentum
d
dt
Second law: force acting on a particle of mass m is proportional to
the time rate of change of momentum
d d2
fx = px ( t ) = m 2 x ( t )
dt dt

Classical mechanics
and momentum
d
dt
Second law: force acting on a particle of mass m is proportional to
the time rate of change of momentum
d d2
fx = px ( t ) = m 2 x ( t )
dt dt
Newton’s second law of motion forms the basis for the introduction of
work and energy
Classical mechanics
Work done by a particle moving along the x-axis from 0 to x by

means of a force f (x ) acting on it, is de…ned as
Zx
∆
E (x ) = f (x ) dx
0

Classical mechanics

Zx
∆
E (x ) = f (x ) dx
0
If particle energy increases, the value of the integral is positive

Classical mechanics

Zx
∆
E (x ) = f (x ) dx
0

The energy of the particle can be

Classical mechanics

Zx
∆
E (x ) = f (x ) dx
0

Purely potential, U (x )

Classical mechanics

Zx
∆
E (x ) = f (x ) dx
0

Purely kinetic, Ek

Classical mechanics

Zx
∆
E (x ) = f (x ) dx
0

Purely kinetic, Ek
A combination of both kinetic and potential energy

Classical mechanics
When the total energy is purely potential, then E (x ) = U (x ) and
d
f (x ) = U (x )
dx

Classical mechanics
When the total energy is purely potential, then E (x ) = U (x ) and
d
f (x ) = U (x )
dx
For a purely kinetic total energy,
Zx
d2
E ( x ) = Ek = m x (t ) dx
dt 2
0

Classical mechanics
Now,
d2 d d d d dx dv
2
x (t ) = x (t ) = x (t ) =v
dt dt dt dx dt dt dx

Classical mechanics
Now,
d2 d d d d dx dv
2
x (t ) = x (t ) = x (t ) =v
dt dt dt dx dt dt dx
Thus, Z Z
dv 1 2 p2
E (x ) = mv dx = mvdv = mv =
dx 2 2m

Classical mechanics
If no external forces act on the particle, total energy is constant and
is the sum of kinetic and potential energy - conservation of energy
p2
E = Ek + U (x ) = + U (x )
2m

Classical mechanics
p2
E = Ek + U (x ) = + U (x )
2m
The Newtonian formulation can be expressed in the Hamiltonian
formulation based on the particle energy

Classical mechanics
p2
E = Ek + U (x ) = + U (x )
2m
The Hamiltonian function H (x, p ) is de…ned for the total particle
system energy as
p2
H (x, p ) = + U (x )
2m

Classical mechanics
p2
E = Ek + U (x ) = + U (x )
2m
The Hamiltonian function H (x, p ) is de…ned for the total particle
system energy as
p2
H (x, p ) = + U (x )
2m
Partial derivatives of the Hamiltonian function w.r.t. x and p are then
∂ d
H (x, p ) = U (x )
∂x dx
∂ p
H (x, p ) =
∂p m

Classical mechanics
From
d
p=m x (t )
dt
we have
d ∂
x (t ) = H (x, p )
dt ∂p

Classical mechanics
From
d
p=m x (t )
dt
we have
d ∂
x (t ) = H (x, p )
dt ∂p
Similarly, from
d d
f = U (x ) = p (t )
dx dt
we have
d ∂
p (t ) = H (x, p )
dt ∂x

Quantum mechanics - QM
Two important characteristics of classical mechanics


Continuous nature of particle position and momentum - particle can
assume any non-relativistic momentum and position


Deterministic nature of time dependent processes - depends only on
the initial conditions


Physical processes are however not deterministic in the mathematical
sense


Physical processes are however not deterministic in the mathematical
sense
Temperature dependence of black body radiation spectrum observed
in experiments exhibits equal intensity I (λ) (W /m2 λ) for all black
bodies at same temperature and is supported by thermodynamic
arguments

Planck’s theory of black-body radiation: A recap
Rayleigh-Jones relation based on the laws of mechanics,
electromagnetic theory and statistical thermodynamics is of the form
2π
I (λ) = kT
λ

2π
I (λ) = kT
λ
k = R/NA = 1, 38 10 23 J/K is Boltzmann constant and T is
black body absolute temperature in K

2π
I (λ) = kT
λ
This relation is valid only for long-wavelength radiation and breaks
down as λ ! 0 - the ultraviolet catastrophe

2π
I (λ) = kT
λ
This relation is valid only for long-wavelength radiation and breaks
down as λ ! 0 - the ultraviolet catastrophe
Planck’s theory postulated that oscillating atoms of a black body
radiate energy only in discrete quantities (quanta) such that
2π 2π
E = }ω, 2}ω, . . . = }c , 2}c ,...
λ λ
where h = 6, 626 10 34 Js is Planck’s constant and
h
}=
2π
Planck’s theory of black-body radiation
Planck’s formula for black body radiation is hence of the form

1
}ω 5 }ω
3 3
exp 1
(2π ) c kT
which is in agreement with experimental observations


1
}ω 5 }ω
3 3
exp 1
(2π ) c kT

The intensity peaks at wavelengths given by Wien’s law
λImax T = const = 2880 µmK


1
}ω 5 }ω
3 3
exp 1
(2π ) c kT

This predicts that the wavelength of maximum intensity shifts toward

the blue region of the spectrum with increasing temperature


1
}ω 5 }ω
3 3
exp 1
(2π ) c kT


At λImax ,
hc
Emax = = 4, 98kT
λImax


1
}ω 5 }ω
3 3
exp 1
(2π ) c kT


At λImax ,
hc
Emax = = 4, 98kT
λImax
i.e. nearly …ve times the thermal energy
Postulates of QM
QM focuses on the complex wave function Ψ (x, y , z, t ) or

Ψ (r , θ, φ, t )

Postulates of QM

Ψ (r , θ, φ, t )
We consider a one-dimensional wave function Ψ (x, t ) and its
conjugate Ψ (x, t )

Postulates of QM

Ψ (r , θ, φ, t )
These provide a concrete meaning in the macroscopic physical world

Postulates of QM

Ψ (r , θ, φ, t )
In QM, Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) is interpreted as the probability that a
particle is to be found in the interval between x and x + dx - Max
Born’s interpretation

Postulates of QM

Ψ (r , θ, φ, t )
Ψ (x, t ) is the QM description of the particle and Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t )
hence referred to as the QM window to the real world

Postulates of QM

Ψ (r , θ, φ, t )
Ψ (x, t ) is the QM description of the particle and Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t )
hence referred to as the QM window to the real world
Unlike classical mechanics based on dynamic variables, QM is based
on operators

Postulates of QM
We saw that the classical dynamic variables include the time varying

Postulates of QM
Particle position, x (t )

Postulates of QM
Particle momentum, px (t )

Postulates of QM
Particle total energy, E

Postulates of QM
In QM, dynamic variables are replaced by operators that operate on
Ψ (x, t )

Postulates of QM
In QM, dynamic variables are replaced by operators that operate on
Ψ (x, t )
QM postulates cannot be proven or deduced - these are hypotheses

that are axioms (non-provable truths) when they do not contradict
nature (experiment)

First postulate of QM
Temporal and spatial evolution of a QM particle described by a

complex wavefunction


Ψ (x, t ) describes the temporal and spatial evolution of a QM particle


Ψ (x, t ) describes the temporal and spatial evolution of a QM particle

Ψ (x, t ) is hence a QM description of a particle with one degree of
spatial freedom

Second postulate of QM
The square of the magnitude of the wavefunction is related to the

probability of locating a particle in space


Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) is the probability density function of a QM particle

and Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx is then the probability that the particle is to
be found between x and x + dx



This means that
Z∞
Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx = 1
∞



This means that
Z∞
Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx = 1
∞
i.e., the particle will be found somewhere in space



This means that
Z∞
Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx = 1
∞

When Ψ (x, t ) satis…es this integral, it is said to be a normalised wave
function



This means that
Z∞
Ψ (x, t ) Ψ (x, t ) dx = 1
∞

When Ψ (x, t ) satis…es this integral, it is said to be a normalised wave
function
Hence, this integral is called the normalisation condition

Third postulate of QM
The wavefunction and its …rst spatial derive are continuous functions
of the spatial coordinates

Ψ (x, t ) and its …rst spatial derivative are continuous functions of the
spatial coordinates in an isotropic medium

This means that
lim Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x0 , t )
x !x 0
and
∂ ∂
lim Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t ) jx =x0
x !x0 ∂x ∂x

This means that
lim Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x0 , t )
x !x 0
and
∂ ∂
lim Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t ) jx =x0
x !x0 ∂x ∂x
Hence, Ψ (x, t ) is

This means that
lim Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x0 , t )
x !x 0
and
∂ ∂
lim Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t ) jx =x0
x !x0 ∂x ∂x
Continuous and continuously di¤erentiable throughout an isotropic
medium

This means that
lim Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x0 , t )
x !x 0
and
∂ ∂
lim Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t ) jx =x0
x !x0 ∂x ∂x
Continuous and continuously di¤erentiable throughout an isotropic
medium
Single-valued and …nite throughout space, i.e., all x in the 1-D case

Fourth postulate of QM
Operators on the wavefunction replace the classical dynamic variables

Operators on the wavefunction replace the classical dynamic variables
Operators acting on Ψ (x, t ) are compared to the dynamic variables

of classical mechanics
dynamic variable classical variable QM operator

position x xop (multiply by x)
} ∂
momentum p = mv j ∂x (di¤erentiate w.r.t. x)
2
p2 1 } ∂
kinetic energy Ek = 2m 2m j ∂x
(di¤erentiate twice w.r.t. x)
potential energy U (x ) U (x ) (multiply by U (x ))
2
p2 1 } ∂ } ∂
total energy E = 2m + U (x ) 2m j ∂x + U (x ) = j ∂t

Recall the Hamiltonian equation is of the form
p2
+ U (x ) = E
2m

p2
+ U (x ) = E
2m
Thus, using the QM operators acting on Ψ (x, t ), we have
( )
1 } ∂ 2 } ∂
+ U (x ) Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t )
2m j ∂x j ∂t

p2
+ U (x ) = E
2m
( )
1 } ∂ 2 } ∂
+ U (x ) Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t )
2m j ∂x j ∂t
Or
} ∂2 } ∂
Ψ (x, t ) + U (x ) Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t )
2m ∂x 2 j ∂t
where
2
∂ ∂2
)
∂x ∂x 2
since this is an operator

p2
+ U (x ) = E
2m
( )
1 } ∂ 2 } ∂
+ U (x ) Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t )
2m j ∂x j ∂t
Or
} ∂2 } ∂
Ψ (x, t ) + U (x ) Ψ (x, t ) = Ψ (x, t )
2m ∂x 2 j ∂t
where
2
∂ ∂2
)
∂x ∂x 2
since this is an operator
This the 1-D time-dependent Schrödinger wave equation
Fifth postulate of QM
Expectation values of dynamic variables are obtained through

operations on the wavefunction


The expectation (average value or ensemble average) of a dynamic

variable u is calculated from the wave function as
Z∞
hu i = Ψ (x, t ) uop Ψ (x, t ) dx
∞
where uop is the appropriate operator of the dynamic variable u


The expectation (average value or ensemble average) of a dynamic

variable u is calculated from the wave function as
Z∞
hu i = Ψ (x, t ) uop Ψ (x, t ) dx
∞
where uop is the appropriate operator of the dynamic variable u

This allows computation of important average values of quantities
such as position, momentum, energy etc.

Applications of the …ve postulates of QM
The …ve postulates of quantum mechanics summarise the principles of

QM and have severe implications on the interpretation of macroscopic
physical processes


physical processes
QM smoothly merges with classical mechanics for macroscopic
physical processes - Bohr’s correspondence principle


physical processes
We assume Ψ (x, t ) can be separated into a spatial and time function
as Ψ (x, t ) = ψ (x ) ϕ (t ) and assume a time harmonic dependence of
the form ϕ (t ) = exp (j ωt )


physical processes
We assume Ψ (x, t ) can be separated into a spatial and time function
as Ψ (x, t ) = ψ (x ) ϕ (t ) and assume a time harmonic dependence of
the form ϕ (t ) = exp (j ωt )
Hence,
Ψ (x, t ) = ψ (x ) ϕ (t )
where ψ (x ) is a stationary function of the spatial coordinate

Thus, in the time-dependent Schrödinger equation,

} ∂2 } ∂
(ψ (x ) ϕ (t )) + U (x ) (ψ (x ) ϕ (t )) = (ψ (x ) ϕ (t ))
2m ∂x 2 j ∂t
or
} 1 d2 } 1 d
ψ (x ) + U (x ) = ϕ (t )
2m ψ (x ) dx 2 j ϕ (t ) dt

Thus, in the time-dependent Schrödinger equation,

} ∂2 } ∂
(ψ (x ) ϕ (t )) + U (x ) (ψ (x ) ϕ (t )) = (ψ (x ) ϕ (t ))
2m ∂x 2 j ∂t
or
} 1 d2 } 1 d
ψ (x ) + U (x ) = ϕ (t )
2m ψ (x ) dx 2 j ϕ (t ) dt
For this equation to hold, we must have each term equal separately to
the same constant, i.e.
d E E
ϕ (t ) = j ϕ (t ) ) ϕ (t ) = exp j t = exp ( j ωt )
dt } }
and
} d2
ψ (x ) + U (x ) ψ (x ) = E ψ (x )
2m dx 2
the time-independent or stationary Schrödinger’s equation
Suppose
Ψ (x, t ) = ψ (x ) ϕ (t ) = ψ (x ) exp (j ωt )
where
E
ω=
}

Suppose
Ψ (x, t ) = ψ (x ) ϕ (t ) = ψ (x ) exp (j ωt )
where
E
ω=
}
Let
ψ (x ) = A f1 + cos x g , jx j < π
= 0, jx j π

We determine A from the second postulate as
Z∞ Zπ
ψ (x ) ψ (x ) dx = A 2
f1 + cos x g2 dx
∞ π
Zπ 2
1 1
= A2 1 + 2 cos x + + cos 2x dx = 1
2 2
π
or r
1
A=
3π

We determine A from the second postulate as
Z∞ Zπ
ψ (x ) ψ (x ) dx = A 2
f1 + cos x g2 dx
∞ π
Zπ 2
1 1
= A2 1 + 2 cos x + + cos 2x dx = 1
2 2
π
or r
1
A=
3π
Hence
r
1
ψ (x ) = f1 + cos x g , jx j < π
3π
= 0, jx j π

The potential energy of the particle is minimum at x = 0


A particle placed in such a potential thus experiences a force that
attracts it to toward this minimum


A particle placed in such a potential thus experiences a force that
attracts it to toward this minimum
The wave function is hence localised around the position of minimum
potential energy

From the …fth postulate, the expectation of the position of the

particle is given by
Z∞
hx i = ψ (x ) x ψ (x ) dx
∞


Z∞
∞
Multiplication of ψ (x ) by x makes it an odd function of x and since

ψ (x ) is an even function, then the integrand is odd


Z∞
∞

The integral between symmetrical limits is zero and hx i = 0


Z∞
∞

The integral between symmetrical limits is zero and hx i = 0
This therefore means that the probability of …nding the particle at
x = 0 is highest for all time

The spread of the wave function about the position of maximum

probability is given by the standard deviation of the position, i.e.,
q
σ x = hx 2 i hx i2


q
σ x = hx 2 i hx i2
We have
Z∞
2 π2 5
x = ψ (x ) x 2 ψ (x ) dx =
3 2
∞


q
σ x = hx 2 i hx i2
We have
Z∞
2 π2 5
x = ψ (x ) x 2 ψ (x ) dx =
3 2
∞
Thus r
q
π2 5
σx = hx 2 i =
3 2
since hx i = 0

The expectation of particle momentum is given by

Z∞
} ∂
h px i = ψ (x ) ψ (x ) dx = 0
j ∂x
∞

The expectation of particle momentum is given by

Z∞
} ∂
h px i = ψ (x ) ψ (x ) dx = 0
j ∂x
∞
Hence, the particle has no net momentum and remains spatially

localised at the same position - consistent with a stationary wave
function

When ψ (x ) and U (x ) are known, we can write
Z∞
}2 ∂2
hEk i = ψ (x ) ψ (x ) dx
2m ∂x 2
∞
Z∞
hU (x )i = ψ (x ) U (x ) ψ (x ) dx
∞

When ψ (x ) and U (x ) are known, we can write
Z∞
}2 ∂2
hEk i = ψ (x ) ψ (x ) dx
2m ∂x 2
∞
Z∞
hU (x )i = ψ (x ) U (x ) ψ (x ) dx
∞
And
Z∞
}2 ∂2
hE i = hEk i + hU (x )i = ψ (x ) + U (x ) ψ (x ) dx
2m ∂x 2
∞

Example problem
Example (1)
The wavefunction of a quantum particle is given as
π π
ψ (x ) = A cos kx, < kx <
2 2
= 0, otherwise
where
2π
k=
λ
is the wavenumber. Determine (a) The spread of the wavefunction about
the most probable position (b) The mean square momentum of the particle

Example problem
Solution (1)
(a) We have from the second postulate,
Z
π/2k
2
A cos2 kxdx = 1
π/2k
or r
h x iπ/2k 2k
A2 =1)A=
2 π/2k π

Example problem
Solution (1)
(a) The position expectation is given by
Z
π/2k Z
π/2k
2 2 A2
hx i = A x cos kxdx = x (1 + cos 2kx ) dx
2
π/2k π/2k
2 Z π/2k
A sin 2kx sin 2kx
= x x+ x+ dx
k 2k 2k π/2k
2 π/2k
A sin 2kx x2 cos 2kx
= x x+ =0
k 2k 2 4k 4 π/2k

Example problem
Solution (1)
(a) and the mean square of position by
Z
π/2k
2 A2
x = x 2 (1 + cos 2kx ) d θ
2
π/2k
Z
A2 2 sin 2kx sin 2kx π/2k
= x x+ 2 x x+ dx
2 2k 2k π/2k
π/2k
A2 sin 2kx x2 cos 2kx
= x2 x + 2 x
2 2k 2 4k 2 π/2k
π/2k
x3 sin 2kx
+2
6 8k 2 π/2k

Example problem
Solution (1)
(a) or
π/2k
A2 x cos 2kx x3 A2 π 1 π 3
x2 = + = +
2 2k 2 3 π/2k 2 2k 3 3 2k
3 π 2 3
= 1+
2 2k 2π 2
Hence, s
π 3 3
σx = 1+
2k 2 2π 2

Example problem
Solution (1)
(b) For the mean square momentum, we have,
Z
π/2k 2
2 2 } d
h px i = A cos kx cos kxdx
j dx
π/2k
Z
π/2k
A2
= (}k )2 (1 + cos 2kx ) dx
2
π/2k
A2 π
= (}k )2 = (}k )2
2 k

Phasor representation of the wavefunction
In QM, we will encounter integrals of the form

Z∞
hu i = ψ (x ) uop ψ (x ) dx
∞


Z∞
∞
For convenience, we will use the phasor representation of the

wavefunction, ψ (x ) = A exp ( jkx )


Z∞
∞
For convenience, we will use the phasor representation of the

wavefunction, ψ (x ) = A exp ( jkx )
The instantaneous wavefunction will then be obtained as
ψ (x, t ) = Re [ψ (x ) exp (j ωt )]
or
ψ (x, t ) = Im [ψ (x ) exp (j ωt )]

The state of a quantum particle may then be described by a
wavepacket of the form
+∆k
kZ
ψ (x, t ) = Ak 0 cos ω 0 t k 0 x dk 0
k ∆k

The state of a quantum particle may then be described by a
wavepacket of the form
+∆k
kZ
ψ (x, t ) = Ak 0 cos ω 0 t k 0 x dk 0
k ∆k
This is illustrated below
1.5
LEGEND
1
red : 1 wavelet
magenta : 5 wavelets
green : 10 wavelets
yellow : 25 wavelets
0.5
Amplitude normalised to 2N
0
where N is number of wavelets
-0.5
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
x π
de Broglie matter waves
According to Einstein, a photon has a relativistic mass such that
E = mc 2

E = mc 2
With the energy of a photon given by
E = hf
then
hc
mc 2 = hf =
λ

E = mc 2
With the energy of a photon given by
E = hf
then
hc
mc 2 = hf =
λ
Or
h
mc = p =
λ
is the momentum of the photon

By analogy, de Broglie postulated that the momentum of a classical

particle of mass m moving with velocity v could also be written as
h
mv = p =
λ


h
mv = p =
λ
Or
h h
λ= =
p mv
where λ is called the de Broglie wavelength for the matter wave


h
mv = p =
λ
Or
h h
λ= =
p mv
Strictly, m is the mass of the particle at rest with a relativistic
correction


h
mv = p =
λ
Or
h h
λ= =
p mv
Strictly, m is the mass of the particle at rest with a relativistic
correction
The correction is however negligible for particles with low momentum
and …nite rest mass

Example: de Broglie matter waves
Example (2)
What is the de Broglie wavelength for an electron that has been
accelerated through a potential …eld of 100 V ?

Solution (2)
We assume the electron is moving with a velocity v << c. Thus
pn2 p
Ek = ) pn = 2mn E
2mn
The electron gains an electrostatic potential energy
17
U = qV = 1, 602 10 J

Solution (2 continued)
Hence
24 1
pn = 5, 403 10 kgms
and
h
λ= 0, 1226 nm
p
which is roughly of the same order of magnitude as the interatomic
separation in a crystal

The total energy of a classical particle of mass m moving with a

velocity v is given by the Hamiltonian
p2
E = +U
2m
where U is the potential energy in the environment in which the
particle is moving


p2
E = +U
2m
particle is moving
Hence, in general,
h
λ= p
2m (E U)


p2
E = +U
2m
particle is moving
Hence, in general,
h
λ= p
2m (E U)
The wavelength of a particle with constant total energy

(conservative) will therefore change as the particle moves through
regions with di¤erent potential energy

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
Particular pairs of observables referred to as complementary pairs

cannot be determined simultaneously to an arbitrary precision in QM


Example complementary pairs include



momentum - position



momentum - position
Energy - time, etc.

The de Broglie wave for a particle is a superposition of in…nitely many

waves of the form
2π E
Ψ (x, t ) = A sin (ωt kx ) , k = , ω = 2πf =
λ }
where Ψ (x, t ) now referred to as a wave packet

The de Broglie wave for a particle is a superposition of in…nitely many

waves of the form
2π E
Ψ (x, t ) = A sin (ωt kx ) , k = , ω = 2πf =
λ }
where Ψ (x, t ) now referred to as a wave packet
By use of Fourier integral methods, it can be shown that for wave
motion of any type
∆k 1 1
∆x = ∆x ∆
2π λ 4π
and
1
∆t∆f
4π

∆x is the spread of the wave packet in space, ∆k is the range of

reciprocal wavelength, ∆f is the range of frequencies and ∆t is a
measure of the time the wave packet requires to go past a given point
in space, i.e., the duration of observation

∆x is the spread of the wave packet in space, ∆k is the range of

reciprocal wavelength, ∆f is the range of frequencies and ∆t is a
measure of the time the wave packet requires to go past a given point
in space, i.e., the duration of observation
The ∆’s should be understood as standard deviations

From de Broglie’s relation, the wavelength of an x-directed particle is

given by
1 px
=
λ h

From de Broglie’s relation, the wavelength of an x-directed particle is

given by
1 px
=
λ h
Thus
px 1
∆x ∆
h 4π
or
}
∆x ∆px
2

From Einstein’s energy relation,

E 1
∆t∆
h 4π
or
}
∆t∆E
2

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle puts a limit on the precision with

which


which
Particle position can be determined when particle momentum is known
- particle position and its momentum cannot be determined
simultaneously


which
simultaneously
Observation time required to determine the energy with arbitrary
precision - in…nite observation time will be required for this!


which
simultaneously
Observation time required to determine the energy with arbitrary
precision - in…nite observation time will be required for this!
Suppose ∆x = 0, 1 nm, then for a free electron,
}
∆px
2∆x
or
∆px 5, 272 10 25
kgms 1

And
∆px
∆vx
mn
or
∆vx 5, 79 105 ms 1

And
∆px
∆vx
mn
or
∆vx 5, 79 105 ms 1
i.e., an error on the same order of magnitude as the electron thermal

velocity!

Physical Electronics A: Introduction To Quantum Mechanics

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Physical Electronics A: Introduction To Quantum Mechanics

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Physical Electronics A

Introduction to quantum mechanics

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 1 / 52

Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 2 / 52

Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 2 / 52

Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 2 / 52

Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 2 / 52

Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 2 / 52

Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 2 / 52

Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 2 / 52

Principles of classical or Newtonian mechanics fail in explaining

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 2 / 52

Bound electrons in an atom have discrete energy and a spatial

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 3 / 52

Bound electrons in an atom have discrete energy and a spatial

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 3 / 52

Bound electrons in an atom have discrete energy and a spatial

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 3 / 52

Bound electrons in an atom have discrete energy and a spatial

This is Bohr’s correspondence principle

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 3 / 52

Instantaneous state of a particle is completel speci…ed by

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 4 / 52

Instantaneous state of a particle is completel speci…ed by

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 4 / 52

Instantaneous state of a particle is completel speci…ed by

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 4 / 52

Instantaneous state of a particle is completel speci…ed by

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 4 / 52

We consider only one spatial dimension say, x (t ), i.e., a particle with

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 5 / 52

We consider only one spatial dimension say, x (t ), i.e., a particle with

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 5 / 52

We consider only one spatial dimension say, x (t ), i.e., a particle with

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 5 / 52

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 6 / 52

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 6 / 52

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 6 / 52

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 6 / 52

Work done by a particle moving along the x-axis from 0 to x by

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 7 / 52

Work done by a particle moving along the x-axis from 0 to x by

If particle energy increases, the value of the integral is positive

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 7 / 52

Work done by a particle moving along the x-axis from 0 to x by

If particle energy increases, the value of the integral is positive

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 7 / 52

Work done by a particle moving along the x-axis from 0 to x by

If particle energy increases, the value of the integral is positive

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 7 / 52

Work done by a particle moving along the x-axis from 0 to x by

If particle energy increases, the value of the integral is positive

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 7 / 52

Work done by a particle moving along the x-axis from 0 to x by

If particle energy increases, the value of the integral is positive

WM (UoN) Introduction to quantum mechanics 08/01 7 / 52