Engineering Failure Analysis 109 (2020) 104255

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Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

A typical super-heater tube leakage and high temperature

T
corrosion mechanism investigation in a 260 t/h circulated fluidized
boiler
⁎ ⁎
Xiaohe Xionga, Zhaomin Lva, Houzhang Tana, , Bo Weib,
a
MOE Key Laboratory of Thermo, Fluid Science and Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
b
Xinjiang University, Urumchi, China

A R T IC LE I N F O ABS TRA CT

Keywords: Aiming to explore the high temperature corrosion mechanism in a 260 t/h circulated fluidized
Sulfate corrosion boiler, a section of bursting super-heater tube was cut down and the scanning electron micro-
Tube failure scope relevant characterization analysis was conducted. Results show that the major composi-
H2S tions in the corrosion products are iron oxide such as Fe2O3, Fe3O4 and FeCr2O4 rather than
Circulated fluidized bed
sulfide, occupying a rough 70% mass ratio. The corrosion type is not typical H2S corrosion but
Layered structure
salt corrosion. The sodium sulfate and sodium chloride are both found covered on the super-
heater tube surface, but the sodium sulfate is the major corrosion culprit. Line scan results show
that the layered structure of two oxidation layers are obviously observed. The chromium is en-
riched in the inner layer with a depth of 572 μm while the iron is full of the whole oxidation layer
with a 1017 μm depth. The chromium oxide layer is compact and can diminish the corrosion rate.
The iron oxide layer is loose and porous and can supply the transfer path to the oxygen medium.
To alleviate the high temperature corrosion, thermal spay coatings, aluminized steel tube, coal
quality control etc. these measures are suggested and put forward.

1. Introduction

With the increasing stricter environmental policy going on, industry boilers including power stations, chemical plants, metallurgic
plants etc. are forced to conduct the ultra-low pollution emission reconstruction to meet strict standards. Take the electricity gen-
eration industry for instance, the dust, SO2, NOx are required to reach 5, 35,50 mg/m3 such low emission standards respectively [1].
Hence, the boilers have to keep a long term lean oxygen operation mode in main combustion area to retain the low NO emission [2].
Consequently, high temperature corrosion (HTC) occurs, the tube wall thickness is thinned and the safe operation of units is severely
threated.
According to the different corrosive medias [3], the HTC categories can be divided into gas corrosion and salt corrosion. The gas
corrosion sources are mainly H2S and HCl. Generally, H2S is the HTC culprit in the most of power station boilers in China. The sulfur
in coal is released in the form of H2S under the reducing ambience in combustion. Xu compared H2S corrosion rate in the reducing
and oxidation ambience and found the former rate (reducing) is 4.8 times of the latter (oxidation) [4]. Additionally, the corrosion rate
is almost positively proportional to the gaseous H2S concentration. If the mole ratio of CO/(CO + CO2) increases from 8% to 24%, the
concentration of gaseous H2S will increase from 200 to 700 ppm [5]. Particularly, under the ultra-low emission background, the

⁎
Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: hzt@xjtu.edu.cn (H. Tan), weiboxju@163.com (B. Wei).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2019.104255
Received 29 July 2019; Received in revised form 11 October 2019; Accepted 4 November 2019
Available online 08 November 2019
1350-6307/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Xiong, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 109 (2020) 104255

boilers in China are forced to be operated in a rather low oxygen level. The H2S is easily and largely produced especially when the
coal sulfur content is high. The gaseous H2S has strong penetration ability and can react with the oxidation layer to form iron sulfide,
which is covered outer of the iron substrate [6]. Under the action of H2S, the iron oxide undergoes a series of variation. Gao et al. [7]
observed formation of iron sulfide at high temperature in such a sequence: mackinawite → troilite → pyrrhotite → pyrite. The cor-
rosion products iron sulfides are wrapped outside the iron substrate and apt to fall off, resulting in the thinness of tubes [8]. To
improve the ambience in the vicinity of tubes, operation adjustment in furnace was applied. Xu et al. [9] conducted the air stage
combustion adjustments test in a 630 MW furnace to evaluate the H2S concentration. Ma et al. [10,11] proposed multi-hole-wall air
coupling with air-staged technology to tack with the HTC problem. Li et al. [12] suggested using a stream of airflow along the wall to
disrupt the reducing ambience. These measures are effective in short term and still need to be observed and further tested in the long
term run.
Besides hydrogen sulfide, Hydrogen chlorine is also permeable and reactive and can react with the oxidation layer. The chlorine
comes from organic and inorganic chlorides such as polyvinyl chloride and NaCl in the fuel [13]. Hence, it often occurs in municipal
refuse incinerators. In addition, the salt corrosion could also impose a threat on tubes operation. The sulfate, nitrate and chloride are
the most typical corrosion types. The past studies focused on the lab scale environment to acquire the corrosion dynamic data. Tsaur
et al. [14] studied the corrosion behavior of 310 stainless steel in different ratios of NaCl/Na2SO4 mixtures and found the most severe
corrosion takes place in the 75% NaCl mixtures. Ding et al. [15] compared three commercial alloys in molten MgCl2/KCl/NaCl
system and found Cr was dissolved preferentially than Fe and Ni to form a porous structure corrosion layer. Gomes et al. [16]
observed the AISI 316L and AISI 321H two stainless steels corrosion behavior in NaNO3/KNO3 mixtures and found that Fe2O3 and
Fe3O4 are the principal scale products. Besides that, to alleviate the HTC, coating technology is also adopted. Chatha et al. [17]
studied the Ni/Cr-coating technology and found the coated steel had better performance. To some extent, these lab scale studies are
practical and instructive to retard the HTC, but the combustion condition in a real furnace is so complex that the temperature,
corrosive mediums concentration, fuel particles dwell time etc. these vital parameters which can affect the corrosion rate are always
kept changing. To construct a same field environment in the lab is rather difficult. Based on this, to investigate the real boiler HTC
directly is more practical and meaningful. HTC could take place in water wall, super-heater and re-heater these areas. The tem-
peratures in such areas are apparently different and the corrosion mechanisms in such areas may be also different. The water wall
area HTC cases of H2S type in field furnace have ever been reported [5,18]. As far as the super-heater tube failure is concerned, the
long term over temperature run of wall surface [19,20] or illegal feed water quality [21] cases have also been reported. These reports
focused on the waterside corrosion and the fuels are the natural gas or heavy oil rather than the coal. One pronounced difference
between the coal-fired boilers and natural gas or heavy oil boilers is the ash content generated in combustion. In terms of gas, oil and
coal the three fuels, the quantity of coal ash deposition is larger after combustion, which would play a vital role in corrosion. To our
knowledge, the related study is few. Hence, it is worthwhile to investigate a super-heater tube failure of fireside coal-fired corrosion.
To enrich the HTC databases, this paper reported a 260 t/h circulated fluidized boiler suffered seriously from high temperature
sulfate corrosion and studied a section corroded tube cut down from the super-heater area. By analyzing the corrosion products
compositions and morphology, the corrosion mechanism is revealed and the anti-corrosion measures are suggested.

2. Materials and experiments

The high temperature corrosion occurred in a high pressure lower circulating ratio circulating fluidized-bed boiler, with a 260 t/h
evaporation capacity, 540 °C main steam temperature and 9.81 MPa main steam pressure parameters settings. The furnace consists of
membrane tubes and deploys the evaporating pipes, super-heaters and high temperature economizers etc. heating surfaces from the
bottom up, as the Fig. 1 shown. The 55–60% primary air is blowing in from the bottom of the ash hopper and 40–45% secondary air is
supplying in from the upper edge of ash hopper. As the flue gas flows downstream each heater surface, the temperature gradually
decreases for the heat absorption by the working substance and each inlet temperature is marked out in Fig. 1.
The sample tube was cut down from the super-heater area, with a 54.5 cm length, 32 cm diameter and 5 mm wall thickness. The
material is T91, ASME standard, with a typical character of high content of chromium, 8.0–9.5% (Table 1). Note that the chromium
has good anti-corrosion performance [22], nevertheless, the tube undergoes serious corrosion.
Fig. 2 is the whole macroscopic morphology of the corroded sample tube. Clearly can be seen a 4 cm length burst hole. The
original designed tube thickness is 5 mm while after the corrosion the least thickness is just 1.98 mm, reducing as large as 60%. The
shape of burst cite is open from inside to outside direction resulting from the super-heated steam washing out. Meanwhile, the surface
near the burst site is quite smooth, which attributes to the reaction between the super-heated steam and the iron.

3Fe + 4H2O = Fe3O4 + 4H2 (1)

Conversely, the other places away from the burst site are rather rough. Abundant of corrosion products of different colors are
covered on the tube. Roughly divided by colors, four regions can be categorized, i.e., a buff, a heliotrope, a khaki and a dark sample
respectively labeled with ①, ②, ③, ④ as the Fig. 2 shown. For concise discussion, there are other two samples labeled with ⑤, ⑥, which
was used to conduct microstructure morphology test and line scan test respectively by scanning electron microscope. Besides this,
other characterization methods such as the X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis were also conducted.

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X. Xiong, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 109 (2020) 104255

Fig. 1. The schematic diagram of the heater surface layout.

Table 1
T91 chemical composition, wt.
Material C Si Mn Cr Mo V P S

T91 0.07–0.14 0.2–0.5 0.3–0.6 8.0–9.5 0.85–1.05 0.18–0.25 ≤0.02 ≤0.01

3. Results and discussion

The Table 2 listed the specific composition of the ①–④ four samples the elements in the oxide forms by XRF.
As can be seen, the No. 1 sample major composition is CaO, SO3, Fe2O3 and SiO2, which are the typical components of the coal
ash. It implies that this buff materials come from the fly ash, which is the result of flame impingement probably. Unlike the No. 1
sample, the major composition of No. 2, 3, 4 sample is Fe2O3, occupying a near 70% mass ratio. The ferric oxide covered outer of the
tube has two sources, from the fly ash or the base iron oxidation. To judge which source is predominant, proof by contradiction
method can be used. Assuming that the ferric oxide came from the coal ash, besides Fe, large of Si, Al, Ca etc. these ash-character-
elements could also be found. Herein the sum of these ash-character-elements content is just less than 2%. Hence, the Fe2O3 herein is
not from the fly ash but from the base iron oxidation. Moreover, around 10% percent of Cr2O3 can be found in the No. 2, 3 and 4
sample, which furtherly verified the corrosion oxidation behavior of the base iron. Compared the No. 2 and 4 samples, the No. 3
sample has only 1.97% Na content which is 1/4–1/3 times compared to other two samples. However, the metal chromium and non-
mental chlorine element in No. 3 sample is far larger than that in No. 2 and 4 sample. Na is in the sulfate and chloride form which can
both impose strong HTC to the base iron. Besides that, a certain number of V2O5 and Cl is also found in the samples, which can
accelerate the corrosion rate [23–25]. Additionally, note that the sulfur content in No. 1 sample is as high as 18.2%, nearly 3 times of
that in other three samples, which also verifies that the No. 1 sample comes from the fly ash while the No. 2, 3, 4 samples are the

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Fig. 2. The corroded sample tube macroscopic morphology.

Table 2
Element composition of samples by XRF.
Sample No. CaO SO3 Fe2O3 SiO2 Na2O Al2O3 MgO K2O V2O5 Cl Cr2O3

① 22.7 18.2 14.5 14.4 11.2 8.42 6.08 1.69 – 0.91 –

② 1.16 6.6 68.7 1.56 6.14 0.75 0.44 0.94 0.38 2.25 9.5
③ 0.09 4.5 70.6 0.74 1.97 0.11 0.07 0.39 0.47 5.94 13
④ 1.43 5.9 67.5 1.26 7.95 0.60 0.35 0.97 0.35 2.9 9.14

Note: the symbol “–” means the corresponding element is not detected.

results of the base iron oxidation.

To furtherly figure out the components of the samples, XRD analysis was conducted. As shown in Fig. 3, the main diffraction peak
phases are gehlenite and magnetite in No. 1 sample. The diffraction peak phase of CaO, Na2SO4 and Al2O3 can also be found but the
diffraction intensity is lower. As for the No. 2, 3 and 4 sample, the main diffraction peak phases are composed of Fe2O3, Fe3O4 and
FeCr2O4. The formation of Fe2O3 and Fe3O4 attribute to the oxidation of base iron. The source of FeCr2O4 can be from the reaction:

FeO + Cr2O3 = FeCr2O4 (2)

Besides, the NaCl are also detected in the No. 2 and 4 sample although the diffraction intensity is not apparent. Meanwhile, it is
noticed that the baseline of the XRD results are rather irregular, especially in the No. 1 and No. 3 samples, which implies the samples
contain much glass phase materials such as amorphous silicon dioxide which cannot be recognized by XRD.
Fig. 4 are morphologies from different sampling areas of the outer surface tube. A small piece was cut down from the burst site,
naming the sample No. 5. To differentiate, several typical areas marked with digit 1, 2, 3. A regular tetragonal crystal marked with
digit 1 with a length less than 10 μm is the NaCl. The EDS analysis (right figure) shows that the element Na and Cl is the major
element. The small ball marked with digit 2 is the hollow microsphere [26,27]. It is the mineral from coal ash experiencing high
temperature fusion during combustion and presents a sphere character resulting from the surface tension. The area labeled with digit
3 is the ferric oxide. The element composition can be referred the Fig. 6.
The Fig. 5 shows that the large amount of lamellar materials covered on the surface. EDS results show that the first three largest
elements are S, Na and O. The sodium was released in four types of modes in coal: soluble salts (e.g., NaCl), an organic state (e.g.,
carboxylate), acid-soluble inorganic species and insoluble silicate or aluminosilicate (e.g., Na-Al-Si) [28]. Under the existence of SO2,
the NaCl can be furtherly oxidized into Na2SO4 by the reaction [29]:

2NaCl(g) + H2O(g) + SO2(g) + 1/2O2(g) = Na2SO4(g) + 2HCl(g) (3)

Fig. 6 is the macroscopic morphology of iron oxides from sample No. 3. The sample surface is rather rough and irregular, which is
the results of oxidation and corrosion action. The first two largest element content is Fe and O. Combined with the above XRD
analysis, Fe2O3, Fe3O4 and FeCr2O4 are the main compositions.
To figure out the depth of corrosion layer, the line scan analysis was conducted. As the Fig. 7 shown, the two shadow areas are

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X. Xiong, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 109 (2020) 104255

Fig. 3. Composition analysis of ① – ④ samples by XRD.

Fig. 4. Morphology of sample No. 5.

iron base and resin respectively. In the middle is the oxidation layer, in which chromium oxide and iron oxide two layers can be
identified obviously. The chromium oxide depth is just 572 μm while the iron oxide is full of the whole oxidation layer, 1017 μm,
indicating the chromium element is enriched in the inner layer. Chromium oxide Cr2O3 is compact, protective and can reduce the
oxygen penetration rate. The mechanism of oxide separation phenomenon is not unified. A possible explanation attributes this to the
different outward diffusion rate between chromium and iron element. The outward diffusion rate of iron is much higher than that of
chromium.
Additionally, the iron base can be oxidized into iron oxide including FeO as long as the temperature is enough high. When
chromium content is not high, the chromium can be dissolved in the FeO [30]. As the chromium content increasing, the chromium
would be liberated in the form of Cr2O3. The Cr2O3 can further reacted with FeO to produce FeCr2O4 as the above XRD results
detected. Hence, an inside chromium oxide layer and an outer iron oxide layer is shaped.

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X. Xiong, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 109 (2020) 104255

Fig. 5. Na2SO4 morphology of the sample No. 3.

Fig. 6. Morphology of the sample No. 3.

Fig. 7. The line scan results of the samples No. 6.

4. Corrosion type and mechanism

As the aforementioned discussion mentioned, the most common cases of sulfur induced HTC in the coal burned furnace is the
gaseous H2S corrosion, the typical character is large amount of S element can be found in the corrosion products, which can be
identified by the line scan of electroscope [18]. From the Fig. 7, not very much sulfur is found. Hence, the boiler corrosion in this
paper is not the H2S corrosion. To further portray the detailed corrosion process, several possible corrosion factors were given out as
below.
Figure 8 displayed a whole corrosion process. The base iron was first oxidized when encountering the oxygen. A thin oxide layer

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Fig. 8. The schematic diagram of high temperature corrosion process.

of FexOy was formed outer the base iron. The temperature 570 °C is a critical point. Above this value, the oxide layer consists of FeO,
Fe3O4 and Fe2O3 with a layered structure. Below 570 °C, the oxide layer only consists of Fe3O4 and Fe2O3 [31]. The flue gas
temperature in sample tube area was from the 609 to 720 °C, which can shape the above three iron oxides. To judge the capability of
anti-oxidation, according to the metal oxidation theory [30], the pilling-bed-worth ratio (PBR) index can be used. In general, the PBR
value ranging between 1 and 2 means good performance of anti-oxidation. Below or surpass this range means the excessive stress
existence. In such circumstance, the protection function of the oxide film become invalid. The PBR value of FeO, Fe3O4 and Fe2O3 are
1.72, 2.1 and 2.14. Therefore, the FeO film is usually dense and compact and prevent the iron base from corrosion. Such effect of the
Fe3O4 and Fe2O3 is not as well as that of FeO. Moreover, the Fe2O3 is porous and conductive to accelerate the corrosion.
After the iron base is oxidized, the next step is the condensation of sodium sulfate Na2SO4, which has a low fusion point of 884 °C.
The Fig. 5 has already verified the existence of Na2SO4 clearly. The high temperature flue gas encountered the lower temperature
tube surface, the gaseous Na2SO4 was condensed. Meanwhile, with the flue gas flowing downstream, the fly ashes impinged and
sticked to the tube surface. After a certain time operation, the fly ash layer was shaped and a heat resistance was formed naturally
between the saturated water in the tube and the scorching flame center in furnace. Hence, the heat cannot be assimilated by the
saturated water, causing the fly ash layer temperature increasing and the following reaction proceeding.

3Na2SO4 + Fe2O3 + 3SO3 = 2Na3Fe(SO4)3 (4)

Meanwhile, another source of the sodium iron sulfate is from the reaction between the sodium sulfate and ferric iron:

3Na2S2O7 + Fe2O3 = 2Na3Fe(SO4)3 (5)

As the temperature going up, the Na3Fe(SO4)3 turns fused and reacts with the base iron. Under the oxidation atmosphere, the FeS
is further oxidized into Fe3O4. That’s why such amount of iron oxide can be found in the corrosion products in the line-scan results.

10Fe + 2Na3Fe(SO4)3 = 3Fe3O4 + 3FeS + 3Na2SO4 (6)

3FeS + 5O2 = Fe3O4 + 3SO2 (7)

When the iron base is broken, the corrosion products are porous and loosen and have a tendency of falling off in stress change
condition, such as a temperature surge rise or drop, fly ash accumulation etc.
When the corrosion products fall off, the naked iron base is exposed to the flue gas again. The corrosion action circulation is
repeated and the wall thickness of the tube is kept on thinning.
Note that a certain number of V2O5 in the corrosion products is existed, which can also facilitate the corrosion reaction despite the
content is low. First, the V2O5 can catalyze the SO2 into SO3 by the following reactions:

V2O5 + SO2 = V2O4 + SO3 (8)

2SO2 + O2 + V2O4 = 2VOSO4 (9)

2VOSO4 = V2O5 + SO2 + SO3 (10)

The gaseous SO3 can penetrate the fly ash layer to react with Fe2O3:

Fe2O3 + SO3 = Fe2(SO4)3 (11)

The product Fe2(SO4)3 is quite loose, increasing the possibilities of falling off from the tubes.
Finally, the NaCl would also impose corrosion threat to the tubes. NaCl has a relative low fusion point, 801 °C and exists as a state
of the gas phase in the hot flue gas. Under the oxidation atmosphere, the NaCl can react with the Fe2O3 to release Cl2. The Cl2 is rather
corrosive and can penetrate the oxide layer to react with the iron base. Then the gaseous product FeCl2 can be further oxidized when
migrating outward. The released Cl2 begins a new corrosion circulation toward the iron base. The specific process can be depicted by
the following reaction equations.

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X. Xiong, et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 109 (2020) 104255

Fig. 9. The hypothetical phase diagram of the NaCl–Na2SO4 system [33].

2Fe + 2O2 + 2NaCl(s) = 2NaFeO2 + Cl2 (12)

2Fe + 2O2 + 2NaCl(s) = Fe2O3 + Na2O + Cl2 (13)

4Fe2O3 + 4NaCl(s) + O2 = 2Na2Fe4O7 + 2Cl2 (14)

Fe + Cl2 = FeCl2(g) (15)

3FeCl2(g) + 2O2 = Fe3O4 + 3Cl2 (16)

4FeCl2(g) + 3O2 = 2Fe2O3 + 4Cl2 (17)

In addition, the existence of NaCl can form low-melting-point eutectic mixture with Na2SO4 and the lowest fusion point can reach
as low as 628 °C. If the deposition salt covered outer the tube surface is molten, the corrosion rate will be enhanced [32]. The Fig. 9
gives out the hypothetical phase diagram of the NaCl-Na2SO4 system and the flue gas temperature corresponds to the inlet and outlet
of each heater surface. In each heat-absorbing surface, the flue gas temperature reduction ranged from 32 to 111 °C. This corroded
tube was cut down from the primary super heater area, in which the inlet and outlet flue gas temperature was 720 and 609 °C. In this
temperature range, the single phase NaCl or Na2SO4 is solid phase but the NaCl-Na2SO4 eutectic mixture can be molten state and can
boost the corrosion. On the whole, the predominant corrosion in this boiler is sulfate corrosion. The chlorine and the vanadium
corrosion is auxiliary and play a less important role for the little content is found in the line scan results.
To prevent or mitigate the high temperature corrosion in boiler, several measures can be adopted. The primary option is reducing
the coal sulfur content if possible. This can effectively control the total sulfur content supplying into the furnace. Admittedly, the coal
market fluctuates largely which makes the electric enterprises could not afford lower-sulfur coal. Hence, coal additives such as MgO,
kaoline these basic oxides which can prevent the sulfur from transforming into gaseous H2S is another choice for the those less
profitable plants. Besides that, coal fineness reduction, combustion adjustment can also work to some extent. These measures all are
derived from the sulfur control and the advantage is the flexible adjustment according to the specific circumstance in different
boilers. Last but not least, extensive use of heat resistant steel such as HR3C, Super 304, also have good performance of anti-corrosion
effect. Moreover, based on this, combining with spray coating technology, the tube life span can be prolonged in harsh furnace
condition.

5. Conclusions

A high temperature corrosion case in super-heater areas of a circulated fluidized-bed boiler was investigated. The corrosion is of
typical sulfate category. The corrosion products covered on the super-heater tube surface mainly are Fe2O3, Fe3O4 and FeCr2O4.
Besides, the salt Na2SO4 and NaCl were also found in the corrosion products. Na2SO4 was found to cover a large layered area which
was the typical gaseous salt deposition character while the NaCl was just found to be a regular crystal shape in the single particle
form. The predominant corrosion is Na2SO4 corrosion. Line scan results show that the chromium is enriched in the inner layer. The
oxide layer covered outside the iron base are mainly iron oxides and chromium oxides. The chromium oxides are just in the inner
layer with a depth of 572 μm while the iron oxides are full of the whole oxide layer with 1017 μm depth. The Cr2O3 layer is rather
compact and can reduce the opportunity of oxygen penetration into the iron base. Several measures such as thermal spay coatings,
aluminized steel tube, coal quality control etc. are suggested to alleviate the high temperature corrosion.

Acknowledgement

This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Plan of China (No. 2018YFB0604203).

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Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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