International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603

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International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhmt

Review

Recent advancements in impedance of fouling resistance and particulate

depositions in heat exchangers
Muhammad Awais, Arafat A. Bhuiyan ⇑
Department of Mechanical and Chemical Engineering, Islamic University of Technology (IUT), Board Bazar, Gazipur-1704, Dhaka, Bangladesh

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Mitigation of fouling and particulate deposition in heat exchangers is the foremost concern of this critical
Received 10 May 2019 review study. Formation of vindictive scale, sludge and fouling layers on heat transfer surfaces have sev-
Received in revised form 1 July 2019 ere influence on thermo-hydraulic performance and overall efficiency of heat exchangers. Fouling on gas
Accepted 2 July 2019
or liquid side prevent heat transfer from bulk fluid to the solid surfaces resulting lower thermal perfor-
mance of heat exchangers. Furthermore, fouling layers on heat transfer surfaces induce blockage to the
fluid flow and hence increase pumping power by amplifying pressure drop. The use of various system
Keywords:
operating variables in controlling fouling and particulate deposition is comprehensively discussed. The
Metabolism
Catalytic materials
influence of flow rate or velocity, temperature, concentration, material surfaces and other miscellaneous
Fouling factors on reduction of fouling and particle deposition is extensively investigated. It was concluded that
Autoxidation higher flow velocity induces strong shear force across heat transfer surface which in results eradicate
Projectile injections deposits and reduces the fouling resistance at the expense of higher pressure drop. The enhancement
in fouling concentration leads to the higher fouling resistance and materials with lower thermal conduc-
tivity yield inferior fouling resistance. To conclude, this review study will be exceedingly useful for
designers to design heat exchangers with higher overall efficiency under the influence of fouling.
Ó 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
1.1. Initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
1.2. Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
1.3. Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
1.4. Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
1.5. Ageing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
2. Experimental framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
3. Classification of fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
3.1. Particulate fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
3.2. Crystallization fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
3.3. Corrosion fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
3.4. Biological fouling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
3.5. Chemical reaction fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
3.6. Solidification fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
3.7. Combine fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
4. Cleaning of heat exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
4.1. Online cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
4.2. Offline cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
5. The influence of system operating variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
5.1. Impact of mass flow rate and velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
5.2. Impact of inlet temperature variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: arafat@iut-dhaka.edu (A.A. Bhuiyan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2019.07.011
0017-9310/Ó 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603 581

Nomenclature

Rft fouling thermal resistance Abbreviations

tf fouling layer thickness EGR exhaust gas recirculation
f fanning friction factor BPHX brazed plate heat exchanger
L length of the tube PHX plate heat exchanger
di inner tube diameter TTHX tube in tube heat exchanger
q fluid density HVAC Heat, ventilation, air-conditioning system
u fluid flow velocity N Newton
dc cleaned tube diameter MWNCT Multi-wall carbon nanotube
df fouled tube diameter IB Iron bacteria
k thermal conductivity SFB slime forming bacteria
md local deposition flux Cu Cooper
hD convective mass transfer Ni Nickle
SL Longitudinal tube pitch Al Aluminum
ST Transverse tube pitch

5.3. Effect of material surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594

5.4. Influence of various miscellaneous factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
6. Concluding remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601

1. Introduction Fouling factor (Rf) imparts crucial role in determining the influ-
ence of fouling rate on thermal performance of heat exchanger. Eq.
Thermo-hydraulic performance of heat exchangers can signifi- (2) represent the mathematical relation between fouling factor and
cantly be improved by implementing various innovative tech- fouling thickness for flat plate, while Eq. (3) elucidate the mathe-
niques such as modifying the heat transfer surfaces by making matical relation between fouling factor and cleaned and fouled
them corrugated, using different types, pattern, and shape of tubes, tube diameters.
incorporating different types and patterns of fins to reduce air side
Rf ¼ tf =kf ð2Þ
thermal resistance, using nano-fluid as a cooling medium, vibrat-
ing heat transfer surface by means of low frequency vibration
and using swirl flow devices, etc. [1–4]. However, thermal and Rf ¼ lnðdc =df Þ=2kf ð3Þ
pressure drop performance of heat exchangers is severely influ- The dependency of fouling on various operating system vari-
enced by the presence of fouling, corrosion, and erosion on heat ables increases its complexity. The fundamental process of fouling
transfer surface which in results demand prominent attention. is classified into following major steps [5].
Fouling is defined as accumulation of unwanted or undesirable
deposits on heat transfer surface. In general, it refers to the collec-
1.1. Initiation
tion and growth of detrimental materials on heat transfer surface,
which significantly declines its thermal performance. Fouling pro-
The incubation or induction period signifies that surface is
cess incorporate various heat, mass and energy transfer phe-
being conditioned for fouling that will take place later, as definite
nomenon involved with heat exchanger operations. Enhanced
time period is essential before any fouling is logged after the start-
thermo-hydraulic performance and augmented heat transfer char-
up of clean heat exchanger. The induction period is influenced by
acteristics of heat exchangers at the expense of low pressure drop
various parameters such as surface temperature and energy, coat-
certainly possesses quite prominent and significant importance in
ing, roughness and finish. In case of chemical reaction fouling the
almost every sector of industries such as refrigeration, power,
inverse relation is found between incubation period and tempera-
automotive, aerospace, process and cryogenic, waste gas heat
ture. In case of crystallization fouling this period decreases as the
recovery, seawater applications, technical applications, petro-
fouling solution gets more supersaturated.
chemical industries and vegetable oil refinery etc. The formation
of fouling layer on heat transfer surface results in preventing heat
1.2. Transport
transfer from liquid to solid surface by acting as an insulator. Fur-
thermore, this insulation narrows the flow area results in increased
In this stage of fouling particles are transported to heat transfer
flow velocity at a given volumetric flow rate which in conse-
surface by sedimentation, diffusion and thermophoresis. Transport
quences increases the pressure drop and pumping power as shown
by diffusion depicts reliance on properties (fouling species, oxygen
in equation1. For single phase flow frictional pressure drop can be
or reactant concentration) of bulk fluid Cb and fluid adjacent to the
calculated as using Eq. (1). The growth of fouling layer inside tubu-
heat transfer surface Cs, represented by Eq. (4).
lar surface decreases the inside diameter and increases the outside
diameter. The dependency of pressure drops on inside diameter of md ¼ hD ðCb  Cs Þ ð4Þ
tube is quite evident from Eq. (1), even small reduction in tubes
inside diameter yield significant amount of pressure drop. where md represent local deposition flux and hD convective mass

transfer coefficient which is obtained from Sherwood number
DP ¼ 4f ðL=di Þ qu =2 2
ð1Þ (Sh = hDd/D). Sedimentation refers to the particulate deposition on
582 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603
surface due to the effect of gravity while thermophoresis elucidates
movement of small particles when temperature gradient is exited.
1.3. Deposition
Attachment is the third stage of fouling process, here trans-
ported species attached to the surface. This stage is strictly depen-
dent on rate of diffusion-mass driven to the surface and rate of
chemical reaction at the surface [6].
1.4. Removal
After deposition process some particles remain attached to the
heat transfer surface while other gets carried away with fluid flow.
The rate of removal depends on deposition rate. However, flow
velocity and inlet temperature prominently influence the deposi-
tion rate. As fluid velocity increases shear force increases too which
in result remove deposited particles. When the rate of deposition
and removal becomes equivalent, then stabilizing period is
attained and asymptotic curve is acquired [7].
1.5. Ageing
This is the very last stage of fouling, once the particles are
deposited on surface it undergoes an ageing process via chemical
or physical changes, which may either strengthen or weaken the
deposit.
Fouling formation on heat transfer surface is not just detrimen-
tal to thermo-hydraulic performance of heat exchanger but it also
introduces additional cost factors such as (i) enhanced mainte-
nance and additional operating cost (ii) increased capital invest-
ment (iii) loss of production (iv) energy losses (v) remedial
actions expenditures. The growth of fouling layers in tubes of heat
exchangers increases with passage of operational time which in
result requires often cleaning actions. Both offline and online
cleaning requires significant amount of time and investment to
eradicate the destructive fouling layers and corrosion in heat
exchangers. Capital investment/cost increases when severe and
difficult fouling is tackled in particular (which requires offline
cleaning process) heat exchanger. In that specific case complete
shutdown is required which reduces the production volume, tubes
need to be dismantled and sufficient space is required for their
placement and cleaning purpose which in result requires substan-
tial amount of machinery cost and manpower. In order to maintain
the production volume a standby heat exchanger need to be
installed with all associated pipe work and foundations. So that
one heat exchanger is operating and fulfilling the desired industrial
demands while other heat exchanger is being cleaned. In that par-
ticular case investment cost gets doubled and considerably influ-
ence the payback period. The sole objective of heat exchanger is
to transform heat between two streams. The presence of fouling
and corrosion on heat transfer surfaces tends to undermine this
crucial purpose and in result degrades the overall heat transfer effi-
ciency which needs reimbursement in some way in process. To
compensate the reduced efficiency more primary fuel is needed
such as coal, oil or gas to facilitate more heat transfer by dominat-
ing the fouling and corrosion. The enhancement in flow velocity
due to fouling intensify pressure drop and increase pumping
power, hence higher inlet pressure can damage joints and associ-
ated pump can suffer from heavier load. Hence additional cost is
required to replace joints and pump to avoid leakage of toxic and
flammable substances.
Fig. 1 insinuates different stages of fouling process such as imi-
tation, growth and finally asymptotic behavior. At the initial stage,
there is no accumulation of deposits or scale on heat transfer sur-
face which makes fouling layer growth sluggish e.g. in case of crys-
Fig. 1. Stages of particulate fouling [10].
tallization fouling the formation of crystals and deposition hasn’t
started yet. While after certain period of time when fouling solu-
tion keep flowing over heat transfer surface then impurities tends
to accumulate following the fouling mechanism as described
above. However, in case of particulate fouling particles growth
increases on heat transfer surface due to thermophoresis mecha-
nism. Which implies that because of temperature gradient differ-
ence between flue gases and heat exchanger surface, particles in
flue gases experience a downward force toward cooler part of
the surface. Which in results increases the transport of particles
from bulk fluid to surface hence fouling layer growth starts
enhancing with time interval. At this point rate of particles deposi-
tion is higher than the rate of removal as velocities with which par-
ticles arrive on heat exchanger surface due to thermophoresis are
low. However, particles transported to the surface due to inertia
possess relatively high velocity which makes them to collide and
finally bounce off of the heat transfer surface [8]. Furthermore,
constant growth of fouling layer increases the thermal resistance
which in results disrupts the temperature gradient present
between gases and surface. The disruption in temperature gradient
increases the surface temperature which makes fouling layer sin-
ters. This sintering of fouling layer lead to the asymptotic behavior
i.e. rate of particles deposition becomes equal to the rate of
removal depicted by horizontal line. The reduction of asymptotic
fouling resistance has significant impact on enhanced heat transfer
and pressure drop performance of heat exchangers and asymptotic
time is inversely proportional to the square of the initial flow
velocity [9].
Particulate deposition occurs in both liquid and gas system.
Cooling water taken from river or lake is responsible for particle
deposition on heat transfer surface. These particles deposit on
the surface in the form of slit or decomposing organic matter.
Brownian motion defines the particles transportation from bulk
fluid to the heat transfer surface in laminar regions. While in case
of turbulent motion, eddy diffusion is responsible for particles
transportation to laminar sub-layer region [11]. Particles motion
varies in fluid flow depending upon their sizes. Small particles fol-
low the flow lines in a flowing fluid across heat transfer surfaces
and flow across the hydraulic boundary layer based on Brownian
motion. While particles with larger diameter possess sufficient
energy to travel across the viscous sub-layers. Apart from the
motion of particles depending on their variable sizes, temperature
gradient (thermophoresis) between heat transfer surface and bulk
fluid also impart crucial role in their flow direction. This effect is
mostly responsible for inducing fouling in gas system due to the
presence of large temperature gradient.
Thermo-hydraulic performance of heat exchanger is greatly
influenced by severe fouling and particulate deposition which
 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603
coerced researchers to extensively investigate fouling causes and
find appropriate resolutions to mitigate this problem. Since then
lot of researchers have focused their intention on retardation of
fouling and particle deposition and proposed various weighty tech-
niques to augment thermal performance of heat exchanger at the
expense of moderate pressure drop. As extermination of fouling
not only yield greater productivity and heat transfer rate but also
deliver avoidance in terms of enormous financial losses. An exper-
imental study in Ref. [12] developed fouling measurement system
(FMS) to acknowledge the specific roots and causes of fouling in
enhanced tubes surfaces. In Ref. [13] thermo-hydraulic perfor-
mance of brazed plate heat exchanger (BPHX) and tube in tube
heat exchanger (TTHX) was experimentally investigated in the
presence of same fouling operating condition. It was acknowledged
that corrugated plates of BPHX significantly influence the flow
velocity and turbulence intensity inside the HX. The different cor-
rugation angles of BPHX distinguished its performance in the pres-
ence of fouling from TTHX. In Ref. [14] an experimental study also
investigated the performance of BPHX under fouling considera-
tions. The experimental and flow visualization study in Ref. [15]
investigated the transition of single phase to two phase flow i.e.
convective heat transfer into sub-cooled flow boiling. This study
discerned that crystallization fouling in heat exchanger can notice-
ably increase surface temperature (above boiling point of fouling
solution) resulting formation of steam bubbles in fouling solution.
The manifestation of salt concentrations underneath steam bub-
bles can strengthen particulate deposition and hence fouling rate.
The numerical study in Refs. [16,17] evaluated the effect of fouling
on thermal performance of plate heat exchangers. The influence of
growth rate of fouling on heat pumps performance was experi-
mentally investigated and fouling model was developed [18]. The
mitigation of calcium carbonate fouling in heat exchangers trough
plasma spark discharge was elucidated [19]. Crystallization and
chemical fouling of smooth and rough pipes with different materi-
als (brass, cooper, aluminum and stainless steel) were experimen-
tally investigated [20]. Furthermore, influence of pulp fibers on
fouling performance was examined. It was discovered that materi-
als with higher thermal conductivity prone to advanced fouling
rate. The experimental and numerical study [21] assessed the crys-
tallization fouling of micro channel heat exchanger. It was deter-
mined that supersaturated calcium carbonate fouling
significantly degrade the thermal performance of micro channel
heat exchanger and suggested that modified micro channel heat
exchanger needs to be constructed that could bear moderate
amount of deposits and yield lower pressure drop. In case of parti-
cles deposition, particles velocity criteria need to be understood.
The larger hydraulic diameter and height to pitch ratio of PHE
tends to yield noteworthy antifouling performance against com-
posite fouling [22]. In Ref. [23] an experimental and numerical
study was investigated and comparison was made to demonstrate
the impact of precipitation and particulate fouling in corrugated
plate heat exchangers. It was concluded that greater corrugated
plate angle, smallest corrugation pitch and higher fluid flow veloc-
ity impart significant role in minimizing the fouling effect. The
comprehensive experimental investigation reduced the fouling
resistance of typical shell and tube heat exchanger by incorporat-
ing the parallel helical coils [24]. The experimental study [25] also
investigated the air side performance of room-air conditioner
under particulate fouling. A parametric study [26] demonstrated
the critical velocity effect during particulate deposition on flat
plate. In ref [27] a parametric study concluded that particles with
higher diameter and density enhance fouling in tubes while higher
flow velocity is recommended for fouling prevention at the
expense of higher pressure drop. The experimental study in Refs.
[28,29] showed the influence of dust particles deposition on fins
of micro channel and plate-fin heat exchanger to demonstrate
583
thermo-hydraulic performances. The sedimentation process
involves gravity influence for particles deposition, regarding this
matter particles flow direction needs to be fathomed and properly
comprehended. In Ref. [30] a numerical and experimental study
was conducted to acknowledge the influence of inner tubes fouling
on thermal performance of cross-flow fin and tube heat exchanger.
It was fond that fouling inside the tubes acts as an insulator which
prevents heat transfer from fluid to surface hence temperature of
outer surface rises. The impact of coating on fouling prevention
was experimentally demonstrated [31] the experiment was per-
formed to augment heat transfer performance of shell and tube
heat exchanger by incorporating hybrid coating on stainless steel
tube surfaces. The results indicated that coating on heat transfer
surface of tubes can avert particles adhesion and high flow velocity
can easily eliminate remaining particles from surface. The experi-
mental study in Refs. [32,33] was great attempt to evaluate the dif-
ferent gas side flow directions (horizontal, downward, inclined at
specific angles) of particles. It was concluded that downward flow
direction is the most suitable direction for fouling layer removal
cases. Fouling phenomenon also affects the thermal performance
of refrigeration system. The experimental study [34,35] evaluated
the coefficient of performance (COP) of refrigeration system by
considering different sets of refrigerant in the presence fouling
and suggested appropriate refrigerant that could yield significant
heat transfer performance regardless of fouling presence. The
extensive experimental study in Ref. [36] investigated the influ-
ence of fouling on thermo-hydraulic performance of different
plates heat exchangers and found that corrugation angle of corru-
gated plates imparts crucial role in fouling reduction of PHX.
In Ref. [37], a review study was conducted to acknowledge the
severe impact of fouling and clogging on the operating perfor-
mance of micro-structured devices which are vastly used for man-
ufacturing products. In Refs. [38–40] comprehensive literature
review study was conducted to discern crude oil fouling, fouling
of enhanced tubes used in condensers in cooling towers and effect
of fouling on air side performance of heating, and ventilation and
air conditioning (HVAC) system. A review study of experimental
measurements and prediction models of crude oil fouling was pre-
sented [41]. The comprehensive review study in Ref. [42] eluci-
dated the rigorous impact of fouling on the thermal performance
of aircraft heat exchanger systems. It was discussed that the sizes
and distribution of particulates impart significant influence on
fouling formation. The variation in Re number tends to yield dif-
ferent fouling formation rate. Furthermore, it was concluded that
the implementation of electrostatic protection filtration can pre-
vent cooling systems of aircraft from particulate fouling to a
greater extent which in results yield substantial economic bene-
fits. The inclusion of various types of discontinuous baffles also
leads toward substantial improvement in thermo-hydraulic per-
formance of shell-and-tube heat exchangers while improving the
shell side heat transfer rate and reducing the possibility of fouling
formation to a greater extent elaborated in review study [43]. The
prominent influence of particulate deposition on thermal perfor-
mance EGR system was reviewed and critical challenges were dis-
cussed while incorporating the metal foam in engineering thermal
devices in industries [44]. The noteworthy effect of crystallization
fouling on heat transfer performance of heat exchangers was
extensively reviewed while elaborating the crucial aspects crystal-
lization fouling mechanisms such as the phenomenon of crystal-
lography during deposition of calcium salts, the development of
crystal structures and crystal foams, and formation process of
crystallization fouling [45]. It was summarized that with the ade-
quate execution of fouling mitigation methods (e.g. chemical addi-
tives), decrement in surface energy, and modification of surface
topology etc. prominent reduction in crystallization fouling can
be achieved.
584 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603
Fouling and particulate deposition in all types of heat exchanger
is significantly influenced by various system operating variables
such as temperature, flow velocity, material surface, fouling con-
centration etc. The sole objective of this comprehensive study is
to present literature review regarding mitigation and retardation
of fouling and particles deposition in heat exchanger presented
in recent experimental and numerical studies investigated by var-
ious researchers. Thermo-hydraulic performance, heat transfer
characteristics and thermodynamic features of heat exchanger
can significantly be improved and modified by adopting innovative
and modern fouling mitigation techniques. We have extensively
evaluated the types of fouling and cleaning method of heat
exchangers in industries. The effect of flow velocity of fluid on
removal of particle participations and fouling impurities from heat
transfer surface is thoroughly examined. By considering the depen-
dency of fouling reduction on enhanced temperature, the influence
of temperature on fouling retardation is evaluated. We retained
our intentions on various groundbreaking and ingenious ways of
fouling vindication by introducing various significant fouling
exclusion techniques. This distinct and critical review study will
be capable of providing designers to design heat exchangers with
enhanced thermodynamic features, thermal and pressure drop
performance under fouling considerations.
2. Experimental framework
In order to elucidate the review of various systems operating
variable influence on fouling provided by researchers through
experimental studies a general experimental setup needs to be
exemplified first. This section will deliver crucial information
regarding the use of an experimental apparatus and equipment
for measuring heat transfer rate, fouling rate and fouling resistance
of various heat exchanger surfaces.
While considering the above remarks, Fig. 2 is presented which
demonstrates the necessary equipment to establish an experimen-
tal apparatus for measuring the influence of fouling on thermo-
hydraulic performance of heat exchangers. Cooling unit and heat-
Fig. 2. Experimental setup for examining the fouling on heat exchangers surfaces [46].
ing unit provide fluid to heat exchanger at fixed temperature gra-
dient. Heating unit consists of hot water bath with circulating
pump, rotary flow meter, and thermocouples while cooling unit
consist of chiller and rotary flow meter. To maintain the actual
operating conditions while performing experiments artificial foul-
ing solution or hard water is prepared first by dissolving a mixture
of calcium nitrate tetrahydrate and sodium sulphate powder in
distilled water (Eq. (7)) or by dissolving a mixture of sodium bicar-
bonate (NaHCO3) and calcium chloride (CaCl2) powders in distilled
water (Eq. (8)). Motorized stirrer is installed for proper mixing of
fouling materials and steady state condition is achieved and exam-
ined through data acquisition system. Furthermore, leakage test is
performed prior to the experimental runs to ensure the smooth
flow condition. After each experimental run, experimental rig is
cleaned with chemical agents and distilled water to avoid erro-
neous readings. For scaling measurements weight of the installed
coupons is measured before and after experimental run. The differ-
ence between weighed coupon before experimental run (wc) and
after experimental run (wf) yield noticeable amount of deposited
scale (calcium sulphate or calcium carbonate) on coupons surface.
Moreover, the variation in fouling rate, fouling resistance, heat
transfer rate and pressure drop performance with the implementa-
tion of various geometric parameters are experimentally exam-
ined. For the eradication of fouling resistance in test section
novel geometric configurations are employed and experiments
are performed. The optimal values of operating conditions are also
investigated e.g. different inlet fluid flow velocity, temperature and
mass flow rate etc. are implemented to acknowledge the possible
eradication of fouling resistance. The results obtained from exper-
imental investigation are also used for the authenticity of out-
comes obtained from performing numerical investigation and
developed numerical models.
3. Classification of fouling
Fouling can be categorized based on multiplicity of process con-
dition. These may include type of heat transfer service (boiling,
 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603
Particulate fouling on front face of coil Heavy fouling on tube bundles
removed from hot exchanger
(a)
Heat exchanger fouled with dust
(d)
Fig. 3. Demonstration of various types of fouling [40].
condensation), the type of fluid stream (liquid, gas) or the kind of
application (refrigeration, power generation) [5]. To grasp the bet-
ter understanding of fouling influenced by various process condi-
tions, it needs to be segregated into different forms and
classifications. However, we will keep our focus on few major
and prominent types of fouling that significantly influence the
thermal and pressure drop performance of heat exchangers by
inducing an insulation layer between bulk fluid and heat transfer
surface and providing blockage to the fluid flow. These types of
fouling are, (i) particulate fouling, (ii) crystallization fouling, (iii)
corrosion fouling, (iv) biological fouling, (v) chemical reaction foul-
ing, (vi) solidification fouling. Fig. 3 depicts the different types of
fouling formation on heat transfer surfaces. The following section
demonstrates the great deal of forms of fouling and their influence
on heat exchanger performance.
3.1. Particulate fouling
Particulate fouling is segregated into two different categories
such as wet particulate deposition and dry particulate deposition.
Both types of fouling play a key role in deteriorating the thermal
and hydraulic performance of heat exchangers [47]. Dry particles
fouling is witnessed in condenser where fins temperature is higher
than the dew point temperature, while wet particles fouling is seen
in evaporators where dehumidification phenomenon occurs and
fins temperature is relatively lower than the dew point tempera-
ture [48–50]. In addition, various operating condition and geomet-
ric configuration of heat exchangers impart prominent role in
controlling the dry and wet particulate fouling. Particulate fouling
occurs when suspended particles in process stream starts accumu-
lating onto heat transfer surface owing to particles transport and
deposition phenomenon. Cooling water taking from rivers or lakes
manifest mud, sand, dust or rust fragments that aggregate in the
regions of low velocity such as such as stagnant zone, flow separa-
tion zone, recirculation zone, and vortex reattaching zone. The
stagnant zones appear at front face of the tube where flowing fluid
impacts, here flow velocity is negligible which makes suitable
585
Crystallization fouling on different
specimen
(b) (c)
Bio-fouling morphology
(e)
accommodation for impurities and particulate matters. The flow
separation zones distinctly appear behind the tubes named as
wake region or poor heat transfer zones, here flow velocity is also
insignificant. Particles tends to accumulate in this region due to the
influence of gravity effect and temperature gradient.
In boilers particulate fouling occurs due to flow of unburnt
ashes and fuel with gases towards combustion chamber. These
ashes continuously form insulation layer on outer sider of the tube
surface preventing heat transfer from hot gases to the heat transfer
surface area which can cause significant damage to the boiler
tubes. Particulate fouling also influences the thermal performance
of HVAC system. As air-cooled condenser performance is deterio-
rated by this type of fouling [6,51], as presence of matter depend-
ing upon wide range of materials (organic, inorganic) and sizes and
shapes (from the submicron to a few millimeters in diameter) in
cooling water are responsible for particulate fouling. Plate heat
exchanger’s thermal performance is also influenced by this form
of fouling. In Ref. [52,53] particulate fouling effect on PHX was
extensively evaluated and concluded various crucial remarks such
as (i) the higher fouling concentration noticeably increase the par-
ticle deposition and asymptotic fouling resistance, (ii) fluid velocity
increment brings significant changes in fouling reduction by induc-
ing strong shear force across the heat transfer surface, (iii) type of
particles (such as Al2O3, TiO2) and flow condition have prominent
influence on particulate fouling, (iv) higher corrugation angles of
corrugated plates can degrade the fouling layers hence fouling
resistance, (v) it was stated that temperature gradient do not influ-
ence the particulate fouling in PHX.
An experimental study in Ref. [54] demonstrated the impact of
wet particles deposition on air-side heat transfer and pressure drop
performance of finned-tube heat exchanger. The investigation was
performed under varying operating conditions (such as inlet air
velocity and relative humidity ranging from 1 to 3 m/s and 50%
to 90% respectively), various particle concentrations (ranging from
2.1 to 10.8 gm3) and geometric configuration of the test section
(fin pitch ranging from 1.5 to 2.2 mm, and three different type of
fins such as plate fines, wavy fins and louver fins). It was concluded
586 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603
that deposition of wet particles tends to deteriorate thermo-
hydraulic performance of HX more than the dry particles deposi-
tion when inlet air velocity and particles concentration is
enhanced. Moreover, it was found that louver fins depict signifi-
cantly lesser heat transfer and pressure drop performance under
wet particulate fouling than plate and wavy fins.
To predict the fouling rate and particles deposition behavior on
fin surface of heat exchangers researchers have developed various
numerical models and acclaimed the accuracy of proposed models
in engineering applications [55,56]. In Ref. [57] authors developed
a numerical model for predicting the particulate deposition on fins
surface of heat exchanger. The proposed model incorporated the
critical impact angle and critical sticking velocity for particulate
deposition on the fin surface. While particulate deposition on
formed fouling layer was based on the critical impact angle, critical
sticking and removing velocity of incident particles. The analytical
model developed in Ref. [58] precisely predicts the heat transfer
rate of fouled HX when both fouling layer thickness and convective
heat transfer coefficient are provided.
3.2. Crystallization fouling
This form of fouling appears when calcium and bicarbonate ions
become supersaturated in cooling water and begins crystallizing
on heat transfer surface. The solubility characteristics of the inor-
ganic salts (CaSO3, CaSO4, MgSO4, CaCO3, etc.) in cooling water
depicts inverse behavior with temperature such as the tempera-
ture increases above a certain limit these salt crystals out and
decrease crystallization process on material surface. However,
the higher salt concentration arises severe problem by increasing
scale and sludge deposition on heat transfer surface [6].
Crystallization process occurs in three sequential stages (i) solu-
tion becomes supersaturated, (ii) development of nuclei and crys-
tallites, (iii) evolution of crystals. The providence of crystallization
process is decided by temperature and flow condition. It can hap-
pen both in bulk fluid and on heat transfer surface. As crystallites
formed in bulk fluid may flow towards the wall to form the depos-
its. But if the turbulence is high due to augmented Re number or
surface corrugation or roughness then these particles might sweep
down to the region where solution is not supersaturated. While on
the other hand presence of nucleation sites on a solid surface may
encourage the formation of scale on the surface.
3.3. Corrosion fouling
Corrosion fouling occurs when heat transfer surface reacts with
corrosive fluid comprised of impurities (like Alkali metals, Sulphur
and vanadium) and form corrosion products through electrochem-
ical process. Depending upon the PH value of fluid these corrosion
products might get suspended in bulk fluid and dissolved and
washed away towards the downstream region. While in other case
corrosion products deposits on surface and interrupt heat transfer
process due to their low thermal conductivity. Liquid-liquid heat
exchanger severely suffers from this fouling.
The experimental investigation was conducted in Ref. [59] to
elucidate the noteworthy impact of salt-spray corrosion on
thermo-hydraulic performance of copper-fin heat exchanger while
varying the corrosion hours to acknowledge its influence on differ-
ent contact angles (static, advancing, and receding contact angles)
of cooper fins. It was concluded that the substantial degradation of
heat transfer and pressure drop performance demonstrate promi-
nent dependency on corrosion hours and inlet air velocity. More-
over, it was noticed that the presence of corrosion fouling tends
to deteriorate the hydrophilicity of cooper fins to a greater extent.
3.4. Biological fouling
Bio-fouling occurs when deposited biological origin starts
growing on heat transfer surface area. Based on characteristics of
biological origin this fouling is segregated into two forms (i) micro-
bial fouling, (ii) microbial fouling. Microbial fouling occurs when
deposition and growth of microorganism (algae, bacteria, fungi,
molds) transpires on heat transfer surface. While macrobial fouling
appears when organism such as sea weeds, water weed, and barna-
cles form deposits on surface. Marine or power plant heat exchang-
ers (condensers, boilers) are prone to bio-fouling [5]. On contact
with the surface these micro and macro organisms attach and
breed on the surface even inducing clogging which may block
the fluid passage. Bio-fouling can utterly deteriorate the thermo-
hydraulic performance of heat exchanger. As fouling layers on heat
transfer surface (might be inside the tubes or outside the tubes, on
flat surfaces) avoid heat transmission between bulk fluid and solid
surface owing to trivial thermal conductivity, while clogging can
increase the back pressure of the system which in result can cause
severe damage to pumps by over-pressurizing them.
The experimental study in Ref. [60] demonstrated the rigorous
impact of biofouling on thermal and hydraulic performance of
finned-tube heat exchanger at various bio-fouled area ratios. It
was concluded that the heat transfer characteristics and pressure
drop performance of finned heat exchanger was severely influ-
enced by microorganism growth on the fin surfaces. It was found
that for 10% bio-fouled area ratio heat transfer coefficient was aug-
mented due to the presence of higher local velocity and air flow
turbulence. However, significant reduction in heat transfer coeffi-
cient (15.9%) and enhancement in pressure drop (41.3%) was
acknowledged when the bio-fouled ratio was further incremented
from 0% to 60%.
Furthermore, bio-fouling is influenced by various variable pro-
cess parameters such as flow velocity, temperature, wall shear
stress and concentration. Higher fluid velocity delivers higher
shear stress across the walls which can significantly lower the foul-
ing resistance. While at as the temperature increasing depositions
and breeding these organism rises, however further enhancement
in temperature can exterminate bacteria, algae etc. which in
results yield lower fouling resistance. Moreover, when the concen-
tration of micro and macro organism increases in the bulk fluid, the
fouling resistance rises.
3.5. Chemical reaction fouling
This form of fouling is mostly tackled in food industries, chem-
ical industries and petroleum refineries. Chemical fouling appears
when deposits form on surface due to chemical reaction within
the process stream or near boundary layer where heat transfer sur-
face does not react as a reactant. Although, heat transfer surface
can act as a catalyst i.e. material surface can impart role in increas-
ing the chemical reaction rate. Fouling deposits are mostly organic
compound but inorganic might require to complete the chemical
reaction [61]. Chemical fouling involves autoxidation, polymeriza-
tion, cracking or coke formation which can enhance its complexity.
In bulk flow thermal instabilities of chemical species such as pro-
tein can form precursors which consequently results in deposits
on heat transfer surface.
Like other types of fouling chemical fouling is also influence by
crucial operating variables such as flow rate or velocity, pressure,
temperature and concentration. The contradictory concluded
remarks appear in literatures regarding the influence of flow rate
or velocity on chemical fouling reduction. It was deducted that as
the flow rate does not only assist the arrival rate of reactants but
also the removal of products of reaction from reaction zones. Fur-
thermore, higher pressure tends to increase autoxidation forma-
 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603
tion which in result can enhance chemical fouling. The direct rela-
tion is mostly found between temperature and chemical fouling i.e.
as the temperature increases chemical fouling exponentially raises.
3.6. Solidification fouling
Solidification fouling occurs when the surface temperature is
lower than the freezing temperature of components present in
the fluid, such components tends to solidify on the surface result-
ing solidification fouling. The topic of crude oil fouling has acquired
more intention of designers and researcher for the past few dec-
ades which is the example of solidification fouling e.g. the deposi-
tion of wax from crude oil on heat transfer surface of heat
exchangers. Other examples of this form of fouling are, formation
of ice on a heat transfer surface during chilled water production
or cooling of moist air, deposits formed in phenol coolers, and
deposits formed during cooling of mixtures of substances such as
paraffin. Surface temperature imparts prominent role in this foul-
ing i.e. controlling the surface temperature solidification fouling
can be controlled. Other factors that influence solidification fouling
are flow rate or velocity, surface condition, crystallization, and con-
centration of solid precursors in the fluid.
3.7. Combine fouling
Combine fouling is the result of when one or more fouling pres-
ence together in heat exchangers. For example, corrosion fouling
can yield nucleation sites for particulate and crystallization fouling.
Furthermore, the presence of bio-films can accelerate corrosion
fouling in heat exchangers.
All types of fouling possess significant impact on degrading the
thermal performance of heat exchanger by causing an obstruction
between heat transfer surface and fluid flow while augmenting the
thermal resistance to a greater extent. However, crystallization and
particulate fouling are considered to be the most common type of
fouling in heat exchangers and possess substantial impact for
degrading the heat transfer characteristics and pressure drop per-
formance of heat exchangers. As the feed water containing dust,
sand, rust, and carbonates accumulates in low velocity zones of
heat transfer surface of HXs working in actual operating condi-
tions. Industrial engineering thermal devices prone to fouling are
not economically feasible due to the substantial fouling costs (cap-
ital investment cost, greater maintenance cost, and additional
operational cost, etc.) [62]. Which is the primary reason that novel
and innovative fouling mitigation techniques are required to main-
tain the heat transfer performance and lower pumping power
demand [63].
4. Cleaning of heat exchangers
The mitigation of fouling and particle deposition in heat
exchangers is the utmost essential and indispensable requirement
in every sector of industries. As momentous prominence is given to
overall efficiency of heat exchangers which can be significantly
high if system is yielding higher productivity rate and possess
striking thermo-hydraulic performance. Fouling is one of the cen-
tral reasons which can conspicuously degrade the thermal perfor-
mance of heat exchangers and induce back pressure which can
consume enormous amount of pumping power. Which is the solely
reason apposite cleaning of heat exchangers is recommended to
ensure its proper working [64,65]. Cleaning of heat exchangers is
segregated into two types (i) online cleaning, (ii) offline cleaning.
Following section elucidates the cleaning process of heat exchang-
ers [5,66,67]. However, in general when asymptotic fouling behav-
ior is attained in heat exchangers then cleaning is not required.
587
A cleanliness factor (Cf) is introduced for providing an allow-
ance for fouling in steam power industry. It could be stated as
the ratio of overall heat transfer coefficient (Uf) of heat exchanger
when it is fouled to when it is clean (Uc).
Cf ¼ Uf =Uc ð5Þ
While the relation between cleanliness factors and fouling
resistance can be expressed as,
Cf ¼ 1=ð1 þ Rft  Uc Þ ð6Þ
The inverse relation between Cf and Rft depicts that cleanliness
factor respond to fouling resistance, if overall heat transfer coeffi-
cient of cleaned heat exchanger is low. Above equations are extre-
mely useful for designing heat exchangers when designers
consider fouling effect.
4.1. Online cleaning
Online cleaning is adapted based on chemical, mechanical, and
physical mechanisms. Additives are used in case of online chemical
cleaning process to mitigate crystallization fouling, chemical reac-
tion fouling, particulate fouling etc. In order to diminish the evolu-
tion of above mentioned fouling process additive may act in one or
more number of ways such as, (i) to retard the physical reaction
between foulant and heat transfer surface it may affect physically
to impede the fouling process, (ii) it may interact chemically with
the fouling species to halt the fouling process by modifying its foul-
ing potential, (iii) it may alter the nature of deposits on heat trans-
fer surface to move along with the removal forces (high shear force
induced by high flow rate or velocity), (iv) it can detriment micro
and macro organism and prevent them from depositing on heat
transfer surface. However, several crucial factors need to be con-
sidered while adopting online chemical cleaning method such as,
additive cost, labor requirements, materials of construction, toxic-
ity standards etc. While mechanical and physical mechanisms
regarding online cleaning method are, brush and cage system
(used in straight tubes of heat exchangers, involve brush fabricated
from metal wires and passed through tubes with water flow), cir-
culation of sponge rubber balls (slightly oversized sponge rubber
balls shown in Fig. 4a are continuously passed through the heat
exchanger tubes with water flow), rumbling (it involve use of air
or gas injection in liquid flow to induce high turbulence region
across heat transfer surface or wall), magnetic devices (induce
magnetic fields to eradicate sludge or scale from pipes), soot blow-
ers (mostly incorporated in flue gas heat exchangers, a soot blower
is used to impinge soot or air on deposited surfaces with high
velocity), and water washing (water jets are used remove deposits,
this method is avoided as it might induce temperature gradient
and disrupt heat transfer rate), etc.
To extensively examine the influence of online fouling cleaning
method on mitigation of fouling in heat exchanger lot of research-
ers have performed experimental and numerical investigation and
developed significant models [68]. The size, shape, stiffness and
material of projectiles possess noteworthy importance in cleaning
of heat exchange tubes. As projectiles with significant contact area
and ability to provide grander shear force when propelled through
the tubes can be considered suitable for online cleaning process
[69]. In Ref. [70] an experimental study investigated the influence
of projectiles on fouling retardation of tubes of heat exchanger and
developed vital concluded remarks such as (i) the diameter of the
projectiles should only be 10% higher than inside diameter of the
tubes, (ii) projectiles should demonstrate 1% deformation when
0.6 N force is applied. An experimental study in ref [71] investi-
gated the influence of projectiles (sponge and rubber balls) on mit-
igation of fouling in straight tube of heat exchangers. The specific
size of projectiles was considered (as used for industrial process)
588 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603
Sponge ball, D=21mm Sponge ball, D=22mm
Fig. 4a. Specification of projectiles used for extermination of fouling [71].
and adequate injection interval was established. Fig. 4b depicts the
effect of sponge ball projectile on fouling resistance with different
specific injection periods. It is quite evident that without incorpo-
rating any projectile, fouling layer continuously develops on heat
transfer surface resulting higher fouling resistance. However, it
was concluded that injection interval of 30 min is the most suitable
time period for injecting projectiles in tubes with water flow. Sim-
ilar inclusive experimental study was performed in Ref. [72] to
acknowledge the influence of different shapes of projectiles (spher-
ical and oval) and injection rate on mitigation of crystallization
fouling (CaSO4) in tubes of heat exchangers while keeping the flow
velocity, temperature and fouling concentration constant to avoid
process complexity. This experimental study was divided into
two steps (i) injection rate was varied and only one projectile
was added in the beginning of the injection process, (ii) injection
rate was kept constant and multiple and consecutive injection
was carried out in the beginning of an injection period. The size
of oval shaped projectile was 10% higher than the inner diameter
of heated the tube while in case of spherical projectile, the size
was 1% higher than the heated tubes size. As significantly augmen-
tation in projectiles size could result in prominent tubes cleaning
at the expense of higher pumping power requirement. It was con-
cluded that constant injection rate with multiple injections having
significant influence on fouling reduction rate. It was also noticed
that higher injection rate and irregular projectile can impart crucial
role in asymptotic fouling resistance. A study in Ref. [63] discussed
the online and offline cleaning techniques of heat exchangers.
Fouling mitigation through online cleaning method is still most
Fig. 4b. Fouling resistance, sponge projectile at different time intervals. D = 21 mm, Tb = 40
C, Tsi = 80
C and C = 3.8 g/l, and v = 0.8 m/s [71].
Rubber ball, D=20mm
argued topic in industrial revolution and needs more intention
for developing innovative and contemporary techniques for com-
plete retardation of fouling and deposits in heat exchangers at
the expense of lower capital cost.
4.2. Offline cleaning
Online cleaning methods can eradicate vindictive fouling layers
in heat exchangers for only specific period of time so it becomes
inevitable for many heat exchanges to have offline cleaning process
sooner or later to restore the desired heat transfer efficiency. Off-
line cleaning method involves complete shut-down of operating
system which causes significant disruption resulting lower produc-
tion volume and higher capital cost. Sometimes malicious fouling
and particulate deposition leads to the emergency shutdown of
heat exchangers, in this case distinctive vigilance is required to
tackle this problem. Offline cleaning can be performed through
various methods depending upon the type and characteristics of
fouling such as (i) manual cleaning (involves wiping, brushing or
scraping to remove deposits from heat transfer surface), (ii)
mechanical cleaning (includes water washing using high velocity
water jets to eradicate abrasive materials deposits such as sand
and nutshell), (iii) tube drilling and rodding (to remove blockages
induced by carbonaceous materials drilling is performed and
desired flow rate is restored), (iv) use of bullets, scrappers and rub-
bers (bullet or scraper is fired along the length of the tubes to get
rid of difficult fouling inside the tubes), (v) controlled explosions
(controlled explosion energy is transmitted to the tubes to remove
 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603
deposits through shock waves) [73]. Thermal shock and chemical
cleaning of fouling is also offline cleaning method. These methods
can be applied in dry or wet condition depending upon their types
and features. Additionally, implementation of both online and
offline cleaning process demands significant amount of fouling
costs.
5. The influence of system operating variables
Fouling and particulate deposition behavior in heat exchangers
is unquestionably influenced by various crucial operating variables
of system. Followings are some of the most vital variables with sig-
nificant impact on fouling formation.
Flow rate or velocity: Deposits on heat transfer surfaces can
only be removed when there is enough shear force across the wall.
Fluid with low velocity yields weaker shear stress and ensure
sturdy adherence of impurities.
Material surfaces: Material surfaces possess major influence on
chemical and crystallization fouling. Smooth materials with low
thermal conductivity have tendency of providing lower fouling
resistance than rough materials with high thermal conductivity.
Temperature: Chemical and crystallization fouling are markedly
affected by temperature variations i.e. micro-organisms, macro-
organisms, and rate of chemical reactions depict significant depen-
dency on temperature gradient.
Concentration: Foulant material concentration retains notewor-
thy importance in regulating the fouling rate by controlling the
impurities in fouling solution.
Following section provide detailed explanation of the effect of
various operating variables of system on fouling and particulate
deposition supported by recent experimental and numerical stud-
ies provided by researchers.
5.1. Impact of mass flow rate and velocity
Controlling the fouling resistance by varying flow rate or veloc-
ity has obtained notable attention of researchers for the past dec-
ades. As higher flow velocity can prominently increase the rate of
removal forces across walls resulting higher rate of particles
removal than the rate of deposition. Experimental, numerical and
visualization studies can provide us crucial outcomes regarding
this matter as explained below.
In Ref. [73] a visual experimental rig was designed to acknowl-
edge the influence of particle deposition on heat transfer charac-
teristics of fin-and-tube heat exchanger. A moveable analytical
balance method was adopted to measure the weight of deposited
particles. The particle deposition weight per unit area (m) was
deducted by measuring the weight of the test samples, as demon-
strated in following equation,
m ¼ ðw0  Wi Þ=Aair
where w0 and wi depicts the weight of test sample after and before
particle injection respectively while Aair represent area on the air
side of test sample. Figs. 5a and 5b elucidates the influence of air
flow rate and velocity on ‘’m’’. it can be noticed that as the flow rate
and velocity of air rises particle deposition weight per unit area
starts decreasing which connotes that higher air flow rates and
velocity significantly reduces the fouling rate in heat exchangers.
The conceivable explanation could be that, kinetic energy of parti-
cles is considerably augmented by enhanced air velocity which
increases the impact rate between particles and fins and finally
yield higher particle deposition weight. Furthermore, as the air
velocity gets more intensified turbulent rate tends to rises which
deteriorate and finally eradicate the particulate deposition layer
from heat transfer surface providing higher heat transfer rate in
589
Fig. 5a. Effect of flow rate on particle deposition weight [73].
the system. In Ref. [74] an experimental and numerical study was
conducted to fathom the impact of brackish (salty seawater) water
on fouling resistance of heat exchanger with coated carbon steel
and aluminum tubes. The influence of brackish water velocity on
fouling resistance for both coated carbon steel and aluminum tubes
is demonstrated in Figs. 5c and 5d. It was found that enhanced
brackish water velocity eradicates the fouling layers and scalp from
heat transfer surfaces as higher flow velocity intensifies the shear
force at the interface between the fluid and deposited fouling layer
which in result decreases the fouling resistance, however this effect
is certainly influenced by various material surfaces as shown in fol-
lowing figures. Similar results were concluded in Ref. [75,76]
regarding inverse relation between air flow velocity and fouling
coefficient. It was noticed that addition of more foulant leads
toward thicker fouling layer and hence higher fouling coefficient.
The significant influence of composite fouling of CaCO3 and
CaCO4 on asymptotic fouling resistance and asymptotic fouling
period of PHX was experimentally investigated while keeping the
operating (various concentrations, flow velocities, and tempera-
tures) and geometrical (variation in chevron angles) conditions
practical [77]. It was concluded that the increment in Re number,
temperature, and chevron angle asymptotic fouling resistance
tends to decrease due to the higher removal rate of fouling concen-
tration. Furthermore, asymptotic fouling period demonstrated
noticeable reduction when the Re number was enhanced and con-
centration of CaCO3 was incremented.
The experimental study in Ref. [78] elucidated the influence of
crystallization of CaCo3 on fouling rate of flat plate heat exchanger
to acknowledge its thermo-hydraulic performance. The impact of
flow velocity and heat flux was comprehensively demonstrated.
Fig. 6a insinuate the effect of different velocities on fouling resis-
tance with time at constant heat flux. The induction period was
perceived at the preliminary stage of an experiment. This period
depicts the initial growth of crystallization process on heat transfer
surface. During the induction period first crystal begins to nucleate
which tends to create roughness on heat transfer surface. This
roughness in result develops turbulent flow and finally higher con-
vective heat transfer. Which is the foremost indication for reduc-
tion in surface temperature and fouling resistance at the
beginning of the process. While at lower flow velocity this period
is quite slighter. After a certain time of induction period fouling
resistance abruptly increases, which may be called an increasing
period, then nearly asymptotic track appears [79,80]. At this point
heat transfer process gets stabilized as rate of deposition and
removal of particles becomes equivalent. Furthermore, as the flow
velocity increases boundary layer gets disrupted and eradication of
590 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603
Fig. 5b. Effect of velocity on particle deposition weight [73].
Fig. 5c. Effect of velocity on fouling resistance of Ti tubes at 70 °C [74].
Fig. 5d. Effect of velocity on fouling resistance of CS tubes at 70 °C [74].
foulant tends to appear. Hence higher flow velocity yields longer
induction period and lower fouling resistance [7].
In Ref. [81] an experimental and numerical study was con-
ducted to examine the particle deposition (1–100 lm) in compact
heat exchanger. It was originated that enhancement in pressure
drop is offered by higher flow velocity, however eradication of big-
ger size particles deposition increases as flow velocity increases.
Furthermore, it was noticed that deposition of small size particles
Fig. 6a. Calcium carbonate depositions as the function of time under different
velocity [83].
on heat transfer surface is not influenced by higher flow velocity. A
2D-numerical study in Ref. [82] acknowledged the influence of ash
particles (K2SO4) deposition on flue-gas heat exchanger to augment
its heat transfer characteristics and pressure drop performance and
illustrated that higher flow velocity imparts significant role in
reduction of particles deposition rate. Hence thickness of fouling
layer across heat transfer surface is reduced and higher heat trans-
fer rate is obtained at the expense of moderate pressure drop. The
impact of crystallization fouling and deposition on heat transfer
performance of double pipe heat exchanger was demonstrated
[83] by considering various types of heat exchanger surfaces such
as stainless steel, brass, cooper, aluminum and carbon steel. Fig. 6a
demonstrate the influence of flow velocity on fouling deposition
induced by artificial fouling solution prepared by CaCO3. It is quite
palpable that as the flow velocity rises deposition rate starts
decreasing which signifies the lower fouling resistance across heat
transfer surface and higher heat transfer performance. As the flow
velocity increases, flow turbulence upsurges which yield higher
shear stress to dominate the resistance offered by calcium carbon-
ate deposition at liquid-solid interface.
In Ref. [84] a case study was planned to acknowledge the sys-
tems operating variable such as velocity to examine its role in mit-
igation of fouling in refinery heat exchanger network. It was
concluded that flow velocity optimization leads toward significant
reduction of fouling and total cleaning cost in heat exchangers. An
experimental study in Ref. [85] elucidated the comparison of
louver-fin and plain-fin in terms of fouling performance of heat
exchanger. The impact of mass flow rate on heat transfer charac-
teristics and pressure loss performance was also investigated
under fouling condition. It was found that as the flow rate
increases heat transfer coefficient and air side pressure drop
increases. As velocity increment leads to the higher shear stress
which significantly reduces fouling at the expense of high pressure
drop [86]. An experimental test rig was designed to acknowledge
the influence of type of heat exchangers, flow velocity and temper-
ature on fouling resistance [87]. It was found that plate heat
exchanger fouling is comparatively less than shell and tube heat
exchanger under the same operating variables. Furthermore,
decrease in flow velocity tends to augment fouling rate. The influ-
ence of various velocities on fouling resistance was also experi-
mentally investigated in Ref. [88]. In Ref. [89] numerical models
were coupled and simulations were performed to concede deposi-
tion and removal fouling process on tubes. The impact of air inlet
velocity on fouling deposition process was extensively acknowl-
edged with different particle sizes as demonstrated in Figs. 6b
and 6c. It was found that at lower inlet velocity fouling deposition
 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603 591

Fig. 7a. Calcium content in scale [91].

Fig. 6b. The growths of the fouling per tube for 5 lm particles with different inlet
velocities [89].
as the flow velocity increases [92]. This reduction implies lower
fouling resistance and hence higher heat transfer performance for
heat exchangers.

CaðNOÞ3  4H2 O þ Na2SO4 ! CaSO4  2H2 O þ 2NaNO3 þ 2H2 O

ð7Þ
The experimental study in Ref. [93] investigated the effect of
crystallization fouling (CaSO4) on heat transfer performance of cor-
rugated plate heat exchanger. The experimental rig was comprised
of heating unit (hot water bath and inverter pump), cooling unit
(cooling water bath, chiller, inverter pump and air-cooling unit)
and test section (corrugated plate heat exchanger with different
attack angles). The hot water and cold fouling solution were car-
ried into the test section through inverter pump with different flow
rates. The influence of fouling concentration, flow velocity, inlet
temperatures and corrugated angles were broadly examined.
Fig. 7b depicts the impact of various Re number on fouling resis-
tance as function of time at constant CaSO4 concentration, inlet
temperature and corrugated angle. It is quite noticeable that higher
Re number (high flow rate and velocity) yield significantly lower
Fig. 6c. The growths of the fouling per tube for 10 lm particles with different inlet
fouling resistance. It is reasonably explicable by a phenomenon
velocities [89].
that higher flow velocity at interface of fouling layer and solution
increases the shear force and reduces the residence time of the
rate is lower and mass flux is higher, while this effect is reverse at eddy vortex yielding lower deposition rate and hence lower
higher air inlet velocity which signifies that lower inlet velocities asymptotic fouling rate. In Ref. [94] the impact of fluid velocity
yield higher fouling rate and higher inlet velocities provide lower on microbial fouling was experimentally investigated. For both
fouling rate. An experimental study in Ref. [90] demonstrated the
particulate fouling process in hybrid heat exchanger with louvered
fins incorporated in both dry and wet operations. The impact of dif-
ferent fouling masses (300 g, 600 g) and velocities on heat transfer
coefficient and pressure drop was evaluated. It was noticed that
fouling mass has small influence on heat transfer coefficient and
significant impact on pressure drop of hybrid cooler in dry mode.
In Ref. [91] an experimental rig was designed to mitigate the
calcium sulphate content in hard water by physical water treat-
ment (PWT) method. This method involves use of Zinc and tourma-
line as catalytic material to eradicate hardness in seawater for
reducing fouling resistance in heat exchangers. Experiments were
performed with different flow velocities while keeping the temper-
ature of cooling water (hard water) and hot water constant. Artifi-
cial hard water was prepared by mixture of calcium nitrate
tetrahydrate and sodium sulphate powder in distilled water (Eq.
(7)). Fig. 7a elucidates the influence of PWT and flow velocity on
calcium concentration. It is fairly noticeable that catalytic material
imparts prominent role in reducing calcium content in hard water Fig. 7b. Effect of Re number on fouling resistance [93].
592 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603

iron bacteria (IB) and slime forming bacteria (SFB) impact of flow
velocity on fouling rate was investigated at constant temperature
and concentration. In case of IB, it was noticed that induction per-
iod (initial stage of formation of biofilm) and fouling rate depict no
dependency on velocity increment and increase linearly, however
asymptotic value decreases as the velocity increases. In case of
SFB, both fouling rate and asymptotic value decreases as the veloc-
ity increases.
Scaling in pipes can also considerably decline the thermo-
hydraulic performance of heat exchanger, as deposited scale on
heat transfer surface area reduce heat transfer rate and induce flow
blockage. However, scaling process can be controlled by some cru-
cial parameters such as flow rate, velocity and concentration. In
Refs. [95,96] an experimental study evaluated the influence of scal-
ing deposition (due to CaCO3) on cooper metal surface. The exper-
imental study in Ref. [97] investigated the scaling process in pipes
(stainless steel, brass, cooper and PVC) and evaluated the influence
of various control parameters on scaling. It was concluded that
Fig. 8a. Effect of temperature on iron-bacteria fouling characteristics [94].
enhancement in flow rate and velocity can significantly degrade
the scaling in pipes. However, stainless steel material surface
depicts more tendencies towards scaling than other surfaces.
Reduction of scaling with higher velocity occurs due to augmented
shear stress and drag force at the wall of the scale tube. The impact
of different enhanced tubes (helically ribbed tubes, helically ripple
tubes) on fouling resistance induced by ferric oxide (Fe2O3) and
aluminum oxide (Al2O3) fouling materials was experimentally
investigated and comparison was made with plain tube fouling
[98]. The influence of different flow velocities was also considered.
It was concluded that in the presence of ferric oxide fouling solu-
tion, enhanced tubes insinuate prominent dependency on flow
velocity. As for flow velocity of 1.2 m/s, fouling resistance of
enhanced tubes was comparatively higher than plain tubes, how-
ever in case of 1.7 m/s flow velocity fouling resistance for both
enhanced and plain tubes were equivalent. The credible explana-
tion could be as augmented flow velocity induces strong shear
force across heat transfer surface area which tends to exterminate
fouling impurities, while at low velocities these impurities start
accumulating inside the cavities of enhanced tubes resulting
higher fouling resistance than plain tubes. Same fouling pattern Fig. 8b. Effect of temperature on slime forming bacteria fouling characteristics [94].
was examined at low and high velocities for fouling solution com-
prised of aluminum oxide fouling material.
As the temperature increases for IB case asymptotic curves decli-
5.2. Impact of inlet temperature variations nes or fouling resistance reduces, while in case of SFB asymptotic
curve reaches a minimum stage at 40 °C and comes to maximum
The impact of temperature on fouling process cannot be value at 30 °C. The similar experimental study in Ref. [100]
neglected as it possesses substantial influence on fouling reduction deduced that growth of IB increases as the temperature rises. The
[99]. It has quite significant importance in controlling the rate of dependency of growth rate of bacteria on temperature was clari-
crystallization and chemical fouling which coerced researchers to fied in [101], higher temperature stimulates bacterial growth and
consider this crucial variable along with the flow rate. metabolism of cells. While further augmentation in temperature
In Ref. [94] an experimental rig comprised of low temperature inactivate the properties of protein which is the irreversible pro-
circulating system (cooling water tank, circulating pump, flow cess, this activation leads to the destruction of bacterial growth
meter, differential pressure transmitter, and thermocouples), high hence fouling layer. Hence fouling resistance decreases with rise
temperature circulating system (high temperature water tank, in temperature.
electric heater, circulating pump, flowmeter, DPT, and thermocou- The experimental investigation in Ref. [102] examined the com-
ples), and cooling system (air cooling water tank, air cooler, circu- position and influence of fouling on stainless steel and cooper in
lating pump and heat exchanger) was designed for extensive seawater. Both dynamic and static experiments were designed to
evaluation of the influence of biological fouling (microbial) on acknowledge the fouling process and influence of seawater tem-
thermal performance of chevron plate heat exchanger. The effect perature on fouling accumulation respectively. In dynamic experi-
of iron bacteria (IB) and slime forming bacteria (SFB) on fouling mental study (cold seawater circulating over heated stainless steel
formation was broadly investigated by varying the flow velocity, and cooper rod for continuous 100 h) it was found that seawater
inlet temperature and fouling concentration. Figs. 8a and 8b insin- aggravated the crystallization fouling over stainless steel surface
uate the various temperature influence on fouling resistance at while in case of cooper rod corrosion fouling occurs which started
constant flow velocity and bacteria concentration for iron- detaching from the surface after certain period of time. Figs. 9a and
bacteria and slim forming bacteria respectively. The induction per- 9b depicts the influence of two different temperatures on fouling
iod is ominously influenced by varying temperatures, however, resistance. It can be noticed that as the surface temperature of
asymptotic curves for both cases (IB and SFB) is reasonably altered. heated rod increases, both crystallization and corrosion fouling
 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603
Fig. 9a. The fouling mass of stainless steel and copper in seawater temperature of
80 °C [102].
Fig. 9b. The fouling mass of stainless steel and copper in seawater temperature of
60 °C [102].
start deteriorating. In Ref. [103] the influence of temperature on
formation of crude oil fouling precursors was experimentally stud-
ied using two different type of crude oil. It was found that as the
temperature increases growth of fouling precursors rises too
[104]. The mitigation of mineral fouling in heat exchanger was
experimentally investigated [105]. The artificial fouling solution
or hard water was prepared by using following chemical reaction,
CaCl2 þ 2NaHCO3 ! CaCO3 þ 2NaCl þ H2 O þ CO2
The influence of hot water inlet temperature on crystallization
fouling of stainless-steel specimen is demonstrated in Fig. 9c. It
is quite evident that as the temperature raises scale deposition
on specimen increases too which signifies that fouling is direct
function of temperature. It could be explained as the increment
in surface temperature tends to augment the fouling solution tem-
perature on the surface which lead to the lower concentration of
saturation and hence heavy deposits on the surface. In Ref. [92] cal-
cium sulphate fouling of chevron plate heat exchanger was exper-
imentally investigated. The influence of different chevron angles,
fouling concentration, flow velocity, and temperature on retarda-
tion of fouling was examined. It was found that as the inlet temper-
ature of both cold and hot fluid increases, fouling resistance
increases too. The experimental study [93] evaluated the influence
of crystallization fouling on corrugated plate heat exchanger and
acknowledged the impact of temperature on fouling rate by keep-
ing the flow velocity, corrugated angles and concentration con-
stant. The manifestation of various inlet temperature (solution
593
Fig. 9c. Effect of inlet temperature on the fouling resistance [105].
and hot water) impact on fouling resistance is evident in Fig. 9d.
As the temperature rises, fouling resistance increases too. As higher
temperature increases chemical reaction rate hence nucleation and
crystallization rate start growing on heat transfer surface area
resulting higher fouling resistance.
The efficacy of various heat inputs or temperature and fluid
flow velocity on fouling rate of twisted tube heat exchanger was
experimentally investigated [106]. The flow velocity was varied
from 0.5 to 2 m/s while the heat input was ranged from 200 to
800 W. The results indicated that at flow velocity of 0.5 m/s, heat
input of 800 W (75.4 °C) yield significantly lower fouling resistance
than the heat input of 200 W (43.3 °C). While in case of 1.5 m/s
flow velocity, reduction in fouling resistance becomes equivalent
at various heat inputs. Particulate deposition markedly reduces
the heat transfer performance of micro-channel heat exchangers.
In Ref. [107] an experimental study evaluated the impact of tem-
perature variation on retardation of particulate deposition in
micro-channel heat exchanger. It was indicated that micro parti-
cles deposits on microchip surfaces due to attractive (Van der
Waals) and repulsive (electric double layer) forces. When the tem-
perature of the solution (comprised of NaCl) was increased from
room temperature (22 °C) to 66.1 °C attractive forces were
enhanced which in result increased the particles deposition on
micro channels.
In Ref. [108] an experimental study revealed the mitigation of
fouling through wood pulp fibres and examined the impact of tem-
perature and velocity on fouling. Fig. 10a manifest that higher flow
velocity and lower average temperature difference (DT) yield sig-
ð8Þ
Fig. 9d. Effect of inlet temperature on the fouling resistance [93].
594 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603
Fig. 10a. Effect of temperature gradient on crystallization fouling [108].
nificant reduction in fouling resistance. To acknowledge the influ-
ence of fouling layer thickness on thermo-hydraulic performance
of heat exchanger a 3D-numerical study was performed [109] con-
sidering two phase flow (water-vapor) and different fouling layer
thickness. The validation of numerical results was performed by
making a comparison with experimental literature results. It was
noticed that as the fouling layer thickness increases Nu number
and heat transfer rate decreases. Fig. 10b elucidates the impact
of fouling layer thickness on bulk temperature. The direct relation
between bulk temperature and fouling layer thickness is quite
manifested i.e. bulk temperature rises as the fouling layer thick-
ness increases. It could be elaborated as the enhancement in foul-
ing thickness leads toward the reduction of gap between fin and
tube which in result yield significant augmentation in heat transfer
resistance of the wall and lastly bulk temperature.
The experimental study in Ref. [110] explored the effect of
CaCO3 fouling on pate heat exchanger by considering four different
plates with two different corrugation pattern (such as chevron and
zig zag) with various waviness depth and pitch. The comparison
was made for coated (Teflon coating) and uncoated plates and their
effect on fouling reduction. It was concluded that with Teflon coat-
ing of three different plate heat exchanger the fouling resistance
was decreases by 5.84, 14.23, and 33.82% when the cold fluid inlet
temperature was 30, 40, and 50 °C. In Ref. [46] an experimental
study investigated the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) scaling on stain
Fig. 10b. Effect of different fouling thickness on bulk temperature [109].
less steel surface to acknowledge the fouling rate, fouling resis-
tance and heat transfer performance of heat exchanger surface.
In addition to that influence of nano-fluid additive on fouling
reduction was examined. It was concluded that the enhancement
in inlet temperature rises the calcium carbonate scale deposition
on stainless steel surface as higher surface temperature reduces
the concentration at which saturation occurred which finally gives
more crystal deposits on surface. Furthermore, it was noticed that
higher concentration of additive has significant influence on heat
transfer augmentation and fouling resistance reduction. The exper-
imental and modeling study in Ref. [111] evaluated the impact of
nanoparticles deposition on thermal performance of conventional
heat exchanger. The influence of wall temperature, mass flow rate
and various concentrations of particles for CuO-water nanofluid on
thermo-hydraulic performance of heat exchange were studied. It
was acknowledged that excessive concentrations of particles dis-
rupt heat transfer performance and higher bulk temperatures
decrease the fouling resistance.
5.3. Effect of material surfaces
Heat transfer surfaces have conspicuous impact on fouling pro-
cess and impurities depositions [112]. The pattern, shape and char-
acteristics of material surfaces impart crucial role in mitigating
fouling rate and resistance resulting higher thermal performance
of heat exchangers. In this section the influence of various
enhanced tubes, modified surfaces, and materials with different
thermal conductivity on fouling mitigation and thermal perfor-
mance of heat exchanger is discussed [113].
Furthermore, the crucial heat transfer mechanisms [114,115]
which imparts significant role in obtaining desired thermodynamic
features of HXs are given below. These mechanisms enlighten us
with different ways of enhancing overall efficiency of heat
exchangers. By implementing innovative and modern techniques
these mechanisms can be fully adopted.
Development of secondary and swirl flow by Introducing inter-
rupted surfaces.
Enhancing turbulence intensity by incorporating corrugated
and rough surfaces.
Development and disruption of boundary layer thickness.
Flow mixing along the wall regions by using passive techniques.
Thermo-hydraulic performance of heat exchanger is promi-
nently influenced by incorporating enhanced surfaces which can
deduce higher secondary flow, intensify turbulent rate and deteri-
orate thermal and hydraulic boundary layer regardless of presence
of fouling layer on heat transfer surfaces. In Ref. [116] experimen-
tal study was conducted to demonstrate the effect of three differ-
ent types of fouling (particulate fouling, precipitation fouling and
combined fouling) on thermal performance of shell-and-tube con-
denser. Moreover, both plain and enhanced tubes were tested
under different fouling conditions. Results demonstrated that the
presence of particulate fouling (SiO2) impart noteworthy impact
on increment of asymptotic fouling resistance. For combined foul-
ing it was noticed that plain tube demonstrated comparatively
longer fouling induction period than the enhanced tubes. The
experimental and numerical study in Ref. [117] insinuated the
impact of Vipertex enhanced heat transfer tubes on fouling rate
of heat exchangers. The comparison was made between various
pattern of enhanced stainless-steel tubes and simple tubes in
terms of heat transfer, frictional loss and turbulent flow. It was
determined that Vipertex enhanced tubes surfaces yield significant
in reducing fouling rate and augmenting heat transfer characteris-
tics at the expense of increased frictional loss. As secondary flow
produced by enhanced tubes increase the turbulent intensity and
 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603
disturb boundary layer thickness and finally provides self-cleaning
action for reducing fouling rate in heat exchanger. Similar study in
Ref. [118] also investigated the impact of Vipertex enhanced tubes
on heat transfer performance and friction factor of heat exchanger
through an experimental study. It was concluded that by imple-
menting Vipertex EHT instead of smooth tubes transition from
laminar to turbulent regime can be attained at relatively lower
Reynold number (around 1000) and both inside and outside sur-
face of tubes enhance heat transfer performance by increasing
the turbulent intensity of bulk fluid. Fig. 11a demonstrate the com-
parison of Vipertex EHT with smooth tubes in terms of heat trans-
fer rate for an inside fluid cooling arrangement. It is quite evident
that modified tubes yield comparatively higher Nu number as the
Re number increases. Higher heat transfer rate and energy conser-
vation while inducing lower surface fouling is the major contribu-
tion of these enhanced tubes in heat exchangers. The influence of
shot peened surfaces (surfaces with the presence of compressive
residual stresses induced by cold working) on fouling rate and heat
transfer performance was experimentally analyzed in [119]. The
comparison was made between shot peened and untreated
stainless-steel surfaces to acknowledge their role in enhancing
thermal performance and resistance to crystallization fouling. It
was found that shot peened surfaces yield comparatively lower
induction period than untreated surfaces i.e. nucleation and crystal
growth in former case is rapider. Furthermore, it was concluded
that treated surfaces offer more fouling crystallization and lower
heat transfer coefficient than untreated surfaces as demonstrated
in Fig. 11b. The insertion of fluoropolymer tubes yields prominent
role in reducing corrosion in heat exchangers. An experimental
study in Ref. [120] deducted significant impact on reduction of
fouling by incorporating ribbed plate surfaces in heat exchanger.
Types of material surfaces in heat exchangers have substantial
impact on fouling. As material surface with high thermal conduc-
tivity is more vulnerable and susceptible to fouling. As higher ther-
mal conductivity yields higher heat transfer coefficient which
means materials with high thermal conductivity provides signifi-
cant heat transfer rate. This augmented heat transfer rate enhances
chemical reaction rate, hence nucleation and crystal growth start
increasing on heat transfer surface area. In Ref. [83] the influence
of crystallization fouling on heat transfer performance of double
pipe heat exchanger was studied through experimental investiga-
tion by varying fouling concentrations, heat exchanger surfaces
(cooper, aluminum, carbon steel, brass, stainless steel), and flow
velocities. It was deducted that heat exchanger surfaces manufac-
Fig. 11a. Comparison of the measured Nusselt number versus Reynolds number for
various tubes [118].
595
Fig. 11b. Influence of the deposit formation on the overall heat transfer coefficient
of the shot peened and untreated stainless-steel surfaces [119].
tured by cooper material are prone to higher scale deposition as
compared to stainless steel surfaces. Furthermore, higher fouling
concentration (CaCO3) leads toward higher deposition rate. It could
be explained by a phenomenon that as the concentration of cal-
cium carbonate in artificial fouling solution increases, nucleation
rate and CaCO3 precipitants rises which eventually deposits on
the metal surface. The experimental study in Ref. [121] deducted
the same result regarding influence of different material surface
on crystallization fouling rate of heat exchanger. The results
depicted that fouling deposition on aluminum material surface
was comparatively higher than stainless steel surface. Different
thermal conductivity values for different material surfaces are
exclusively responsible for yielding dissimilar deposition rate. As
material with higher thermal conductivity (such as Cooper and
Aluminum) augment the heat transfer rate across boundary layer
the which in result enhances chemical reaction rate, hence forma-
tion of nucleation and grain growth of fouling on heat transfer sur-
face increases. In Ref. [122] an experimental study illustrated the
effect of different fin materials (Aluminum and Cooper) on thermal
performance and corrosion of fin-and-tube heat exchanger. Stan-
dard salt spray tests were carried out to accelerate the corrosion
procedure. It was concluded that corrosion on Al and Cu fins omi-
nously deteriorated the heat transfer performance. In Ref. [123] an
experimental study demonstrated the impact of multi-wall carbon
nanotube (MWNCT) with water based nano-fluid on thermo-
hydraulic performance of plate heat exchanger. The impact of var-
ious concentrations of nanoparticles on Nu number and friction
factor was acknowledged. Furthermore, in long run performance
of PHX under this condition, fouling resistance was also investi-
gated with different nanoparticles concentration. It was noticed
that MWNCT water-based nano-fluid yield higher heat transfer
performance at the expense of moderately higher friction factor.
However, for operation time period of 300 h, fouling resistance
was ranged from 0.001 to 0.003. While for more extended opera-
tional time period (600–720 h) significant enhancement of fouling
resistance was found (between 0.1 and 0.3).
The experimental study in Ref. [105] elucidated the influence of
different material (Aluminum, Brass, Stainless steel) and fouling
concentration on crystallization fouling. It was concluded that Alu-
minum material tend to yield higher scale deposition as compared
to Brass and Stainless steel based on thermal conductivity. The
impact of various turbulence generators (TGs) such as punch plate
with inline holes’ arrangement (PP1) with blockage ratio of 80%,
punch plate with staggered holes’ arrangement (PP2) with block-
596 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603

age ratio of 50%, punch plate with inline holes’ arrangement (PP3)
with blockage ratio of 50%, delta winglets (DW), identical pipe (P),
and wire mesh (WM) with blockage ratio of 50% to the Na2SO4
solution at 40 °C circulating across the pipe having water flowing
inside at 5 °C was examined through an experimental study
[124] to acknowledge the fouling performance on heat transfer
surface in the presence of interruptions for different Re number
range for both hot and cold solution. Various types of turbulent
generators such as punch plate with inline holes of different and
identical sizes, wire mesh, delta winglet vortex generators, and
identical upstream pipe (shown in Fig. 12) placed inside the chan-
nel with different flow blockage ratios. The crucial objective of
these interruptions is to induce turbulent intensity inside bulk
fluid and across heat transfer surfaces to avoid any suspended
impurities forming fouling layers.
Fig. 13 evidently depicts the influence of TG on fouling resis-
tance. It is quite conspicuous that PP1 yield significantly lower
Fig. 13. Variation of fouling resistance with temperature and Reynold number
fouling resistance as compared to channel without TGs. These
[124].
interruptions enhance turbulent intensity and induce prominent
turbulent flow across fouled heat transfer surface and eradicate
the crystallization fouling by removing the crystals formed on ing factor than other tubes. In Ref. [129] retardation of oil fouling
outer surface of cold pipe by salty solution. This generated turbu- was discerned by implementing Zwitterionic Polyelectrolyte Coat-
lent flow ominously augments heat transfer rate at the expense ing and results depicted oil and fouled repellency in both dry and
of higher pressure drop and pumping power. wet cases. In Ref. [130] the influence of composite fouling on Cu/
The fouling and heat transfer performance of plain and helical Ni commercial tube heat exchanger was scrutinized. Water sample
ribbed tubes was analyzed through a numerical study and a model was collected from three Hampshire beaches (USA) and circulated
was developed [125]. The results indicated that enhanced tubes through closed loop heat exchanger for 7 and 14 days to concede
disrupt boundary layer development and yield comparatively the fouling thermal resistance inside the tubes. For visual inspec-
higher thermal performance than unmodified tubes. However, tion of fouling, heating tube was installed with polished precut-
inter-fin regions of helically ribbed tubes provide shelter to fouling cartridge. Fig. 14a visualizes the fouling formation on cartridges
layers and hence induce fouling resistance. Surface coating imparts after elongated experimental run for different seawater collected
vital role in inhibiting fouling resistance [126]. Condenser tubes from different places. Cartridges A and B depicts uniform grey coat-
used in steam power plant condensate steam while cooling water ing on the interior surface while cartridges C and D portrays brown
flows inside. This actual brackish cooling water is directly taken interior surfaces. For profound comprehension of fouling develop-
from river and lakes which possess organic and inorganic species. ment microscopic visualization study was instigated as shown in
These species are responsible for inducing composite fouling inside Fig. 14b which clearly depicts small crystals on cartridge surfaces.
the condenser tube surfaces which prevent further steam conden- The presence of scratches, cavities and impurities on clean heat
sation process. The presence of chloride ions in brackish water transfer surfaces are responsible for providing shelter for sus-
induce severe detrimental effect inside the condenser tube surface pended particles and inducing nucleation sites.
causing them to permeate. In this particular case brackish water
might invade condensate layers deteriorating the whole condensa-
tion process. Paint based proactive based films are used to avail 5.4. Influence of various miscellaneous factors
protection from corrosion fouling for condenser tubes [121]. A
comprehensive experimental study [127,128] investigated the Dependency of fouling and particulate deposition is not limited
composite fouling (biological, precipitation, and particulate) inside to the flow rate, temperature and material surfaces as it depicts
the condenser tubes with three different materials (brass, alu- significant reliance on multiple other factors. This section eluci-
minum, stainless steel). The actual cooling water was taken from dates mitigation of fouling by employing some other crucial inno-
a thermal coal-fired power station. To prevent condensation pro- vative aspects in heat exchangers.
cess from injurious fouling, tubes were coated with four different The arrangement, size and shape of tubes also imparts signifi-
paint-based protective films and tests were performed in double cant role in reducing particles deposition in heat exchangers. As
pipe heat exchangers. The results depicted the efficacy of modified tubes in flow field induce horseshoe vortices and wake regions
tubes in terms of fouling factor reduction as compared to unmod- [131]. The intensity, pattern and behavior of vortices is signifi-
ified tubes. Coated brass tubes provided comparatively lowest foul- cantly influenced by the tubes arrangement, as highly intensified

Fig. 12. Types of turbulence generators: Punch plate, wire mesh, Delta winglets and identical upstream pipe implemented in channel [124].
 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603
Fig. 14a. Pre-cut cartridges after the experiment. (A) Hampton; 14-day-long, (B)
Rye; 14-day-long, (C) Rye; 7-day-long, (D) Wallis; 14-day-long, and (E) DIW; 7-day-
long [130].
vortices increase turbulence in flow field hence provide higher heat
transfer rate. The interaction between these vortices and particles
in flow field renders noticeable impact on particles deposition on
heat transfer surfaces. The wake region is the region behind the
tubes where flow velocity is minimum and heat transfer rate is
deprived. By incorporating oval or elliptical tubes instead of circu-
lar or cylindrical tubes these regions can be eradicated [132]. A
numerical study in Ref. [56] investigated the impact of different
arrangement and size of cylindrical tubes on particle deposition
in heat exchanger. Figs. 15a and 15b depicts the influence of longi-
tudinal and transverse tube pitch and diameter of tubes on particle
depositions. The inverse relation between transverse pitch of tubes
and particles deposition signifies that as the transverse pitch of
tubes increases particles deposition rate decreases. It could be
explained as enhancement in transverse tubes pitch prevents the
Fig. 14b. Micro-scale images of the cartridge surface after the experiment. (A) Hampton; 14-day-long, (B) Rye; 14-day-long, (C) Rye; 7-day-long, and (D) Wallis; 14-day-long
[130].
597
wake influence on the area between cylinder rows. Which allows
particles to deviate from wake region of tubes and deposit on heat
transfer surfaces. As the transverse pitch of tube decreases, more
particles entrapped in wake region of tubes and particle deposition
increases.
The experimental and numerical investigation in Ref. [133] elu-
cidated the influence of cone shaped tubes on reduction of partic-
ulate (CaCO3) fouling rate in fin-and-tube heat exchangers. The
effect of different apex angles (600, 900, 1200) were discussed.
The sole objective of this modified circular tube was to decrease
the stagnation region and delay flow separation. Fig. 16a depicts
the geometry of tubes with different apex angles. It was found that
cone shaped tube with smaller apex angle (600) provides negligi-
ble particulate fouling at stagnation regions as compared to tubes
with larger apex angles (900 or 1200). It could be explained from
Fig. 16b obtained from numerical simulation results using com-
mercial software package Ansys Fluent. The stagnation region
appears at the point of impact between fluid and solid object, here
flow velocity is negligible. It is depicted that fluid flow is more
stream lined at stagnation area in case of cone shaped tubes than
simple cylindrical tubes. Which in result yield less particle deposi-
tion and hence fouling rate.
The prominent effect of various geometric parameters of
finned-tube heat exchanger (number of tube rows, fin pitch, fin
thickness, transverse tube pitch, longitudinal tube pitch, fin height,
and fin gap) and operating conditions (fouling particle diameter
and inlet flow velocity) was numerically investigated and correla-
tion between Nusselt number after the fouling conditions and geo-
metric parameters/working condition was obtained [134]. Results
depicted that the enhancement in particles diameters and tubes
with more than six rows leads toward substantial increment in
asymptotic fouling resistance. In Ref. [135] a numerical study
was performed by developing an integrated fouling model and
implementing a discrete phase model (DPM) to demonstrate the
impact of particle size and fluid flow behavior etc. on fouling resis-
tance and fouling mass of H-type finned tube heat exchanger. It
598 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603

Fig. 15a. Instantaneous flow field and positions of particles 23 lm (1) 2.5 and (2) 3 vortex shedding periods respectively after particles release; (d/D = 0.5, ST/D = 3.6, SL/
D = 1.5) [56].

Fig. 15b. Instantaneous flow field and positions of particles 23 lm (1) 2.5 and (2) 3 vortex shedding periods respectively after particles release; d/D = 0.5, ST/D = 2.5, SL/D = 1.5
[56].

Fig. 16a. (a) Apex angle 60°, (b) apex angle 90°, and (c) apex angle 120° [133].

was noticed that fouling rate tends to decreases when the particle
size increases. Furthermore, it was concluded that stagnation and
recirculation zones are most like prone to the higher fouling rate.
In heat exchanger different types of fins such as wavy fins, offset
strip fins, louvered fins, spiral fins, crimped spiral fins, convex lou-
ver fins, slit fins, herringbone wavy fins, and sinusoidal wavy fins
augment significant heat transfer performance in heat exchanger
by reducing the air side thermal resistance at the expense of higher
pressure drop [85]. However, the impact of fins on fouling and par-
ticles deposition is quite different. In Ref. [85] an experimental
study was investigated to acknowledge the influence of louver
and plain fins on thermo-hydraulic performance of micro-
channel heat exchanger under fouling condition. It was found that
louver fins are comparatively more sensitive to fouling than plain-
fins. Furthermore, it was noticed that micro-channel heat exchang-
ers with plain and louver fins, fouling happens on front side of the
plain fins while interior of louver fins is more susceptible to the
fouling. The influence of corrugated surface on heat transfer aug-
mentation and pressure drop was numerically investigated. The
experimental study in Ref. [93] illustrated the impact of various
corrugated angles on crystallization fouling rate in plate heat
exchanger. Fig. 17a depicts that as at constant inlet temperature,
fouling concentration, and flow velocity, increasing corrugated
angles significantly mitigate the fouling resistance. As higher cor-
rugated angles tend to increase surface temperature and hence
fouling deposition rate [94].
The catalytic materials (Zinc, tourmaline, etc.) significantly aug-
ment heat transfer performance in heat exchangers by eliminating
the calcium contents in hard water and increasing its quality.
Fig. 17b demonstrate the comparison of performance of PWT
(physical water treated) and non-PWT in terms fouling resistance
for different velocities [91]. It is quite conspicuous that fouling
resistance for treated water is lower than un-treated water; fur-
thermore, this effect is quite strong at higher flow velocities. Sim-
ilar experimental study [136,137] evaluated the efficacy of
catalytic materials on fouling reduction and deducted significant
reduction in fouling. The addition of natural fibres such as soft-
wood and hardwood pulps in heat exchangers yield significant
 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603
Fig. 16b. Comparison of streamlines of the air flow in the y direction for cylindrical and coned shaped tubes [133].
Fig. 17a. Effect of corrugation angle on the fouling resistance and thermal
performance degradation ratio [93].
Fig. 17b. Fouling resistance for PWT and non-PWT for different velocity [91].
599
improvement in eradication of calcium contents in hard water and
retardation of fouling resistance, hence higher fouling induction
period and enhanced heat transfer performance is retrieved.
An experimental study in Ref. [138] investigated the influence
of long fibres (pine and spruce) and short fibres (hardwood euca-
lypt pulp) on fouling rate of heat exchanger. The impact of concen-
tration and length of fibres were widely examined. Figs. 17c and
17d demonstrate the effect of softwood and hardwood pulp fibres
concentration on fouling resistance as function of time. It is quite
evident that for long and short pulp fibres when concentration is
more than 0.1%, fouling resistance is significantly lower. As high
fibres concentration effectively mitigates the calcium contents in
hard water. However, it was noticed that fouling resistance is
prominently reduced by addition of short fibres than long fibres.
In Ref. [108] the impact of wood pulp fibres on mitigation of foul-
ing and heat transfer performance of heat exchanger was experi-
mentally investigated. The influence of different concentration on
fouling was analyzed and comparison was made with fibre-free
case [139]. The addition of fibre into hard water changes its viscos-
ity [140]. At very low concentration of fibre in water possesses
almost same density as water without fibres. The high concentra-
tion of fibre deteriorate the boundary layer, interact with turbulent
eddies by acting as micromixers hence preventing the calcium con-
tents flowing from fouling solution to heat transfer surface area
and lastly augment the heat transfer rate by reducing the fouling
resistance. The experimental study [141] demonstrated the effec-
tiveness of glass beads on reduction of crystallization fouling at
low flow velocity.
An experimental study in Ref. [75] investigated the influence of
particle size on fouling rate and air side pressure drop of compact
heat exchanger. It was found that bigger size particles render com-
paratively higher pressure drop than smaller size particles. As par-
ticles with larger size are blocked by the fins of heat exchanger
which in result provide higher fouling rate and pressure drop
and ultimately lower heat transfer performance. A 2D-numerical
study [82] demonstrated the effect of ash fouling on thermal per-
formance of flue gas heat exchanger. The impact of staggered and
inline arrangement of oval and circular tubes pitch (longitudinal
600 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603
Fig. 17c. Effect of bleached Kraft pine pulp fibres on fouling resistance Bulk
suspension temperature 40 °C velocity 0.4 m/s [138].
Fig. 17d. Effect of eucalyptus fibre fibres on fouling resistance Bulk suspension
temperature 40 °C velocity 0.4 m/s [138].
and transverse) on Nu number and pressure drop was studied in
the presence of particulate fouling. It was noticed that the
enhancement in longitudinal pitch yield higher heat transfer per-
formance while increasing the lateral pitch of tubes lower heat
transfer rate is obtained. The influence of longitudinal and trans-
verse tubes pitch on particle deposition was insinuated for three
different particle diameters. It was perceived that for SL = 1.5 par-
ticle deposition is small however as the longitudinal pitch
increased particle deposition augmented too. As particles essen-
tially accumulates in flow field with low velocity regions such as
stagnant zone, flow separation zone, recirculation zone, and vortex
reattaching zone. As longitudinal tube pitch increases recirculation
zones get stronger which in result increases the deposition rate.
However, enhancement in lateral tube pitch yield reduction in par-
ticle deposition rate, as low velocity regions gets weaker as ST
increases.
To enhance the activity of water so that higher dissolution rate
and scale shedding could be availed. A study [142] incorporated
physical water treatment method (PWT) by using electronic
antifouling (EAF) device in experimental rig to induce pulsating
electric field in the fouling solution to mitigate the impurities (cal-
cium and bicarbonate ions) deposition on heat transfer surface. It
was scrutinized that fouling resistance continuously decreases
until it reaches to the time period of 85 h, after that it keeps
increasing. However, without EAF case, fouling resistance continu-
ously increases. The effect induced pulsating electric field tends to
diminishing after certain period of time because impurities con-
centration increases which in results degrade the descaling capa-
bility of EAF, hence accumulation of ions and particle matter on
heat transfer surface rises resulting enhanced fouling resistance.
Similar type of experimental study was evaluated to acknowledge
the influence of PWT on fouling reduction [143]. It was determined
that PWT impart significant role in reduction of fouling impurities
present (CaCO3) in hard water.
Mitigation of particulate fouling with low frequency vibration
was experimentally investigated in Ref. [144]. Thermal perfor-
mance of plate heat exchanger was significantly enhanced by
implementing CuO/water nanofluid at the expense of higher pres-
sure drop. But the excessive concentration of nanoparticles yields
particulate deposition on heat transfer surface after certain long
period of operational time [145]. To inhibit particle deposition
low frequency vibration was induced by a vibrator which in results
increases the heat transfer performance on both side of heat
exchanger by inducing higher turbulent intensity and disrupting
boundary layers. It also removed fouling layers from surface result-
ing lower fouling resistance and higher thermal performance. The
mitigation of crystallization fouling was obtained by incorporating
polymeric heat transfer surfaces instead of stainless-steel surfaces
[146].
6. Concluding remarks
Fouling and particulate deposition on heat transfer surface
reduces the thermo-hydraulic performance of heat exchangers
and increases the probabilities of shutdown for cleaning process.
Both online and offline cleaning of heat exchangers causes’ sub-
stantial amount of loss in payback period. Therefore, mitigation
of fouling in heat exchangers acquired enormous attention of
researchers for the last few decades. The exclusive objective of this
critical review study was to extensively elaborate the concept of
fouling and particle deposition on heat transfer surfaces and gather
crucial innovative and modern techniques to inhibit the fouling
process before it leads to the calamitous performance of heat
exchanger. The central focus was given to the few key variables
of operating system which impart significant role in controlling
the fouling rate and fouling resistance. These variables possess
prominent capability of bringing down the asymptotic fouling
resistance and augmenting the thermal performance of heat
exchangers. Followings are the most essential remarks of this
study which will help researchers and designers to design heat
exchangers with higher heat transfer and pressure drop perfor-
mances under fouling considerations.
Fouling in heat exchanger is segregated into several forms such
as particulate fouling, crystallization fouling, biological fouling,
corrosion fouling, chemical reaction fouling, solidification foul-
ing and combine fouling.
Fouling layers and deposited impurities increase the flow veloc-
ity at same volumetric flow rate inside the tubes and provide
fluid flow blockage which in results augment the pressure drop.
Fouling resistance on gas side is significantly lower than the liq-
uid side.
The fundamental variables of operating systems such as flow
velocity, temperature, concentration, and material surfaces pos-
sess significant influence on retardation of fouling and particu-
late deposition.
Higher fluid flow rate or velocity induces significant shear stress
across heat transfer surface which in results decreases the
 M. Awais, A.A. Bhuiyan / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 141 (2019) 580–603
asymptotic fouling resistance and enhance the heat transfer
performance of heat exchangers at higher pressure drop.
Particulate deposition on heat transfer surface rises as the con-
centration of impurities increases that’s because higher fouling
concentration makes the fouling solution supersaturated.
Crystallization, chemical reaction and biological fouling signifi-
cantly influenced by heat transfer surface and bulk fluid tem-
perature variation. Enhancement and reduction of these
fouling with temperature variation is quite different from each
other.
The influence of material surfaces on reduction of fouling resis-
tance is quite unimpeachable. Smooth surfaces provide com-
paratively lower fouling rate than rough surfaces and high
thermal conductivity materials yield higher fouling resistance.
Low velocity regions on heat transfer surface are more suscep-
tible to particulate fouling. Transverse and longitudinal tube
pitch in fin-and-tube heat exchangers also has noticeable effect
on particulate deposition rate. As the longitudinal tube pitch
increases particle deposition increases too, that’s because
enhancement in longitudinal tube pitch lead to the develop-
ment of low velocity regions.
Physical water treatment (PWT) methods like electronic
antifouling, the addition of fibres (softwood or hardwood pulp
fibres) and catalytic materials (Zinc, tourmaline, etc.) in fouling
solution impart prominent role in eradication of malicious foul-
ing and particulate deposition. Furthermore, additives can also
reduce fouling resistance and augment heat transfer perfor-
mance of heat exchangers.
Louver fins yield relatively higher fouling rate and heat transfer
performance than plane fins in fin and tube heat exchanger. In
brazed plate heat exchanger higher corrugation angles reduce
the fouling rate.
Heat transfer surface coatings depicts significant repellency
towards fouling thermal resistance which in results yield
prominent heat transfer performance of heat exchangers.
Declaration of Competing Interest
On behalf of all the authors, this is to confirm that there is no
conflict of interest.
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