Ice age

An ice age is a long period of reduct ion in t he t emperat ure of t he Eart h's surface and
at mosphere, result ing in t he presence or expansion of cont inent al and polar ice sheet s and alpine
glaciers. Eart h's climat e alt ernat es bet ween ice ages and greenhouse periods, during which t here
are no glaciers on t he planet . Eart h is current ly in t he Quat ernary glaciat ion.[1] Individual pulses of
cold climat e wit hin an ice age are t ermed glacial periods (or, alt ernat ively, glacials, glaciations,
glacial stages, stadials, stades, or colloquially, ice ages), and int ermit t ent warm periods wit hin an
ice age are called interglacials or interstadials.[2]
An artist's impression of ice age Earth at glacial maximum.

In glaciology, ice age implies t he presence of ext ensive ice sheet s in bot h nort hern and sout hern
hemispheres.[3] By t his definit ion, we are in an int erglacial period—t he Holocene. The amount of
ant hropogenic greenhouse gases emit t ed int o Eart h's oceans and at mosphere is predict ed t o
prevent t he next glacial period, which ot herwise would begin in around 50,000 years, and likely
more glacial cycles aft er.[4][5]

History of research

In 1742, Pierre Mart el (1706–1767), an engineer and geographer living in Geneva, visit ed t he
valley of Chamonix in t he Alps of Savoy.[6][7] Two years lat er he published an account of his
journey. He report ed t hat t he inhabit ant s of t hat valley at t ribut ed t he dispersal of errat ic
boulders t o t he glaciers, saying t hat t hey had once ext ended much fart her.[8][9] Lat er similar
explanat ions were report ed from ot her regions of t he Alps. In 1815 t he carpent er and chamois
hunt er Jean-Pierre Perraudin (1767–1858) explained errat ic boulders in t he Val de Bagnes in t he
Swiss cant on of Valais as being due t o glaciers previously ext ending furt her.[10] An unknown
woodcut t er from Meiringen in t he Bernese Oberland advocat ed a similar idea in a discussion wit h
t he Swiss-German geologist Jean de Charpent ier (1786–1855) in 1834.[11] Comparable
explanat ions are also known from t he Val de Ferret in t he Valais and t he Seeland in west ern
Swit zerland[12] and in Goet he's scient ific work.[13] Such explanat ions could also be found in ot her
part s of t he world. When t he Bavarian nat uralist Ernst von Bibra (1806–1878) visit ed t he Chilean
Andes in 1849–1850, t he nat ives at t ribut ed fossil moraines t o t he former act ion of glaciers.[14]

Meanwhile, European scholars had begun t o wonder what had caused t he dispersal of errat ic
mat erial. From t he middle of t he 18t h cent ury, some discussed ice as a means of t ransport . The
Swedish mining expert Daniel Tilas (1712–1772) was, in 1742, t he first person t o suggest drift ing
sea ice in order t o explain t he presence of errat ic boulders in t he Scandinavian and Balt ic
regions.[15] In 1795, t he Scot t ish philosopher and gent leman nat uralist , James Hut t on (1726–
1797), explained errat ic boulders in t he Alps by t he act ion of glaciers.[16] Two decades lat er, in
1818, t he Swedish bot anist Göran Wahlenberg (1780–1851) published his t heory of a glaciat ion
of t he Scandinavian peninsula. He regarded glaciat ion as a regional phenomenon.[17]

Haukalivatnet lake (at 50 meters above sea level) where Jens Esmark in 1823 discovered similarties to moraines near
existing glaciers in the high mountains.

Only a few years lat er, t he Danish-Norwegian geologist Jens Esmark (1762–1839) argued for a
sequence of worldwide ice ages. In a paper published in 1824, Esmark proposed changes in
climat e as t he cause of t hose glaciat ions. He at t empt ed t o show t hat t hey originat ed from
changes in Eart h's orbit .[18] Esmark discovered t he similarit y bet ween moraines near
Haukalivat net lake near sea level in Rogaland and moraines at branches of Jost edalsbreen.
Esmark's discovery were lat er at t ribut ed t o or appropriat ed by Theodor Kjerulf and Louis
Agassiz.[19][20][21]

During t he following years, Esmark's ideas were discussed and t aken over in part s by Swedish,
Scot t ish and German scient ist s. At t he Universit y of Edinburgh Robert Jameson (1774–1854)
seemed t o be relat ively open t o Esmark's ideas, as reviewed by Norwegian professor of
glaciology Bjørn G. Andersen (1992).[22] Jameson's remarks about ancient glaciers in Scot land
were most probably prompt ed by Esmark.[23] In Germany, Albrecht Reinhard Bernhardi (1797–
1849), a geologist and professor of forest ry at an academy in Dreissigacker (since incorporat ed
in t he sout hern Thuringian cit y of Meiningen), adopt ed Esmark's t heory. In a paper published in
1832, Bernhardi speculat ed about t he polar ice caps once reaching as far as t he t emperat e
zones of t he globe.[24]

In 1829, independent ly of t hese debat es, t he Swiss civil engineer Ignaz Venet z (1788–1859)
explained t he dispersal of errat ic boulders in t he Alps, t he nearby Jura Mount ains, and t he Nort h
German Plain as being due t o huge glaciers. When he read his paper before t he Swiss Societ y for
Nat ural Research, most scient ist s remained scept ical.[25] Finally, Venet z convinced his friend
Jean de Charpent ier. Charpent ier t ransformed Venet z's idea int o a t heory wit h a glaciat ion limit ed
t o t he Alps. His t hought s resembled Wahlenberg's t heory. In fact , bot h men shared t he same
volcanist ic, or in Charpent ier's case rat her plut onist ic assumpt ions, about t he Eart h's hist ory. In
1834, Charpent ier present ed his paper before t he Swiss Societ y for Nat ural Research.[26] In t he
meant ime, t he German bot anist Karl Friedrich Schimper (1803–1867) was st udying mosses which
were growing on errat ic boulders in t he alpine upland of Bavaria. He began t o wonder where such
masses of st one had come from. During t he summer of 1835 he made some excursions t o t he
Bavarian Alps. Schimper came t o t he conclusion t hat ice must have been t he means of t ransport
for t he boulders in t he alpine upland. In t he wint er of 1835 t o 1836 he held some lect ures in
Munich. Schimper t hen assumed t hat t here must have been global t imes of oblit erat ion
("Verödungszeit en") wit h a cold climat e and frozen wat er.[27] Schimper spent t he summer mont hs
of 1836 at Devens, near Bex, in t he Swiss Alps wit h his former universit y friend Louis Agassiz
(1801–1873) and Jean de Charpent ier. Schimper, Charpent ier and possibly Venet z convinced
Agassiz t hat t here had been a t ime of glaciat ion. During t he wint er of 1836/37, Agassiz and
Schimper developed t he t heory of a sequence of glaciat ions. They mainly drew upon t he
preceding works of Venet z, Charpent ier and on t heir own fieldwork. Agassiz appears t o have been
already familiar wit h Bernhardi's paper at t hat t ime.[28] At t he beginning of 1837, Schimper coined
t he t erm "ice age" ("Eiszeit") for t he period of t he glaciers.[29] In July 1837 Agassiz present ed
t heir synt hesis before t he annual meet ing of t he Swiss Societ y for Nat ural Research at
Neuchât el. The audience was very crit ical, and some were opposed t o t he new t heory because it
cont radict ed t he est ablished opinions on climat ic hist ory. Most cont emporary scient ist s t hought
t hat t he Eart h had been gradually cooling down since it s birt h as a molt en globe.[30]

In order t o persuade t he skept ics, Agassiz embarked on geological fieldwork. He published his
book Study on Glaciers ("Ét udes sur les glaciers") in 1840.[31] Charpent ier was put out by t his, as
he had also been preparing a book about t he glaciat ion of t he Alps. Charpent ier felt t hat Agassiz
should have given him precedence as it was he who had int roduced Agassiz t o in-dept h glacial
research.[32] As a result of personal quarrels, Agassiz had also omit t ed any ment ion of Schimper
in his book.[33]

It t ook several decades before t he ice age t heory was fully accept ed by scient ist s. This
happened on an int ernat ional scale in t he second half of t he 1870s, following t he work of James
Croll, including t he publicat ion of Climate and Time, in Their Geological Relations in 1875, which
provided a credible explanat ion for t he causes of ice ages.[34]

Evidence

There are t hree main t ypes of evidence for ice ages: geological, chemical, and paleont ological.

Geological evidence for ice ages comes in various forms, including rock scouring and scrat ching,
glacial moraines, drumlins, valley cut t ing, and t he deposit ion of t ill or t illit es and glacial errat ics.
Successive glaciat ions t end t o dist ort and erase t he geological evidence for earlier glaciat ions,
making it difficult t o int erpret . Furt hermore, t his evidence was difficult t o dat e exact ly; early
t heories assumed t hat t he glacials were short compared t o t he long int erglacials. The advent of
sediment and ice cores revealed t he t rue sit uat ion: glacials are long, int erglacials short . It t ook
some t ime for t he current t heory t o be worked out .

The chemical evidence mainly consist s of variat ions in t he rat ios of isot opes in fossils present in
sediment s and sediment ary rocks and ocean sediment cores. For t he most recent glacial
periods, ice cores provide climat e proxies, bot h from t he ice it self and from at mospheric
samples provided by included bubbles of air. Because wat er cont aining light er isot opes has a
lower heat of evaporat ion, it s proport ion decreases wit h warmer condit ions.[35] This allows a
t emperat ure record t o be const ruct ed. This evidence can be confounded, however, by ot her
fact ors recorded by isot ope rat ios.

The paleontological evidence consist s of changes in t he geographical dist ribut ion of fossils.
During a glacial period, cold-adapt ed organisms spread int o lower lat it udes, and organisms t hat
prefer warmer condit ions become ext inct or ret reat int o lower lat it udes. This evidence is also
difficult t o int erpret because it requires (1) sequences of sediment s covering a long period of
t ime, over a wide range of lat it udes and which are easily correlat ed; (2) ancient organisms which
survive for several million years wit hout change and whose t emperat ure preferences are easily
diagnosed; and (3) t he finding of t he relevant fossils.

Despit e t he difficult ies, analysis of ice core and ocean sediment cores[36] has provided a credible
record of glacials and int erglacials over t he past few million years. These also confirm t he
linkage bet ween ice ages and cont inent al crust phenomena such as glacial moraines, drumlins,
and glacial errat ics. Hence t he cont inent al crust phenomena are accept ed as good evidence of
earlier ice ages when t hey are found in layers creat ed much earlier t han t he t ime range for which
ice cores and ocean sediment cores are available.

Major ice ages

Timeline of glaciations, shown in blue.

There have been at least five major ice ages in t he Eart h's hist ory (t he Huronian, Cryogenian,
Andean-Saharan, lat e Paleozoic, and t he lat est Quat ernary Ice Age). Out side t hese ages, t he
Eart h seems t o have been ice free even in high lat it udes;[37][38] such periods are known as
greenhouse periods.[39]

Ice age map of northern Germany and its northern neighbours. Red: maximum limit of Weichselian glacial; yellow: Saale
glacial at maximum (Drenthe stage); blue: Elster glacial maximum glaciation.

Rocks from t he earliest well-est ablished ice age, called t he Huronian, have been dat ed t o around
2.4 t o 2.1 Ga (billion years) ago during t he early Prot erozoic Eon. Several hundreds of kilomet ers
of t he Huronian Supergroup are exposed 10 t o 100 kilomet ers (6.2 t o 62.1 mi) nort h of t he nort h
shore of Lake Huron, ext ending from near Sault St e. Marie t o Sudbury, nort heast of Lake Huron,
wit h giant layers of now-lit hified t ill beds, dropst ones, varves, out wash, and scoured basement
rocks. Correlat ive Huronian deposit s have been found near Marquet t e, Michigan, and correlat ion
has been made wit h Paleoprot erozoic glacial deposit s from West ern Aust ralia. The Huronian ice
age was caused by t he eliminat ion of at mospheric met hane, a greenhouse gas, during t he Great
Oxygenat ion Event .[40]

The next well-document ed ice age, and probably t he most severe of t he last billion years,
occurred from 720 t o 630 million years ago (t he Cryogenian period) and may have produced a
Snowball Eart h in which glacial ice sheet s reached t he equat or,[41] possibly being ended by t he
accumulat ion of greenhouse gases such as CO2 produced by volcanoes. "The presence of ice on
t he cont inent s and pack ice on t he oceans would inhibit bot h silicat e weat hering and
phot osynt hesis, which are t he t wo major sinks for CO2 at present ."[42] It has been suggest ed t hat
t he end of t his ice age was responsible for t he subsequent Ediacaran and Cambrian explosion,
t hough t his model is recent and cont roversial.

The Andean-Saharan occurred from 460 t o 420 million years ago, during t he Lat e Ordovician and
t he Silurian period.

Sediment records showing the fluctuating sequences of glacials and interglacials during the last several million years.

The evolut ion of land plant s at t he onset of t he Devonian period caused a long t erm increase in
planet ary oxygen levels and reduct ion of CO2 levels, which result ed in t he lat e Paleozoic
icehouse. It s former name, t he Karoo glaciat ion, was named aft er t he glacial t ills found in t he
Karoo region of Sout h Africa. There were ext ensive polar ice caps at int ervals from 360 t o 260
million years ago in Sout h Africa during t he Carboniferous and early Permian Periods. Correlat ives
are known from Argent ina, also in t he cent er of t he ancient supercont inent Gondwanaland.

The Quat ernary Glaciat ion / Quat ernary Ice Age st art ed about 2.58 million years ago at t he
beginning of t he Quat ernary Period when t he spread of ice sheet s in t he Nort hern Hemisphere
began. Since t hen, t he world has seen cycles of glaciat ion wit h ice sheet s advancing and
ret reat ing on 40,000- and 100,000-year t ime scales called glacial periods, glacials or glacial
advances, and int erglacial periods, int erglacials or glacial ret reat s. The eart h is current ly in an
int erglacial, and t he last glacial period ended about 10,000 years ago. All t hat remains of t he
cont inent al ice sheet s are t he Greenland and Ant arct ic ice sheet s and smaller glaciers such as on
Baffin Island.
The definit ion of t he Quat ernary as beginning 2.58 Ma is based on t he format ion of t he Arct ic ice
cap. The Ant arct ic ice sheet began t o form earlier, at about 34 Ma, in t he mid-Cenozoic (Eocene-
Oligocene Boundary). The t erm Lat e Cenozoic Ice Age is used t o include t his early phase.[43]

Ice ages can be furt her divided by locat ion and t ime; for example, t he names Riss (180,000–
130,000 years bp) and Würm (70,000–10,000 years bp) refer specifically t o glaciat ion in t he
Alpine region. The maximum ext ent of t he ice is not maint ained for t he full int erval. The scouring
act ion of each glaciat ion t ends t o remove most of t he evidence of prior ice sheet s almost
complet ely, except in regions where t he lat er sheet does not achieve full coverage.

Glacials and interglacials

Shows the pattern of temperature and ice volume changes associated with recent glacials and interglacials

Minimum and maximum glaciation

Minimum (interglacial, black) and
maximum (glacial, grey) glaciation of the
northern hemisphere

Minimum (interglacial, black) and

maximum (glacial, grey) glaciation of the
southern hemisphere
Wit hin t he current glaciat ion, more t emperat e and more severe periods have occurred. The
colder periods are called glacial periods, t he warmer periods interglacials, such as t he Eemian
St age.[1] There is evidence t hat similar glacial cycles occurred in previous glaciat ions, including
t he Andean-Saharan[44] and t he lat e Paleozoic ice house. The glacial cycles of t he lat e Paleozoic
ice house are likely responsible for t he deposit ion of cyclot hems.[45]

Glacials are charact erized by cooler and drier climat es over most of t he eart h and large land and
sea ice masses ext ending out ward from t he poles. Mount ain glaciers in ot herwise unglaciat ed
areas ext end t o lower elevat ions due t o a lower snow line. Sea levels drop due t o t he removal of
large volumes of wat er above sea level in t he icecaps. There is evidence t hat ocean circulat ion
pat t erns are disrupt ed by glaciat ions. The glacials and int erglacials coincide wit h changes in
orbit al forcing of climat e due t o Milankovit ch cycles, which are periodic changes in t he Eart h's
orbit and t he t ilt of t he Eart h's rot at ional axis.

The eart h has been in an int erglacial period known as t he Holocene for around 11,700 years,[46]
and an art icle in Nature in 2004 argues t hat it might be most analogous t o a previous int erglacial
t hat last ed 28,000 years.[47] Predict ed changes in orbit al forcing suggest t hat t he next glacial
period would begin at least 50,000 years from now. Moreover, ant hropogenic forcing from
increased greenhouse gases is est imat ed t o pot ent ially out weigh t he orbit al forcing of t he
Milankovit ch cycles for hundreds of t housands of years.[48][5][4]

Feedback processes

Each glacial period is subject t o posit ive feedback which makes it more severe, and negat ive
feedback which mit igat es and (in all cases so far) event ually ends it .

Positive

An import ant form of feedback is provided by t he Eart h's albedo, which is how much of t he sun's
energy is reflect ed rat her t han absorbed by t he Eart h. Ice and snow increase Eart h's albedo, while
forest s reduce it s albedo. When t he air t emperat ure decreases, ice and snow fields grow, and
t hey reduce forest cover. This cont inues unt il compet it ion wit h a negat ive feedback mechanism
forces t he syst em t o an equilibrium.
In 1956, Ewing and Donn[49] hypot hesized t hat an ice-free Arct ic Ocean leads t o increased
snowfall at high lat it udes. When low-t emperat ure ice covers t he Arct ic Ocean t here is lit t le
evaporat ion or sublimat ion and t he polar regions are quit e dry in t erms of precipit at ion,
comparable t o t he amount found in mid-lat it ude desert s. This low precipit at ion allows high-
lat it ude snowfalls t o melt during t he summer. An ice-free Arct ic Ocean absorbs solar radiat ion
during t he long summer days, and evaporat es more wat er int o t he Arct ic at mosphere. Wit h higher
precipit at ion, port ions of t his snow may not melt during t he summer and so glacial ice can form
at lower alt it udes and more sout herly lat it udes, reducing t he t emperat ures over land by
increased albedo as not ed above. Furt hermore, under t his hypot hesis t he lack of oceanic pack
ice allows increased exchange of wat ers bet ween t he Arct ic and t he Nort h At lant ic Oceans,
warming t he Arct ic and cooling t he Nort h At lant ic. (Current project ed consequences of global
warming include a largely ice-free Arct ic Ocean wit hin 5–20 years.) Addit ional fresh wat er flowing
int o t he Nort h At lant ic during a warming cycle may also reduce t he global ocean wat er
circulat ion. Such a reduct ion (by reducing t he effect s of t he Gulf St ream) would have a cooling
effect on nort hern Europe, which in t urn would lead t o increased low-lat it ude snow ret ent ion
during t he summer.[50][51][52] It has also been suggest ed t hat during an ext ensive glacial, glaciers
may move t hrough t he Gulf of Saint Lawrence, ext ending int o t he Nort h At lant ic Ocean far
enough t o block t he Gulf St ream.

Negative

Ice sheet s t hat form during glaciat ions erode t he land beneat h t hem. This can reduce t he land
area above sea level and t hus diminish t he amount of space on which ice sheet s can form. This
mit igat es t he albedo feedback, as does t he rise in sea level t hat accompanies t he reduced area
of ice sheet s, since open ocean has a lower albedo t han land.[53]

Anot her negat ive feedback mechanism is t he increased aridit y occurring wit h glacial maxima,
which reduces t he precipit at ion available t o maint ain glaciat ion. The glacial ret reat induced by
t his or any ot her process can be amplified by similar inverse posit ive feedbacks as for glacial
advances.[54]

According t o research published in Nature Geoscience, human emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2)
will defer t he next ice age. Researchers used dat a on Eart h's orbit t o find t he hist orical warm
int erglacial period t hat looks most like t he current one and from t his have predict ed t hat t he
next ice age would usually begin wit hin 1,500 years. They go on t o predict t hat emissions have
been so high t hat it will not .[55]

Causes

The causes of ice ages are not fully underst ood for eit her t he large-scale ice age periods or t he
smaller ebb and flow of glacial–int erglacial periods wit hin an ice age. The consensus is t hat
several fact ors are import ant : at mospheric composit ion, such as t he concent rat ions of carbon
dioxide and met hane (t he specific levels of t he previously ment ioned gases are now able t o be
seen wit h t he new ice core samples from EPICA Dome C in Ant arct ica over t he past 800,000
years); changes in t he eart h's orbit around t he Sun known as Milankovit ch cycles; t he mot ion of
t ect onic plat es result ing in changes in t he relat ive locat ion and amount of cont inent al and
oceanic crust on t he eart h's surface, which affect wind and ocean current s; variat ions in solar
out put ; t he orbit al dynamics of t he Eart h–Moon syst em; t he impact of relat ively large
met eorit es and volcanism including erupt ions of supervolcanoes.[56]

Some of t hese fact ors influence each ot her. For example, changes in Eart h's at mospheric
composit ion (especially t he concent rat ions of greenhouse gases) may alt er t he climat e, while
climat e change it self can change t he at mospheric composit ion (for example by changing t he
rat e at which weat hering removes CO2).

Maureen Raymo, William Ruddiman and ot hers propose t hat t he Tibet an and Colorado Plat eaus
are immense CO2 "scrubbers" wit h a capacit y t o remove enough CO2 from t he global at mosphere
t o be a significant causal fact or of t he 40 million year Cenozoic Cooling t rend. They furt her claim
t hat approximat ely half of t heir uplift (and CO2 "scrubbing" capacit y) occurred in t he past 10
million years.[57][58]

Changes in Earth's atmosphere

There is evidence t hat greenhouse gas levels fell at t he st art of ice ages and rose during t he
ret reat of t he ice sheet s, but it is difficult t o est ablish cause and effect (see t he not es above
on t he role of weat hering). Greenhouse gas levels may also have been affect ed by ot her fact ors
which have been proposed as causes of ice ages, such as t he movement of cont inent s and
volcanism.

The Snowball Eart h hypot hesis maint ains t hat t he severe freezing in t he lat e Prot erozoic was
ended by an increase in CO2 levels in t he at mosphere, mainly from volcanoes, and some
support ers of Snowball Eart h argue t hat it was caused in t he first place by a reduct ion in
at mospheric CO2. The hypot hesis also warns of fut ure Snowball Eart hs.

In 2009, furt her evidence was provided t hat changes in solar insolat ion provide t he init ial t rigger
for t he eart h t o warm aft er an Ice Age, wit h secondary fact ors like increases in greenhouse
gases account ing for t he magnit ude of t he change.[59]

Position of the continents

The geological record appears t o show t hat ice ages st art when t he cont inent s are in posit ions
which block or reduce t he flow of warm wat er from t he equat or t o t he poles and t hus allow ice
sheet s t o form. The ice sheet s increase Eart h's reflect ivit y and t hus reduce t he absorpt ion of
solar radiat ion. Wit h less radiat ion absorbed t he at mosphere cools; t he cooling allows t he ice
sheet s t o grow, which furt her increases reflect ivit y in a posit ive feedback loop. The ice age
cont inues unt il t he reduct ion in weat hering causes an increase in t he greenhouse effect .

There are t hree main cont ribut ors from t he layout of t he cont inent s t hat obst ruct t he
movement of warm wat er t o t he poles:[60]

A cont inent sit s on t op of a pole, as Ant arct ica does t oday.

A polar sea is almost land-locked, as t he Arct ic Ocean is t oday.

A supercont inent covers most of t he equat or, as Rodinia did during t he Cryogenian period.

Since t oday's Eart h has a cont inent over t he Sout h Pole and an almost land-locked ocean over
t he Nort h Pole, geologist s believe t hat Eart h will cont inue t o experience glacial periods in t he
geologically near fut ure.

Some scient ist s believe t hat t he Himalayas are a major fact or in t he current ice age, because
t hese mount ains have increased Eart h's t ot al rainfall and t herefore t he rat e at which carbon
dioxide is washed out of t he at mosphere, decreasing t he greenhouse effect .[58] The Himalayas'
format ion st art ed about 70 million years ago when t he Indo-Aust ralian Plat e collided wit h t he
Eurasian Plat e, and t he Himalayas are st ill rising by about 5 mm per year because t he Indo-
Aust ralian plat e is st ill moving at 67 mm/year. The hist ory of t he Himalayas broadly fit s t he long-
t erm decrease in Eart h's average t emperat ure since t he mid-Eocene, 40 million years ago.

Fluctuations in ocean currents

Anot her import ant cont ribut ion t o ancient climat e regimes is t he variat ion of ocean currents,
which are modified by cont inent posit ion, sea levels and salinit y, as well as ot her fact ors. They
have t he abilit y t o cool (e.g. aiding t he creat ion of Ant arct ic ice) and t he abilit y t o warm (e.g.
giving t he Brit ish Isles a t emperat e as opposed t o a boreal climat e). The closing of t he Ist hmus
of Panama about 3 million years ago may have ushered in t he present period of st rong glaciat ion
over Nort h America by ending t he exchange of wat er bet ween t he t ropical At lant ic and Pacific
Oceans.[61]

Analyses suggest t hat ocean current fluct uat ions can adequat ely account for recent glacial
oscillat ions. During t he last glacial period t he sea-level has fluct uat ed 20–30 m as wat er was
sequest ered, primarily in t he Nort hern Hemisphere ice sheet s. When ice collect ed and t he sea
level dropped sufficient ly, flow t hrough t he Bering St rait (t he narrow st rait bet ween Siberia and
Alaska is about 50 m deep t oday) was reduced, result ing in increased flow from t he Nort h
At lant ic. This realigned t he t hermohaline circulat ion in t he At lant ic, increasing heat t ransport int o
t he Arct ic, which melt ed t he polar ice accumulat ion and reduced ot her cont inent al ice sheet s.
The release of wat er raised sea levels again, rest oring t he ingress of colder wat er from t he
Pacific wit h an accompanying shift t o nort hern hemisphere ice accumulat ion.[62]

According t o a st udy published in Nature in 2021, all glacial periods of ice ages over t he last 1.5
million years were associat ed wit h nort hward shift s of melt ing Ant arct ic icebergs which changed
ocean circulat ion pat t erns, leading t o more CO2 being pulled out of t he at mosphere. The aut hors
suggest t hat t his process may be disrupt ed in t he fut ure as t he Sout hern Ocean will become t oo
warm for t he icebergs t o t ravel far enough t o t rigger t hese changes.[63][64]

Uplift of the Tibetan plateau

Mat t hias Kuhle's geological t heory of Ice Age development was suggest ed by t he exist ence of
an ice sheet covering t he Tibet an Plat eau during t he Ice Ages (Last Glacial Maximum?).
According t o Kuhle, t he plat e-t ect onic uplift of Tibet past t he snow-line has led t o a surface of
c. 2,400,000 square kilomet res (930,000 sq mi) changing from bare land t o ice wit h a 70% great er
albedo. The reflect ion of energy int o space result ed in a global cooling, t riggering t he
Pleist ocene Ice Age. Because t his highland is at a subt ropical lat it ude, wit h 4 t o 5 t imes t he
insolat ion of high-lat it ude areas, what would be Eart h's st rongest heat ing surface has t urned int o
a cooling surface.

Kuhle explains t he int erglacial periods by t he 100,000-year cycle of radiat ion changes due t o
variat ions in Eart h's orbit . This comparat ively insignificant warming, when combined wit h t he
lowering of t he Nordic inland ice areas and Tibet due t o t he weight of t he superimposed ice-
load, has led t o t he repeat ed complet e t hawing of t he inland ice areas.[65][66][67][68]

Variations in Earth's orbit

The Milankovit ch cycles are a set of cyclic variat ions in charact erist ics of t he Eart h's orbit
around t he Sun. Each cycle has a different lengt h, so at some t imes t heir effect s reinforce each
ot her and at ot her t imes t hey (part ially) cancel each ot her.

Past and future of daily average insolation at top of the atmosphere on the day of the summer solstice, at 65 N latitude.

There is st rong evidence t hat t he Milankovit ch cycles affect t he occurrence of glacial and
int erglacial periods wit hin an ice age. The present ice age is t he most st udied and best
underst ood, part icularly t he last 400,000 years, since t his is t he period covered by ice cores t hat
record at mospheric composit ion and proxies for t emperat ure and ice volume. Wit hin t his period,
t he mat ch of glacial/int erglacial frequencies t o t he Milanković orbit al forcing periods is so close
t hat orbit al forcing is generally accept ed. The combined effect s of t he changing dist ance t o t he
Sun, t he precession of t he Eart h's axis, and t he changing t ilt of t he Eart h's axis redist ribut e t he
sunlight received by t he Eart h. Of part icular import ance are changes in t he t ilt of t he Eart h's axis,
which affect t he int ensit y of seasons. For example, t he amount of solar influx in July at 65
degrees nort h lat it ude varies by as much as 22% (from 450 W/m2 t o 550 W/m2). It is widely
believed t hat ice sheet s advance when summers become t oo cool t o melt all of t he
accumulat ed snowfall from t he previous wint er. Some believe t hat t he st rengt h of t he orbit al
forcing is t oo small t o t rigger glaciat ions, but feedback mechanisms like CO2 may explain t his
mismat ch.

While Milankovit ch forcing predict s t hat cyclic changes in t he Eart h's orbit al element s can be
expressed in t he glaciat ion record, addit ional explanat ions are necessary t o explain which cycles
are observed t o be most import ant in t he t iming of glacial–int erglacial periods. In part icular,
during t he last 800,000 years, t he dominant period of glacial–int erglacial oscillat ion has been
100,000 years, which corresponds t o changes in Eart h's orbit al eccent ricit y and orbit al inclinat ion.
Yet t his is by far t he weakest of t he t hree frequencies predict ed by Milankovit ch. During t he
period 3.0–0.8 million years ago, t he dominant pat t ern of glaciat ion corresponded t o t he 41,000-
year period of changes in Eart h's obliquit y (t ilt of t he axis). The reasons for dominance of one
frequency versus anot her are poorly underst ood and an act ive area of current research, but t he
answer probably relat es t o some form of resonance in t he Eart h's climat e syst em. Recent work
suggest s t hat t he 100K year cycle dominat es due t o increased sout hern-pole sea-ice increasing
t ot al solar reflect ivit y.[69][70]

The "t radit ional" Milankovit ch explanat ion st ruggles t o explain t he dominance of t he 100,000-
year cycle over t he last 8 cycles. Richard A. Muller, Gordon J. F. MacDonald,[71][72][73] and ot hers
have point ed out t hat t hose calculat ions are for a t wo-dimensional orbit of Eart h but t he t hree-
dimensional orbit also has a 100,000-year cycle of orbit al inclinat ion. They proposed t hat t hese
variat ions in orbit al inclinat ion lead t o variat ions in insolat ion, as t he Eart h moves in and out of
known dust bands in t he solar syst em. Alt hough t his is a different mechanism t o t he t radit ional
view, t he "predict ed" periods over t he last 400,000 years are nearly t he same. The Muller and
MacDonald t heory, in t urn, has been challenged by Jose Ant onio Rial.[74]

Anot her worker, William Ruddiman, has suggest ed a model t hat explains t he 100,000-year cycle
by t he modulat ing effect of eccent ricit y (weak 100,000-year cycle) on precession (26,000-year
cycle) combined wit h greenhouse gas feedbacks in t he 41,000- and 26,000-year cycles. Yet
anot her t heory has been advanced by Pet er Huybers who argued t hat t he 41,000-year cycle has
always been dominant , but t hat t he Eart h has ent ered a mode of climat e behavior where only t he
second or t hird cycle t riggers an ice age. This would imply t hat t he 100,000-year periodicit y is
really an illusion creat ed by averaging t oget her cycles last ing 80,000 and 120,000 years.[75] This
t heory is consist ent wit h a simple empirical mult i-st at e model proposed by Didier Paillard.[76]
Paillard suggest s t hat t he lat e Pleist ocene glacial cycles can be seen as jumps bet ween t hree
quasi-st able climat e st at es. The jumps are induced by t he orbit al forcing, while in t he early
Pleist ocene t he 41,000-year glacial cycles result ed from jumps bet ween only t wo climat e
st at es. A dynamical model explaining t his behavior was proposed by Pet er Dit levsen.[77] This is in
support of t he suggest ion t hat t he lat e Pleist ocene glacial cycles are not due t o t he weak
100,000-year eccent ricit y cycle, but a non-linear response t o mainly t he 41,000-year obliquit y
cycle.

Variations in the Sun's energy output

There are at least t wo t ypes of variat ion in t he Sun's energy out put :[78]

In t he very long t erm, ast rophysicist s believe t hat t he Sun's out put increases by about 7%
every one billion (109) years.

Short er-t erm variat ions such as sunspot cycles, and longer episodes such as t he Maunder
Minimum, which occurred during t he coldest part of t he Lit t le Ice Age.

The long-t erm increase in t he Sun's out put cannot be a cause of ice ages.

Volcanism
Volcanic erupt ions may have cont ribut ed t o t he incept ion and/or t he end of ice age periods. At
t imes during t he paleoclimat e, carbon dioxide levels were t wo or t hree t imes great er t han t oday.
Volcanoes and movement s in cont inent al plat es cont ribut ed t o high amount s of CO2 in t he
at mosphere. Carbon dioxide from volcanoes probably cont ribut ed t o periods wit h highest overall
t emperat ures.[79] One suggest ed explanat ion of t he Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum is
t hat undersea volcanoes released met hane from clat hrat es and t hus caused a large and rapid
increase in t he greenhouse effect .[80] There appears t o be no geological evidence for such
erupt ions at t he right t ime, but t his does not prove t hey did not happen.

Recent glacial and interglacial phases

Northern hemisphere glaciation during the last ice ages. The setup of 3 to 4 kilometer thick ice sheets caused a sea level
lowering of about 120 m.

The current geological period, t he Quat ernary, which began about 2.6 million years ago and
ext ends int o t he present ,[2] is marked by warm and cold episodes, cold phases called glacials
(Quat ernary ice age) last ing about 100,000 years, and which are t hen int errupt ed by t he warmer
int erglacials which last ed about 10,000–15,000 years. The last cold episode of t he last glacial
period ended about 10,000 years ago.[81] Eart h is current ly in an int erglacial period of t he
Quat ernary, called t he Holocene.
Glacial stages in North America

The major glacial st ages of t he current ice age in Nort h America are t he Illinoian, Eemian and
Wisconsin glaciat ion. The use of t he Nebraskan, Aft on, Kansan, and Yarmout hian st ages t o
subdivide t he ice age in Nort h America has been discont inued by Quat ernary geologist s and
geomorphologist s. These st ages have all been merged int o t he Pre-Illinoian in t he
1980s.[82][83][84]

During t he most recent Nort h American glaciat ion, during t he lat t er part of t he Last Glacial
Maximum (26,000 t o 13,300 years ago), ice sheet s ext ended t o about 45t h parallel nort h. These
sheet s were 3 t o 4 kilomet res (1.9 t o 2.5 mi) t hick.[83]

Stages of proglacial lake development in the region of the current North American Great Lakes.

This Wisconsin glaciat ion left widespread impact s on t he Nort h American landscape. The Great
Lakes and t he Finger Lakes were carved by ice deepening old valleys. Most of t he lakes in
Minnesot a and Wisconsin were gouged out by glaciers and lat er filled wit h glacial melt wat ers.
The old Teays River drainage syst em was radically alt ered and largely reshaped int o t he Ohio
River drainage syst em. Ot her rivers were dammed and divert ed t o new channels, such as Niagara
Falls, which formed a dramat ic wat erfall and gorge, when t he wat erflow encount ered a limest one
escarpment . Anot her similar wat erfall, at t he present Clark Reservat ion St at e Park near
Syracuse, New York, is now dry.
The area from Long Island t o Nant ucket , Massachuset t s was formed from glacial t ill, and t he
plet hora of lakes on t he Canadian Shield in nort hern Canada can be almost ent irely at t ribut ed t o
t he act ion of t he ice. As t he ice ret reat ed and t he rock dust dried, winds carried t he mat erial
hundreds of miles, forming beds of loess many dozens of feet t hick in t he Missouri Valley. Post -
glacial rebound cont inues t o reshape t he Great Lakes and ot her areas formerly under t he weight
of t he ice sheet s.

The Drift less Area, a port ion of west ern and sout hwest ern Wisconsin along wit h part s of
adjacent Minnesot a, Iowa, and Illinois, was not covered by glaciers.

Last Glacial Period in the semiarid Andes around Aconcagua and Tupungato

A specially int erest ing climat ic change during glacial t imes has t aken place in t he semi-arid
Andes. Beside t he expect ed cooling down in comparison wit h t he current climat e, a significant
precipit at ion change happened here. So, researches in t he present ly semiarid subt ropic
Aconcagua-massif (6,962 m) have shown an unexpect edly ext ensive glacial glaciat ion of t he
t ype "ice st ream net work".[85][86][87][88][89] The connect ed valley glaciers exceeding 100 km in
lengt h, flowed down on t he East -side of t his sect ion of t he Andes at 32–34°S and 69–71°W as
far as a height of 2,060 m and on t he west ern luff-side st ill clearly deeper.[89][90] Where current
glaciers scarcely reach 10 km in lengt h, t he snowline (ELA) runs at a height of 4,600 m and at
t hat t ime was lowered t o 3,200 m asl, i.e. about 1,400 m. From t his follows t hat —beside of an
annual depression of t emperat ure about c. 8.4 °C— here was an increase in precipit at ion.
Accordingly, at glacial t imes t he humid climat ic belt t hat t oday is sit uat ed several lat it ude
degrees furt her t o t he S, was shift ed much furt her t o t he N.[88][89]

Effects of glaciation
Scandinavia exhibits some of the typical effects of ice age glaciation such as fjords and lakes.

Alt hough t he last glacial period ended more t han 8,000 years ago, it s effect s can st ill be felt
t oday. For example, t he moving ice carved out t he landscape in Canada (See Canadian Arct ic
Archipelago), Greenland, nort hern Eurasia and Ant arct ica. The errat ic boulders, t ill, drumlins,
eskers, fjords, ket t le lakes, moraines, cirques, horns, et c., are t ypical feat ures left behind by t he
glaciers.

The weight of t he ice sheet s was so great t hat t hey deformed t he Eart h's crust and mant le.
Aft er t he ice sheet s melt ed, t he ice-covered land rebounded. Due t o t he high viscosit y of t he
Eart h's mant le, t he flow of mant le rocks which cont rols t he rebound process is very slow—at a
rat e of about 1 cm/year near t he cent er of rebound area t oday.

During glaciat ion, wat er was t aken from t he oceans t o form t he ice at high lat it udes, t hus global
sea level dropped by about 110 met ers, exposing t he cont inent al shelves and forming land-
bridges bet ween land-masses for animals t o migrat e. During deglaciat ion, t he melt ed ice-wat er
ret urned t o t he oceans, causing sea level t o rise. This process can cause sudden shift s in
coast lines and hydrat ion syst ems result ing in newly submerged lands, emerging lands, collapsed
ice dams result ing in salinat ion of lakes, new ice dams creat ing vast areas of freshwat er, and a
general alt erat ion in regional weat her pat t erns on a large but t emporary scale. It can even cause
t emporary reglaciat ion. This t ype of chaot ic pat t ern of rapidly changing land, ice, salt wat er and
freshwat er has been proposed as t he likely model for t he Balt ic and Scandinavian regions, as well
as much of cent ral Nort h America at t he end of t he last glacial maximum, wit h t he present -day
coast lines only being achieved in t he last few millennia of prehist ory. Also, t he effect of
elevat ion on Scandinavia submerged a vast cont inent al plain t hat had exist ed under much of
what is now t he Nort h Sea, connect ing t he Brit ish Isles t o Cont inent al Europe.[91]

The redist ribut ion of ice-wat er on t he surface of t he Eart h and t he flow of mant le rocks causes
changes in t he gravit at ional field as well as changes t o t he dist ribut ion of t he moment of inert ia
of t he Eart h. These changes t o t he moment of inert ia result in a change in t he angular velocit y,
axis, and wobble of t he Eart h's rot at ion.

The weight of t he redist ribut ed surface mass loaded t he lit hosphere, caused it t o flex and also
induced st ress wit hin t he Eart h. The presence of t he glaciers generally suppressed t he
movement of fault s below.[92][93][94] During deglaciat ion, t he fault s experience accelerat ed slip
t riggering eart hquakes. Eart hquakes t riggered near t he ice margin may in t urn accelerat e ice
calving and may account for t he Heinrich event s.[95] As more ice is removed near t he ice margin,
more int raplat e eart hquakes are induced and t his posit ive feedback may explain t he fast
collapse of ice sheet s.

In Europe, glacial erosion and isost at ic sinking from weight of ice made t he Balt ic Sea, which
before t he Ice Age was all land drained by t he Eridanos River.

See also

Global cooling – Discredit ed 1970s hypot hesis of imminent cooling of t he Eart h

Int ernat ional Union for Quat ernary Research

Irish Sea Glacier – A huge glacier during t he Pleist ocene Ice Age

Lat e Glacial Maximum

Lit t le Ice Age – Period of cooling aft er t he Medieval Warm Period t hat last ed from t he 16t h
t o t he 19t h cent ury
Post -glacial rebound – Rise of land masses t hat were depressed by t he huge weight of ice
sheet s during t he last glacial period

Timeline of glaciat ion – Chronology of t he major ice ages of t he Eart h

Geologic t emperat ure record – Changes in Eart h's environment as det ermined from geologic
evidence on mult i-million t o billion year t ime scales

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External links

The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on t he t opic of: Ice ages

Wikimedia Commons has media relat ed t o Ice ages.

 Wikisource has t he t ext of The New Student's Reference Work art icle about "Ice age".

Cracking t he Ice Age (ht t ps://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ice/) from PBS

Mont gomery, Keit h (2010). "Development of t he glacial t heory, 1800–1870" (ht t p://glacialt heo
ry.net ) . Hist orical Simulat ion

Raymo, M. (July 2011). "Overview of t he Uplift -Weat hering Hypot hesis" (ht t ps://web.archive.or
g/web/20081022085754/ht t p://www.moraymo.us/uplift _ overview.php) . Archived from t he
original (ht t p://www.moraymo.us/uplift _ overview.php) on 2008-10-22.

Eduard Y. Osipov, Oleg M. Khlyst ov. Glaciers and melt wat er flux t o Lake Baikal during t he Last
Glacial Maximum. (ht t p://ice.t su.ru/index.php?opt ion=com_ cont ent &view=cat egory&layout =bl
og&id=43&It emid=88&limit st art =5)

Black, R. (9 January 2012). "Carbon emissions 'will defer Ice Age' " (ht t ps://www.bbc.co.uk/new
s/science-environment -16439807) . BBC News: Science and Environment.

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