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Syscon 2021 Weight Rev3
Syscon 2021 Weight Rev3
Data
Eric Bechhoefer Thomas Wells
GPMS School of Aeronautics and
Cornwall, VT, USA Astronautics
eric@gpms-vt.com Purdue University
West Lafayette, IN, USA
wells103@purdue.edu
Abstract—Weight and balance are part of every pilot's that for a given power (thrust), airspeed, and vertical weight,
preflight. Gross weight (G.W.) and center-of-balance impacts the what would the aircraft's weight be?.
static and dynamics of flight. However, from a condition
monitoring perspective, understanding the G.W. could determine II. GROSS WEIGHT METHODOLOGIES
the accumulated damage to structural component. This, in turn, Traditionally, G.W. can be taken by weighing the aircraft,
allows for the calculation of components remaining useful life and
but this is generally impactable for daily missions. Additionally,
improved retirement time of structural components. As life limits
for a critical component are based on the worst-case assumption
this does not work for helicopters with sling loads, nor does it
of usage, an actual estimate of G.W. allows for a more accurate account for fuel consumed during the mission. It should be
assessment of loads, thus providing a more precise usage noted, the need for calculating weight automatically has
spectrum. This then provides a path toward extending the time generated a number of both innovative and novel attempts to
between overhaul or extending the maintenance interval. This derive this information. Thus far, the goal is mostly unattained,
paper solves for G.W. using Health and Usage Monitoring System with no commercial systems automatically providing G.W.
(HUMS) parameter data to solve an inverse performance estimation from aircraft-mounted sensors.
problem.
This need for G.W. to define damage was first reported by
Keywords—momentum theory, HUMS, usage credit Daniell and Molnar [1]. Daniell was concerned with the loads
imposed on the rotating components such as the rotor shaft, pitch
I. INTRODUCTION control horn, and rotor head spindle. These parts experience
stress, which varies due to aircraft weight and other factors.
While the calculation of weight and balance is part of every
Daniell notes that tracking these stresses over time aids in
preflight, accurate and automated weight measurement would determining the useful life of these components. Further, due to
facilitate the measurement of aircraft loads. Weight coupled
the rotating frame, these parts cannot be measured with strain
with flight regime would allow for improved structural fatigue
gauges (this work was done before low-cost, wireless
life calculations. Knowing the actual loads imposed on the
communication devices). Instead, Daniell et al. measured the
aircraft can facilitate safely extending life-limited components. blade conning angle in a steady-state using laser diodes. The
For future vertical lift aircraft, designing in the calculation of conning angle is a function of blade load, thus proportional to
weight could be used to improve the aircraft's performance. weight.
Weight and balance affect the static and dynamic characteristics
Moffett [2] was motivated by the requirements of the
of the helicopter. The known weight would be an enabling
Structural Integrity Recording System (SIRS). This study was
technology for advanced automatic flight control systems and
developed in 1978 to acquire operational usage data from the
supporting condition-based maintenance. The known weight
AH-1G helicopter. Their need was to use flight parameter data
could also be used to validate the usage spectrum of the aircraft.
such as engine torque, pressure altitude, temperature, and gross
An actual usage spectrum would use the existing calculations of
weight to differentiate between damaging and non-damaging
time for life-limited components, based on the actual spectrum
flights. Moffett's approach was an inverse lookup of the hover
of usage, to allow for a credit or extension of an overhaul or
performance chart. Using pressure altitude, temperature, and
inspection. torque, go "backward" through the hover chart to estimate the
This paper approaches the calculation of inferred weight as weight. This solution was limited to in-ground effect hover, and
an inverse of the performance problem. Generally, performance as such, is limited in its application.
calculations are used to calculate the power needed in hover and
In "Helicopter Structural Life Modeling: Flight Regime and
forward flight. However, these calculations are made using Gross Weight Estimation" [3], Grabill et al. were interested in
numerical methods. In this paper, the inverse problem solves
Researchers J. Isom et al. [4] wanted to calculate G.W. and B. Power Required
center of gravity to support health and usage monitoring, In this paper, the lifting force on the helicopter is derived
improved control authority via inputs to automated flight from a change in momentum of incompressible air entering a
controls, and improve mission planning systems. Their solution stream tube passing through the rotor disc (that is, based on
to G.W. involves wireless sensors on the main rotor (rotating momentum theory). This flow enters the disk and is accelerated,
frame) to measure loads, then using a multivariate linear resulting in a force (thrust) T, see [7] for more discussion on
regression model to represent the aircraft states, such as G.W. Momentum Theory.
Here, the method uses fundamental helicopter aerodynamics
and measured flight data management (FDM) parameters from 𝑇 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉# 𝑉$ (3)
a health and usage monitoring system (HUMS) to calculate
G.W. This new methodology calculates induced, parasitic, Vi is the induced velocity, V2 is the velocity after acceleration,
profile drag. The power required by these sources of drag is A is disc area, and r is density. With a change in variables, it
summed and compared against the power measured by the can be shown that V2 = 2Vi, or that the induced velocity is
HUMS. The difference is used to calculate the G.W. of the doubled as the air forms in the wake far downstream of the
aircraft from the thrust required for flight at a given airspeed, rotor. That allows for:
density altitude, and maneuver. This process uses the tools
developed for helicopter performance calculations based on
momentum theory. 𝑉# = 1𝑇,2𝜌𝐴 (4)
III. USE OF MOMENTUM THEORY FOR GROSS WEIGHT
ESTIMATION Eq 4 provides the relationship between disc loading and
induced velocity. This tells us that the force provided by thrust
In this paper, results were derived from real-world data
works on the medium passing through it as the induced velocity.
acquired on the Bell 407. Initially, flight data was taken from
four different aircraft with known gross weight and fuel loads. Hence, the rotor is expending power as the product of thrust and
induced velocity:
An important input into the calculation of weight is determining
the rate of weight change due to fuel combustion. The amount 𝑃# = 𝑇 × 𝑉# (5)
of fuel burned is a function of air density and the power
delivered by the engine to the rotor. Power is relatively easy to Based on this concept, the solution strategy is to measure the
calculate as the product of torque and RPM. Thus, the total power required to maintain equilibrium as the power
helicopter's known weight both before and after the flight, along required to overcome parasitic drag, profile drag, and induced
with cumulative power produced and air density (both derived drag. Induced drag is used then use to determine the weight from
for the HUMS), allows for calculating the specific fuel the generated thrust.
consumption.
C. Profile Drag
A. Specific Fuel Consumption
Profile drag is the result of the movement of the blades
Usually, fuel consumption is calculated to determine the fuel through the air. It is assumed that this value does not change
needed to complete a mission. The is done by using the product significantly with the blade angle of attack.
of the specific fuel consumption and power. In this problem, the
fuel burned is used to determine the rate of change of the As a generalized solution for profile drag, the system
helicopter rate due to power. The fuel flow for a given power is requires configuration data. When the aircraft is at idle and not
linear when normalized by a factor [6]: generating lift, it is possible to calculate the blade coefficient of
drag. Configuration data are easily measured, derived from the
blade cord, the radius of the blades, the main rotor RPM, and the
𝛿√𝜃 (1) number of blades. The blade coefficient of drag was calculated
while the aircraft was at 55% idle. As it is assumed that as the
Here, d is the pressure ratio and q is the temperature ratio blades generate little to no lift [6] at idle, the power (percent
relative to ISA atmospheric conditions. From eq 1. The torque x max engine torque x RPM/9.5488) is used to calculate
normalized specific fuel consumption can then be calculated as Cd:
a linear regression (eq 2)
𝐶% = 𝑃8,𝜌 × 𝐴 × 𝑉𝑡 & × (1 + 𝐾) (7) The total power is the sum of equations 8, 9, 11, and 12.
Further, the thrust terms are presented in 12 does not have a
closed-form expression. Hence the solution for gross weight is
Here, r is the air density, A is the area of the blades, Vt is the derived as an optimization problem.
rotor trip velocity, K is the Glauert expression for induced
velocity (a value of 4.65 was used, [6]), and V is the aircraft IV. RESULTS
velocity (for Cd calculation, V has a value of zero at flight idle). Data were collected from several missions' flown on the Bell
407GX, where an estimate of G.W. was made from the fuel load
This leaves the real-time calculation of profile power as: pre-and post-flight. This was used to build a configuration for
the blade coefficient of drag, flat plate area, and specific fuel
𝐶%, & $ consumptions. Using this configuration data and HUMS data
𝑃'()!#*+ = 8 × 𝜌 × 𝐴 × 𝑉𝑡 × (1 + 𝐾 × (𝑉⁄𝑉𝑡) ) (8) from other flights, the profile, induced, and parasitic drag was
D. Parasitic Drag calculated as a function of airspeed. Examples of the Induced,
Parasitic, Profile and total power required are in Figure 1. Note
Parasitic drag is the drag associated with the non-lifting
that this is specific for a G.W. and density altitude.
portion of the aircraft. The parasitic power is calculated as:
After calculating the blade Cd, and the change in weight due
to fuel burn (eq 2), the equivalent flat plan area, f, was calculated
by least-square fit. The data for this estimate was derived from
test flights where the initial and post-flight weight was known
and where the aircraft was flown from 40 to 140 knots. Note that
the V3 term in the parasitic drag equation will tend to dominate
at higher speeds.
E. Induced Drag
This is the drag incurred as a result of lift and is affected by
the helicopter weight. The induced velocity and its associated
drag are calculated from:
Figure 3 is the track of the aircraft. Note that the helicopter icon is at the start
of the inspection, about 18 minutes into the mission. Figure 4 Calculated Weight and Rate of Change of Weight
Observe that there is a small amount of error after The G.W. analysis assumes that specific fuel consumption is
maneuvers. This may be due to the band-limited nature of the accurate. This solution strategy does not expect/use an interface
parameter data, such as torque and airspeed, relative to vertical with the fuel quantity sensor, so the rate of change of weight is
climb/dive. The weight and rate of change of weight are plotted an open-loop calculation. Hence, the analysis is depending on
in Figure 5. The aircraft weight was tested as 2177 kg, while the some context on engine performance. For example, if the engine
estimated weight (at the start of the flight) was 2170 kg. margin drops due to needing a compressor wash, the weight
calculation error will increase. Or, for instance, on the Bell 407,
V. DISCUSSION bleed air is used for cabin heat. Bleed air "on" affects the engine
This estimated weight as derived was relatively accurate, margin by 5 to 6 percent. Consider that there is no indication in
given the small computational effort required to solve the the Bell 407 that bleed air is on. Hence, it is difficult to determine
optimization. On average, the error was less than 1% for the when to apply a correction factor for Bleed Air on in an
mission that was flown (power line inspection). However, it's automated way.
likely the error would be more significant when the modeling This engine performance error would correspond to an
assumptions are not met. increase in weight estimation error of maybe a 1% change in fuel
For sling loads, unless an improved flat plate area is weight. However, this fuel weight error is relatively small
calculated for parasitic drag, the weight will be overestimated. compared to vehicle weight. That said, if part of the standard
There may be strategies to address this where if the model operating procedure were to perform a hover, the HUMS could
"increases" weight in forward flight, it is assumed the flat plate perform an automated engine performance check to account for
area needs an update. However, this does add some complexity engine margin or bleed air on errors.
as to when/how to update coefficient values. This is an active Despite some potential for minor errors in the weight
area of research. calculation using this method, having an idea of actual vehicle
weight and maneuvers will reduce the uncertainty of the vehicle
usage spectrum. In the worst case, the G.W. is corrected by 1.01 standards district office (FSDO) to enable the extension, as per
to account for worst case. This would allow for a revised time [7].
between overhaul (TBO) or inspection interval for life-limited
parts on the aircraft. Even at the design assurance level (DAL) REFERENCES
E (No Safety Effect), a process can be implemented as a [1] Daniell, J., Molnar, G., "Helicopter Weight Measurement," U.S. PN
mitigation. 5,229,956, Jul 20, 1993.
[2] Moffatt, J. G., "Helicopter Gross Weight Determination from Monitored
Consider integrating the HUMS data that is downloaded Parameters," Technical Report USAAT- COM TR 96-D-5, U.S. Army
autonomously with a maintenance management system (MSS, Aviation and Troop Command, Fort Eustis, VA, 1996.
such as Camp Systems). At the end of the flight, the operational [3] Grabill, P., Brotherton, T., and Keller, J., "Helicopter Structural Life
data/usage and loads data are associated with an aircraft Modeling: Flight Regime and Gross Weight Estimation," IEEE Aero
operation. At the end of the flight, the pilot records their flight Conf., 2007.
time/landing for that flight on the MMS application. This [4] Isom, J., Fang, A., Wong, J., "Estimation of Gross Weight and Center of
Gravity," U.S. 2015/0276538 A1, 2015
application pairs the HUMS data with the pilot entered data,
[5] Gessow A., Myers, G., Aerodynamics of the Helicopter, Frederick Ungar
allowing for a person-in-the-loop (e.g., a mitigation) to validate
Co, New York, 1978
the HUMS data was collected for that flight. If data was
[6] Seddon J., Newman, S., Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics, John Wiley &
collected and accepted as valid, load data is accrued on the life- Sons, Chichester, 2011
limited parts. If no HUMS data is found, then the usage is [7] AIR6334, A Guide to Extending Times Between Overhaul for Rotorcraft
accrued as flight time (which is the worst case). This simple Power Train Transmission Using Monitoring Data, 2020-60.
procedure would allow, at the very least, data for a local flight