The Basics of

Permaculture Design

Ross Mars
Artwork by
Martin Ducker

CHELSEA GREEN PUBLISHING COMPANY

W h i t e River J u n c t i o n , V e r m o n t

A Permanent Publications Book

Published by:
Permanent Publications
Hyden House Ltd.
T h e Sustainability Centre, East Meon, Hampshire G U 3 2 1HR, UK
Tel: (01730) 823 311
Fax: (01730) 823 322
Email: enquiries@permaculture.co.uk
Web: www.permaculture.co.uk

Published in the United States in 2 0 0 5

by Chelsea Green Publishing Company
www. chelseagreen .com

Published in 2003
by Permanent Publications, UK

First Published 1996

by Candlelight Trust, W.A., Australia

© 1996 Candlelight Trust, W.A., Australia

Artwork by Martin Ducker

Typesetting and layout by Ross Mars

British Library Cataloguing in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
I S B N 1 85623 023 6

All rights reserved. A p a r t from a n y fair dealing for the p u r p o s e of study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under
the C o p y r i g h t Act, no part of this publication m a y be r e p r o d u c e d , stored in a retrieval system, r e b o u n d or transmitted
in any f o r m or by any m e a n s , electronic, mechanical, p h o t o c o p y i n g , recording or otherwise, w i t h o u t the prior written
permission o f Ross M a r s , H y d e n H o u s e Limited o r C h e l s e a Green Publishing C o m p a n y .

Acknowledgements
A sincere thank you goes to the following people who have commented on various
chapters of this book and made valuable contributions to its production:
Graham Bell, Peter Bennett, Dora Byrne, David Coleman, Naomi Coleman,
Peter Cuming, Chris Dixon, Martin Ducker, Calen Feorn, Pratibodha Foreman,
David Holmgren, Max Lindegger, Jeff Nugent, Peter Pedals, Salli Ramsden,
Margaret Sampey, Pat Scott, Reny Mia Sley, Russell Turner, Patrick Whitefield,
Julie Woodman, Peter Woodward.
A special thank you to Barbara Sheppard and Bob Gehringer for permission to use the
design of their Donnybrook property for the cover.
 Foreword
by David Holmgren

T h e p e r m a c u l t u r e concept, developed by Bill Mollison a n d myself in the m i d 70's, is the

conscious design of our working relationship with n a t u r e . F u r t h e r development,
application a n d extension to a wider public h a v e r e s u l t e d in an explosive growth
t o w a r d s a worldwide network of activity a n d influence.
M a n y would see this growth as p a r t of a fad a n d fashion element in the "global village".
O t h e r s see it as the r e s u l t of Mollison's p e r s o n a l energy a n d c h a r i s m a . While t h e s e
factors a r e undoubtedly elements in the growth of p e r m a c u l t u r e over the l a s t twenty
y e a r s , in the a b s e n c e of a n y organisational s t r u c t u r e a n d m a n a g e m e n t for growth, it
is r e a s o n a b l e to s u g g e s t t h a t p e r m a c u l t u r e does provide some of the conceptual links
a n d practical solutions needed to re-establish our working relationship with n a t u r e .
It is now widely accepted, a l m o s t to the level of cliche, t h a t design is the central
o r g a n i s i n g skill of the post-industrial revolution. T h a t enough b a s i c knowledge exists,
b u t t h a t this knowledge is theoretical a n d divided into specialist disciplines r a t h e r
t h a n b e i n g practical a n d integrated, is increasingly understood.
P e r m a c u l t u r e involves the integration of ecological design principles, the ethics a n d
v a l u e s of working with n a t u r e a n d the detailed situation a n d site-specific practical
r e a l i t i e s of life. In trying to combine t h e s e three very different s p h e r e s of h u m a n
activity, there is c o n s t a n t tension a n d the need to r e - a s s e r t b a l a n c e .
In The Basics of Permaculture Design we see the results of one experienced p e r m a c u l t u r e
practitioner, designer a n d teacher's efforts to m a i n t a i n this balance. R o s s M a r s h a s
written a clear a n d r e a d a b l e guide to p e r m a c u l t u r e design. T h e personal experience in
d e a l i n g with the realities of the affluent society a n d the West A u s t r a l i a n environment
come through as h a l l m a r k s of practical knowledge, while the design process orienta-
tion a n d frequent e x a m p l e s provide a link to a wider r e a d e r s h i p .
T h e m a s s solutions i n l a n d u s e , livelihoods a n d l a n g u a g e o f our industrial culture h a v e
failed u s . T h e hope a n d search for new m a s s solutions contradicts the site a n d situation
specific c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of n a t u r e . W h a t we need a r e u n i v e r s a l , powerful a n d compre-
hensible design principles for guiding practical a n d diverse development.
T h i s is the "holy grail" of p e r m a c u l t u r e which needs ongoing effort a n d focus. However,
in life, we a l w a y s lack complete u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d yet, we m u s t act. R o s s M a r s h a s
provided a useful tool for effective action now.

David Holmgren, Hepburn. A u g u s t 1996

iii
 Contents
F o r e w o r d b y D a v i d Holmgren iii
1 P e r m a c u l t u r e is a direction, not a destination 1
• w h a t p e r m a c u l t u r e is a n d w h a t it is not 1
• ecosystems 4
• sustainable.land use 7
2 M a x i m i s i n g the edge 10
• l a n d - b a s e d food production 10
• w a t e r - b a s e d food production 14
3 G e n e r a l d e s i g n principles 18
• elements 18
• zones a n d succession 19
• sectors 22
• microclimate 23
- frost 24
- aspect 26
- reflection a n d radiation 27
• d e s i g n i n g for c a t a s t r o p h e 28
- wind 28
- fire 28
- a b u n d a n c e of w a t e r 31
- other considerations 31
4 S t e p s in the design process 32
• the design process 32
• design considerations 34
• design steps 35
- information p h a s e 36
- analysis phase 37
- design p h a s e 38
- management phase 41
• i m p l e m e n t i n g a design 41
5 B a s i c tools for the designer 43
• a designer's field tool kit 43
- tape measure 43
- piece of s t r i n g 43
- penetrometer 44
- folding shovel 44
- magnetic compass 44
- pH t e s t k i t 44
- salinity m e t e r 45

iv
 • s u r v e y i n g the l a n d s c a p e 45
- b u n y i p level 45
- "A" f r a m e level 46
- d u m p y level 47
- more expensive e q u i p m e n t 47
• a designer's d r a w i n g tool k i t 48
- scale ruler 48
- light box 48
- stationery i t e m s 48
- mathematical drawing aids 50
- drawing paper 50
6 B a s i c principles o f g a r d e n b u i l d i n g a n d m a n a g e m e n t 51
• introduction 51
• building h e a l t h y soil 51
- the n a t u r e of soil 51
- why m u l c h ? 53
- soil conditioning a n d t r e a t m e n t s 54
• integrated pest management 56
• stacking 60
• guilds 62
• other t i p s for g a r d e n e r s 63
7 It's all a m a t t e r of location 65
• location a n d climate 65
• choosing a property 67
• local r e g u l a t i o n s 70
8 G e t t i n g t h e h o u s e right: zone 0 72
• the p a s s i v e s o l a r h o m e 72
• i n t e g r a t i n g the h o u s e a n d g a r d e n 75
• retrofitting existing h o u s e s 80
9 Water harvesting 84
• on the s u r b u r b a n block 84
• on the f a r m 86
- keyline cultivation 86
- dams 89
- m o v i n g w a t e r through d r a i n s 90
• in dry a r e a s 96
10 D e s i g n s for u r b a n settlement 99
• gardens 99
- compost 99
- garden areas 100
- ponds 102

v
 • animals 104
- earthworms 104
- bees 105
- poultry 106
• limited s p a c e s 108
- balconies a n d windows 108
- small backyards 110
- g e r m i n a t i n g seed 113
11 D e s i g n i n g for r u r a l properties 115
• whole f a r m p l a n s 115
• w i n d b r e a k s a n d shelterbelts 116
• a n i m a l s in the s y s t e m 122
12 P e r m a c u l t u r e in schools 127
• a needs analysis 127
• determining resources 127
• guidelines for designing school g r o u n d s 128
• p r a c t i c a l design considerations 131
13 Communities 135
• h a m l e t - to be or not to be 135
• d e s i g n considerations for ecovillages 137
- bylaws and regulations 137
- guidelines for l a n d development 138
- looking at options 139
- housing structures 142
• social a n d legal s t r u c t u r e s of h u m a n settlements 144
14 A p p r o p r i a t e technology 148
• g e n e r a t i n g power 148
- photovoltaic cells 148
- wind g e n e r a t o r s 149
- hydro-electric s y s t e m s 151
• electric fencing 153
• pumping water 154
- solar p u m p 155
- hydraulic r a m 155
• cooking devices 156
- s o l a r oven 156
- solar food dryer 157
- haybox cooker 157
15 Glossary 159
16 Bibliography 164
17 Index 166

vi
1 Permaculture is a direction,
not a destination
What permaculture is and what
it is not
P e r m a c u l t u r e d e a l s with our existence on
this planet and it encompasses many
different a s p e c t s of this. Firstly, p e r m a -
culture is a b o u t producing edible land-
s c a p e s , m i r r o r i n g the n a t u r a l e c o s y s t e m s
in their diversity a n d production. P e r m a -
culture is p r i m a r i l y a d e s i g n s y s t e m . T h i s
is the m a i n difference between it a n d all
other a g r i c u l t u r a l a n d horticultural prac-
tices. P e r m a c u l t u r e d e s i g n s endeavour to
i n t e g r a t e all components of the ecosystem
in a holistic approach to s u s t a i n a b l e liv-
i n g a n d practice.
P e r m a c u l t u r e s t a r t e d out as permanent
a g r i c u l t u r e a n d t h u s f o c u s s e d on the
growth a n d development of perennial food
crops. A n n u a l s a n d b i e n n i a l s do h a v e their
p l a c e , b u t t h e u s e of long-living food crops,
such a s fruit a n d n u t t r e e s , i s the priority.
S o m e a r e a s of the g a r d e n need to be de-
voted to a n n u a l s a n d in m o s t c a s e s they
c a n be i n t e r p l a n t e d between the peren-
nial h e r b s a n d other t r e e s a s companion
p l a n t e d g u i l d s . Too often, a n n u a l s a r e
t a k e n for g r a n t e d in food production a n d
they should be u s e d in the s y s t e m within
the framework of perennial production.
Figure 1.1 A garden should have diversity of
annuals and perennials.
1
P e r m a c u l t u r e i s not j u s t a b o u t g a r d e n i n g ,
although i t s origin of p e r m a n e n t agricul-
ture s u g g e s t s this. N o w a d a y s , p e r m a -
culture is thought of along the l i n e s of
p e r m a n e n t culture, incorporating all a s -
pects o f h u m a n b e i n g s a n d h u m a n settle-
ments.
G a r d e n i n g , however, is one s i m p l e w a y in
which people can t a k e s o m e responsibility
for their own existence a n d begin to c a r e
for the E a r t h . H e l p i n g y o u r s e l f and others
to build g a r d e n s in your own b a c k y a r d , in
an effort to d r a s t i c a l l y r e d u c e the n e e d to
b u y produce from someone e l s e , is one of
the m o s t e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y - r e s p o n s i b l e
t h i n g s you can do to help reduce our con-
s u m p t i o n of r e s o u r c e s a n d to h e a l the
planet.
S i n c e the l a t e s e v e n t i e s the concepts of
p e r m a c u l t u r e h a v e a l s o developed, such
t h a t i t e n c o m p a s s e s finances, w a t e r har-
v e s t i n g , communities, b u i l d i n g s , a n d al-
ternative a n d a p p r o p r i a t e technology. For
m a n y of u s , p e r m a c u l t u r e is a f r a m e w o r k
t h a t u n i t e s m a n y disciplines, a n d s o the
subjects of a q u a c u l t u r e , ethical invest-
ment, horticulture, solar technology, soils,
a n d m a n y others can be i n t e g r a t e d to-
gether, each contributing as p a r t of the
whole.
T h i s framework p e r m i t s m a n y different
forms of knowledge to be interwoven - all
relative to one another. It is not a s e t of
techniques per se, b u t r a t h e r how a n u m b e r
of techniques a r e employed to b u i l d a
s y s t e m in which energy is h a r v e s t e d , di-
rected a n d allowed to flow, b e a r i n g in
m i n d t h a t it is a l w a y s c h e a p e r to conserve
energy than to produce it. P e r m a c u l t u r e
is also different from both o r g a n i c g a r d e n -
ing a n d forest g a r d e n i n g in t h a t both of
t h e s e a r e techniques of g a r d e n construc-
tion and composition. P e r m a c u l t u r e is
more than this. It is a d e s i g n s t r a t e g y .
P e r m a c u l t u r e is the h a r m o n i o u s integra-
tion of d e s i g n with ecology. T h e ethics of
e a r t h c a r e , people care, l i m i t s - a w a r e a n d
s u r p l u s - s h a r e a r e common to all p e r m a c -
u l t u r i s t s , even though the design s t r a t e -
g i e s a n d the techniques they employ vary
w i d e l y . W e d e s i g n for l o n g t e r m
s u s t a i n a b i l i t y , a n d this is why a design is
a h a r m o n i o u s integration of l a n d s c a p e ,
p l a n t s , a n i m a l s a n d h u m a n s , a s well a s
the p l a c e m e n t of components or elements
in r e c o g n i s a b l e p a t t e r n s .
T r u l y successful d e s i g n s create a self-
m a n a g e d s y s t e m . A l a r g e a m o u n t of what
we call p e r m a c u l t u r e is really j u s t
common s e n s e , u s i n g h u m a n intuition a n d
i n s i g h t to solve p r o b l e m s t h a t confront u s .
Figure 1.2 A permaculture design is more than a garden plan. It must consider all aspects of the
interaction between organisms. (Part of the design of gardens at Parkerville Primary School).
2
T h e outcomes of good design should in-
clude:
• sustainable land use strategies,
without w a s t e s a n d pollution.
• e s t a b l i s h e d s y s t e m s for h e a l t h y
food production, and m a y b e s o m e
surplus.
• restoration of degraded l a n d s c a p e s ,
r e s u l t i n g in conservation of en-
demic species - especially r a r e a n d
e n d a n g e r e d species.
• integration a n d h a r m o n y of all liv-
i n g things on the property - all
things live in an a t m o s p h e r e of co-
operation or interact in n a t u r a l
cycles.
• minimal consumption of energy.
T h e u l t i m a t e design, if there is such a
thing, is the m a r r i a g e of w h a t is b e s t for
the l a n d a n d w h a t is b e s t for the people
who live there. W h a t we call a "design" is
really only a pictorial r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
the implied inter-relationships between
objects, s t r u c t u r e s , p l a n t s , a n i m a l s a n d
h u m a n s . T h e d r a w i n g only g i v e s informa-
tion a b o u t p l a c e m e n t and types of species
a n d nothing about their interaction, which
is the m o s t i m p o r t a n t thing about any
ecosystem.
F o r s o m e p e r m a c u l t u r i s t s , difficulties
a r i s e b e c a u s e of their limited vision, their
restricted world view a n d their world ex-
perience. T h e r e a r e s o m e people who m a y
not h a v e h a d the experience of growing
fruit a n d v e g e t a b l e s , n u r t u r i n g the soil or
building p a s s i v e s o l a r h o u s e s , yet they
can come up with a plan for somebody a n d
tell t h e m this is w h a t they need.
I n one s e n s e , t h e s e a r m c h a i r p e r m a -
culturists may be perpetuating myths
about how well p e r m a c u l t u r e works, when
they h a v e n ' t ever fully i m p l e m e n t e d a
design t h e m s e l v e s or observed, firsthand,
the productivity of their g a r d e n . How-
ever, don't be d i s c o u r a g e d by this. How
m u c h m o r e d a m a g e can you do to what's
a l r e a d y been done? It is better to build
your g a r d e n s a n d grow your own food, a n d
m a k e m i s t a k e s , t h a n it is to do nothing
a n d continue to s u p p o r t the promotion of
v a s t monocultures.
D e s i g n e r s who h a v e a m b i t i o n s to produce
d e s i g n s for other people, whether they a r e
p a y i n g clients or friends or long-suffering
r e l a t i v e s , m u s t h a v e the practical experi-
ence in their own b a c k y a r d . N o t h i n g b e a t s
f i r s t - h a n d knowledge a n d acquired skills
from g a r d e n i n g , d e s i g n i n g a n d building
your own s y s t e m s .
A g a i n , p e r m a c u l t u r e i s not j u s t a b o u t
designing gardens. It is about designing
h u m a n s e t t l e m e n t s . It is a plan t h a t en-
d e a v o u r s to m a x i m i s e and enhance hu-
m a n interaction with the environment
t h a t s u r r o u n d s them. T h i s plan considers
3
all facets of h u m a n existence. C o m i n g to
the realisation t h a t c h a n g e s a r e needed to
the w a y s h u m a n s live, a n d then facing the
bold step of acknowledging t h a t we should
do something a b o u t it, is crucial for our
own s u r v i v a l on this planet.
M a n y people find it difficult to accept
t h e s e i d e a s a n d c h a n g e their outlook. B u t
to e m b r a c e p e r m a c u l t u r e y o u h a v e to
change b e c a u s e it r e q u i r e s you to look at
your life a n d lifestyle from a different
perspective. G r a h a m B e l l , well-known
p e r m a c u l t u r e teacher a n d author from
the Scottish B o r d e r s district, told me t h a t
"permaculture is not a destination, it is a
direction". You don't suddenly "arrive" at
s o m e p o i n t to finally d e c l a r e "I'm a
permaculturist". It is a life-long j o u r n e y of
change a n d growth.
We a r e only limited by our i m a g i n a t i o n .
E a c h of us h a s the ability to m a k e some
difference in the world in which we live.
T h e r e a r e no problems, only solutions,
a n d s o m e t i m e s we need to look at s o m e
t h i n g s from a different direction, ignoring
w h a t we a l r e a d y know a n d s t e p p i n g out-
side of our comfort zone. As they s a y , one
person's rubbish is another p e r s o n ' s re-
source.
Permaculture is also about designing sta-
bility a n d p e r m a n e n c e . We try to u s e
p l a n t s , on the l e a s t a m o u n t of l a n d , t h a t
give the g r e a t e s t production. While yields
in a p e r m a c u l t u r e s y s t e m can be high,
much higher than n a t u r a l b u s h or forest
a r e a s , there is a limit, no m a t t e r how well
we design a n d how ingenious we a r e .
P l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s h a v e limits to their
growth a n d production.
H a v i n g a diverse g a r d e n , m e a n i n g lots of
different p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s in it, is no
g u a r a n t e e t h a t the g a r d e n will be highly
productive. G a r d e n s m a y be only produc-
tive, in t e r m s of high yields of carbohy-
d r a t e s , proteins a n d b i o m a s s , i f they a r e
consciously m a i n t a i n e d . Left to them-
selves, neglected g a r d e n s quickly fall into
disrepair. They m a y still be productive, in
an ecological s e n s e , b u t they m a y not
n e c e s s a r i l y be useful for the owner.
T h e r e is a l s o a difference between yield
a n d production. G a r d e n p l a n t s can b e
very productive - they grow rapidly, pro-
duce lots of b i o m a s s as new l e a v e s a n d
extensive b r a n c h e s and root s y s t e m s - b u t
they m i g h t not produce a high yield. Yield,
to m e , is w h a t you can actually obtain, by
w a y of food primarily, b u t a l s o by any
other u s e a b l e products such a s dyes, me-
dicinal t r e a t m e n t s from h e r b s , or timber
a n d firewood. While a g a r d e n m a y look
like a j u n g l e , you m a y not actually g e t
m u c h out of it.
T o t a l y i e l d s in any s y s t e m h a v e both tan-
gible a n d intangible components. We've
briefly d e a l t with the tangible a n d those
yields w e can m e a s u r e , such a s m a s s o f
l e m o n s produced by a lemon tree.
B u t w h a t a b o u t those "yields" t h a t w e
simply cannot m e a s u r e . How do you m e a s -
u r e a p e r s o n ' s h e a l t h a n d well-being a n d
the p l e a s u r e they derive from their gar-
den? T h e s e intangible yields h a v e worth
which we often s e e m to neglect.
How can you m e a s u r e the effectiveness of
your p a s s i v e solar h o u s e , other than com-
p a r i n g it to the " a v e r a g e " consumption of
a typical h o u s e elsewhere, or the energy
bills y o u p a i d in a h o u s e you once lived in
e l s e w h e r e ? How well would a conven-
tional h o u s e fare if you h a d built this type
on the property right where your solar
h o u s e i s ? T h e s e a r e s y s t e m yields t h a t
defy m e a s u r e m e n t .
I u s e d to think t h a t we h a d to design the
m o s t intensive, productive s y s t e m p o s s i -
ble, b u t n o w a d a y s I think we should a i m
for a s y s t e m t h a t produces j u s t enough -
j u s t enough of w h a t we need a n d a little
e x t r a which e n a b l e s us the opportunity
for s a l e , e x c h a n g e or to give away.
M a n y people think of food g a r d e n s a n d
self-sufficiency when they think about
p e r m a c u l t u r e , b u t p e r m a c u l t u r e is really
a b o u t s u s t a i n a b l e living. W h a t you learn
4
in the g a r d e n is closely linked with natu-
ral cycles, and it also provides the oppor-
tunity to t a k e responsibility for growing
your own healthy food. F u r t h e r m o r e , we
m u s t n ' t forget t h a t m a n y p l a n t s in our
p e r m a c u l t u r e s y s t e m s m a y not be directly
useful to u s , b u t m a y be e s s e n t i a l in the
life cycle of insects, birds and other ani-
mals.
I don't believe p e r m a c u l t u r e should be
seen as a way in which people can become
self-sufficient. T h e e m p h a s i s should be on
people becoming self-reliant, with posi-
tive interaction a n d co-operation between
all m e m b e r s within the community.
It is true t h a t the goal of p e r m a c u l t u r e
design is to create an edible l a n d s c a p e .
L i k e a n a t u r a l forest, our g a r d e n s should
contain a m i x t u r e of both different species
a n d different a g e s . How to achieve this is
known as succession, a n d it occurs in all
ecosystems.
Ecosystems
P e r m a c u l t u r e h a s been described a s culti-
v a t e d ecology, where h u m a n s deliberately
develop cultivated e c o s y s t e m s which a r e
designed to m a i n t a i n genetic biodiversity
a n d m i n i m i s e energy a n d m a t t e r i n p u t s .
An ecosystem describes an a r e a a n d all
t h a t it contains - the living things a n d
their non-living s u r r o u n d i n g s , such as
the air, w a t e r a n d soil particles. F o r ex-
a m p l e , an e x a m i n a t i o n of a pond or forest
ecosystem would show the m a n y food
chains a n d other relationships between
the o r g a n i s m s which live there.
In n a t u r e , m o s t e c o s y s t e m s a r e exception-
ally fragile, a n d s m a l l c h a n g e s , m o s t often
c a u s e d by h u m a n t h o u g h t l e s s n e s s , can
destroy the s y s t e m forever. T h i s is due to
the interconnectedness of the web of life.
All things depend on each other in either
direct or indirect w a y s . For e x a m p l e , some
a n i m a l s e a t others, p l a n t s require nutri-
ent w a s t e s from a n i m a l s to grow, a n d
p l a n t s m a k e the oxygen which all living
things require.
Figure 1.3 Λ forest ecosystem showing some of the feeding relationships between organisms and
how these organisms interact with their environment.
E n e r g y is continuously lost from all natu­
ral ecosystems and thus m u s t be replaced
to m a i n t a i n the l a r g e r n u m b e r s of inter­
a c t i o n s t h a t occur. T h e s u n is the source of
all energy on the e a r t h a n d p e r m a c u l t u r e
systems are designed to capture as much
o f t h i s free energy a s possible. P l a n t s a r e
n a t u r e ' s energy a b s o r b e r s a n d storers.
E c o s y s t e m s also cycle matter. S t a b l e , natu­
r a l e c o s y s t e m s h a v e little m a t t e r i n p u t
a n d output, m e a n i n g t h a t organic m a t e ­
rial is not b r o u g h t into the a r e a or ex­
ported to other a r e a s . P l a n t s grow, die
a n d t h u s r e t u r n their organic m a t t e r t o
the soil. P e r m a c u l t u r e s y s t e m s endeav­
our to m i m i c this n a t u r a l cycle by the
d e l i b e r a t e i n t e n s i v e p l a n t i n g of a wide
r a n g e of herbs, trees and shrubs. Animals
complete the s y s t e m so t h a t a complex
food web develops within the e c o s y s t e m .
We try to develop e c o s y s t e m s which a r e
self-perpetuating, a n d although they a r e
d y n a m i c , t h e r e is a b a l a n c e of n u m b e r s of
o r g a n i s m s within it. We s a y t h a t the eco­
s y s t e m is in equilibrium, even though
s m a l l c h a n g e s a r e a l w a y s occurring.
5
P e r m a c u l t u r e g a r d e n s c h a n g e by ecologi­
cal succession, b u t u n l i k e n a t u r e , h u m a n s
m a n a g e to direct the c h a n g e s . S u c c e s s i o n
is normally the slow, p r o g r e s s i v e c h a n g e
in an ecosystem. When l a n d is c l e a r e d the
first p l a n t s a r e usually broad-leaved weeds
(pioneer species) which cover, protect a n d
s h a d e the soil. N e x t come h e r b s a n d
shrubs, and finally trees. Permaculture
s y s t e m s s p e e d the succession p r o c e s s with
p l a n t e d h e r b s a n d t r e e s s o t h a t the climax
(final) community is achieved at a f a s t e r
r a t e . T h e succession o f p l a n t s a n d ani­
m a l s slowly c h a n g e s a n d modifies the
environment.
T h e early colonisers o r pioneers, such a s
broad-leaved weeds, h a v e special c h a r a c ­
t e r i s t i c s to survive i n h o s p i t a b l e environ­
m e n t s . T h e s e include:
• u s u a l l y short-lived (either a n n u ­
a l s or p e r e n n i a l s only l a s t i n g a few
years).
• not very competitive.
• u n p a l a t a b l e (unlikely to be e a t e n ) .
• prolific s e e d p r o d u c e r s (or h a v e
persistent runners).
Figure 1.4 Succession is the gradual change in the numbers and types of plants and animals in
an area over a period of time.

6
 • defence m e c h a n i s m s such as thorns
or poisonous s u b s t a n c e s .
• tendency to be dynamic a c c u m u l a -
tors a n d to mine p a r t i c u l a r miner-
a l s from the soil.
Their role is to protect, cover a n d build the
soil. T h e pioneers change the soil so t h a t
other species can follow and colonise the
a r e a too. As succession proceeds, the larger
s h r u b s a n d t r e e s , which a r e longer l a s t i n g
a n d more competitive for resources such
as light, water a n d nutrients, replace the
pioneers, as shown in the figure opposite.
S u c c e s s i o n is d i s c u s s e d in further detail
in C h a p t e r 3.
I believe t h a t we should do our d e s i g n s to
the b e s t of our knowledge a n d ability a n d
let n a t u r e t a k e over. We m i g h t grow a
nitrogen-fixing plant, such as vetch or
clover, u n d e r n e a t h a fruit tree, thinking
t h a t t h e s e will connect a n d all will bene-
fit.
T h i s naive view is w h a t m o s t of us hold.
N a t u r e is much more complex than this,
a n d the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between p l a n t s , a n d
between p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s , a r e very
complicated; so much so t h a t little is gen-
erally understood a b o u t how it all works.
When we companion p l a n t our fruit trees,
we probably don't r e a l i s e the m a n y other
connections a n d interactions that occur
between t h e s e t y p e s of p l a n t s a n d others
nearby, as well as their interactions with
soil o r g a n i s m s . For e x a m p l e , s o m e nitro-
g e n - f i x i n g p l a n t s m a k e the soil non-
wettable. Soil particles become coated with
organic m a t t e r , which repels water. When
you water your g a r d e n , or when it r a i n s ,
w a t e r doesn't effectively soak into the
ground. W a t e r availability to your trees is
t h u s reduced.
Sustainable land use
S u s t a i n a b l e l a n d u s e occurs when the
productive capacity of the l a n d and its
resource components of soil, air, water
a n d biota a r e preserved, a n d hopefully
enhanced.
7
T h e a i m of your design is to develop i d e a s
of s u s t a i n a b l e l a n d u s e , to the b e s t of your
ability, m a k i n g the property as inten-
sively productive a s possible, m i n i m i s i n g
energy input or l o s s to the s y s t e m , a n d
hopefully allowing you or the property
owner to work t o w a r d s becoming par-
tially self-reliant. T h e principles of s u s -
tainable f a r m i n g include:
• self-sustaining s y s t e m s m u s t be
developed. We want the l a n d to be
productive, y e a r after y e a r , b u t we
h a v e to look after it for this to
occur.
• diversity. T h e property should be
about one-third a r a b l e or horticul-
tural a n d two-thirds stock a n d fod-
der. T h i s is true for much of E u r o p e
a n d l e s s true in A u s t r a l i a where a
l a r g e r proportion for stock is u s u -
ally allocated a s m o s t soils a r e
poorer a n d rainfall is l e s s frequent.
T h e s e figures will vary, d e p e n d i n g
on the climate, soil and other fac-
tors, b u t they include a l a r g e pro-
portion of trees (30%) which should
be planted in every site.
T h e ratio of l a n d u s e activities does
depend on factors such as t h e s e ,
a n d e x a m i n i n g the a n n u a l rainfall
a n d soil type in a p a r t i c u l a r loca-
tion will allow the determination
of a p p r o p r i a t e ratios of stock a n d
other f a r m i n g p u r s u i t s .
• net yield m u s t be high. A good
s u r p l u s provides income a n d this
contributes to the s t a n d a r d of liv-
ing.
• s m a l l size. T h i s gives more produc-
tivity per unit a r e a a n d is e a s i e r to
manage.
One person can possibly m a n a g e
10 ha (25 a c r e s ) of intense f a r m i n g ,
b u t would h a v e difficulties looking
after 40 ha (100 a c r e s ) with the
s a m e level of care.
• economic v i a b i l i t y . W o r k e r s or
 f a r m e r s m u s t g e n e r a t e enough in-
come to survive, and m a i n t a i n a n d
develop the property.
• m a x i m u m processing of farm prod-
u c t s at the source. For e x a m p l e ,
milk can be m a d e into cheese and
y o g h u r t on the farm.
• both a e s t h e t i c a l l y a n d ethically
acceptable. Consideration is given
to the i m p a c t of buildings and life-
style on the environment. How-
ever, functions generally come be-
fore a e s t h e t i c s in any design s y s -
tem, a n d it is probably true to sug-
g e s t t h a t a e s t h e t i c s a r e a by-prod-
uct of good function a n d good de-
sign.
• conservation of wildlife, h a b i t a t s
a n d forestry. S o m e n a t u r a l , un-
touched or restored a r e a s should
be set a s i d e for wildlife.
• u s i n g a p p r o p r i a t e technology - not
n e c e s s a r i l y heavy machinery. S i m -
ple, low energy-using or energy-
producing technology is best.
Figure 1.5 Responsible land use, while still reaping financial and environmental benefits, is the
benchmark for sustainability.
8
S u s t a i n a b i l i t y h a s an ecological compo-
nent and an economic component. For
example, when considering tree p l a n t i n g
and revegetation work, you need to in-
clude the public benefit and environmen-
tal cost in the a s s e s s m e n t , not j u s t the
cost-benefit ratio for the farmer or land-
owner.
Economic viability is ultimately depend-
ent on ecological viability and both need
consideration in s u s t a i n a b l e l a n d u s e
strategies.
We m u s t give an account of our ecological
s t e w a r d s h i p , and t h u s the guidelines for
a n y e c o l o g i c a l l y - b a s e d d e s i g n for
sustainability would include:
• providing long-lasting future ben-
efits, but m e e t i n g the i m m e d i a t e
and current n e e d s of people.
• protection a n d conservation of ex-
isting n a t u r a l b u s h or woodland.
• s t r a t e g i e s to improve soil fertility.
• m a i n t a i n i n g or enhancing water
quality, and h a r v e s t i n g a n d stor-
ing water.
 • u s i n g a p p r o p r i a t e species in the
development. Local (indigenous)
s p e c i e s a r e the first choice, but
proven exotics, which h a v e mini-
m a l i m p a c t on n a t u r a l e c o s y s t e m s ,
a r e acceptable.
We tend to ignore, or m a y b e we a r e
j u s t not a w a r e , t h a t native forests
can provide high yields of bee a n d
a n i m a l forage, edible fruits a n d
n u t s , a n d good timber and fire-
wood.
• u s i n g locally a v a i l a b l e m a t e r i a l s
a n d r e s o u r c e s for buildings, fences
a n d other s t r u c t u r e s .
• u s i n g a p p r o p r i a t e technology for
energy a n d power production, wa-
ter m o v e m e n t a n d general prop-
erty development.
• developing s y s t e m s which require
low m a i n t e n a n c e a n d input, a n d
which a r e easily monitored.
• consideration of the cultural, so-
cial, economic a n d legal a s p e c t s of
the people.
F o r the s y s t e m s we design to be s u s t a i n -
able they h a v e to produce an equal or
g r e a t e r yield than t h a t which is consumed
or u s e d in the s y s t e m .
S y s t e m yield can be defined or m e a s u r e d
in t e r m s of energy r a t h e r than b i o m a s s ,
which is limited. S y s t e m yield is the sur-
p l u s energy t h a t is stored, or m a d e avail-
My notes
Things I need to find out
9
able, in the s y s t e m .
T h e total s y s t e m yield is not infinite. Per-
m a c u l t u r i s t s a r e interested in obtaining a
s u s t a i n a b l e yield - a yield t h a t still allows
all things in the s y s t e m to m a i n t a i n them-
selves a n d survive.
T h e s y s t e m b e c o m e s d y n a m i c when there
a r e a l a r g e n u m b e r of interconnections
between components, or there is a l a r g e
a m o u n t of interconnectedness within the
entire s y s t e m .
T h e r e is also a l a r g e r a n g e of benefits - not
cost related - t h a t we a l w a y s s e e m to
ignore, yet should consider. F o r e x a m p l e ,
revegetation projects h a v e :
• recreational v a l u e , where people
can visit a n d u s e a r e c l a i m e d a n d
restored a r e a .
• aesthetic v a l u e , where l a n d c a r e
p l a n t i n g s can both look p l e a s a n t
a n d serve m a n y other functions.
• b e q u e s t v a l u e , where future gen-
erations of our children will be
able to enjoy the a r e a as well.
• intrinsic v a l u e , where it is recog-
nised t h a t all living t h i n g s h a v e
some worth a n d h a v e a r i g h t to
exist. T h i s is a powerful r e a s o n
why r e m n a n t vegetation should be
protected.
S u s t a i n a b l e f a r m i n g practices a n d the
concept of whole f a r m p l a n s a r e further
d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 11.
2 Maximising the edge
Land-based food production
N a t u r e is full of p a t t e r n s and s h a p e s . You
can find intricate s p i r a l s in sunflowers
a n d g a l a x i e s , h e x a g o n s in bee hives and
circles in rain drops and winds. Math-
ematical s h a p e s like s q u a r e s , p r i s m s a n d
r e c t a n g l e s a r e r a r e in n a t u r e . They m a y
occur in some chemical crystal forma-
tions, b u t s p i r a l s a n d circles are much
more common in the U n i v e r s e .
P a t t e r n s a r e found in every known eco-
s y s t e m , and the interface or boundary
between two ecosystems is extremely rich
in life - in complexity, abundance a n d
variety. T h e interface between different
surfaces, objects or ecosystems is known
as the edge. It is where the air m e e t s the
water, the forest m e e t s the g r a s s l a n d , the
l a n d m e e t s the ocean, as well as the a r e a
above a n d below the frost line on a hillside
a n d the zone around a plant root in the
soil.
T h e edge is rich in life b e c a u s e it contains
species typical of each side, such as those
in a forest or g r a s s l a n d , and species unique
to the boundary itself. E d g e s a r e very
productive s y s t e m s as there is more light
a v a i l a b l e in these a r e a s , a large variety of
p l a n t s a r e found there, a n i m a l s seek pro-
tection, food a n d shelter and m a k e their
h o m e s there a n d the resources of two
e c o s y s t e m s a r e shared.
Figure 2.1 Changing the shape changes the amount of surface area or edge.
10
T h i s is why p e r m a c u l t u r i s t s create de-
signs with large a m o u n t s of edge a n d
particular patterns; hence circles, key-
holes a n d curved g a r d e n beds.
For example, as wind r i s e s or is deflected
u p w a r d s at the edge of a forest, it u s u a l l y
drops its load of dust, s a n d , l e a v e s , water
or seed.
T h u s , the edge of a forest or heavily treed
a r e a is rich in nutrients and organic mat-
ter, and they a r e very productive.
Even so, there a r e some negative aspects
to creating edge in g a r d e n s . For example,
you can get weed invasion in newly planted
b e d s in much the s a m e way that you find
in burnt and cleared b u s h or forest. The
weeds (pioneers) quickly invade these ar-
eas.
C h a n g i n g the s h a p e of garden b e d s not
only i n c r e a s e s the a m o u n t of edge, and
therefore production, it s a v e s on water-
ing. For example, circle g a r d e n b e d s a r e
far easier and more economical to water
with a sprinkler or spray s y s t e m than a
rectangular or s q u a r e bed, as m o s t sprin-
klers project a circular s p r a y of water.
Convoluted garden b e d s as shown in the
d i a g r a m below h a v e a g r e a t e r surface
a r e a or edge than the rectangular b e d s .
More p l a n t s can be grown in these types of
'folded' garden b e d s . Common types of
garden b e d s u s e d in permaculture de-
signs include:
(a) herb spiral. T h i s g a r d e n bed is built
like a p y r a m i d , with a path or water line
spiralling u p w a r d s . T h e circular b a s e of
the herb s p i r a l is u s u a l l y about two me-
tres d i a m e t e r and r i s e s about one metre
above the ground, b u t it can be larger a n d
higher, or s m a l l e r than this.
A spiral is a useful p a t t e r n as the a m o u n t
of edge a n d growing s p a c e i n c r e a s e s as Figure 2.3 Circle garden beds are very com-
the g a r d e n bed climbs higher. mon.

Figure 2.2 A herb spiral.

(b) circle. T h e s e a r e very common b e d s
a n d they a r e u s u a l l y between one to two
m e t r e s diameter. If you m a k e them too
wide you cannot easily reach all p l a n t s , so
t h e s e b e d s a r e deliberately s m a l l .
S o m e people m a k e each circle g a r d e n bed
a different theme. For e x a m p l e , planting
t o m a t o e s , b a s i l a n d other M e d i t e r r a n e a n
h e r b s a n d v e g e t a b l e s a s a n Italian cook-
ing theme, or h a v i n g a circle bed for me-
dicinal h e r b s , cooking h e r b s , t e a s a n d
d r i n k s (lemon g r a s s , lemon verbena a n d
lemon b a l m and so on) or p e s t repellent
herbs. H e r b s are good companions for
vegetables.
Unfortunately, circle b e d s don't h a v e a lot
of edge, as circles h a v e the l e a s t edge of
any s h a p e for their a r e a of cover. We s a y
t h a t circles, and s p h e r e s generally, h a v e
the lowest surface a r e a to volume ratio.
T h e other problem with a group of circle
b e d s close together is t h a t the s p a c e be-
tween them v a r i e s , m a k i n g p a t h s some-
t i m e s too narrow or too wide.
(c) keyhole. T h e "keyhole" can either be
the path t h a t you step into to reach your
bed or the s h a p e of the g a r d e n b e d itself.
Keyhole p a t h s allow easy-reach a c c e s s to
all p l a n t s .

11
 (e) narrow b e d s . Mainly designed a n d
built for narrow garden p l a c e s where you
don't h a v e much room, but what you h a v e
can be effectively u s e d to grow v e g e t a b l e s
such as onions a n d chives.
(f) broad b e d s . M a n y s u m m e r crops such
as melons and pumpkin require room to
spread. Once the initial mounds are seeded
and the vine crops s t a r t to grow, allow
them to fill the a r e a , as this helps reduce
weed infestation.
(g) vertical. S m a l l - s i z e d g a r d e n s m a y h a v e
to utilise vertical growing space. Think
about u s i n g fences or trellis for vines
(grape, p u m p k i n , cucumber, s q u a s h ) , ber-
Figure 2.4 Keyholes allow easy access to all ries (soft fruit, such as boysenberries a n d
parts of the garden bed. r a s p b e r r i e s ) a n d p e a s and b e a n s . Trel-
lises can be u s e d to provide s h a d e a n d
(d) clippingand pluckingbeds. T h e s e types create s u n t r a p s . T r e l l i s e s r a n g e from
of b e d s contain v e g e t a b l e s that you can wooden lattice s t r u c t u r e s to wire s t r u n g
snip t h i n g s from - m a y b e a l e a f or flower up between poles to allow a vine or creeper
- as you would for lettuce a n d nastur- to grow up and into a tree.
t i u m s . Y o u can walk alongside plucking (h) r a i s e d g a r d e n b e d s . N o t everyone is
b e d s a n d h a r v e s t foods such a s tomatoes, able to bend over g a r d e n i n g all the time -
silverbeet, spinach, p a r s l e y , c a p s i c u m s a n d who w a n t s to anyway? B u i l d i n g a
a n d m a n y other useful foods. S e e F i g u r e g a r d e n bed off the ground is a simple
2.5 which depicts a narrow plucking bed. solution. You can build g a r d e n s on top of

Figure 2.5 Narrow beds are ideal in small spaces. You can harvest from a plucking bed as you
walk along the path.

12
 Figure 2.6 Broad beds are good for melons and vine crops.

Figure 2.7 Use vertical growing space for greater food production.

Figure 2.8 Espalier and fan pruning are techniques to utilise vertical and horizontal growth in
fruit trees.

13
 Figure 2.9 Raised garden beds can be built on any ground surface.
old, s i n g l e , wire b e d f r a m e s or box a gar-
den with s l e e p e r s or concrete s l a b s . Peo-
ple in wheelchairs will be able to a c c e s s
a n d enjoy their g a r d e n s , a n d y o u n g chil-
dren find it e a s i e r to work on t h e s e types
of g a r d e n b e d s .
T h e r e is no limit to the diversity of p l a n t
a n d a n i m a l species t h a t can b e i n t e g r a t e d
in the terrestrial polyculture s y s t e m , a n d
the layout of the p l a n t s can v a r y also. For
e x a m p l e , i n s t e a d of p l a n t i n g in rows, with
p a r t i c u l a r s p a c i n g , trees can be clumped
one to one a n d a h a l f m e t r e s a p a r t , leaving
a v a i l a b l e ground for interplanting.
S o m e t i m e s , orchard trees can be clumped.
T h i s technique is s u i t a b l e for some nut
a n d fruit trees, including coconut, edible
p a l m s p e c i e s a n d b a n a n a . P l a n t i n g pio-
neer l e g u m i n o u s trees, such as Acacia
Figure 2.10 Underplant orchard trees with
herbs and ground covers.
14
a n d Albizia spp., a m o n g s t the edible food
crops further e n h a n c e s the s y s t e m .
U n d e r p l a n t i n g your fruit trees with p e s t
repellent h e r b s a n d other good compan-
ions m a k e s t h e s e trees h e a l t h y a n d re-
duces the need for other types of p e s t
control.
Water-based food production
Water is very i m p o r t a n t in p e r m a c u l t u r e .
Water s y s t e m s can achieve g r e a t e r over-
all protein production per s q u a r e m e t r e of
water surface than the s a m e a r e a i n l a n d
systems.
E v e n s m a l l ponds can produce a s t e a d y
supply of edible foods such as w a t e r c r e s s ,
water c h e s t n u t s , taro a n d w a t e r spinach
( k a n g kong).
S o m e of the m o s t productive e c o s y s t e m s
in the world a r e found at the land-ocean
interface or edge. T h e s e include m a n g r o v e
s w a m p s , which a r e on the l a n d side of this
interface, and coral reefs which a r e lo-
cated on the ocean side.
Any a q u a c u l t u r e we develop n e e d s to be
set up like t h e s e e c o s y s t e m s , with lots of
edge, which not only contains p l a n t s a n d
a n i m a l s with commercial v a l u e , b u t a
h o s t of other o r g a n i s m s .
T h e s e are the b a s i s of the m a n y food
chains t h a t need to be developed a n d
functioning if such a s y s t e m is to work.
Unlike terrestrial polyculture, a q u a c u l -
ture polyculture should only involve a
 Figure 2.11 In polyculture aquaculture many species are grown together.
limited n u m b e r of s p e c i e s . While, in prin­
ciple, p e r m a c u l t u r i s t s would like to m a k e
complex e c o s y s t e m s involving literally
tens of different species, it b e c o m e s in­
creasingly difficult to monitor a n d m a i n ­
tain such a s y s t e m .
Simple polycultures involving four to six
species ( a t the m o s t ) i s the ideal t h a t y o u
should deliberately introduce.
T h u s you could h a v e s o m e c r u s t a c e a n s i n
the bottom of the pond, one or two s p e c i e s
of fish as middle a n d t o p dwellers a n d
several p l a n t species t h a t the a n i m a l s
feed on or shelter in, or both.
Many of the f a m o u s C h i n e s e polyculture
s y s t e m s u s e herbivorous f i s h . T h e r a i s i n g
of carnivorous fish a d d s g r e a t e r c o s t s of
production, m a i n l y in feed.
The r e s t of the e c o s y s t e m develops n a t u r ­
ally. T h e microscopic a l g a e a n d b a c t e r i a ,
and the macroscopic i n s e c t s , p l a n k t o n a n d
other i n v e r t e b r a t e s , all a p p e a r shortly
after the pond is conditioned.
Conditioning a pond or d a m involves a d d ­
ing organic p l a n t a n d a n i m a l m a t t e r t o
m a k e a rich d e t r i t u s which is the b a s i s of
Figure 2.12 The submersible pump inlet should point upwards so that it does not draw in detritus
material from the bottom.
15
m o s t o f the food c h a i n s t h a t b e c o m e e s t a b ­
l i s h e d i n t h e a q u a t i c environment. S m a l l
p o n d s , s u c h a s t y r e p o n d s a n d bath-size
t a n k s , a r e not conditioned in t h i s way.
To condition a pond, a r o u g h g u i d e is as
follows. A p p r o x i m a t e a m o u n t s a r e given
for a p a r t i c u l a r d a m size a n d volume, so
you can d e t e r m i n e your specific require­
m e n t s for y o u r d a m or pond.
F o r a d a m s i z e of 50 m 3 (e.g. 5 m χ 10 m ) ,
v o l u m e = 100 m 3 (depth a v e r a g e 2 m ) ,
b r e a k u p a n d s p r e a d two b a l e s o f s t r a w
a n d a d d two wheelbarrow l o a d s o f a n i m a l
m a n u r e evenly over the pond.
Within a week the water c h a n g e s to a
d a r k e r colour a n d t h e r e is evidence of
living t h i n g s . T h e d a m m u s t t h e n b e aer­
a t e d , continuously i f possible, b u t a t l e a s t
for two h o u r s , four t i m e s a d a y for t h r e e or
four d a y s .
T h e w a t e r m u s t b e moved, d r a w i n g u p
from n e a r t h e bottom a n d s p r a y i n g i t
a c r o s s the s u r f a c e . T h e w a t e r b e c o m e s
aerated at the surface.
T h e w a t e r s h o u l d s t a r t to t u r n a light
g r e e n a s a l g a e become prolific. I f mosqui-
t o e s a r e a problem, continue with a e r a -
tion a n d w a t e r movement. If the water
doesn't b e c o m e green, you m a y h a v e to
a d d a little m o r e m a n u r e or s o m e soluble
p h o s p h a t e fertiliser - about a tablespoon
s h o u l d b e enough.
Once the pond or d a m is conditioned in
t h i s way, y o u can then a d d the p l a n t s a n d
a n i m a l s to the s y s t e m - butnot all at once.
P l a n t s first, especially the forage ones for Figure 2.13 First condition a pond, then intro-
the animals. duce plants and finally animals.
Y o u m a y h a v e t o wait six m o n t h s o r m o r e In s m a l l ponds, where the w a t e r t e m p e r a -
for the p l a n t s to become e s t a b l i s h e d b e - ture can easily change, the a v e r a g e w a t e r
fore y o u introduce fish a n d c r u s t a c e a n s . t e m p e r a t u r e i s u s u a l l y about three-quar-
T h e s e a n i m a l s will devour, pull out a n d t e r s of the a i r t e m p e r a t u r e .
d e c i m a t e p l a n t s t h a t a r e not well e s t a b - F o r e x a m p l e , if the a i r t e m p e r a t u r e is
lished. 3 0 ° C the w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e m i g h t only
Don't p u t lots of deciduous fruit a n d n u t b e 2 4 ° C . T h i s i s important, a s m o s t fresh-
t r e e s a r o u n d the d a m , a s l a r g e a m o u n t s o f w a t e r a q u a t i c a n i m a l s will die if the w a t e r
organic m a t t e r falling into the w a t e r w a y t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e s to over 3 0 ° C for a d a y or
will quickly pollute the s y s t e m a n d all two, s o m e t i m e s l e s s .
living t h i n g s will literally die overnight E d g e i n a q u a c u l t u r e i s equally a s impor-
d u e to lack of oxygen. t a n t a s i t i s for l a n d - b a s e d polyculture.
When fruit or l e a v e s fall into water, b a c -
t e r i a a n d fungi b r e a k t h e m down. L a r g e
a m o u n t s of t h e s e o r g a n i s m s consume the
s m a l l a m o u n t s of oxygen p r e s e n t in the
w a t e r , especially at night when all living
t h i n g s r e s p i r e a n d u s e oxygen. T h e pond
life dies.
Oxygen l e v e l s a r e also dependent on wa-
ter t e m p e r a t u r e . As temperatures increase
t h e a m o u n t of dissolved oxygen d e c r e a s e s .
P o n d s a n d d a m s containing w a r m water Figure 2.16 Fingers of land surrounded by
m a y n e e d r e g u l a r aeration i f p l a n t s a n d water can be economically and easily fenced to
a n i m a l s a r e present. reduce the impact of unwanted predators.

Figure 2.14 Hiding places are very important for territorial animals such as many freshwater
crayfish species. Suspended, floating hides are used as protection sites when crayfish moult.

16
Figure 2.15 Change the shape of a dam to increase the edge and, therefore, the production of
the system.
P o n d s or d a m s don't h a v e to be the typi-
cally-found s q u a r e or r e c t a n g u l a r s h a p e .
A d d i n g curves a n d b e n d s to the e d g e s of
w a t e r w a y s i n c r e a s e s the surface a r e a , a n d
a g a i n , g r e a t e r production a n d carrying
capacity in the s y s t e m is the result.
T h e c h i n a m p a s y s t e m o f Mexico a n d S E
A s i a , for e x a m p l e , is one of the m o s t pro-
ductive h u m a n - m a d e a q u a c u l t u r e s y s -
t e m s . H e r e , thin s t r i p s of w a t e r a n d l a n d
a r e interwoven to provide lots of edge for
bird a n d other a n i m a l h a b i t a t s , a s well a s
for food production.
T h e e d g e s of w a t e r w a y s a r e i m p o r t a n t
development a r e a s for m a n y o r g a n i s m s .
My notes
Things I need to find out
17
Fish, crustaceans, molluscs and amphib-
i a n s all breed a n d grow in the shallow
w a t e r s of w a t e r w a y s .
R e e d s , r u s h e s a n d s e d g e s , a n d a h o s t of
other macrophytes, a r e found growing on
or n e a r the water's edge. T h e s e p l a n t s
provide food for both a q u a t i c a n d l a n d
e c o s y s t e m s a s well a s shelter a n d breed-
ing s p a c e a n d m a t e r i a l for b i r d s a n d other
organisms.
T h e concept of m a x i m i s i n g the edge in
design is further i l l u s t r a t e d by the s h a p e s
of w i n d b r e a k s , h o u s e s a n d other struc-
t u r e s which a r e d i s c u s s e d later in other
chapters.
3 General design principles
Elements
We u s e the term "element" to describe
a n y t h i n g we place in the design. T h i s can
be a plant, an a n i m a l , or some building or
other structure. However, elements a l s o
include those n a t u r a l f e a t u r e s t h a t m a y
be p r e s e n t on the site. For e x a m p l e , nu-
m e r o u s l a r g e rocks, clay and gravel (for
m u d b r i c k s a n d r a m m e d earth walls) a n d
a patch of r e m n a n t b u s h l a n d or woodland
all i m p a c t on the final design s t r a t e g i e s .
We u s e e l e m e n t s to provide the m a n y
functions we desire, a n d t h a t m a k e the
property productive a n d beneficial to all
t h i n g s which a r e present. T h e s e functions
include w i n d b r e a k s , food production, fire
control, energy production, a n d soil build-
ing a n d conditioning.
E a c h of t h e s e functions is served by sev-
eral e l e m e n t s ; in this way each element
contributes to the whole s y s t e m . If one
element fails there a r e others to perform
the function.
It is the l a r g e n u m b e r of useful relation-
s h i p s which exist between the elements of
a p e r m a c u l t u r e s y s t e m t h a t m a k e s it so
dynamic a n d functional.
Diversity in a s y s t e m i n c r e a s e s the likeli-
hood of s u c c e s s . Our observations of na-
ture's rich, biodiverse ecology confirms
this.
It is b e c a u s e of this philosophy that we
view o r g a n i s m s from a different perspec-
tive. We view weeds, for e x a m p l e , as pio-
neer p l a n t s , or we s a y things like "we
Table 3.1 A needs analysis of an earthworm.
don't h a v e weeds, we h a v e dynamic accu-
mulators". In holding these views, we rec-
ognise and acknowledge the b a s i c life ethic
t h a t all things a r e worthwhile and h a v e
intrinsic v a l u e themselves.
Knowing what elements we should place
in our s y s t e m is one of the h a r d e s t prob-
l e m s we h a v e to solve. D e s i g n e r s b a s i c a l l y
need to know where t h i n g s a r e placed a n d
why.
To help us work out w h a t we should de-
velop or grow, we perform a S i t e or E l e -
ment Needs Analysis.
Here, we consider all a s p e c t s of the ele-
ment, such as its Intrinsic characteris-
tics, N e e d s , Products, B e h a v i o u r s a n d
Functions.
As an e x a m p l e , consider the earthworm,
which is the b e s t a n i m a l to h a v e in every
p e r m a c u l t u r e s y s t e m . A brief a n a l y s i s is
shown in the T a b l e 3.1 below.
Integrating all elements into the design is
the next step. We m a k e s u r e t h a t s o m e
elements can supply the needs of the earth-
worm and that the earthworm products
a r e u s e d in the s y s t e m as well.
We try to u s e the products of one e l e m e n t
to satisfy the needs of another element.
For e x a m p l e , organic matter, as food for
the earthworm, m a y be supplied by fall-
ing leaves, kitchen s c r a p s or chicken m a n -
ure a n d u s e d p a p e r .
T h e earthworm c a s t i n g s a n d vermicom-
post are also u s e d in our design as they

Analysis Element characteristics

Needs organic matter, oxygen, coolness, other worms and water
Intrinsic breed or type (for example, red wriggler or tigerworm),
characteristics size and colour
Behaviour fast breeding, prefers cool, dark environment
Products castings (worm poo), vermicompost
Functions aerator of soil, breaks down organic matter, soil tiller

18
supply nutrients to our growing p l a n t s .
It is this holistic approach to design t h a t
m a k e s p e r m a c u l t u r e unique. We try to
develop an integrated, functional ecosys-
tem t h a t h a s a diverse n u m b e r of ele-
m e n t s (principally p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s ) .
F u r t h e r m o r e , j u d i c i o u s u s e of plants and
other elements in our d e s i g n s is also m e a n t
to c a u s e l e s s s t r e s s for a n i m a l s . Placing
other e l e m e n t s , such as fodder tree spe-
cies a n d w a t e r near to your milking goat,
for e x a m p l e , c a u s e s l e s s s t r e s s in the daily
life of the goat.
Zones and succession
P e r m a c u l t u r e is b a s e d on conserving en-
ergy - not only the type you h a v e to buy to
run the refrigerator or television, b u t t h a t
of h u m a n energy.
T h e design is such t h a t you m i n i m i s e the
energy and effort needed to walk in differ-
ent directions to feed the chickens, milk
the g o a t a n d collect the vegetables for the
evening meal. T h e s e elements, along with
Figure 3.1 Zonation. Zones are imaginary boundaries that depict different parts of the property.
19
others in the s y s t e m , a r e placed relative
to each other and relative to the n u m b e r of
times you h a v e to visit them on a daily,
weekly or some other b a s i s .
Not all elements need attention all the
time. For e x a m p l e , long-term (slow grow-
ing) trees need very few visits.
T h e positioning of e l e m e n t s in the design
is known as zoning. I m a g i n e five concen-
tric rings around your h o u s e , called zones
1, 2, 3, 4 a n d 5, with zone 1 closest to the
h o u s e a n d zone 5 generally furthest away.
We place different elements in each, de-
pending on how often we h a v e to visit
them. For e x a m p l e , v e g e t a b l e s and h e r b s
a r e grown close to the h o u s e in zone 1,
while orchard trees a r e further a w a y in
zones 2 or 3.
T h e more attention a n element m u s t h a v e ,
the closer to the h o u s e it should be. Gen-
erally, zones a r e not bounded by fences or
delineated in other w a y s . Zones a r e sim-
ply a convenient way to deal with the
d i s t a n c e from the core of the s y s t e m - you
in your h o u s e .
H a v i n g a food crop or a herb g a r d e n close
to the h o u s e invites good m a n a g e m e n t ,
w h e r e a s d i s t a n c e e n c o u r a g e s neglect.
T h i n g s t h a t a r e further a w a y from the
h o u s e , which you don't see or visit often,
a r e often neglected. T h e e m p h a s i s here is
to produce what you consume or to con-
the driveway.
Generally, zone 1 is an intensive p l a n t
garden. Zone 2 also contains p l a n t s , b u t
a n i m a l s such as chickens or d u c k s a r e
now introduced. A s u m m a r y of the t y p e s
of things (elements) typically found in
each zone is listed in T a b l e 3.2.
S u b u r b a n properties, which a r e u s u a l l y
1000 m or l e s s , normally only contain
3

s u m e l e s s of w h a t you can't produce. zones 1 and 2. T h e r e is not enough room

A brief mention should be m a d e of the
h o u s e a r e a itself. T h i s a r e a is often called
zone 0. T h e h o u s e needs to be i n t e g r a t e d
with the g a r d e n a n d the g a r d e n , in turn,
can h a v e a g r e a t influence on climate
control of the h o u s e . T h i s is d i s c u s s e d in
g r e a t e r detail in C h a p t e r 8.
E a c h zone c h a n g e s in the n u m b e r and
types of species, s t r u c t u r e s a n d other ele-
m e n t s a n d s t r a t e g i e s for implementation
a n d maintenance. However, zoning is more
a conceptual process where a r e a s a r e allo-
cated, b u t m a y c h a n g e over time.
T h e r e is no m a g i c a l s h a p e for a zone.
F i g u r e 3.1 i l l u s t r a t e s only one e x a m p l e .
T h e location of zone b o u n d a r i e s depends
on the size of the property and particular
f e a t u r e s . For e x a m p l e , zone 1, n e a r e s t the
h o u s e , m a y be extended along p a t h s or
Table 3.2 The kinds of elements in each zone.
for elements typically found in the other
zones, namely, orchards, g o a t s , g e e s e a n d
other e l e m e n t s such as these. However,
you m a y decide to dedicate a small a r e a
for zone 5 to encourage native b i r d s a n d
a n i m a l s to visit the g a r d e n .
S m a l l rural properties can support t h e s e
additional elements, so you will often find
zones 1, 2, 3 and 5. B r o a d a c r e rural is
l a r g e enough to accommodate all zones,
with the l a r g e s t possibly being zone 4.
Now, p u t t i n g this together, i m a g i n e this
scenario. You leave the back door, collect
the v e g e t a b l e s for t e a or remove fallen
fruit and dead l e a v e s . P u t t h e s e into the
compost h e a p or t a k e them to the chick-
ens. Collect e g g s , r a k e out any m a n u r e
and uneaten food r e m a i n s a n d place them
in the earthworm farm (or compost h e a p ) ,

Zone Key features

0 H o u s e or other h u m a n living a r e a s .
1 Intensive sheet-mulched food g a r d e n s , pond, s h a d e h o u s e , g r e e n h o u s e ,
r a i n w a t e r tank, tool shed. S o m e fruit trees, such as lemon. Low
windbreak around the garden.
2 G a r d e n b e d s . A n i m a l s such as chickens or other poultry, earth-
worm farm, r a b b i t s or g u i n e a p i g s . A q u a c u l t u r e t a n k s or ponds. H e d g e s
a n d trellising utilised for edge effects. C o m p o s t h e a p . S m a l l orchard of
fruit and nut trees.
3 L a r g e r - s c a l e orchards a n d g e e s e , living mulches, g o a t pen, bee hives,
fodder p l a n t s , windbreaks for house, firebreaks.
4 Woodlots (long term development), d a m s , agroforestry (extensive tree
culture), shelterbelts, windmills, farm stock. S w a l e s , d r a i n s , d a m s a n d
other water h a r v e s t i n g strategies.
5 Wilderness, n a t u r a l forest or b u s h . C a t c h m e n t a r e a a n d flora and
f a u n a preservation. Wildlife corridors. F o r e s t regrowth. Reforestation.

20
 Figure 3.2 Elements are placed so that human energy is saved.

continue b a c k to the h o u s e , collecting E a c h pioneer h a s its own niche or role to

plucking g r e e n s or h e r b s such as lemon play in the ecosystem. B r a c k e n i n v a d e s
b a l m or lemon v e r b e n a to m a k e yourself a l a n d which is low in p o t a s s i u m or h a s
nice cup of herbal tea. We design our been burnt. It "mines" or b r i n g s up p o t a s -
s y s t e m s like this to s a v e energy. s i u m from deep within the soil.
Left to t h e m s e l v e s these zones slowly B l a c k b e r r y a n d g o r s e a r e very d e n s e ,
change. In particular, a r e a s which we prickly s h r u b s which prevent stock, deer
d e s i g n a t e zone 5 wilderness a r e a s should or r a b b i t s from a t t a c k i n g the oak, birch or
be fenced off a n d left alone on rural prop- a s h trees growing up in the middle of the
erties. If we p l a n t n a t u r a l species back thicket.
into t h e s e a r e a s we a r e , in effect, p l a n t i n g In cool t e m p e r a t e regions, the soft berry
an artificial forest, not a n a t u r a l one. fruits a r e the pioneer species. It is very
Provided t h a t stock, w e e d s a n d excessive common in the U K , for e x a m p l e , to s e e
fire a r e excluded from these a r e a s , natu-
ral b u s h a n d woodlands will develop them-
s e l v e s over a n u m b e r of y e a r s .
T h e succession of p l a n t s in t h e s e a r e a s
follows a similar p a t h , no m a t t e r where on
the p l a n e t you live. F o r e x a m p l e , in the
U K , pioneer species such a s bracken fern,
blackberry, g o r s e and broom invade the
site. Soon, l a r g e r trees such as rowan,
birch a n d oak s t a r t to grow a m o n g s t the
pioneers.
T h e s e trees, in turn, s h a d e out the pio-
n e e r s a n d allow other small s h r u b s to
develop. S o m e of t h e s e pioneers, espe-
cially the nitrogen-fixing ones such as
g o r s e and broom, a r e short-lived, and ei- Figure 3.3 Prickly brambles such as black-
ther fall over or j u s t die - r e l e a s i n g the berry protect young trees from damage by
stored nitrogen to the soil. animals.

21
blackberries, wild r a s p b e r r i e s a n d goose-
berries on the e d g e s of woodlands.
B r a m b l e s can prevent the formation of
low b r a n c h e s in climax species. T h e trees
grow rapidly through the low-lying b r a m -
ble b u s h e s a n d then develop the charac-
teristic round crown s h a p e so typical of
m a n y trees.
B r a m b l e s also s h a d e out g r a s s from be-
n e a t h l a r g e r trees. M a n y g r a s s e s r e l e a s e
chemicals which inhibit tree growth and
development a n d they should be u s e d
s p a r i n g l y in m o s t design s y s t e m s .
In A u s t r a l i a , a similar pattern e m e r g e s .
F a s t growing, short-lived pioneer species
of a c a c i a a n d c a s u a r i n a or a l l o c a s u a r i n a ,
which a r e all nitrogen-fixing, establish in
cleared b u s h l a n d . T h e s e condition the soil
a n d contribute to the growth a n d protec-
tion of the l a r g e climax species of euca-
lypts and b a n k s i a s .
In the U S A , nitrogen-fixing pioneers such
a s black locust, silverberry and m e s q u i t e ,
give way to the climax species such as
w a l n u t s , o a k s , p i n e s (e.g. redwood) and
pecans.
Pioneers generally do not need mulching
or much looking after - m a n y a r e not fussy
about the conditions they grow in. They
p r e p a r e the soil for the p l a n t s t h a t follow.
Hopefully, once a design is implemented,
the only thing you need to do is the fine
t u n i n g so t h a t it p r o g r e s s e s unhindered.
Figure 3.4 Winter shading - large trees block winter sunlight to the food garden. Summer
shadows - the garden is still in full sunlight at midday.
22
Sectors
Sector p l a n n i n g is another design strat-
egy t h a t is u s e d when a site is a n a l y s e d .
Sectors consider the energies t h a t move
through a system. T h e s e energies, such as
those of wind and rain, a r e directed, har-
n e s s e d or u s e d in the s y s t e m .
S o m e of the elements in a sector a r e natu-
ral, such as winds, rain or s u n s h i n e , while
others a r e human-influenced a n d artific-
ial, such as aesthetic views a n d screens
from neighbours.
To direct these energies or to counter
their effects, we design w i n d b r e a k s a n d
s u n t r a p s , plant screen trees, a n d place
deciduous a n d evergreen trees in particu-
lar a r e a s of the property.
To know what k i n d s of s t r a t e g i e s or ele-
m e n t s we need to place in a design, we
m u s t h a v e information about the prop-
erty. Observation of your site is the m o s t
crucial p a r t of the design process. Y o u
should m a k e note of the sun a n g l e s , wind
direction, a r e a s of p a r t i a l s h a d e , sunny
a s p e c t s , and d a m p and low-lying a r e a s .
T h e role of observation in the design pro-
c e s s is d i s c u s s e d in the next chapter.
As an e x a m p l e of sector planning, con-
sider sun a n g l e s . You m a y r e m e m b e r t h a t
the h i g h e s t position of the sun in the sky
(the zenith) c h a n g e s from s e a s o n to s e a -
son. It m a y only rise to a height of 3 5 ° in
winter but 8 5 ° in s u m m e r . T h i s affects the
 Figure 3.5 Sector plan for a typical property.

length of the shadow, which could be im- Microclimate

portant if you w a n t s h a d e for the h o u s e or
T h e term "microclimate" refers to the cli-
lots of s u n for the food producing a r e a s .
m a t e in a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a which v a r i e s in
S h a d o w s will be longer during winter time,
its t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e , humidity a n d wind
as shown in F i g u r e 3.4.
intensity. For e x a m p l e , sheltered g a r d e n
Remember also, that the sun angle
a r e a s m a y h a v e slightly cooler d a y t i m e
c h a n g e s with l a t i t u d e , so find out w h a t
t e m p e r a t u r e s and w a r m night-time tem-
angle the sun r i s e s to in your location
p e r a t u r e s , r e d u c e d wind velocity a n d
during s u m m e r a n d winter.
higher humidity than other a r e a s nearby
Sector p l a n n i n g often d e t e r m i n e s the pos-
or somewhere else on the property - a n d
ition of windbreaks a n d garden b e d s , house
there m a y even be significant differences
location a n d the p l a c e m e n t of m a n y other
within the s a m e g a r d e n .
e l e m e n t s in the s y s t e m .
You can easily create microclimates by
If we h a v e a flood-prone a r e a , we will
building terraces, w i n d b r e a k s a n d sun-
p l a n t t r e e s t h a t can tolerate inundation
t r a p s , or by p l a n t i n g p a r t i c u l a r evergreen
a n d h e a v y soil.
or deciduous trees.
If we w a n t to protect the h o u s e from C r e a t i n g w a r m or h u m i d microclimates
winter storm winds a n d rain, we will will enable you to avoid frost d a m a g e ,
design a windbreak to deflect a n d reduce prolong the growing s e a s o n of your veg-
the ferocity of the winds and a d v e r s e e t a b l e s , c a u s e the early ripening of fruit
weather conditions. You can r e a d more or allow you to grow other t y p e s of p l a n t s
about the location and design of wind- which m a y not survive in the normal
b r e a k s in C h a p t e r 11. climate. Even composting around the b a s e

23
of trees will g e n e r a t e h e a t and change the
microclimate conditions.
With thoughtful design you can change
an environment by the u s e of particular
plants. Firstly, u s e p l a n t s native to an
a r e a or at l e a s t those which will survive in
that p a r t i c u l a r climate a n d soil.
Secondly, by careful placing of windbreaks,
shelter a n d irrigation, a l m o s t any type of
p l a n t can be grown in any a r e a - provided,
of course, that the plant's special require-
m e n t s a r e met.
S o m e p l a n t s j u s t don't grow in clay, yet
others don't mind getting "wet feet" a n d
they thrive in heavy soil.
E v e n so, m a n y p l a n t s are susceptible to
frost d a m a g e , and a n i m a l s s t r e s s a t high
t e m p e r a t u r e s , such as above the mid-
forties. Often it is more important to know
the r a n g e of s e a s o n a l t e m p e r a t u r e s than
the monthly a v e r a g e .
R a n g e s give an indication of the likely
incidence of frost a n d the m a x i m u m tem-
p e r a t u r e s that p l a n t s or a n i m a l s m a y
h a v e to tolerate.
S i m i l a r l y , it is probably more i m p o r t a n t
to know when m o s t of the rain falls a n d
how much falls at this time than the
yearly rainfall.
F o r e x a m p l e , if the yearly rainfall is 6 0 0
m m , 4 0 0 mm m a y fall in two months in
winter a n d the other 2 0 0 mm mainly in
Figure 3.6 Heat loss from the ground is trapped by the tree canopy, thus preventing frost
formation.
24
late a u t u m n or early spring, with little or
none during s u m m e r .
T h i s will determine how long p l a n t s , ani-
m a l s and h u m a n s will h a v e to survive
without water during this time, and hence
there needs to be provision in the design
to catch a n d store an a p p r o p r i a t e a m o u n t
of water to offset the drier times.
Frost
Microclimate design to counter the effects
of frost is essential in m a n y climatic re-
gions. F r o s t is accentuated by l a n d clear-
ing and lack of vegetation.
F r o s t occurs when the land cools rapidly
as it r a d i a t e s h e a t a n d is m o s t common in
the very early morning, j u s t before day-
break. T r e e s help prevent frost by trap-
ping the h e a t as it is lost from the ground,
thus preventing it from e s c a p i n g alto-
gether.
In this s e n s e , trees help insulate the E a r t h .
M a n y t r e e s will a l s o r a d i a t e infra-red
h e a t at night from stored d a y t i m e sun-
light.
Conversely, preventing h e a t from b e i n g
r a d i a t e d into the a t m o s p h e r e also a t t r a c t s
frost. A mulch covering the soil p r e v e n t s
h e a t from being lost, a n d dew a n d frost
settle on top of the surface.
Moisture needs to settle on a surface,
u s u a l l y j u s t above ground level - either on
l e a v e s of a tree or mulch on the ground.
Figure 3.7 Mulch keeps the heat in. Mulch prevents heat loss and moisture settles on the mulch
layer. This will freeze if the temperature is cold enough.
B a r e g r o u n d h a s l e s s frost b e c a u s e h e a t i s
r a d i a t e d s k y w a r d s , and this is why it is
b e s t to h a v e b a r e soil in the cold winter
months if you w a n t to k e e p some types of
frost-sensitive p l a n t s alive.
However, there n e e d s to be s o m e consid-
eration of the soil biota - those living
c r e a t u r e s , such as e a r t h w o r m s , which will
survive cold winters if they are kept w a r m
by h a v i n g a layer of mulch on the surface.
Cold air often settles on top of hills a n d in
the valley floor. T h e cold air tends to fall
from the hilltops to the valley a n d this can
c a u s e p r o b l e m s if o b s t a c l e s t r a p this air.
F o r e x a m p l e , inappropriately placed solid
w a l l s will t r a p cold air a n d frost as it
m o v e s downwards.
T h e secret in preventing frost is to move
air so t h a t water v a p o u r can't condense
a n d settle. T h i s is why orchardists light
Figure 3.8 Walls should have gaps to allow cold air to continue to fall downwards.
25
fires in l a r g e d r u m s to circulate air a n d
why sprinklers a r e s o m e t i m e s turned on.
T h i s u n s e t t l e s the air a n d the water is
comparatively w a r m , so frost does not
form.
Knowing about the occurrence a n d regu-
larity of frost is crucial to d e t e r m i n i n g the
length of the growing s e a s o n . L a t e frosts
often kill a n d set back newly-sprouted
v e g e t a b l e s , so protection from frost is e s s -
ential.
S o m e crop p l a n t s , such a s o a t s a n d barley,
a r e frost-resistant. However, others, such
as rice and cotton, a r e frost-sensitive a n d
soon die when t e m p e r a t u r e s drop.
F r o s t does h a v e its a d v a n t a g e s a s well.
M a n y fruit trees, such as stone fruit, re-
quire a certain n u m b e r of chill h o u r s (be-
low 7 ° C ) in order for them to complete
their life cycle a n d produce flowers a n d
 Figure 3.9 Frost forms on hill tops and in valleys.

fruit. F r o s t also kills m a n y p e s t s , b r e a k s ble, buildings a n d h o u s e g a r d e n a r e a s

up compacted ground a n d provides large
v o l u m e s of water to the soil a n d soil or-
g a n i s m s when it m e l t s .
It is not difficult to see why the b e s t
location for a h o u s e site is within the
thermal belt of a slope. T h i s is roughly the
middle p a r t of a slope.
Below this a r e a , cold air settles in the
lower valley a r e a s a n d frost m a y be com-
mon. O b s e r v a t i o n s during cold spells will
allow you to determine the frost line, be-
low which frost is common.
In ideal circumstances, wherever possi-
should be higher than this line, as little or
no d a m a g e by frost can be expected. On
the higher p a r t s of a slope, cold air can
also settle, as shown in the following dia-
gram.
Aspect
Aspect, which is the direction t h a t a slope
faces, also creates microclimates. For ex-
ample, in the southern hemisphere, south-
facing slopes a r e generally colder a n d
potentially h a v e more shadow. North-fac-
ing slopes a r e u s u a l l y sunny and warmer.
E a r t h m o u n d s surrounding a h o u s e , at

Figure 3.10 A hill with a sun-facing aspect has both shaded and sunny sides. Earth mounds
(berms) are much smaller versions than this hill and are built around, or partly around, the
house.

26
least on the p r e v a i l i n g wind s i d e s , provide
protection a n d different a s p e c t s such a s
sun-facing a n d shade-facing slopes for
Figure 3.11 Water can be used to reflect
sunlight and heat during winter.
Figure 3.12 Floor radiating heat at night. Dark floors can absorb heat.
those p l a n t s t h a t require t h e s e k i n d s o f
g r o w i n g conditions. An earth mound can
a l s o be u s e d as a w i n d b r e a k a n d , coupled
with t r e e s , will protect the h o u s e from
cold storm winds b u t m a y permit cool
s u m m e r b r e e z e s to be directed toward the
house.
F u r t h e r m o r e , the external t e m p e r a t u r e
falls a b o u t one degree C e l s i u s for every
one h u n d r e d m e t r e s rise in altitude, so
you would expect properties high above
s e a level to experience lower winter tem-
p e r a t u r e s t h a n c o a s t a l regions.
27
T h i s doesn't m e a n t h a t you can't u s e l a n d
which is high above s e a level. T h e r e a r e a
n u m b e r of s t r a t e g i e s to m a k e the l a n d
w a r m e r a n d to create w a r m e r microcli-
m a t e s than the s u r r o u n d i n g countryside.
In dry c l i m a t e s , where w a t e r is s c a r c e , it
m a y be better to design for coolness, r a t h e r
t h a n trying to m a k e t h i n g s w a r m e r .
Reflection and radiation
L e a f colour affects the a m o u n t of light
which is a b s o r b e d or reflected. We u s e this
concept a n d p l a n t s h r u b s a n d t r e e s which
h a v e light coloured or silvery l e a v e s , a n d
waxy a n d shiny l e a v e s , to reflect light a n d
h e a t to c r e a t e a w a r m m i c r o c l i m a t e .
L e a v e s a r e specially a d a p t e d for different
climates. F o r e x a m p l e , h a i r y , thick l e a v e s
a r e found in arid, s a n d d u n e a n d windy
a r e a s , while wax covered l e a v e s a r e found
in cold, high altitude a r e a s . U s e t h e s e
f e a t u r e s in d e s i g n s for t h e s e t y p e s of cli-
mates.
W e can a l s o u s e s t r u c t u r e s , such a s s h e d
walls and roof a r e a s , in much the s a m e
way as p l a n t s , which h a v e light or silver-
coloured foliage, to reflect s u n l i g h t into
d a r k g a r d e n a r e a s . W a t e r s u r f a c e s can
a l s o be u s e d to reflect sunlight a n d create
a w a r m microclimate nearby.
Water p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t role in creating
a n d c h a n g i n g microclimates. W a t e r h a s a
high t h e r m a l capacity, and d a m s and
ponds can actually be used to store heat.
N o t only does water reflect h e a t a n d light,
it slowly g a i n s a n d then r a d i a t e s h e a t (at
a slower r a t e t h a n l a n d ) and t h u s is
w a r m e r than nearby land at night. Gar-
d e n s n e a r w a t e r w a y s will be warmer too.
A s t e m p e r a t u r e s drop, h e a t i s r a d i a t e d
from the water to the surrounding air and
g a r d e n a r e a s . T h i s is why it is beneficial to
p l a n t trees nearer to coastal a r e a s to t a k e
a d v a n t a g e of the temperature-moderat-
i n g influence of a l a r g e body of water.
T h e r e is also higher humidity near the
water's edge, which is good for subtropical
trees. (I wonder if this is the reason why
coconuts and p a l m trees grow on the wa-
ter's edge?) Hot dry winds blown a c r o s s
water a r e cooled - before they hit the
h o u s e ! Conversely, cold winds can be
w a r m e d a s well.
F o r the s a m e types of r e a s o n s , we u s e
dark-coloured bricks or slate in our house
to absorb winter sunlight. T h e s e d a r k
s u r f a c e s r a d i a t e h e a t into the h o u s e dur-
ing night-time, m a k i n g the house warm
a n d comfortable. Again, grow frost-ten-
der p l a n t s a g a i n s t or near heat-radiating
earth m o u n d s a n d solid walls.
Designing for catastrophe
Wind
You m u s t consider the e x t r e m e s in cli-
m a t e when designing. For example, little
or no rain in s u m m e r , floods in winter and
frosts in spring.
S o m e t i m e s , wind is the over-riding design
criterion, such as in cyclone-prone a r e a s .
Wind can be both friend and foe. M a n y
p l a n t s will not get fungal d i s e a s e if they
a r e p l a n t e d where wind often p a s s e s
through. S o m e fruit trees, such as apples,
p e a r s and stone fruit, as well as g r a p e
vines, will be covered in mildew and other
fungal d i s e a s e s if they a r e planted in
protected, shady a n d d a m p a r e a s . You
can solve this problem by shifting the
trees and vines to a sunny a r e a that h a s
28
occasional winds p a s s i n g by.
Wind is important for trees. Wind-stress
strengthens the trunk fibres a n d over-
protection m a y weaken the tree. T r e e s
need to become h a r d y in their environ-
ment with little interference from hu-
mans.
On the other h a n d , strong wind can c a u s e
considerable d a m a g e to young seedlings
a n d s h r u b s . Often, these types of p l a n t s
need to be protected until they become
established. Wind c a u s e s g r e a t e r evapo-
ration and transpiration r a t e s , so that the
plant and/or soil dries out quickly, finally
c a u s i n g the death of the plant. It is a l s o
important to plant windbreaks a r o u n d
d a m s to minimise water loss by evapora-
tion. T h e evaporative cooling effect of
winds is well known and t e m p e r a t u r e
falls of several degrees a r e common.
It is important to note the direction of
prevailing wind for design work. T h i s is
the direction of wind flow that is higher
than the a v e r a g e . For e x a m p l e , if wind
blows from the SE for 3 5 % of the time (and
the r e s t of the time l e s s than this in all
other directions), then this is the prevail-
ing wind direction. T h e consequence of
this is planning for windbreaks or strate-
gies to h a r v e s t wind for energy generation
a n d water pumping.
Fire
You h a v e to consider the a m o u n t of u s e -
able, harvestable wind. In particular, wind
associated with fire is a major concern.
Don't u n d e r e s t i m a t e the destructiveness
and ferocity of fire. F i r e s p r e a d s quickly
through dry paddocks, along b u s h corri-
dors and a c r o s s the forest canopy.
Fire moves faster uphill than downhill,
and even more so when fanned by strong
winds. T h e most serious threat of danger
is during hot, dry s u m m e r s . For this rea-
son, it is important to put as m a n y wind
and firebreak s t r a t e g i e s on the downhill
and windward sides of the house or s h e d s
a s possible.
Consider planting deciduous fruit trees,
 Figure 3.13 Some strategies for fire protection around a house site.
such a s p l u m s , a p p l e s a n d p e a r s , a n d
evergreens, s u c h as carob a n d Coprosma,
in fire-prone a r e a s , as t h e s e types of trees
a r e p a r t i a l l y fire r e s i s t a n t a n d burn l e s s
easily t h a n e u c a l y p t s , m e l a l e u c a s a n d
pines.
Other s t r a t e g i e s include u s i n g g r a z i n g
a n i m a l s or the chicken pen to m a i n t a i n
b a r e earth, a n d constructing d a m s , ponds
and roads.
It is a good i d e a , for e x a m p l e , to p l a n t the
deciduous stone fruit orchard in the poul-
try p e n below the h o u s e as t h e s e trees do
not burn well a n d poultry k e e p the ground
bare as a fire break. Furthermore, d a m s
or p o n d s a r e e s s e n t i a l in this downslope
area.
S i n c e fire t r a v e l s more rapidly uphill than
downhill (twice the s p e e d for each ten
d e g r e e s r i s e in slope), then only fire-re-
s i s t a n t t r e e s and forests should be planted
at the bottom of hills.
G e n e r a l l y , there is a g r e a t e r risk a n d
frequency of fire in g r a s s l a n d a r e a s , fol-
lowed by woodland a n d much l e s s in wet
forest. D e s i g n e r s n e e d to be a w a r e t h a t in
s o m e p a r t s of a country the r i s k of fire is
m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n elsewhere a n d more
p r e c a u t i o n s need to be taken.
F u r t h e r m o r e , fires a r e s p r e a d by either
b u r n i n g along the ground or b u r n i n g the
tops (crowns) of t r e e s . Crown fires a r e
m u c h more difficult to control a n d it is
e a s y to s e e how h o u s e s can catch fire when
29
tall, combustible t r e e s o v e r h a n g h o u s e
roofs. M o s t fires in forests a r e s p r e a d v i a
the canopy.
T h e intensity of a fire a n d i t s e a s e of
s p r e a d depends on several factors. S o m e
of t h e s e include:
• moisture content-dry timber b u r n s
much faster a n d at a h i g h e r t e m -
p e r a t u r e t h a n d a m p wood.
• a m o u n t of fuel - intensity i n c r e a s e s
with i n c r e a s i n g f l a m m a b l e g r o u n d
litter.
• fuel size - s m a l l pieces of timber
burn f a s t e r t h a n l a r g e l o g s .
• wind s p e e d - w i n d s p r e a d s fire at a
g r e a t e r r a t e t h a n still air. Dry, hot
winds off the l a n d i n c r e a s e the fire
d a n g e r more t h a n cool, ocean or
s e a breezes.
• slope of l a n d - as fire t r a v e l s f a s t e r
uphill there is a g r e a t e r d a n g e r for
h o u s e s on r i d g e s .
• humidity of air - dry air e n h a n c e s
the b u r n i n g r a t e .
T h e r i s k of fire can be m i n i m i s e d . T h e r e
a r e m a n y t h i n g s we can do to r e d u c e the
fire risk. S o m e sensible s t r a t e g i e s include:
• building r o a d s as fire b r e a k s . On
small acreage properties, don't limit
yourself to only one a c c e s s r o a d -
the fire b r i g a d e m a y not be a b l e to
enter your property from this di-
rection a n d your only e s c a p e is in
the direction of the fire! T h i s is
poor design.
Figure 3.14 Windbreaks of fire retardant species deflect hot winds and capture ash and cinders.
They produce a fire shadow to reduce the effects of radiation.

siting d a m s a n d other water struc- w i n d b r e a k s of fire-resistant trees

t u r e s , such as r a i n w a t e r t a n k s , on
the fire r i s k side of the property,
r e d u c i n g t h e fuel l o a d on t h e
ground. Pine trees and eucalypts,
for e x a m p l e , a r e litter accumula-
tors a n d they build up a thick layer
of dry litter underneath, which pro-
m o t e s ground fires. T h e s e t y p e s of
t r e e s should not be planted in fire-
r i s k a r e a s . U s e low litter p l a n t s ,
p l a n t i n g g r e e n s u m m e r crops -
g r a z e d by stock or poultry. G r a z i n g
a n d b r o w s i n g a n i m a l s will also re-
duce the fuel load in every s e a s o n ,
either by e a t i n g lots of the ground
cover or by providing the m a n u r e ,
which allows micro-organisms to
rapidly b r e a k down l e a f and p l a n t
litter.
a n d s h r u b s - to catch a s h a n d burn-
ing cinders. F i r e b r e a k t r e e s not
only catch flying a s h a n d b u r n i n g
l e a v e s a n d twigs, they reduce the
h e a t of radiation by producing a
fire shadow.
Radiation will often kill p l a n t s , ani-
m a l s a n d h u m a n s before the f i r e
actually reaches them. E a r t h b e r m s
a n d buildings will also produce a
fire shadow which will s h a d e a n d
shield o r g a n i s m s from h e a t r a d i a -
tion.
poultry y a r d - poultry can k e e p an
a r e a b a r e and free of dry weeds a n d
grass.
placing grey water d i s p o s a l a r e a on
the fire-risk side - this k e e p s the
soil moist a n d vegetation green.

Figure 3.15 In hot climates, trees overhanging ponds will shade them and reduce evaporation.
Winds can pass underneath the canopy and be cooled before they hit the house.

30
 • p l a n t i n g a stone fruit or evergreen
fruit orchard, with free-ranging
g e e s e to control g r a s s e s .
• s p r i n k l e r s on roofs a r e e s s e n t i a l in
high fire-risk a r e a s . S p r i n k l e r s ,
both on top of the h o u s e roof and in
the s u r r o u n d i n g g a r d e n s , m u s t b e
p u t on before the fire a p p r o a c h e s -
very wet s u r f a c e s j u s t won't burn
a n d the fire cannot s p r e a d .
Fire does h a v e i t s good points! We u s e it to
cook a n d to w a r m ourselves. L i g h t i n g a
fire in a 2 0 0 L d r u m (44 g a l ) at night when
a d a m a g i n g l a t e frost m i g h t occur, helps
to circulate the normally still air, prevent-
ing frost from forming a n d settling, t h u s
protecting your frost-sensitive p l a n t s at
blossom time.
Abundance of water
Water is the m a i n limiting factor in our
agricultural a n d horticultural endeavours,
no m a t t e r where we live.
Too little a n d all living things die; too
much a n d flooding occurs, which often
h a s detrimental effects on p l a n t s a n d ani-
m a l s . D e s i g n e r s need to know details such
as the h i g h e s t known flood levels on the
property to avoid potential problems in
house siting, a n d the h i g h e s t or e s t i m a t e d
intensity of the precipitation r a t e to de-
vise s t r a t e g i e s for limiting run-off a n d
erosion, a n d to allow m a x i m u m water
s t o r a g e without e x c e s s i v e loss a s d a m s fill
a n d overflow.
Other considerations
T h e elevation of the sun, the slope of the
l a n d a n d the m o v e m e n t of water and air
all m a k e a difference as to where we place
elements.
My notes
31
T h e slope of the l a n d also d e t e r m i n e s the
k i n d s of p l a n t s you should grow or the
activities you can do. F o r e x a m p l e , steep
slopes should not be cultivated. T h e y
should be p l a n t e d with t r e e s and s h r u b s
which will hold the soil together (what's
remaining) a n d prevent further soil ero-
sion.
S h a d e - f a c i n g slopes u s u a l l y produce a
g r e a t e r n u m b e r of chill h o u r s which per-
m i t s the growth of some t y p e s of fruit
trees. F u r t h e r m o r e , trees in s u n - s h a d e d
a r e a s m a y be inhibited from flowering
and leafing too soon, so there is l e s s like-
lihood of d a m a g e from l a t e frosts.
Slope a l s o p r e s e n t s problems. A s a l r e a d y
mentioned, wind a n d fire both r a c e uphill
and wind over hills c a u s e s turbulence.
Sun-facing slopes, while very i m p o r t a n t
in cool climates, a r e more fire-prone t h a n
s h a d e d slopes a s the soil, p l a n t s a n d l e a f
litter dry quickly and, therefore, burn
more easily.
H o u s e s in tropical or hot a r e a s obviously
need protection from too much sun, a n d
this will require s t r a t e g i e s of s h a d e t r e e s
nearby or directing cold b r e e z e s toward
the h o u s e (wind funnels).
In s u m m a r y , careful consideration is m a d e
for the placement of e l e m e n t s in our de-
s i g n s . For e x a m p l e , for effective p l a n t
e s t a b l i s h m e n t we need an a d e q u a t e s u p -
ply of water, protection from b r o w s e r s ,
protection from drying wind a n d e x c e s s
sun, good soil, a n d m i n i m u m soil erosion.
Hence the need for water h a r v e s t i n g a n d
supply m e a s u r e s , fences, tree w i n d b r e a k s
(hedgerows), a n d a p p r o p r i a t e soil treat-
ment a n d conditioning.
Things I need to find out
4 Steps in the design process
The design process
Bill Mollison, in h i s Designers' Manual,
s t a t e s t h a t p e r m a c u l t u r e design "is a s y s -
tem of a s s e m b l i n g conceptual, m a t e r i a l
a n d s t r a t e g i c components in a pattern
which functions to benefit life in all of its
forms."
Moreover, the h u m a n intellect needed in
the design process d i s t i n g u i s h e s
p e r m a c u l t u r e from conventional land-
s c a p e practices a n d i t i s h u m a n i m a g i n a -
tion t h a t is the key to p e r m a c u l t u r e de-
sign. We a r e only limited by our own
i m a g i n a t i o n a n d life experience.
T h e b e s t d e s i g n e r s a r e those who h a v e a
wealth of practical experience. They know
w h a t works and w h a t doesn't. T h e y know
which p l a n t a n d a n i m a l g u i l d s work well
for t h a t a r e a a n d climate (see C h a p t e r 6)
a n d they are realistic in their expecta-
tions a b o u t i m p l e m e n t i n g the d e s i g n .
Figure 4.1 Matter and energy flow and cycle within an ecosystem.
32
G r a n d i o s e d e s i g n s , which a r e totally in-
a p p r o p r i a t e or expensive, a r e not in the
b e s t i n t e r e s t s of all concerned.
T h e f u n d a m e n t a l s of p e r m a c u l t u r e de-
sign h a v e a r i s e n from an u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of the cycling of m a t t e r a n d energy in
n a t u r e . H e r e , m a t t e r a n d energy a r e
p a s s e d from o r g a n i s m to o r g a n i s m along
v a r i o u s food chains. O r g a n i s m s die a n d
decay, a n d their w a s t e s a r e also broken
down, which r e l e a s e s stored nutrients to
the soil. T h e s e nutrients can then be re-
u s e d by p l a n t s to continue the cycle of life
a n d death.
Furthermore, permaculture designs are
b a s e d on broad, universal principles which
allow for local knowledge so t h a t local
species can be incorporated. T h i s m a k e s
s e n s e . Wherever possible, local resources
and species, found in t h a t soil type, cli-
m a t e and a r e a , should be used. T h i s is
both economically a n d ecologically respon-
sible action.
In designing, we r e p a c k a g e or r e - a s s e m -
ble components a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g on the
property and incorporate new ones. Com-
ponents a r e a s s e m b l e d a n d e l e m e n t s
placed according to the function they per-
form. We u s e i n s i g h t to develop unique
and effective s t r a t e g i e s . T h e design m a y
examine m a n y options and some deci-
sions of p a r t i c u l a r options a r e t a k e n so
that they a r e definitely included.
Each p e r m a c u l t u r e design is tailor-made.
It is the m a r r y i n g a n d b l e n d i n g of what
grows b e s t in the particular a r e a a n d soil
with w h a t the owner or g a r d e n e r w a n t s .
Permaculture e m p o w e r s people to solve
their own design problems and apply so-
lutions to their everyday situations. De-
signers h a v e a responsibility to recognise
which p e r m a c u l t u r e principles need to be
applied to a specific problem or situation.
Solutions m a y include the u s e of edge,
patterns or g u i l d s , a n d good d e s i g n e r s see
every difficulty as really an opportunity.
For any design to be useful it m u s t h a v e
ownership by those living on the land. A
design should involve everyone who lives
there. A design is a collaborative effort,
rather t h a n the r e s u l t of an "expert de-
signer".
The t r e e s a r e p l a n t e d by the property
owners a n d cared for by t h e m to ulti-
mately benefit t h e m s e l v e s . T h e e m p h a s i s
Figure 4.2 Elements serve at least three functions (earthworm).
33
h e r e is people. T h i s is why participation in
the planning a n d design is crucial to its
s u c c e s s . D e s i g n i n g is a consultative pro-
c e s s involving all of those living on the
property and, s o m e t i m e s , v a r i o u s a d v i s -
ers.
You can't successfully i m p o s e your i d e a s
about a design on someone else's prop-
erty. Y o u h a v e to work a l o n g s i d e the own-
e r s , so t h a t they feel they h a v e m a d e a
worthwhile contribution a n d they feel t h a t
they h a v e ownership. In effect, we should
teach people how to plan r a t h e r t h a n plan
for them.
P e r m a c u l t u r e designing, then, is actively
p l a n n i n g where e l e m e n t s a r e p l a c e d so
t h a t they serve at l e a s t three functions.
We h a v e a l r e a d y t a l k e d a b o u t how noth-
i n g is w a s t e d in a p e r m a c u l t u r e s y s t e m .
T h e s y s t e m we d e s i g n a l s o n e e d s to u s e all
of the outputs or products.
Pollution occurs when a s y s t e m h a s ex-
c e s s outputs. T h e w a s t e s of one e l e m e n t
a r e u s e d a s the n e e d s o f another. T h e
m a n u r e from the chickens h e l p s the com-
post heap.
D e a d l e a v e s a n d fallen fruit k e e p the
earthworm farm going, so t h a t the c a s t -
i n g s produced will be the fertiliser or
potting mix for your g a r d e n p l a n t s . If a n y
product is not u s e d , we h a v e a potential
pollutant and this is u n a c c e p t a b l e in a
permaculture system. Remember, we don't
h a v e liabilities, only a s s e t s .
A permaculture design is more than j u s t a
l a n d s c a p e plan. M a p s , p l a n s and overlays
do not i n d i c a t e or s u g g e s t the
interconnectedness between things, nor
can t h e y d e a l with other a s p e c t s of
p e r m a c u l t u r e such as the social and fin-
ancial a s p e c t s of h u m a n settlements. How-
ever, a landscape-style plan does give some
indication about d a m and house place-
ment, and the future location of swales
a n d orchards.
You m i g h t think a b o u t the design as being
a v i s u a l representation of the concept.
Implicit in any design should be a number
of energy h a r v e s t i n g and modifying strat-
egies, a n u m b e r of soil, water a n d land
conservation s t r a t e g i e s , a number of food
producing s t r a t e g i e s and a number of
h u m a n s e t t l e m e n t s t r a t e g i e s , such a s
housing, shelter, village development a n d
so on.
D e s i g n s a l w a y s change and hopefully for
the better. T h e design is the beginning
point of the journey, and as new i d e a s and
experiences develop, the design evolves
as well.
Design considerations
While the client's wishes for a site a r e
important, foremost is the consideration
of the site itself.
W h a t you a r e really doing is working out
how the property will improve and be-
come rehabilitated, b e c a u s e clients sell
properties and move on. Look beyond the
client and see the land.
When designing, all things that could
affect the land should be considered. T h i s
includes s e w a g e treatment, water stor-
a g e , food production a r e a s , placement of
a n i m a l s and the needs of h u m a n s . For
e x a m p l e , you need to consider the charac-
teristics of each tree you plant, such as
s p r e a d or width, height, and whether ev-
ergreen or deciduous.
It m a y seem silly to plant a carob fifteen
m e t r e s a w a y from all other trees, b u t if
you've seen a m a t u r e carob, you'll under-
34
stand that they a r e often much wider than
their vertical height.
T h e r e are some things on a property t h a t
you can easily change when you a r e work-
ing on a design a n d there a r e some things
that you can't change. For example, you
have very little control over the climate in
a p a r t i c u l a r region, w h e r e a s you can
change roads, location of d a m s a n d trees,
and construction of fences.
Fences, by way of illustration, can be
placed on contours a n d also along regions
of soil change. F e n c e s could then m a r k
where s a n d a r e a s change into clay a r e a s
and so on.
However, keep in mind t h a t this m a y not
be the b e s t solution for a particular prop-
erty. For example, keyline cultivation,
discussed in Chapter 9, places soil type as
a low planning priority, so fences m a y not
need shifting.
M a n y things will affect the development
and progression of a property. S o m e of
these are beneficial and some are not. A
list of these design considerations might
include:
• erosion and s a l t scalds. Does water
cascade over the surface or seep
into the ground? What k i n d s of
p l a n t s will grow in soil a r e a s of
high salt content?
• prevailing wind directions. Where
will windbreaks be placed?
• views - those you want a n d those
you want to hide. Where will you
plant screen trees to give your-
selves privacy?
• sources of noise and pollution, such
as b u s y r o a d s . U s e trees to screen
and to absorb pollutants from vehi-
cles.
P e r m a c u l t u r i s t s h a v e to become
accountable and a s k t h e m s e l v e s
the questions "Do I create w a s t e ?
Do I consume v a s t a m o u n t s of en-
ergy, electricity and h e a t in the
home or vehicles?"
Figure 4.3 We have a responsibility to minimise our impact in the environment.
recharge and discharge areas.
Where does water enter the land-
s c a p e a n d where does it re-sur-
face?
waterlogging a n d s o a k s . Are there
a r e a s t h a t a r e permanently d a m p ,
clayey or waterlogged?
slope of the land. Contours should
b e determined a s water h a r v e s t i n g
a n d water movement control a r e
e s s e n t i a l in dry climates,
other components of the environ-
ment, such as aspect, a m o u n t of
vegetation cover and soil type.
Our environment doesn't necessar-
ily j u s t m e a n the biological and
non-biological components in the
scientific s e n s e , b e c a u s e , when we
consider h u m a n s we also have to
consider the economic, social and
cultural a s p e c t s .
F u r t h e r m o r e , n a t u r a l vegetation
h a s intrinsic v a l u e and n e e d s pro-
tection.
a m o u n t of resource m a t e r i a l avail-
able on site. S t a r t by looking at the
r e s o u r c e s you already h a v e or h a v e
a c c e s s to. T h e s e vary from sources
of mulch to clay and stone for build-
ing m a t e r i a l s .
People a r g u e t h a t we ought to recy-
cle more of the i t e m s we u s e daily,
b u t I think t h a t w a s t e m i n i m i s a -
tion is a better, s o u n d e r p a t h to
tread.
It m a k e s s e n s e to u s e l e s s than to
recycle more. People often t a l k
a b o u t "reduce, r e u s e a n d recycle". I
would like to a d d "repair, refuse,
re-think, r e - a s s e s s , refrain, reject
and reconsider".
R e s o u r c e s can b e skills a s well a s
m a t e r i a l s . Y o u need to e s t a b l i s h
what the c l i e n t s can do as p a r t of
the overall plan for the property.
You m u s t also consider the n e e d s of all
occupants of a property, including chil-
dren. Do children e a t the s a m e food as
a d u l t s ? Or is my family different from
everyone e l s e ' s ? All need to be involved in
the decision-making. However, m a k i n g
choices a l w a y s involves c o n s e q u e n c e s ,
compromises and trade-offs.
Design steps
T h e process of d e s i g n i n g can be seen as a
series of s t e p s or p h a s e s . L i k e all p l a n n i n g
exercises there is an order to follow when
these t h i n g s are u n d e r t a k e n . T h e s e s t e p s
a r e d i s c u s s e d in turn, b u t a brief overview
would be:
1. Information p h a s e - observing a n d
collecting d a t a .
2. A n a l y s i s p h a s e - reflecting, e x a m i n -
ing and collating d a t a . Recognising
patterns.
35
3. Design p h a s e - determining s t r a t e -
g i e s , r e - o r g a n i s i n g a n d placing ele-
m e n t s in the s y s t e m . Zoning a n d sec-
tor planning.
4. M a n a g e m e n t p h a s e - implementing,
priorities for implementing, and moni-
toring a n d m a i n t a i n i n g .
Information phase
T h i s is when you collect information about
the site. D a t a can be collected through
observation, or by e x a m i n i n g m a p s a n d
records, a n d by discussion with the prop-
erty owners (and occasionally their neigh-
bours).
It is e s s e n t i a l to consider the needs and
d e s i r e s of the people living on the prop-
erty a n d involve them as much as possible
in the early s t a g e s of the design process.
T h i s can be as s i m p l e as getting them to
list the r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e on the prop-
erty or to write down their observations
a b o u t storm a n d winter winds, flooding
a r e a s a n d so on. Good listening, to both
l a n d a n d people, is a h a l l m a r k of a good
designer.
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t information you need
for a design is a m a p of the property. A
scaled d i a g r a m showing the dimensions
of each b o u n d a r y a n d p r e s e n t location of
Figure 4.4 A map of the property is the first step in the design process.
36
the house, outbuildings and other struc-
tures, is u s e d for the b a s i s of the design.
M a p s are very useful tools. You can obtain
m a p s from local or s t a t e authorities which
show the contours on a property (although
t h e s e a r e not often accurate) and property
s h a p e and sizes.
T h e next r e q u i r e m e n t before the design
actually b e g i n s is to m a r k and draw the
existing l a n d s c a p e features - contours,
r i d g e s , valleys, s t r e a m s a n d watercourses,
rock outcrops a n d soil types, a n d includ-
ing the location of the proposed h o u s e a n d
outbuildings.
Contour lines on the m a p will determine
where d a m s a n d water harvesting or move-
m e n t will, or can, occur. Contours on the
slope will also determine where r e t a i n i n g
walls m a y need to be built and where
particular g a r d e n b e d s or orchard a r e a s
should be placed. U s i n g g r a p h p a p e r for
your m a p is very useful a n d allows you to
d r a w structures a n d i d e a s in proportion
a n d to scale.
It is often useful to do nothing to your
property for a y e a r or so. At l e a s t see what
h a p p e n s during each season, such as which
weeds flourish ( a s an indication of soil
conditions), where the frost line is in the
 Figure 4.5 Develop the map by locating and drawing contours, landforms and other structures.
lower p a r t s of the block and which a r e the
p r e v a i l i n g wind directions.
Detailed a n d careful observation m u s t be
m a d e of such t h i n g s as wind directions,
water m o v e m e n t on the property, a m o u n t
(degree) of slope, sun a n g l e s d u r i n g s u m -
m e r a n d winter, m o i s t and wet a r e a s ,
shady a n d sunny a r e a s , c h a n g e s in soil
type, a n d n a t u r a l p a t t e r n s in any promi-
nent l a n d formations.
Information about rainfall, insolation d a y s
a n d s e a s o n a l wind direction a n d speed,
can be obtained from sources such as the
B u r e a u of Meteorology a n d , in some c a s e s ,
the local post office or local government
authority.
You should e s t a b l i s h if you h a v e the cli-
ent's permission to s p e n d money, on their
behalf, for aerial photographs or c a d a s t r a l
a n d topographical m a p s , r e s o u r c e book-
lets of soils a n d p l a n t s of the a r e a a n d so
on.
Analysis phase
T h e a n a l y s i s p h a s e involves selecting a n d
a n a l y s i n g the proposed e l e m e n t s in the
s y s t e m . A n e e d s a n a l y s i s m a y h a v e to be
performed on p a r t i c u l a r e l e m e n t s so t h a t
you can m a k e decisions on which ele-
m e n t s a r e b e s t suited in the d e s i g n .
Here we s t a r t to a l s o consider zonation
and sector planning. We d r a w a n d note
the sectors for problem a r e a s , such as

Figure 4.6 Collecting data and information about the site is a prerequisite to design.

37
 Figure 4.7 Draw the zoning and sector planning considerations on your map.
p e r m a n e n t waterlogging, occasional flood-
prone a r e a s a n d s a l t s c a l d s . We also iden-
tify a n d m a r k storm a n d prevailing wind
directions, fire d a n g e r directions a n d sun
a n g l e s for the property.
Design phase
M o s t often a design is a m a p or plan which
shows the p l a c e m e n t of elements or com-
ponents. T h i s plan is usually a two-di-
m e n s i o n a l d r a w i n g , although a three-di-
m e n s i o n a l model, while t a k i n g a longer
time to build a n d m o r e resources to m a k e ,
h a s m a n y a d v a n t a g e s . For e x a m p l e , a
s c a l e 3D model will allow you to investi-
g a t e the effect of p l a n t placement on such
t h i n g s a s s h a d o w s a n d wind movements.
When d r a w i n g the design you can either
u s e a series of overlays or several copies of
the b a s i c block plan showing dimensions,
contours, n a t u r a l rock formations, d a m s
a n d other things which a r e fixed a n d
mostly cannot be changed.
S o m e overlays can be u s e d to show future
developments, such as the location of new
d a m s , fencelines, additional buildings,
general p l a n t i n g s , windbreaks, and com-
mercial enterprises.
38
Practical a i d s to help with design work
include d r a w i n g concepts a n d g a r d e n
a r e a s on graph paper, u s i n g clay,
plasticine, and wooden blocks to place
structures in the design, and u s i n g a s a n d
pit to s h a p e slope, s w a l e s and d a m s .
All of these a i d s help us better v i s u a l i s e
the design s t r a t e g i e s , as seeing a design
in three dimensions (3D), as we h a v e j u s t
mentioned, is much better than in 2 D .
A p e r m a c u l t u r e design m i g h t contain a
l a r g e a m o u n t of information a n d either
show or allow you to:
• identify food production a r e a s , in-
cluding zone 1 a n d 2 p l a n t i n g s ,
orchards and woodlots.
• indicate proposed d r a i n a g e lines,
s w a l e s and d a m s .
T h i s is e s s e n t i a l for the control of
water m o v e m e n t a n d h a r v e s t i n g ,
a n d to prevent flooding.
• indicate proposed revegetation
a r e a s - of n a t u r a l b u s h .
Zone 5 is allocated to the conserva-
tion and restoration of indigenous
p l a n t species.
 Figure 4.8 Developing a total design for Ian and Peter's property in Toodyay, WA.
• recognise the importance of s a n c -
t u a r y . People need to h a v e some
place they like to go a n d visit.
T h i s m i g h t be an aesthetic view or
somewhere t h a t h a s a particular
c a l m i n g feel a b o u t it. A design
m i g h t include s e a t s , a gazebo or log
to sit on in this a r e a .
• location and position of roads, p a t h s
a n d p a r k i n g . Access r o a d s should
slowly wind u p w a r d s t o w a r d s the
house.
R o a d s l e a d i n g down to the h o u s e
site generally c a u s e h e a p s of prob-
l e m s , including water from rainfall
a n d melting snow cascading toward
the h o u s e .
H a v i n g a driveway sloping a w a y
from the h o u s e will p e r m i t e x c e s s
w a t e r to be diverted to garden a n d
orchard a r e a s ( a s well a s allowing
you to j u m p - s t a r t the car when the
b a t t e r y i s flat).
• place s h e d s a n d h o u s e close to wa-
ter a n d electricity s u p p l i e s . T h i s
will m i n i m i s e the costs of installa-
tion for t h e s e services.
39
T h e report, accompanying the d e s i g n , will
list the m a t e r i a l s , components, s t r a t e g i e s
a n d priorities.
Design reports need i d e a s a n d h i n t s a b o u t
m a n a g e m e n t , a n d l a n d owners should b e
encouraged to u n d e r t a k e a p e r m a c u l t u r e
design course so that they can u n d e r s t a n d
the p r o c e s s e s which occur a n d be able to
m a k e a p p r o p r i a t e decisions about c o u r s e s
of action.
If you a r e producing a design for someone
else, the information that you s u p p l y in
your design and report m u s t s a v e the
property owners m u c h more t h a n the fee
you charge.
However, m o s t d e s i g n s for properties a r e
done by the owners t h e m s e l v e s . F e w peo-
ple a r e professional c o n s u l t a n t s a n d de-
s i g n e r s . A design report for a property
typically contains the following informa-
tion:
• design considerations. Write a brief
a p p r a i s a l of the k i n d s of things
t h a t need consideration in the de-
sign.
T h i s includes water availability and
quality, the effect of native, feral
 Figure 4.9 Access roads should rise toward the house.
a n d domestic a n i m a l s on garden
a r e a s , s e a s o n a l climatic changes,
l a n d s c a p e , client r e q u i r e m e n t s for
the property, orientation of the
block a n d so on.
• site a n a l y s i s - listing rainfall, tem-
p e r a t u r e e x t r e m e s a n d other a s -
pects of the climate, soil t y p e s ,
e x i s t i n g v e g e t a t i o n , topography
(for example, granite rock outcrops,
slope of land and location of water
courses) a n d general overview of
the property.
• recommendations. A detailed list
of c h a n g e s to v a r i o u s p a r t s of the
property a r e given.
Y o u m i g h t choose b r o a d h e a d i n g s
such as south side of block, north
side, house site, orchard area,
woodlot, zone 5, e a s t e r n hill slope
and summer grazing area.
E x p l a i n a n d elaborate on these
recommendations, including list-
ing t h i n g s t h a t do not need to be
c h a n g e d on the property.
You need to explain why you a r e
m a k i n g certain recommendations.
40
It m a y not be obvious to the client
why y o u w a n t c e r t a i n p l a n t s
grouped together, b u t if you s a y
t h a t this grouping will be m u t u a l l y
beneficial to each plant a n d there
would be l e s s risk of d i s e a s e , then
the client b e g i n s to u n d e r s t a n d the
importance of design.
• priorities. You should list, in order
of priority, the sequence to imple-
m e n t the design.
Identify the essential s t a g e s , such
a s water harvesting, which m u s t
occur early in the implementation
process, and continue to list other
important s t e p s to the l e a s t impor-
t a n t one.
• e s t i m a t e d costs for v a r i o u s s t a g e s
of development.
• p l a n t list. T h i s contains details of
s u i t a b l e s p e c i e s a p p r o p r i a t e for
t h a t climate and soil type. It should
not list illegal or hard-to-get spe-
cies.
• background information. Depend-
ing on client knowledge, you m i g h t
include some information a b o u t
 ecological a n d p e r m a c u l t u r a l prin-
ciples, such a s g u i l d s , s t a c k i n g a n d
succession.
• s t r a t e g i e s for d e a l i n g with, or gen-
erating, income. P e r h a p s the client
h a s little financial resources, b u t
m a y h a v e time a n d skills.
An early, s m a l l income from activi-
ties on the site, such as seed collec-
tion a n d p l a n t production, could be
d e s i g n e d in.
T h e client m a y be in full-time em-
ployment off the site a n d w a n t s to
reduce that. C a n you plan to move
t h e m t o w a r d s part-time work with
an on-site income?
Is there an opportunity for co-op-
erative work in the local commu-
nity? W h a t does the client h a v e to
offer in e x c h a n g e ?
• m a i n t e n a n c e of property. T h i s in-
cludes information about the ongo-
i n g care needed for p l a n t s and ani-
mals.
Y o u m a y mention the particular
nitrogen-fixing a c a c i a s (wattles)
t h a t you h a v e included in the de-
sign (which will live for only eight
to ten y e a r s a n d thus m a y h a v e to
be replaced); when they should a d d
m a n u r e or mulch to growing plants;
or how they can organically deal
with fruit fly or other p e s t s ; how
v e g e t a b l e s a r e to be replaced once
they a r e h a r v e s t e d ; and what types
of h u s b a n d r y g o a t s or sheep need.
• resources. W h a t r e s o u r c e s does the
local community offer? T h i s in-
cludes people, who h a v e particular
expertise, such as d a m building or
k n o w l e d g e o f soil c o n d i t i o n i n g
s t r a t e g i e s , a n d n u r s e r i e s where
p l a n t s can be obtained.
Y o u can a l s o list free sources of
mulch, building m a t e r i a l s or com-
post. R e c o m m e n d e d r e a d i n g a n d
references can be included.
41
Management phase
Ongoing monitoring a n d review a r e es-
sential, as unexpected i m p a c t s on soil
fertility, p l a n t and a n i m a l h e a l t h a n d
water quality can be noticed a n d design
modifications m a d e . It is i m p o r t a n t to
develop a m a n a g e m e n t plan which is re-
viewed a n d changed a s the need a r i s e s .
T h e r e a r e m a n y w a y s to monitor c h a n g e s
t h a t occur on the property. T h i s can in-
volve periodically t a k i n g a series of photo-
g r a p h s or t r a n s p a r e n c i e s (slides) which
will depict growth a n d c h a n g e in trees,
a n d general development. Records of acid-
ity (pH) a n d salinity levels in soils, d a m s ,
bores a n d other w a t e r w a y s can be k e p t
a n d e x a m i n e d for trends. T h e d a t a you
collect from t h e s e t y p e s of activities will
enable you to a d j u s t the design s t r a t e g i e s
for t h e s e particular a r e a s .
T h i s p h a s e also includes d e s i g n imple-
mentation or execution which is covered
next.
Implementing a design
B u i l d i n g g a r d e n s costs money. Too often
we try to do too much too soon. We run out
of energy, e n t h u s i a s m a n d money, a n d
then time, to m a i n t a i n the g a r d e n . S t a r t
off s m a l l , a n d when a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a is
set up, then move on a n d develop a n d
build more g a r d e n s .
Work within your b u d g e t a n d plan to t a k e
a few y e a r s to i m p l e m e n t your design.
S t a r t slowly from your h o u s e - work out-
w a r d s from one zone to another.
Cost out each s t e p or you m a y be d i s a p -
pointed and frustrated t h a t you cannot
complete the project b e c a u s e you h a v e
run out of funds. T h i s i d e a of s t a r t i n g
small a n d slowly p r o g r e s s i n g cannot be
over-emphasised.
T h e implementation t i m e s c a l e should be
b a s e d on economic reality - w h a t you or
the client can afford to do as t i m e p a s s e s .
Don't be too ambitious. S t a r t s m a l l a n d
m e e t with success. Then slowly e x p a n d as
more resources, such a s time, m a t e r i a l s ,
money a n d energy, become a v a i l a b l e .
T h e order i s : look after what we h a v e first,
restore what we can next and then finally
introduce new e l e m e n t s into the s y s t e m .
When e s t a b l i s h i n g a property the follow-
i n g a r e the sorts of things you need to do,
not n e c e s s a r i l y in the order of priority:
• water supply - earthworks, d a m s ,
s w a l e s , r o a d s a n d d r a i n s . Priori-
ties include the development of good
w a t e r a n d a p p r o p r i a t e earthworks
such a s d r a i n a g e , d a m s and the
foundations for the h o u s e .
E a r t h w o r k s a r e generally costly.
T h e r e is a high cost for any sort of
machinery a n d an operator, so plan
to do as m a n y j o b s on one day as
you can.
For e x a m p l e , dig the power line to
the shed a n d holes for a s m a l l pond
or d a m , level the ground for drive-
w a y s , clear fallen trees, dig drain-
a g e lines to move water and so on.
• access roads and paths.
• s t r u c t u r e s - shelter. While machin-
ery is a v a i l a b l e for earthworks do
the h o u s e a n d shed p a d s .
• shelterbelts a n d w i n d b r e a k s for
gardens, orchards and planted
areas.
• e n e r g y - p r o d u c i n g or h a r v e s t i n g
structures.
• plant procurement - nurseries, seed
My notes
Things I need to find out
42
collecting and germination. Y o u
m a y need literally t h o u s a n d s of
p l a n t s per h e c t a r e .
Implementing a design, even in a s m a l l
b a c k y a r d , can be d a u n t i n g for some peo-
ple. A lot of h u m a n - h o u r s and h u m a n
energy h a s to be expended to j u s t build a
few g a r d e n s .
T h i s is where friends can be handy. Work-
ing with other people h a s m a n y benefits
and more can be accomplished while work-
ing as a t e a m .
You s o m e t i m e s h e a r of the term "synergy"
when g r o u p s of people work together. T h i s
is where the s u m of the whole is g r e a t e r
than the s u m of the individual p a r t s .
In other words, only a certain a m o u n t can
be done by yourself, w h e r e a s working
with someone else accomplishes more than
two individual efforts. In e s s e n c e , one
p l u s one e q u a l s three.
T h e r e is a g r e a t e r s e n s e of satisfaction
when you share the journey with others
a n d the actions of m a n y people can inspire
you to continue to grow.
Remember, d e s i g n e r s do not h a v e to be
e x p e r t s on building h o u s e s a n d d a m s ,
identifying p l a n t s and a n i m a l s , or driving
heavy machinery.
A designer only h a s to e x a m i n e the inter-
relationships between things and see pos-
sibilities to promote both biodiversity a n d
productivity.
5 Basic tools for the designer
A designer's field tool kit
Every consultant n e e d s to h a v e some ba-
sic e q u i p m e n t that allows m e a s u r e m e n t
of land size, acidity a n d salinity in water
and soil, soil characteristics, slope a n d
property orientation. H e r e is a brief s u m -
m a r y of some of t h e s e types of items.
Tape measure
You need at l e a s t two t a p e m e a s u r e s . One,
up to 10 m, for m o s t u r b a n b a c k y a r d
m e a s u r e m e n t s , a n d one a b o u t 100 m for
small a c r e a g e p a d d o c k s a n d some rural
Figure 5.2 A longer tape measure is an essen-
properties. I find a 30 m t a p e very useful. tial toolkit item for larger properties.
This allows you to m e a s u r e urban prop-
erty layout easily. odometer reading. Alternatively, u s e a
dumpy level, which is described later, to
calculate the distance. R u r a l d e s i g n s a r e
more concept-orientated and it doesn't
m a t t e r if you a r e five m e t r e s out - you j u s t
p l a n t a n e x t r a tree.
Piece of string
A 2 0 0 m roll of string, with k n o t s every
metre, can be u s e d in open paddock situ-
ations. T h e string b e c o m e s t a n g l e d a n d
c a u g h t on p l a n t s if you try to u s e it in
someone's u r b a n b a c k y a r d .
T h e only other problem is t h a t you h a v e to
m a r k the k n o t s somehow, so that you
Figure 5.1 Small tape measures are ideal for
know w h a t the m e a s u r e m e n t is. T h e e a s i -
small, urban backyards.
e s t way I've seen is to p a i n t the knot a n d
You don't u s u a l l y m e a s u r e p a d d o c k s for p a r t of the s u r r o u n d i n g s t r i n g p a r t i c u l a r
rural d e s i g n s . F a r m e r s normally know colours. For e x a m p l e , black for the first
the size of p a d d o c k s , or you can drive ten m e t r e s , red for the n e x t ten m e t r e s ,
along the fenceline and record the a n d so on.

Figure 5.3 A knotted piece of string can be used as a substitute tape measure.

43
K n o w i n g the s e q u e n c e of colours will en- h a n d trowel or small, portable shovel helps
able you to calculate the distance. For you to collect soil s a m p l e s for a n a l y s i s of
e x a m p l e , it m i g h t be the blue section a n d p H , salinity, clay content a n d other soil
knot n u m b e r five along. T h i s m a y t r a n s - characteristics.
l a t e to a d i s t a n c e of 85 m.
I prefer to simply p a c e out the d i m e n s i o n s
of p a d d o c k s . If you practice your p a c i n g
s t e p s along a long t a p e m e a s u r e you can
work out w h a t d i s t a n c e you cover each
step. I would recommend you practice a
step of one m e t r e . After a while, your
p a c e s become quite accurate, and cer-
tainly a c c u r a t e enough for you to deter-
m i n e d i s t a n c e s a n d draw a general m a p of
a site a r e a . Figure 5.5 Soil samples are often collected in
Penetrometer the field and examined later.
A penetrometer allows you to g a u g e the Magnetic or directional compass
depth of soil l a y e r s to p a r e n t rock, as well Every design should contain information
as s o m e indication about soil compaction. about orientation. Normally, this includes
Y o u can m a k e a penetrometer from a one a symbol m a r k i n g the direction of north or
m e t r e length of 6 to 8 mm steel rod. B e n d south (wherever the m a i n sun direction
one end for a h a n d l e a n d sharpen a point is, so t h a t the property is sun-facing).
on the other end, so that it easily pen- Knowledge of property orientation allows
e t r a t e s the soil. e a s i e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of wind a n d storm
Generally, if you h a v e difficulty p u s h i n g directions, a s these a r e a l w a y s e x p r e s s e d
d o w n w a r d s it m a y indicate a h a r d pan in reference to the c o m p a s s points.
clay layer below the surface or heavy soil.
Rock is e a s y to determine - you p u s h down
a n d it j u s t stops. S o m e t i m e s , you can h e a r
the clunk as it h i t s rock.
Small, folding shovel or hand trowel
If you s u s p e c t h e a v y soil, h a r d p a n prob-
l e m s or rock, y o u can simply dig a s m a l l
hole a n d h a v e a look. F u r t h e r m o r e , a

Figure 5.6 A compass indicates the direction

and orientation of a property.

pH test kit or meter

Figure 5.4 A penetrometer permits you to
determine some subsurface conditions.
There is a good r a n g e of k i t s a n d m e t e r s ,
which test the level of acidity or alkalinity
in soils and water, on the m a r k e t . Gener-
ally, you get what you p a y for (where h a v e
you h e a r d t h a t before?), so buy a decent
kit that you know will be a c c u r a t e .
For the serious consultant or designer, it
is worth the expense to buy an electronic

44
meter - especially since you can usually
buy a v a r i e t y of pH a n d salinity meters
m e a s u r i n g a full r a n g e of levels a n d con-
centrations.
You will a l s o need a n u m b e r of sterile
bottles or j a r s , with screw-top lids, to hold
soil a n d water s a m p l e s . Stick-on l a b e l s or
m a r k i n g p e n s can be u s e d to m a r k the
bottles with s a m p l e d e t a i l s .
Figure 5.7 Electronic meters are more accurate, but more expensive, than powder test kits.
Salinity meter
T h e s e hand-held m e t e r s a r e similar to the
pH meter. However, m o s t only m e a s u r e a
particular r a n g e of total dissolved s a l t
( T D S ) levels a n d you will, therefore, need
to buy the one/s you require. Generally, a
meter t h a t m e a s u r e s within the r a n g e 0 to
20 m S / c m is s u i t a b l e for m o s t applica-
tions. S e a w a t e r i s 3 5 m S / c m a n d m o s t
land properties h a v e T D S r e a d i n g s in soil
or w a t e r much lower than this. (Note: m S /
cm m e a n s m i l l i s i e m e n s per centimetre
which is a m e a s u r e of the electrical con-
ductivity of a solution. 1 m S / c m = 5 5 0
ppm = 38.5 grains/gallon.)
Figure 5.8 A salinity meter allows you to monitor both soil and water samples.
45
Surveying the landscape
A variety of m e t h o d s a r e u s e d to m e a s u r e
slopes and levels. T h e s i m p l e s t is the
B u n y i p or h o s e level, while more elabo-
rate i n s t r u m e n t s include a theodolite a n d
p l a n e table.
Professional d e s i g n e r s u s u a l l y h a v e a
dumpy level as a m i n i m u m . While water
levels, such as the B u n y i p level, a r e very
accurate, their u s e in d e t e r m i n i n g con-
tours and slopes can be slow, especially
over long d i s t a n c e s or if a l a r g e n u m b e r of
points h a v e to be m e a s u r e d . T h e following
brief descriptions of i n s t r u m e n t s t h a t
m e a s u r e distance a n d slope are listed in
order of their increasing complexity a n d
price.
Bunyip level
A clear plastic tubing or hose, or at l e a s t
one m e t r e of clear tubing at each end of a
g a r d e n hose, enables levels to be deter-
mined. T h e hose is mostly filled with wa-
ter, with enough s p a c e in both e n d s to
allow for water fluctuation. L o o s e c a p s ,
corks or h o s e c l a m p s can be u s e d to seal or
pinch the e n d s of the h o s e so t h a t w a t e r is
held within the t u b i n g while it is being
moved around. F u r t h e r m o r e , u s i n g a h o s e
with a bore d i a m e t e r of a b o u t 12 mm (half
an inch) p e r m i t s f a s t e r e q u a l i s a t i o n of the
w a t e r levels t h a n a s m a l l e r internal di­
a m e t e r of s a y 10 mm (three-eights of an
inch).
Figure 5.9 A simple Bunyip level made from plastic tubing.
Water s e e k s its own level. Hence, point A
a n d point B, in the above d i a g r a m , a r e at
the s a m e vertical height. When applied to
a slope, house s a n d p a d or wall, the a m o u n t
of fall can be d e t e r m i n e d over the d i s t a n c e
between points A a n d B.
Figure 5.10 One leg is pivoted around the other. Points A and Β are at the same vertical height
when the bubble is central.
46
An "A" frame level
An "A" f r a m e level is very h a n d y for s m a l l
a r e a s such a s s u b u r b a n b a c k y a r d s .
It is m a d e u s i n g two long pieces (2 m) of
timber a n d one shorter piece for the cross­
b a r (1 m ) .
A builder's level is s t r a p p e d or tied to the
crossbar. One leg is swivelled to a new
position such t h a t the air bubble in the
level r e m a i n s in the middle. Both l e g s a r e
then at the s a m e vertical position.
An "A" f r a m e can be pivoted a r o u n d s h r u b s
a n d other s t r u c t u r e s , so it h a s t h i s a d v a n ­
t a g e over conventional telescopic levels.
Dumpy level
Dumpy levels are u s e d for g r e a t e r accu­
racy. T h e s e a r e telescopic levels t h a t a r e
mounted level on a tripod. A staff is u s e d
for r e a d i n g s , a n d m a r k i n g s on the view­
ing l e n s p e r m i t not only m e a s u r e m e n t s
taken a t h u n d r e d s o f m e t r e s d i s t a n c e , b u t
permit the a c t u a l d i s t a n c e to the staff to
be calculated. You g e t both fall or r i s e a n d
distance a t the s a m e time.
the top r e a d i n g w a s 1.2 m a n d the bottom
r e a d i n g w a s 0.7 m, then the difference is
0.5 m. M u l t i p l i n g this by one h u n d r e d
(this is u n i v e r s a l for all such levels) gives
a d i s t a n c e of 0.5 x 100 = 50 m. T h e staff is
fifty m e t r e s a w a y from the level.
More expensive equipment
Other more expensive s u r v e y i n g equip­
ment, such a s the p l a n e table a n d theodo-
lite, can be u s e d if y o u w a n t information

Figure 5.11 The difference between A and Β gives the amount of rise in the slope.

The viewing l e n s u s u a l l y h a s three cross- a b o u t slope, direction a n d d i s t a n c e . A sim-

lines. T h e middle one is the d e a d centre
a n d this is u s e d to r e a d the staff height.
Above a n d below the centre line are two
shorter lines. B y r e a d i n g the staff m e a s ­
u r e m e n t s for t h e s e lines a n d calculating
the difference between them, the horizon­
tal d i s t a n c e to the observer holding the
staff can be d e t e r m i n e d . F o r e x a m p l e , if
ple p l a n e table can be m a d e u s i n g a t i m b e r
board on top of a stool or s t a n d . A l a r g e ,
3 6 0 ° protractor is m o u n t e d on the b o a r d ,
so t h a t m e a s u r e m e n t s of a n g l e s to objects
can be m a d e .
T h i s tool is ideal for quick, overview p l a n s
for a design, as it p e r m i t s y o u to m e a s u r e
the d i s t a n c e a n d angle of a n y object to a

Figure 5.12 The viewing lens has three cross-lines. These help determine the distance to an
object. Multiply the difference between the top and bottom lines by 100 to give the distance to the
staff.

47
fixed point. By r e d r a w i n g on a sheet of
g r a p h p a p e r , the plan will show whatever
objects a r e fixed for a design.
A theodolite is u s e d by professional sur-
veyors a n d is not d i s c u s s e d here. You
would u s e a theodolite if you were survey-
i n g a l a r g e a r e a for contour b a n k s or for a
village development.
Figure 5.13 A simple plane table is a useful design aid.
A designer's drawing tool kit
D r a w i n g a design requires some skills
a n d some tools. T h e s e include a r a n g e of
p e n s and pencils, other stationery items,
a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l a i d s such a s protrac-
tors and a d r a w i n g c o m p a s s . You don't
n e e d an expensive drafting table or a
d r a w i n g board, although both of t h e s e
would be very handy. S o m e of the i t e m s
for a s t a n d a r d toolkit a r e listed below.
Scale ruler
D r a w i n g s should a l w a y s be done to scale.
M a n y urban d e s i g n s can be drawn on an
A4 or A3 sheet u s i n g a scale such as 1:100.
T h i s scale m e a n s t h a t one centimetre on
the d r a w i n g r e p r e s e n t s 100 cm, or one
metre, on the property.
R u r a l d e s i g n s u s e a l a r g e r scale. For ex-
a m p l e , 1:1000 or more, depending on the
actual size of the l a n d you a r e drawing, is
a common scale.
A scale ruler h a s v a r i o u s s c a l e s already
imprinted on the ruler edges, a n d u s i n g
one s a v e s time a n d lengthy calculations of
the sizes of objects a n d d i s t a n c e s which
h a v e to be placed onto the drawing.
48
Figure 5.14 A scale ruler is a must for design-
ers.
Light box
T h i s is a box, normally wooden, which h a s
a clear or t r a n s l u c e n t g l a s s top. A fluores-
cent tube or incandescent light globe (40W)
is h o u s e d under the g l a s s . When it is
switched on, the light s h i n e s through the
g l a s s so t h a t copies of design d r a w i n g s
can be easily traced.
T h i s box is a l s o h a n d y for viewing slides.
J u s t tip the slides over the g l a s s surface
a n d you will be able to view m a n y slides at
once. T h i s allows you to quickly sort a n d
order the s l i d e s for a presentation.
Stationery items
K e e p a good r a n g e of s t a n d a r d stationery
items such as lead pencils, e r a s e r , col-
oured pencils, s h a r p e n e r a n d fine felt tip
pens.
Pens a n d coloured pencils a r e u s e d for
s h a d i n g a n d m a r k i n g different regions of
the design.
M a k e s u r e t h a t you h a v e a s t r a i g h t ,
unchipped ruler, a clean e r a s e r , a new
sharpener a n d a few felt tip p e n s for
labelling and inking in the main design
lines.
Figure 5.15 Alight box allows you to make copies of basic maps and designs.

Figure 5.16 Some of the stationery items you will need.

Figure 5.17 A protractor and compass are always used in design work.

49
 Mathematical drawing aids
You will often need a few drawing aids.
T h e s e include a protractor, M a t h o m a t ™
a n d drawing c o m p a s s .
Protractors m e a s u r e a n g l e s , and the skill
of u s i n g a protractor and a compass is
essential in design work. You h a v e to be
able to draw in slope (on elevation draw-
ings), various s h a p e s for buildings, rain-
water t a n k s and other structures, and
m a r k out sector angles.
Mathomat™, M a t h m a s t e r ™ and Math-
aid™ are common commercial mathemati-
Figure 5.18 Make sure you possess a range of paper sizes for design work.
My notes
Things I need to find out
50
cal drawing a i d s which contain a r a n g e of
s h a p e s , such as circles, s q u a r e s and rec-
tangles, as well as a protractor, curved
surfaces and ruler. They are invaluable
for design work.
Drawing paper
Designers need a reasonable r a n g e of
graph paper, tracing paper and normal
white bond art paper.
S i z e s up to A2 (twice A3 size) a r e useful,
but you can get by with j u s t A3 and A4
paper sizes for most design work.
6 Basic principles of garden building and
management
Introduction
This is not a chapter about how to build
sheet-mulched g a r d e n b e d s . While it does
have s o m e h i n t s a b o u t g a r d e n building
techniques, the chapter focuses on design
principles such a s i n t e g r a t e d p e s t m a n -
agement, s t a c k i n g a n d g u i l d s , a s well a s
d i s c u s s i n g the importance of soil.
We h a v e a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d how a
p e r m a c u l t u r e design is a combination of
techniques a n d s t r a t e g i e s - how we build
the g a r d e n s a n d why we p l a c e t h e m there.
K e e p i n g this in mind, we should now
realise t h a t the g a r d e n a r e a s should b e :
• m a i n l y perennial - mostly h e r b s
a n d some v e g e t a b l e s , such a s egg-
p l a n t and globe artichoke, which
last several years.
• self-perpetuating - allowing n a t u r e
to t a k e its own course by letting
some v e g e t a b l e s self-seed each
y e a r . T h i s m a y not be possible in
very s m a l l g a r d e n s .
• diversified - place in the s y s t e m as
m a n y different p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s
as p o s s i b l e . Diversity is the key to
successful g a r d e n i n g a n d forage
systems.
T h e g a r d e n b e d s w e build a r e organic
ones. T h i s m e a n s t h a t w e don't advocate
or u s e chemical s p r a y s for p e s t s , we u s e
compost a n d mulch a s n a t u r a l fertilisers
for our growing p l a n t s , a n d we p r a c t i s e
sound garden -management and hus-
b a n d r y to m i n i m i s e d i s e a s e .
O r g a n i c a n d biodynamic f a r m i n g s y s t e m s
h a v e been shown to be viable, although
they m a y not exceed or m a t c h the yields of
traditional chemical f a r m i n g methods.
O r g a n i c produce u s u a l l y gives a higher
return for the crop, a n d with lower input
costs, t h e s e food production techniques
a r e seen a s a p p r o p r i a t e g a r d e n i n g a n d
51
farming strategies. Organic and
biodynamic food m a y not be produced in
l a r g e quantities, b u t the quality is far
better a n d more n o u r i s h i n g t h a n chemi-
cally produced food. T h e secret to h e a l t h y
food is healthy soil.
Building healthy soil
The nature of soil
A plant's ability to w a r d off d i s e a s e is
strongly dependent on the h e a l t h of the
soil. Soil is alive! H e a l t h y soil contains a
good b a l a n c e of nutrients a n d e l e m e n t s ,
living o r g a n i s m s , h u m u s (decaying m a t -
ter), water, air a n d soil p a r t i c l e s . T h i s
allows p l a n t s to obtain the n e c e s s a r y s u b -
s t a n c e s they need for growth, r e p a i r a n d
d i s e a s e immunity.
T h e m i n i n g of m i n e r a l s from the soil by
p l a n t s and the s u b s e q u e n t r e p l a c e m e n t
a n d cycling of t h e s e m i n e r a l s , with the
creation of productive h e a l t h y soil, is one
of the key design s t r a t e g i e s in p e r m a -
culture. T h e soil is the k e y to successfully
growing food crops.
Soil is a combination of different particle
s i z e s . It is a m i x t u r e of s a n d , silt a n d clay,
the differences of which a r e shown in the
following table.
T h e b e s t soil for g a r d e n s is loam which
contains a b o u t 2 0 % clay, 4 0 % silt a n d 4 0 %
s a n d . L o a m also contains organic m a t t e r .
T h i s is e s s e n t i a l for s u s t a i n a b l e fertility,
as it i m p r o v e s the structure, field capac-
ity, e x c h a n g e capacity a n d m a n y other
f e a t u r e s of the soil.
Table 6.1 The classification of soil particles.
Particle Size (mm)
clay < 0.002
silt > 0.002 < 0.02
sand > 0.02 < 2.0

Figure 6.1 The composition of different soil
types.
C l a y soil is u s u a l l y h e a v y , becomes water-
logged easily, a n d a n y holes d u g for p l a n t s
create wells full of water which eventu-
ally kills m o s t t r e e s . C l a y is i m p o r t a n t in
holding a n d then r e l e a s i n g w a t e r a n d
nutrients to p l a n t s , b u t too much can
create poor soil structure, depending on
the chemical n a t u r e of the clay. For e x a m -
ple, if the clay forms an i m p e r m e a b l e
barrier, it w a t e r l o g s easily. However, if
the clay forms a crumbly structure the soil
m a y be rich in n u t r i e n t s .
It m i g h t be all right to s a y t h a t you can
e a s i l y c h a n g e soil, b u t if you h a v e lots of
clay the e x p e n s e of a d d i n g g y p s u m or
s a n d or b r e a k i n g the clay up can be pro-
hibitive, d e p e n d i n g on the local availabil-
ity of g y p s u m or the a r e a t h a t n e e d s treat-
ment. S m a l l a r e a s where the h o u s e vege-
table g a r d e n s a r e can b e treated, b u t l a r g e
a r e a s would b e impractical.
C l a y h a s a high cation e x c h a n g e capacity.
Ions loosely held by the clay particles a r e
e x c h a n g e d with others from the surround-
ing soil a n d p l a n t m a t e r i a l . T h e exchange
capacity of the clay depends on factors
such as the soil p H , the t y p e s of ions held
by the clay a n d the a m o u n t of organic
m a t t e r present. F o r e x a m p l e , in highly
acidic conditions (low pH) iron a n d alu-
m i n i u m ions a r e r e l e a s e d by the clay,
resulting in potentially toxic levels of these
52
elements for p l a n t s in the soil. F i g u r e 6.2
shows how zinc a n d calcium ions, for ex-
a m p l e , a r e exchanged with hydrogen ions
from the p l a n t roots.
Figure 6.2 Clay binds positive ions (cations)
strongly to its surfaces. These cations can be
progressively released to plants by exchange
with hydrogen ions.
S a n d doesn't h a v e t h e s e cation exchange
properties anywhere n e a r the s a m e ex-
tent. It can be g u t l e s s , with low water-
holding capacity a n d high leaching.
S a n d h a s good d r a i n a g e . T h e l a r g e r parti-
cles, a n d l a r g e pores between t h e s e parti-
cles, allow water a n d air to move through
it easily.
S i l t h a s a b a l a n c e of the properties of s a n d
a n d clay, with r e a s o n a b l e water-holding
and water-releasing ability.
T h e other major component of soil is or-
ganic matter. L a n d owners often h a v e to
work to increase the organic m a t t e r con-
tent in the soil. Once the soil b e c o m e s
"alive" a g a i n with the proliferation of or-
ganic m a t t e r a n d o r g a n i s m s , such a s b a c -
teria, fungi a n d earthworms, then nutri-
ents become a v a i l a b l e to p l a n t s , p l a n t s
a r e healthier a n d r e s i s t d i s e a s e , a n d crop
production i n c r e a s e s .
F u r t h e r m o r e , more water can be stored in
the soil. Even s a n d y soils store about 0.8
mm of water in 1 cm of soil.
However, soils with high organic m a t t e r
can store 3.5 mm of water for every centi-
metre of soil, so there is a very good c a s e
for building up our soils with h u m u s a n d
organic matter.
Why mulch?
Mulching is one way to improve soil fertil-
ity which m i m i c s n a t u r a l forest s y s t e m s .
Organic m u l c h e s of chipped p l a n t m a t e -
rial, for e x a m p l e , can be s p r e a d about 5
cm thick over the g a r d e n b e d s . T h e mulch
slowly b r e a k s down and the action of mi-
cro-organisms a n d macro-invertebrates,
such as e a r t h w o r m s , r e l e a s e s nutrients to
the soil.
Mulch protects the soil, k e e p s the soil
cool, allows g r e a t e r w a t e r infiltration a n d
reduces water l o s s by evaporation. Mulch
also p r e v e n t s erosion d u r i n g thunder-
storms with torrential rain, and the lower
t e m p e r a t u r e s u n d e r the mulch keep mi-
crobes a n d e a r t h w o r m s happy. T h e soil
should a l w a y s be covered, a n d a r e a s for
growing living mulches, such a s m u s t a r d
and clover, should be considered.
Mulches can be m a d e of both living a n d
non-living material (organic and inorganic,
respectively). R o c k s a n d p l a s t i c can be
u s e d to cover the ground, b u t mulches of
organic m a t t e r , including n e w s p a p e r a n d
cardboard, a n d s h r e d d e d p l a n t m a t e r i a l ,
are much better in m o s t c a s e s . Organic
mulches a r e b e s t as they will, in turn,
break down a n d provide g r e a t e r levels of
nutrients for p l a n t s . ( U s i n g rocks as a
mulch is a d e s i g n s t r a t e g y in d e s e r t re-
gions.)
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t contribution of or-
ganic m u l c h e s is the lignin and other
s u b s t a n c e s t h a t they contain which a r e
transformed into h u m i c acid. It is the
continuous production of humic acid that
Figure 6.3 Weed-free, deep litter leaf fall from Acacia saligna. Mulches reduce weed growth.
53
h a s s u s t a i n e d the fertility of r a i n forests
for t h o u s a n d s of y e a r s due to its powerful
chelating properties. T h a t i s , n u t r i e n t s
a r e held within the h u m i c acid s t r u c t u r e
a n d t h u s a r e m a d e more readily a v a i l a b l e
to p l a n t s .
A l a r g e r a n g e of mulches is u s u a l l y avail-
able. E a c h h a s its own p a r t i c u l a r u s e a n d
you should u s e the mulch b e s t suited for
the job. For e x a m p l e , if you w a n t to get rid
of a lot of invasive weeds, then b l a c k
plastic or some other lightproof m e m b r a n e
is ideal, while to cover an e s t a b l i s h e d
g a r d e n bed, full of h e r b s arid v e g e t a b l e s ,
then only a p l a n t - b a s e d mulch, such as
shredded tree p r u n i n g s , should be u s e d .
Wherever the ground is p e r m a n e n t sod or
mulched the soil structure improves. How-
ever, where the surface is tilled or left
b a r e by u s i n g herbicides, soil structure
becomes u n s t a b l e , with low porosity a n d
higher r i s k s of erosion a n d d e g r a d a t i o n .
Figure 6.4 Water dropping onto bare ground
causes soil to be lost by erosion. Mulch protects
the soil and minimises topsoil loss.
Mulch is g r e a t for a l m o s t every s i t u a t i o n .
However, a m u l c h layer on the g a r d e n
b e d s in frost-prone a r e a s d u r i n g the colder
m o n t h s i s not a p p r o p r i a t e , a s w e h a v e
d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 3. M u l c h p r e v e n t s
h e a t l o s s from the soil b u t frost t e n d s to
s e t t l e on the m u l c h a n d p l a n t s in the
g a r d e n . B a r e g r o u n d is a b e t t e r a l t e r n a ­
tive for t h e s e t i m e s b e c a u s e h e a t can radi­
a t e from the soil surface at night, mini­
m i s i n g frost d a m a g e .
Soil conditioning and treatments
P e r m a c u l t u r e i s a b o u t r e s t o r i n g a n d reju­
v e n a t i n g the l a n d , not m i n i n g it. E v e n
t h o u g h p e r m a c u l t u r e concerns i t s e l f with
holistic, i n t e g r a t e d d e s i g n , it is not impor­
t a n t to i n c l u d e every known s t r a t e g y for
i m p r o v i n g t h e soil in the d e s i g n , nor could
every i d e a b e p u t into practice.
H o w e v e r , s o m e t i m e s soil n e e d s t o b e
c h a n g e d . Y o u m a y often notice t h a t par­
t i c u l a r w e e d s a r e flourishing where you
don't w a n t t h e m to be, or your p l a n t s look
yellow a n d w e a k .
T h e s e w e e d s a n d m a n y other p l a n t s can
be u s e d as i n d i c a t o r s of soil h e a l t h . T h e i r
p r e s e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t the soil could be
acid, wet, clay-based, s a n d y , n u t r i e n t de­
ficient or s o m e other condition. F o r e x a m ­
p l e : in Western A u s t r a l i a , sorrel (Rumex
spp.) a n d s o u r s o b (Oxalis spp.) s u g g e s t
acidic soil; blady g r a s s (Imperata
cylindrica) or b a r l e y g r a s s (Hordeum
leporinum) s u g g e s t s a l t c o n t a m i n a t e d soil;
while c a s t o r oil p l a n t s indicate recently
cleared l a n d a n d b r a c k e n fern a recently
b u r n t a r e a . T h e following table s u m m a ­
r i s e s s o m e of the p l a n t s u s e d as soil indi­
cators.
Once an a s s e s s m e n t of the soil h a s b e e n
m a d e y o u can then decide how the soil
n e e d s to be conditioned or t r e a t e d . Soil
conditioning is the gentle c h a n g e s y o u
m a k e to the composition, n a t u r e a n d struc­
ture of the soil. F r e q u e n t l y , it involves
loosening the soil and/or a d d i n g a m e n d ­
m e n t s to c h a n g e acidity, a l k a l i n i t y or
chemical composition. A full soil a n a l y s i s
of the t y p e s of m i n e r a l s p r e s e n t is the only
m e a n s of a c c u r a t e soil n u t r i e n t a m e l i o r a ­
tion a n d b a l a n c e .
Soil conditioning c a n occur by s e v e r a l
methods. For small urban properties, a
g a r d e n fork p u s h e d into the soil a n d moved
slightly to a n d fro will c a u s e air a n d w a t e r
to freely enter the soil. Alternatively, deep-
rooted p l a n t s , s u c h a s d a i k o n r a d i s h ,
comfrey a n d dandelion, or l a r g e r t r e e s p e -

Table 6.2 Plants as soil indicators.

Plant Soil indication

Clover (Trifolium spp.) low Ν
Salad burnet (Poterium sanguisorba) a l k a l i n e soil
F a t h e n (Atriplex hastata) h i g h fertility
S t i n g i n g nettle (Urtica urens) cultivated soil, high fertility
Sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella) s a n d , acid soil, low in m a g n e s i u m
P l a n t a i n (Plantago spp.) cultivated, wet, clay soil
Wild radish (Rapranus raphanistrum) low fertility
Dock (Rumex s p p .) wet, acid soil, low in m a g n e s i u m
H o r s e t a i l (Equisetum spp.) wet, clay, acid soil
Bracken fern (Pteridium aquifolium) low Κ a n d P, acid soil
Chicory (Cichorium intybus) cultivated soil, clay
B a r l e y g r a s s (Hordeum leporinum) salty soil, w a t e r t a b l e n e a r surface

54
cies, such as Acacia spp., will h a v e the
s a m e effect, b u t slower.
Finally, let e a r t h w o r m s do the j o b for you.
Place a layer of compost or mulch on the
soil surface a n d let the e a r t h w o r m s do the
rest. E a r t h w o r m s are n a t u r e ' s g a r d e n e r s .
In s o m e countries, such as those in the
U K , Europe and America, large animals
such a s moles a n d gophers, and insect
l a r v a e , s u p p l e m e n t earthworm activity
by their burrowing h a b i t s . In the drier
a r e a s of A u s t r a l i a (and in some other
countries) where e a r t h w o r m s a r e seldom
found, a n t s replace e a r t h w o r m s in the
ecosystem. A n t s fill an important niche in
the cycling of matter.
For s m a l l a c r e a g e a n d b r o a d scale f a r m s ,
mechanical aeration with chisel ploughs
(for e x a m p l e , Wallace plough and Yeo-
m a n ' s plough), or even a s t u m p j u m p
scarifier, can be used. T h e s e slice through
Figure 6.5 For suburban backyards, a garden
fork or deep-rooted plants help improve aera-
tion and drainage.
Figure 6.6 Chisel ploughs are used, with increasing depth of cut over a couple of seasons, on both
small and large farms. This improves aeration and drainage, breaks up compacted soil and
permits plant roots to penetrate deeper into the soil.
55
the soil, cutting deeper each season, break-
ing up the compacted soil without turning
it over like a conventional disc plough.
Mechanical machinery should not be u s e d
on steep slopes. I n s t e a d , the u s e of deep-
rooted trees, such as pine and oak, will
improve soil structure. T h e s e types of
trees create soil while others, such as
eucalypts, deplete the soil of its nutrients.
Ploughing should be done along the con-
tours as p a r t of the keyline s y s t e m of l a n d
m a n a g e m e n t , which is d i s c u s s e d in more
detail in C h a p t e r 9. If you wanted to plant
a tree shelterbelt you would m a k e only
one run at the deeper cut (50 cm or more).
Chisel ploughs can be u s e d , b u t it is more
common to "rip" the ground to a depth of
about one metre u s i n g a bulldozer, pull-
ing one to three rip tynes. T h i s single,
deep cut allows seedlings to become better
established by sending down roots more
easily in search of water.
A s much a s possible, m i n i m u m tillage
should be practised. Heavy machinery
a n d l a r g e n u m b e r s of stock easily compact
some types of soils a n d this needs to be
examined. Unfortunately, m i n i m u m till-
a g e often implies the u s e of herbicides. By
planting clovers a n d other leguminous
plants, a n d u s i n g crop and soil m a n a g e -
ment strategies, herbicides are not needed.
Many farmers (and gardeners) plantgreen
m a n u r e crops which a r e e a s y to grow in
m o s t local conditions and which produce
large amounts of plant biomass. These
p l a n t s can be t u r n e d into the soil to im-
prove its quality, a n d i n c r e a s e nitrogen
a n d other nutrient levels. Other t y p e s of
p l a n t s , called cover or catch crops, t r a p
nutrient run-off a n d protect the soil. T h e s e
p l a n t s can be h a r v e s t e d , by s l a s h i n g for
e x a m p l e , a n d u s e d as a source of mulch
a n d for compost m a k i n g . T a b l e 6.3 l i s t s a
few e x a m p l e s of g r e e n m a n u r e a n d cover
crops which can be grown in p a r t i c u l a r
seasons.
Finally, there a r e soil additives t h a t you
can u s e to a m e l i o r a t e the soil. Y o u m i g h t
w a n t to c h a n g e acidic soil to become neu-
tral, improv e d r a i n a g e a n d w a t e r and root
penetration in clay, or provide p a r t i c u l a r
n a t u r a l fertilisers to improve soil fertility.
ing, chemical d a m a g e , over-burning, ero-
sion a n d nutrient e x h a u s t i o n , so will the
h u m a n society, which over-works the soil,
collapse.
Integrated pest management
Your g a r d e n should be a place of h a r m o n y
between all of the elements in the s y s t e m .
Why is it t h a t m a n y g a r d e n s a r e riddled
with p e s t s a n d everything else h a s a feed
of the v e g e t a b l e s you p l a n t e d ? Y o u never
g e t to pick fresh fruit a n d v e g e t a b l e s , so
you j u s t g i v e u p . S o u n d f a m i l i a r ? M a y b e i t
is time to try i n t e g r a t e d p e s t m a n a g e -
ment.
I n t e g r a t e d p e s t m a n a g e m e n t is a holistic
approach to p e s t control. It is u s e d in
conjunction with the five principles for a

Table 6.3 Green manure and cover crops.

Season Plants
Summer cow pea*, lablab*, J a p a n e s e millet, s o r g h u m , vetch*
Autumn lupins*, canola, f a b a b e a n s * , o a t s , field p e a s * , barley
Winter o a t s , canola, m u s t a r d , f a b a b e a n s * , barley, f i e l d p e a s * , rye-corn,
sub-clovers*, m e d i c s *
Spring cow pea*, vetch*, canola, s o r g h u m , pinto's peanut*, m u s t a r d ,
b u c k w h e a t , lupins*

* l e g u m e s . All other green m a n u r e crops listed in the table a r e non-legumes.

F o r e x a m p l e , a r e a s n e a r coastal regions healthy g a r d e n . T h e s e a r e :

often h a v e s a n d s which a r e typically
leached a n d low in nutrient content. S o m e -
t i m e s , t h e s e s a n d s lie over limestone a n d
a r e t h u s a l k a l i n e (high p H ) . S o m e amelio-
ration, by a d d i n g acidifying s u b s t a n c e s
such a s s u l p h u r a n d slow-release fertilis-
e r s to i m p r o v e the nitrogen a n d phospho-
r u s content, n e e d s consideration before
p l a n t i n g is u n d e r t a k e n . S o m e of the more
common soil t r e a t m e n t s a r e shown in
T a b l e 6.4. M a n y others, such a s m a g n e s i t e
a n d rock p h o s p h a t e , a r e not d i s c u s s e d .
So i m p o r t a n t is the soil to our very well-
being, t h a t I believe when the structure of
our soils collapse b e c a u s e of over-stock-
1. Develop a s u s t a i n a b l e polyculture.
T h e concept of s u s t a i n a b l e polycultures
w a s d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r s one a n d two.
B a s i c a l l y , we w a n t to grow a r a n g e of
different p l a n t s t h a t h a v e different func-
tions (niches) in the g a r d e n . F o r e x a m p l e ,
scented h e r b s and a t t r a c t i v e flowers can
b e u s e d a s borders o f g a r d e n p a t h s . Y o u
could consider b e d s which h a v e a s e a s o n a l
theme such t h a t different b e d s flower in
s p r i n g or s u m m e r , or a r r a n g e p l a n t s such
t h a t there a r e a l w a y s s o m e in each bed
which a r e flowering all-year-round. T h e s e
h e r b s a n d p l a n t s m a y a l s o repel p e s t s a n d
some will h a v e medicinal, culinary or other

56
 Table 6.4 Soil amendments.

Substance Uses
Gypsum i m p r o v e s d r a i n a g e in clay a n d s u p p l i e s e s s e n t i a l
protein-building " s u l p h a t e "
Dolomite c h a n g e s acid soil to a l k a l i n e , contains calcium a n d
magnesium
Limestone c h a n g e s acid soil to a l k a l i n e , contains calcium
Rock d u s t g r o u n d rock for sources of m o s t nutrient e l e m e n t s
Blood a n d bone organic fertiliser, high nitrogen a n d p h o s p h o r u s
content
S e a w e e d (kelps, not s e a good source of trace e l e m e n t s , all-round fertiliser,
grass) high p o t a s s i u m
Worm c a s t s excellent, b a l a n c e d fertiliser
Sulphur c h a n g e s b a s i c (alkaline) soil to acid
Wood a s h from fires, c o n t a i n s high p o t a s s i u m l e v e l s
(caution: very a l k a l i n e when fresh)
Lime c h a n g e s acid soil to a l k a l i n e , contains calcium
Sheep and pig manures high levels of nitrogen, p h o s p h o r u s a n d p o t a s s i u m
Cow a n d h o r s e m a n u r e s slow r e l e a s e fertilisers, lower nitrogen content
Poultry a n d pigeon m a n u r e s very high nitrogen content. Pigeon m a n u r e
contains the h i g h e s t b r o a d s p e c t r u m of all trace
elements
Bentonite e x p a n s i v e clay to i n c r e a s e w a t e r holding capacity
of soil a n d cation e x c h a n g e capacity of light s a n d y
soils

u s e s . F l o w e r s a r e also i m p o r t a n t for a d u l t T h e r e a r e m a n y other w a y s in which com-

ichneumon w a s p s a n d hover flies which
m u s t h a v e nectar before p a r a s i t i s i n g p e s t s
with their l a r v a e . T h e orchard a r e a is
another place where polycultures can be
developed. For e x a m p l e , you could
u n d e r p l a n t orchard species with:
(a) companion p l a n t s for p e s t control
- such as n a s t u r t i u m s , t a n s y a n d
r u e . P l a n t s should complement
others nearby.
(b) g r o u n d cover to s m o t h e r weeds
a n d utilise the a r e a - such as sweet
potato, m e l o n s a n d pumpkin.
(c) g r e e n m a n u r e crops to s l a s h or
turn in - such as clover a n d m u s -
tard.
plex e c o s y s t e m s a n d polycultures could be
set up. Why not experiment!
2. U s e a diversity of s t r a t e g i e s .
S o m e p e s t s find food by the chemicals
produced by the h o s t plant. If you p l a n t
lots of the s a m e type of v e g e t a b l e s to-
gether ( a s a monoculture) then the chemi-
cal signal i s much stronger. T h i s m e a n s
you a t t r a c t more p e s t s .
G e t t i n g rid of g a r d e n p e s t s n a t u r a l l y is
difficult. Y o u m u s t u s e a r a n g e of s t r a t e -
gies or y o u will be doomed to failure. T h e
next few p a g e s i l l u s t r a t e s o m e i d e a s .
Organic g r o w e r s u s e crop rotation as a
strategy against pests and disease. The
rotation of a n n u a l crops limits p e s t a n d

57
Figure 6.7 Sawdust barriers discourage snails
and slugs.
d i s e a s e a t t a c k a n d r e d u c e s over-exploita-
tion of p a r t i c u l a r n u t r i e n t s which would
be m i n e d y e a r after y e a r from the s a m e
soil. M a n y p e s t s h a v e p a r t of their life
cycle in the soil. By c h a n g i n g the location
of p a r t i c u l a r p l a n t s each y e a r you can
d i s r u p t this cycle. For e x a m p l e , in the
s a m e patch o f g r o u n d you m i g h t p l a n t
c a r r o t s in the first year, then t o m a t o e s in
the second year, then silverbeet in y e a r
three, p o t a t o e s in y e a r four a n d so on.
3. Y o u don't h a v e too m a n y p e s t s - you
h a v e n ' t got enough predators!
A p h i d s m i g h t be a problem for lemons or
r o s e s b u t they a r e seen a s a n opportunity
Figure 6.9 Crop rotation breaks the life cycle of some garden pests.
by l a d y b i r d s . T h i s philosophy e n s u r e s t h a t
we s e e the solution, not the problem. We
look at p r o b l e m s differently and, in this
way, decide t h a t we don't h a v e a snail
problem, b u t we do h a v e a duck defi-
ciency.
P e r m a c u l t u r i s t s d e s i g n for p r e d a t o r s . We
develop s t r a t e g i e s to a t t r a c t p r e d a t o r s to
58
Figure 6.8 Grease on the base of trees discour-
ages climbing insects. It is best to place the
vaseline on a band rather than directly on the
bark.
the g a r d e n a n d let n a t u r e control the
pests.
4. Don't allow any ... icides n e a r your
garden.
Pesticides, insecticides, fungicides a n d
weedicides kill useful p r e d a t o r s a s well a s
the p e s t s . Avoid them! T h e r e a r e lots of
alternatives.
For e x a m p l e , if mildew is a problem look
for the c a u s e . Consider shifting the p l a n t
into a breezeway or don't u s e s p r a y s or
sprinklers for watering. If y o u h a v e to
t r e a t a p l a n t for mildew u s e a "tea" of
some combination of chamomile, s t i n g i n g
nettle, comfrey or horsetail. All of t h e s e
contain silica which inhibits the growth of
fungus.
5. N u r t u r e the soil.
G e t the p l a n t nitrition right a n d you
eliminate m o s t d i s e a s e problems. It really
i s a s simple a s that. Healthy p l a n t s living
 Figure 6.10 Use natural predators to eliminate pests.

Figure 6.12 A pond also helps in pest control.

Figure 6.11 Umbelliferous plants attract

predators to the garden.

in healthy soil do not g e t d i s e a s e d easily

and can w a r d off d i s e a s e . T h e r e is much
we do not know a b o u t how p l a n t s r e s i s t
d i s e a s e o r g a n i s m s , b u t we do know t h a t
they can, given the correct m i n e r a l s a n d
nutrients they require.
Too often we forget t h a t in the living Figure 6.13 Adequate pest control requires a
world, a n d in our own g a r d e n , we are the range of different strategies.

Figure 6.14 Make pest traps in the garden. This is much better than spraying pesticides.

59
 Figure 6.15 Companion planting ensures a healthy garden.
m o s t s e r i o u s p e s t s . We compete for food
with a whole h o s t of other a n i m a l s , a n d we
m u s t b e c o m e s m a r t e r about how w e can
obtain a n d satisfy our n e e d s a n d look
after the other c r e a t u r e s at the s a m e time.
Stacking
M a n y native peoples throughout the world
practice s u s t a i n a b l e forage s y s t e m s . Vines,
s h r u b s , h e r b s a n d trees a r e all grown
Figure 6.16 Practice sound management tech-
niques in the garden.
60
together in a technique commonly known
a s stacking.
S t a c k i n g also occurs in n a t u r e . In any
n a t u r a l forest, you will find p l a n t s s t a c k e d
together - tall trees h a v e understorey
s h r u b s and s m a l l t r e e s , and g r a s s e s a n d
h e r b s occupy the ground level. Below the
ground, root and tuber p l a n t s proliferate.
S t a c k i n g allows a s much a s possible t o
grow in the s m a l l e s t possible a r e a . D e n s e
p l a n t i n g s such a s t h e s e s u p p r e s s weed
growth and soil erosion, a n d e n s u r e t h a t
all ecological niches are filled by p l a n t s
you need for your g a r d e n .
T h e degree to which s t a c k i n g occurs de-
p e n d s on limiting factors such as the
a m o u n t of water, light a n d nutrients. You
would expect, for e x a m p l e , to find a denser
g r o u p i n g of p l a n t s in a well-watered g a r -
den than in a n a t u r a l , dryland climate
area.
S t a c k i n g u s e s vertical growing s p a c e more
effectively. You should a r r a n g e or s t a g g e r
p l a n t s according to height, tolerance to
s h a d e a n d so on.
For e x a m p l e , g r a p e vines can be grown
over a fig tree. P u m p k i n s and melons can
be grown up and over a shed wall a n d roof
- all utilising the free s p a c e a v a i l a b l e in a
 Figure 6.17 The principle of stacking.
s y s t e m . You can u s e trellis, fence, tree
t r u n k s a n d walls to obtain more vertical
growing a r e a s .
U s i n g the principle of s t a c k i n g allows
other p o s s i b i l i t i e s . F o r e x a m p l e , you
should a i m to h a v e successive crops of
edible foods throughout the y e a r - a vari-
ety of fruit trees such t h a t you a r e a l w a y s
picking s o m e fruit any time, any s e a s o n .
F u r t h e r m o r e , you don't h a v e to wait to
p l a n t the next s e a s o n ' s v e g e t a b l e s until
you've cleared and finished picking t h a t
s e a s o n ' s crop.
T i m e s t a c k i n g is a technique where new
seedlings a r e planted or come up as the
previous crop is finishing.
61
T h e r e is l e s s waiting time between one
picking time a n d another. F o r e x a m p l e ,
you can grow silverbeet, onions a n d globe
artichokes together. T h e silverbeet g r o w s
the f a s t e s t and is h a r v e s t e d within eight
weeks. T h e artichokes t a k e about four
months to grow a n d flower, and finally the
onions plod along a n d can be h a r v e s t e d
after six months.
After the silverbeet is h a r v e s t e d , you can
replant new seedlings and so the process
continues. I will a d d t h a t silverbeet can be
h a r v e s t e d over a long time if you only pick
one or two l e a v e s from each p l a n t at any
one time. New l e a v e s will regrow a n d so
h a r v e s t i n g continues for quite some time.
 Figure 6.18 An example of stacking in a temperate-Mediterranean climate.

Guilds tral element (either a p l a n t or a n i m a l ) .

Designing leads to the selective place-
ment of objects, both living and non-liv-
ing, in the system. T h e placement of living
elements occurs as we try to m a x i m i s e the
benefits to each species. In this way, guilds
a r e formed. A h u m a n - m a d e guild is mod-
elled on the functional, symbiotic diver-
sity we so often see in nature.
Guilds a r e thought of as harmonious a s -
semblies of several species around a cen-
For example, for an orange tree, h e r b s
such as lavender and rue would be planted
as understorey to repel p e s t s , a n d n a s t u r -
t i u m s as ground cover (also repels insects)
a n d to smother weeds a n d g r a s s e s . Clover
and vetch can provide nitrogen in the soil,
and an albizia tree is also planted nearby
to attract ladybirds to eat a p h i d s .
D u c k s or chickens can be occasionally let
in to eat s l u g s , s n a i l s and insect p e s t s .

Figure 6.19 An example of an orchard guild.

62
(Poultry will devour n a s t u r t i u m s a n d
graze clover, b u t l e a v e m o s t of the other
plants mentioned.) T h e albizia will a l s o
provide wind protection, nitrogen for the
soil a n d mulch for the o r a n g e tree. T h i s is
an e x a m p l e of an orchard guild.
A guild, then, is an a s s e m b l y of m a n y
different o r g a n i s m s , both p l a n t a n d ani-
m a l s , which c o m p l e m e n t each other. It is
an extension of companion p l a n t i n g which
many people a r e f a m i l i a r with, b u t it can
involve a n i m a l s as shown in the rock
guild below. H e r e , a lizard e a t s p e s t s in
the g a r d e n , then s e e k s shelter in the rocks
which, in turn, a b s o r b h e a t a n d r a d i a t e it
to create a w a r m microclimate for grow-
ing p l a n t s . T h i s s y s t e m i s m u t u a l l y ben-
eficial to the p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s found
there.
Figure 6.20 A rock guild.
Other tips for gardeners
Here a r e a few h i n t s on p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s
of g a r d e n i n g . D e s i g n e r s will be a b l e to u s e
t h e s e i d e a s a s well a s incorporating some
of t h e m in their own g a r d e n s .
• T h e C l a y t o n ' s g a r d e n bed when
y o u don't h a v e a g a r d e n bed. Grow
your v e g e t a b l e s in p l a s t i c or h e s -
s i a n s h o p p i n g b a g s (double p l a s t i c )
with holes in the bottom. T h i s con-
s e r v e s m o r e w a t e r than a conven-
tional g a r d e n bed.
• T h e r e is a need to collect seed from
your v e g e t a b l e s a n d h e r b s . In the
g a r d e n , some of t h e s e p l a n t s should
63
Figure 6.21 Shopping bags make ideal garden
beds.
be allowed to complete their life
cycle so t h a t they flower a n d s e e d s
a r e produced.
• P l a n t trees a n d under storey s h r u b s
a t the s a m e time. I n m a n y c a s e s
understorey s h r u b s cannot e s t a b -
lish t h e m s e l v e s u n d e r e x i s t i n g tall
trees.
• G a r d e n b e d s should only be as wide
as your reach, so t h a t you don't
h a v e to walk all over the b e d s to
h a r v e s t . Often, a b e d one m e t r e
wide or one a n d a h a l f m e t r e s wide
will allow you to h a v e a c c e s s all the
way round the bed.
P a t h s a r e a l s o narrow, u s u a l l y u p
to h a l f a m e t r e wide. S o m e t i m e s
p a t h s h a v e to be wider for wheel-
barrow or wheelchair a c c e s s .
• Bare-rooted tree species a r e much
cheaper and readily available.
M a n y deciduous t r e e s , which a r e
dormant in winter a n d can be trans-
ported without soil, a r e sold b a r e -
rooted. They a r e p l a n t e d s t r a i g h t
into the g a r d e n at the o n s e t of win-
ter.
A s the w i n t e r b r e a k s a n d t h e
warmer spring weather arrives,
t h e s e t r e e s s t a r t t o b u d a n d grow.
• B e a r in m i n d t h a t you h a v e m o r e
s u c c e s s with some v e g e t a b l e s t h a n
others. If this is the c a s e , y o u m a y
 have to change your diet and learn
how to u s e more of these vegeta-
bles and l e s s of the ones that you
can't seem to grow.
• Sometimes, wherever mulch is used
the soil becomes non-wetting. Wa-
ter simply r u n s off its surface and
doesn't penetrate.
To solve this problem you have to
get water into the root zone. A
piece of pipe or modified cool drink
bottle can be positioned alongside
the tree and drippers or other irri- Figure 6.22 Plastic bottles can be recycled as
gation devices can be placed into water suppliers to the root zone.
the bottle. Water percolates down, reduced by adding and mixing the
deep into the soil, minimising loss c l a y b e n t o n i t e t o the o r g a n i c
by evaporation in dry a r e a s . mulches you place around the b a s e
Alternatively, water repellency is of trees.

My notes

Things I need to find out

64
7 It's all a matter of location
Location and climate
As you go from the e q u a t o r t o w a r d s either
of the two poles, the n u m b e r of indigenous
(native) species d e c r e a s e s . T h e equatorial
region h a s a rich tropical diversity, while
the polar regions h a v e much l e s s variety.
T h i s phenomenon is d u e to the climatic
c h a n g e s t h a t occur as you go from the
warmer e q u a t o r i a l region to the much
cooler polar regions.
Before we r u s h into d i s c u s s i n g how we
a s s e s s a property so t h a t you can buy the
ideal site for a p e r m a c u l t u r e f a r m , we
need to e x a m i n e s o m e b a s i c i d e a s a b o u t
climate a n d location. Knowing about these
concepts will enable us to m a k e informed
choices a b o u t v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of a poten-
tial p e r m a c u l t u r e site.
The local climate is largely determined by
factors such a s latitude, altitude, topogra-
phy (such as hills, m o u n t a i n s , valleys a n d
w a t e r w a y s ) , vegetation cover and close-
n e s s to the s e a or ocean.
T h e daily a n d s e a s o n a l c h a n g e in tem-
p e r a t u r e , for e x a m p l e , is d u e to the a n g l e
of the s u n ' s r a y s to the E a r t h ' s surface. As
the l a t i t u d e c h a n g e s from the equator
t o w a r d s either pole the s u n ' s r a y s become
l e s s steep. Angled sunlight is s p r e a d over
a l a r g e r a r e a , t h u s the t e m p e r a t u r e is low.
When the s u n is directly overhead the
Figure 7.1 The temperature in a local area is partly due to the angle of the sun's rays to the
Earth's surface.
65
a m o u n t of light a n d h e a t is concentrated
on a s m a l l e r a r e a , which c a u s e s a w a r m e r
temperature.
T h e m e a s u r e of the a m o u n t of s u n l i g h t
reaching a p a r t i c u l a r point on the E a r t h ' s
surface is called insolation. T h i s is re-
corded a s the n u m b e r o f w a t t s / s q u a r e
metre, a n d a t m i d d a y could b e a s high a s
1000 W / m . 2
T h e v a l u e of the s u n ' s insolation allows us
to m a k e predictions a b o u t the effective-
n e s s a n d u s e f u l n e s s of solar e q u i p m e n t in
different p a r t s of the world, and a b o u t
how much energy solar a p p l i a n c e s can be
expected to e x t r a c t or h a r v e s t from incom-
i n g sunlight.
T h e a n g l e of the s u n also c h a n g e s s e a s o n -
ally as the s u n a p p e a r s to move from one
h e m i s p h e r e to the other. T h e a n g l e of the
E a r t h ' s tilt on i t s a x i s a n d the direction of
the E a r t h to the s u n c a u s e s the s e a s o n s .
Here, the altitude of the sun ( a n g l e above
the horizon) d u r i n g winter m a y be only
3 5 ° b u t 8 0 ° i n s u m m e r . A t the s a m e lati-
tude, the a z i m u t h a n g l e , t h a t between t h e
north a n d the direction of the s u n , m a y be
6 0 ° for mid-winter, for e x a m p l e , b u t 120°
mid-summer. These seasonal changes are
considered in p e r m a c u l t u r e design a n d
were d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 3 when we
dealt with sector planning.

Figure 7.2 The difference between the azi-
muth and altitude of the sun's position.
W h a t we call climate, the daily a n d s e a -
sonal c h a n g e s in t e m p e r a t u r e , rainfall
a n d so on, is influenced by the water cycle,
a n d the i m p o r t a n c e of trees, in providing
w a t e r to the a t m o s p h e r e through t r a n s p i -
ration a n d evaporation of water from p l a n t
s u r f a c e s for cloud formation, cannot be
underestimated.
Figure 7.3 The water cycle.
It is i m p e r a t i v e t h a t no more forest a r e a s
a r e cleared a n d t h a t literally billions of
t r e e s a r e r e p l a n t e d , especially on hill
slopes, as t h e s e play an e s s e n t i a l role in
the w a t e r cycle. We h a v e the ability to
c h a n g e a n d i n c r e a s e local precipitation
patterns simply by planting trees.
66
F u r t h e r m o r e , g r e a t e r condensation is pos-
sible a s trees provide l a r g e surface a r e a s
for water v a p o u r to condense. F o r e s t e d
mountain a r e a s h a v e p e r m a n e n t f o g , m i s t
or cloud on their p e a k s . In s o m e places,
condensation contributes m o r e than rain-
fall in the total a m o u n t of w a t e r reaching
the E a r t h .
We can think of a forest of trees as e s s e n -
tially a l a k e above the ground. T r e e s often
contain more than 8 0 % w a t e r a n d they
continue to p u m p l a r g e v o l u m e s of water
into the a t m o s p h e r e . N o t only do trees
store l a r g e a m o u n t s of w a t e r in their
t r u n k s a n d l e a v e s , p l a n t roots a l s o hold
water in the soil, u s u a l l y as a thin film
around each root fibre.
L a r g e t r e e s can lose t h o u s a n d s of litres of
water each day. Much of the rain a n d
cloud formation comes from the t r e e s in a
forest. You can i m a g i n e w h a t the effect of
forest clearing would h a v e on climate pat-
terns. Fertile land is slowly t u r n i n g into
desert.
Densely-planted trees also soften the force
of rainfall a n d greatly reduce erosion a n d
run-off. In fact, light showers m a y not
even reach the ground a n d the water
Figure 7.4 Wind deflects over bare hilltops but no cloud or rain is produced. Clouds will form and
rain will fall on forested hillslopes, chancing local rainfall patterns.

r e m a i n s as a fine m i s t in the tree canopy, inches), b u t this i s s p r e a d r e a s o n a b l y

causing a humid atmosphere.
In cold climate ( t e m p e r a t e ) regions, such
a s the U K a n d E u r o p e , light, not water, i s
the m o s t i m p o r t a n t limiting factor.
M a n y t r e e s are_deciduous, so evergreen
u n d e r s t o r e y can be grown d u r i n g the
colder m o n t h s . D u r i n g the s u m m e r , the
tree canopy s h a d e s m o s t of the understorey
a n d ground.
Food crop p l a n t s need to be chosen accord-
ingly - they m a y need to be s h a d e tolerant
or e x i s t a n d thrive in d a p p l e d sunlight.
In t h e s e countries the a n n u a l rainfall
m a y only be 750 to 1000 mm (30 to 40
evenly over the whole year, while in p l a c e s
like southern A u s t r a l i a , m o s t of the rain-
fall falls in the three or four m o n t h s of
winter, a n d the s u m m e r s a r e much drier.
Another factor i s t h a t i n the U K a n d
E u r o p e , evaporation doesn't often exceed
precipitation. T h e r e is l e s s need to build
s w a l e s , d a m s and keyline d r a i n i n g s y s -
t e m s b e c a u s e w a t e r is u s u a l l y not in short
supply.
Choosing a property
W h a t do y o u look for in a property? Is it
the gentle sun-facing slope, clear s t r e a m
water or loamy soil? Different people v a l u e

67
some t h i n g s more than others and this
will depend on the person's personal pref-
erences a n d viewpoint. There m a y be times
when you will h a v e to a s s e s s different
a s p e c t s of a property to see if it is suitable
for your needs.
T h e following set of criteria, which can be
u s e d to a s s e s s a particular site, can be
applied to rural properties of a few acres
or more. You wouldn't consider m a n y of
t h e s e when b u y i n g an urban block, where
scheme water is u s u a l l y a v a i l a b l e a n d
n a t u r a l resources, energy supply and soil
type a r e not t h a t relevant. T h e criteria
a r e not listed in any particular order or
priority, but they are the k i n d s of things
you can easily observe or note a n d a s s e s s .
Any checklist for a s s e s s i n g a site might
include:
• B u y e r ' s resources: capital (money,
machinery and so on) and their skills
a n d abilities (including their will-
i n g n e s s to h a v e a go).
• Water: a b u n d a n c e and quality.
• S l o p e : this allows you to collect, store
a n d s a v e water.
• A s p e c t : s u n - f a c i n g (northerly in
southern h e m i s p h e r e ) for warmth,
h o u s e site a n d better v e g e t a t i o n
growth.
• C l i m a t e : a n n u a l rainfall, a m o u n t of
frost, n u m b e r of chill hours, length
of growing s e a s o n and t e m p e r a t u r e
extremes.
• Soil type: clay, loam or s a n d .
• N a t u r a l resources: rocks, types of
trees p r e s e n t and type of soil for
Figure 7.6 Find out about prior uses for the land.
68
Figure 7.5 Natural resources are an asset on
the property.
house building.
• E n e r g y supply: a v a i l a b l e electricity
or do-it-yourself solar or wind power
generation.
• A l t i t u d e : m o r e cold a n d frost in
higher altitudes, microclimates
present. R e m e m b e r t h a t slopes will
often drain cold air.
• Access: r o a d s , quality, need for re-
pair, rebuilding.
• C o s t and size: value for money, po-
tential to increase in v a l u e , a m o u n t
needed to be borrowed (and there-
fore a m o u n t needed to service the
loan).
• Prior historical land u s e : traditional
orchard t h a t h a s been chemically
sprayed or natural, untouched
bushland.
• Amount of vegetation cover: trees,
r e m n a n t b u s h l a n d or totally cleared.
R e m n a n t b u s h l a n d or forest should
not be cleared for h o u s e s or other
developments.
• Fences or hedges: type, quality, those
t h a t need replacing.
 V i e w s : aesthetically p l e a s i n g or will
you be looking out over someone's
untidy b a c k y a r d ?
Activities of neighbours: traditional
chemical farmers or responsible
l a n d o w n e r s a n d supportive commu-
nity.
S e r v i c e facilities: public t r a n s p o r t
for school children, distance to shops.
F i r e d a n g e r r i s k : dry wind direction,
f l a m m a b l e t r e e s a n d p l a n t s nearby.
Potential income: opportunities to
produce income from resources on
site or possibilities and potential for
Figure 7.7 Potential aquaculture development.
developing aquaculture, forest indus-
t r i e s a n d agricultural activities.
• Privacy: a r e there trees t h a t screen
you from neighbours or u n w a n t e d
visitors. C a n trees be planted for
this p u r p o s e ?
• C l e a r i n g needed: for house site, d a m
construction a n d g a r d e n a r e a s .
• Drain a g e : does property flood or does
w a t e r drain a w a y into the soil?
• Dwellings on property: extent of u s e -
ful s h e d s , c o t t a g e s , a n d other struc-
t u r e s such as a hothouse or
shadehouse.
• Ecological value: n a t u r a l ecosystems
p r e s e n t or a b s e n t .
• Restrictions on land u s e : zoning, le-
g a l covenants, local or s t a t e govern-
m e n t restrictions on the n u m b e r of
dwellings a n d on land a n d property
69
development, such as recycling grey-
water, composting toilets a n d a q u a -
culture license r e q u i r e m e n t s .
• S u i t a b l e h o u s e s i t e s : the selection of
the house site depends on a n u m b e r
of factors, some of which m a y in-
clude slope, microclimate, water sup-
ply, soil type (stability, clay), drain-
a g e , fire risk a n d views.
• C l o s e n e s s to m a r k e t s : c l o s e n e s s for
t r a n s p o r t services - road, rail or b o a t
- a n d m a r k e t s to sell produce.
S o m e criteria a r e m o r e i m p o r t a n t than
others in different locations. F o r e x a m p l e ,
the activities of neighbours m a y be very
i m p o r t a n t in one situation b u t l e s s impor-
t a n t in another, a n d energy supply m a y
not be i m p o r t a n t if s t a t e - g e n e r a t e d elec-
tricity a n d g a s p a s s the property.
R e m e m b e r that if you a r e c o n t e m p l a t i n g
b u y i n g a p a r t of a farm or once r u r a l
property, the farmer or owner is probably
selling the worst piece of l a n d - t h a t is
u s u a l l y subject to waterlogging, salinity
problems a n d so on.
M a k e s u r e t h a t you observe the l a n d in
both s u m m e r and winter, which will prob-
ably give you some indication about the
property in these two e x t r e m e s of climate
and conditions.
R a t h e r than try to prioritise the checklist
of a s s e s s m e n t for a site, it is better to
allocate a v a l u e to each criterion depend-
i n g on the property concerned. F o r e x a m -
ple, water is u s u a l l y the m o s t i m p o r t a n t
consideration (what grows without wa-
ter?) a n d it m i g h t g e t a v a l u e of four or five
out of five if a b u n d a n t , clean water is
a v a i l a b l e ; only two or three if water is
a v a i l a b l e only d u r i n g winter a n d is stored
in d a m s or there is a creek; a n d only one if
you rely solely on a n n u a l rainwater.
If you s e t up a chart with these criteria
y o u c a n easily a s s e s s them, allocate a
score a n d a d d up the total to give a final
a s s e s s m e n t . One property can then be
c o m p a r e d to another a n d decisions m a d e
a b o u t their suitability. Y o u will not be
able to find the perfect property, so analy-
s i s in s o m e way like this is important.
If you a r e weighing up the pros and cons
of a couple of properties, each of which h a s
s o m e good f e a t u r e s a n d some not-so-good
features, then analytically evaluating each
site m a y be an option.
In this procedure, you simply a s s e s s each
criterion a b o u t the block by a n u m b e r e d
s c a l e . F o r e x a m p l e , in e v a l u a t i n g a s p e c t
on a site you m i g h t give it a r a n k i n g from
1 to 5 , 1 m e a n i n g poor (shade-facing) a n d
5 m e a n i n g very good (sun-facing), with
n u m b e r s 2, 3 a n d 4 m e a n i n g facing in
other directions t h a t you arbitrarily de-
cide.
E a c h site or property is a s s e s s e d in this
way, a n d the one which achieves the high-
e s t total score is the b e s t all-round prop-
erty.
A further variation is to weight each crite-
rion. F o r e x a m p l e , you decide t h a t water
Table 7.1 Assessing properties. Property 1, with a higher overall score, may be more suitable
for your needs than Property 2.
Property 1
weighting value
plentiful, clean water x10
high h u m i c soil x6
slope x8
sun-facing a s p e c t x8
t o t a l = 108
availability is much more i m p o r t a n t than
existing road a c c e s s . Now you a r e consid-
ering the importance of some features
over others.
You will need to prioritise the criteria a n d
allocate a weighting for each. A simple
e x a m p l e is given in the table below.
You m a y never find the perfect block - the
one t h a t h a s a gentle, sun-facing slope,
g r e a t humic soil, n a t u r a l woodland still
present, the neighbours all u s i n g organic
methods, plentiful, clean water, h e a p s of
building m a t e r i a l present (rocks, clay)
and so on.
Realistically, we try to find a block with as
m a n y good features as possible a n d try to
optimise the poorer features.
Local regulations
Before y o u or your client p u r c h a s e s a
property, you should contact the local
authorities about your p l a n s . They will
tell you what developments a r e allowable
and what a r e not.
T h e r e m a y be restrictions on the u s e of
land for particular p u r p o s e s , or on clear-
ing or about effluent a n d w a s t e disposal.
For e x a m p l e , you m a y not be able to run a
school at a community y o u wish to set up
u n l e s s the land is re-zoned for this pur-
pose. C h a n g i n g the zoning of land can be
an expensive, lengthy a n d very slow proc-
ess.
Furthermore, if naturally-occurring
s t r e a m s , rivers or waterways p a s s through
the property, you should check with your
Property 2
total weighting value total
4 40 x10 3 30
2 12 x6 4 24
3 24 x8 3 24
4 32 x8 2 16
total = 94
70
local authority, or water authority or com-
mission, about p u m p i n g rights and re-
strictions on water u s e . For example, you
may not be able to d a m the waterway, but
you might be able to pump water to irri-
gate trees.
Similarly, there m a y be restrictions on
house site and outbuilding placement. This
depends on the property zoning, locality
and b y l a w s of the local government au-
thority.
These a r e the k i n d s of things that m u s t be
My notes
Things I need to find out
71
established before p u r c h a s e of a property
occurs. Your dream of building a demon-
stration permaculture site a n d working
for a living on the land m a y not become a
reality unless you've done some essential
research about the site.
Finally, each property is unique, so the
design for the site will also be unique.
Wherever possible, try to incorporate
unique a s p e c t s in the design. T h i s will
enhance the value of the property you
have finally chosen and m a k e it special.
8 Getting the house right: zone 0
The h o u s e s we design have to be harmoni-
ous with the environment, so where we
live is an integral p a r t of the holistic
approach to the design of the property. It
is said that h o u s e s are extensions of the
people who live in them and that they
reflect the beliefs and values of the own-
ers. If this is true, and if we profess to be
concerned about the E a r t h , then we ought
to focus on m a k i n g our h o u s e s simple,
effective and efficient.
Zone 0 is the focus of a design and the
house is u s u a l l y the m o s t important ele-
ment in the design. Here we look at the
principles of energy efficient housing and
the integration of the house with the zone
1 garden a r e a s .
The passive solar home
T h e energy needs of a home can be solved
by a combination of design and materials.
Good design permits p a s s i v e solar gain,
and building m a t e r i a l s and h a r d w a r e al-
low energy capture, storage and trans-
mission.
A p a s s i v e solar house is one which can
effectively utilise the sun's energy to keep
Figure 8.1 A typical solar house. The principles of a solar pergola and solar air panels are
discussed under the heading 'retrofitting' later in this chapter.
72
it warm or cool and also to moderate the
adverse effects of climate on the house.
P a s s i v e solar house design often includes:
• long a x i s east-west with the house
twice as long as wide (or even
longer), giving m i n i m u m exposure
of the western wall to the sun.
• high percentage, 30 to 60% (de-
pending on latitude) of g l a s s on the
sun-facing side.
• minimum windows on the e a s t and
w e s t s i d e s , especially the west
which receives the severe hot sum-
mer sun.
• insulation on the prevailing wind
and rain sides - usually the pole
(sun-shaded) side of the house and
either the west or e a s t s i d e s , or
both.
Housing is relevant to the climate. For
example, in temperate and Mediterra-
nean climates, h o u s e s should be p a s s i v e
solar, with the long a x i s facing east-west
(sun-facing), minimum windows on the
prevailing cold wind sides, clerestory win-
dow b a n k s for winter light gain and a
solarium or c o n s e r v a t o r y on the sun-fac- the h o u s e into the home. A typical A u s -
ing side for further winter w a r m t h . tralian "outback" h o m e s t e a d , for e x a m -
Houses in tropical, subtropical a n d d e s e r t ple, is a h o u s e with v e r a n d a h s all a r o u n d ,
areas should be d e s i g n e d so t h a t they a silver-coloured tin roof for light reflec-
remain cool d u r i n g the s u m m e r day a n d tion, and outdoor cooking facilities.
warm d u r i n g the s u m m e r a n d winter
nights. D e s e r t a r e a s a r e well known for
their large t e m p e r a t u r e e x t r e m e s - a r a n g e
of 30 to 4 0 ° C in one d a y is not uncommon.
These t y p e s of h o u s e s need to be s h a d e d
(for e x a m p l e , by p l a n t s on a trellis), cool
winds need to be directed toward the house,
and s u r f a c e s p a i n t e d white for light re-
flection. U n d e r g r o u n d h o u s e s or earth-
covered s h e l t e r s a r e useful b u i l d i n g strat-
egies.
Underground a n d earth-covered h o u s e s
are r e m a r k a b l e in t h a t the t e m p e r a t u r e ,
both day a n d night a n d s e a s o n to s e a s o n ,
is fairly c o n s t a n t a n d within the h u m a n Figure 8.3 Large diameter PVC pipe is used to
comfort level at all t i m e s . allow air to move from a cool cellar into warmer
Another b u i l d i n g s t r a t e g y for a hot cli- rooms.
mate is to draw cool air through the ground T h e secret in k e e p i n g a h o u s e w a r m is to
into rooms. F o r e x a m p l e , cool air from a reduce h e a t l o s s . S t r a t e g i e s to m a i n t a i n
cellar can be moved (by convection or fan) h e a t or m i n i m i s e h e a t l o s s in a h o u s e
to v a r i o u s p a r t s of the h o u s e , as shown in include insulation, double g l a z i n g ( e s p e -
Figure 8.3, or air can be p a s s e d over a wet cially on the s u n - s h a d e d side a n d in the
surface or pond as a form of e v a p o r a t i v e direction of cold winter winds), i n c r e a s i n g

Figure 8.2 An example of an earth-covered house with a sun-facing side exposed.

cooling. the thermal m a s s of h o u s e (brick w a l l s ,

S t r a t e g i e s to cool the h o u s e include insu-
lating the roof a n d walls, building veran-
d a h s or porches a n d pergola at l e a s t on
the w e s t side, p l a n t i n g deciduous vines
and trees, h a v i n g b r e e z e w a y s which di-
rect cool winds, a n d d r a w i n g cool air from
a s h a d e h o u s e on the s u n - s h a d e d side of
d a r k s l a t e on floor), i n c r e a s i n g the per-
c e n t a g e of g l a s s on the sun-facing side
(north in southern h e m i s p h e r e ) , s e a l i n g
g a p s under doors and around loosely-fit-
ted windows, and building a h o t h o u s e or
g r e e n h o u s e on the sun-facing side.
S o d , or soil covered, roofs m a y be another

73
Figure 8.4 Cold night air is cooled as it passes over water before it is ducted into the house.

Figure 8.5 A solar chimney is one way to cool the interior of a house. Air is drawn from below
the house, often across water, and ducted through the house and then vented.

Figure 8.6 Directing breezes through a house by efficient cross-ventilation is an important

strategy in regulating the house temperature.

74
strategy t h a t can be u s e d to i n s u l a t e a
building. T h e only two considerations a r e
the damp-proofing a n d the e x t r a roof
weight. Thick p l a s t i c s h e e t i n g is laid over
the roof before 75 to 100 mm of soil is
added. T h e s h e e t i n g allows rain water to
drain d o w n w a r d s t o w a r d s the g u t t e r .
E x t r a re-inforcing t i m b e r s h a v e to be
placed in the roof to s u p p o r t the addi-
tional weight. Y o u could expect a b o u t 150
kg or more of wet soil p e r s q u a r e m e t r e of
roof a r e a (100 mm thick).
Plants, such a s g r a s s e s a n d h e r b s , can b e
planted on top of the sloped s i d e s a n d roof
for f u r t h e r h e a t c o n t r o l a n d s o i l
stabilisation.
For h o u s e s in w a r m c l i m a t e a r e a s , it is not
important to orientate the h o u s e toward
the sun for p a s s i v e solar g a i n . H o u s e s
need to exploit cooling b r e e z e s a n d in-
crease wind m o v e m e n t (ventilation)
through the h o u s e .
Evergreen t r e e s for s h a d i n g and shelter
for the house from potentially strong winds
are important. In tropical a r e a s , where
hurricanes and cyclones a r e a threat, re-
inforced dwellings, s o m e t i m e s r a i s e d off
the ground, a r e built.
In m a n y c l i m a t e s s o l a r hot water s y s t e m s
should be m a n d a t o r y . T h e s e can provide
free hot w a t e r for m o s t of the year, a n d
when it is raining or cloudy, various booster
s y s t e m s can be employed T h e s e r a n g e
from solid fuel to g a s to electric boosters.
There a r e two m a i n types of solar hot
water s y s t e m s . In a p a s s i v e hot water
system, which relies solely on n a t u r a l
convection c u r r e n t s to m o v e water, the
Figure 8.7 Extra timber beams are needed to support the additional weight of a sod roof.
75
s t o r a g e t a n k m u s t b e slightly higher ( 3 0 0
mm is a d e q u a t e ) t h a n the panel so t h a t
cold water from the t a n k falls t o w a r d s the
bottom of the panel. T h e collector p a n e l
h e a t s the w a t e r a n d the hot w a t e r r i s e s
t o w a r d s , a n d into, the s t o r a g e t a n k .
In an active s y s t e m , energy is u s e d to
p u m p w a t e r through the p a n e l s to a n d
from the s t o r a g e t a n k . T h e t a n k can be
positioned anywhere, such as in the roof
s p a c e above the b a t h r o o m or outside on
the g r o u n d n e a r the kitchen. S e n s o r s de-
tect the t e m p e r a t u r e differences between
the p a n e l a n d t a n k a n d , u s u a l l y when the
panel i s hotter t h a n the t a n k , the p u m p i s
e n g a g e d and water s t a r t s to flow.
I n t e g r a t i n g the h o u s e a n d
garden
Ideally, the h o u s e a n d g a r d e n should com-
p l e m e n t each other. T h e g a r d e n can be
d e s i g n e d to t a k e an active role in the
h e a t i n g a n d cooling of the h o u s e . F o r
example, deciduous trees should be
p l a n t e d a l o n g the sun-facing wall of the
h o u s e . T h e s e r e g u l a t e microclimate b y
providing s h a d e i n s u m m e r a n d allowing
sunlight to filter through d u r i n g winter.
T h e r e should be a m i x t u r e of deciduous
a n d evergreen trees a r o u n d the h o u s e . A
sector plan of sun a n g l e s will show y o u
where each type of tree should be planted.
E v e r g r e e n s can be p l a n t e d in a r e a s around
the house where only s u m m e r sun reaches,
such a s the e a s t e r n a n d western walls.
T h e winter sun angle for your property
might be narrow, and only deciduous trees
should be p l a n t e d in this sector.
As these trees a r e found in zone 1 you
Figure 8.8 The differences between a passive and an active solar hot water system. Also shown
is a passive system with the storage tank in the roof space and one way to increase energy gain,
by using a reflecting plate to direct light and heat waves to a solar water collector.

76
Figure 8.9 Deciduous trees and light coloured paths both contribute to the amount of light energy
entering a home during winter.

should consider p l a n t i n g evergreen fruit By placing a few windows or v e n t s be-

trees such as citrus a n d deciduous fruit
trees such as stone fruit.
G a r d e n s t r u c t u r e s can a l s o be u s e d for
t e m p e r a t u r e control. A hothouse attached
to the m a i n h o u s e can supply additional
winter h e a t i n g for the home as well as
being u s e d to grow food during the cooler
months. A hothouse works when light
p e n e t r a t e s g l a s s a n d is absorbed by ob-
j e c t s . H e a t energy i s re-radiated a s longer
w a v e l e n g t h s which cannot p a s s through
the g l a s s layer. T h i s hothouse, or green-
house, slowly h e a t s u p .
tween the h o u s e wall and the h o t h o u s e
structure, w a r m air can be drawn into the
house. E x a m i n e F i g u r e 8.12. D u r i n g win-
ter the external vent is closed a n d the
internal windows or v e n t s between the
h o u s e and hothouse a r e open. W a r m air
produced during the day can be directed
into the house. Cool air from the h o u s e
will enter the hothouse to complete the
convection cycle of air movement. A word
of caution: if you u s e water in the hot-
house to grow p l a n t s , the high level of
humidity m a y c a u s e m o u l d s and mildew

Figure 8.10 A sector plan helps to place deciduous and evergreen trees in the design.

77
 Figure 8.11 The principle of a hothouse.

to grow on walls. You need to vent well r a d i a t e s o r r e l e a s e s i t s stored h e a t a s

a n d keep the hothouse a s dry a s possible
to m i n i m i s e this problem.
D u r i n g s u m m e r , the internal vents a r e
closed a n d the external vent is open. Hot-
h o u s e s g e t very hot in s u m m e r a n d a r e
seldom u s e d to grow food during these
months. T h e hot a i r is ducted to the out-
side a t m o s p h e r e .
R a d i a n t h e a t can also be u s e d to help
p l a n t s growing n e a r the house. You can
grow cold-sensitive p l a n t s n e a r t a n k s of
water or alongside stone or earth walls.
Water h a s a high h e a t capacity and slowly
t e m p e r a t u r e s fall. F r o s t - s e n s i t i v e p l a n t s
a r e k e p t a little w a r m e r in this way, which
is an excellent e x a m p l e of the u s e of micro-
climate in design.
H e a t is a l s o a v a i l a b l e from other s o u r c e s ,
a n d can be directed from the h o u s e into
the g a r d e n . T h e major hot g r e y w a t e r
source is from the bathroom - either the
shower or b a t h .
Only a s m a l l a m o u n t comes from the
kitchen sink. If people consistently use
hot water for w a s h i n g clothes, then this
source also needs to be considered. Hot

Figure 8.12 A hothouse can provide additional winter heating for a home.

78
Figure 8.13 A rainwater tank can keep plants from freezing. Rainwater tank overflow can be
directed to a wet, bog, and/or shaded garden, where many food plants can be grown, including
taro, watercress and sweet potato.

water could be isolated from the other
g r e y w a t e r s o u r c e s a n d directed through
the floor of a hothouse so t h a t this h e a t
can be u s e d , especially in winter to w a r m
the s u r r o u n d i n g s .
G a r d e n microclimates a r e also created by
a r e a s o f s h a d e a n d coolness. T h e h o u s e
a n d a t t a c h e d s t r u c t u r e s can provide the
n e c e s s a r y s h a d e a n d coolness required by
some t y p e s of g a r d e n p l a n t s .
S t r u c t u r e s such a s trellis can b e built
horizontally over the g a r d e n for hot, a r i d
c l i m a t e s , b u t it is m a i n l y positioned verti-
cally for m a x i m u m sunlight and h e a t gain
in the colder climates. It is common to see
vertical trellis supporting p e a s , b e a n s a n d
b e r r y fruits, such a s l o g a n b e r r y a n d
boysenberry, in colder a r e a s .
Trellis and p e r g o l a s enable h u m a n s to
also enjoy the g a r d e n in the hot m o n t h s .
T h e s e structures can provide quiet, s h a d e d
a r e a s in the s u m m e r g a r d e n .
A variation of g a r d e n trellis is the vertical
living screen. M a n y west-facing h o u s e
walls a b s o r b considerable h e a t d u r i n g
s u m m e r . T h e s e w a l l s can be protected by
building a m e s h screen or vertical trellis
structure close to the h o u s e wall. S h a d i n g

Figure 8.14 Using waste heat from showers andbaths can supplement the heating of a hothouse.

79
 Figure 8.15 Trellis protects the vegetable garden in a hot climate.
by evergreen creepers will lower the h e a t
g a i n by the wall, keeping the h o u s e cooler
in s u m m e r .
T h e screen can be built ten to twenty
centimetres from the wall so t h a t a layer
of air is t r a p p e d between the screen a n d
wall, further i n s u l a t i n g the wall from h e a t
radiation. Alternatively, place the screen
a m e t r e from the wall and m a k e a shel-
tered p a t h w a y . Either way, protecting
w a l l s from direct h e a t radiation will lower
the overall t e m p e r a t u r e of the h o u s e .
C o n s i d e r children when you a r e design-
ing the h o u s e a n d g a r d e n . P l a c e a play
a r e a where children can be seen a n d su-
p e r v i s e d from the lounge room, kitchen or
wherever a d u l t s tend to be at the time.
T h e play o r g a r d e n a r e a s should b e j u s t
extensions of the h o u s e a n d j u s t another
a r e a where children can learn about and
experience life.
80
T h e extent a n d n a t u r e of play a r e a s de-
p e n d s on the a g e s of children or grandchil-
dren. Y o u n g children like to h i d e , while
larger children (adolescents) tend to throw
or kick b a l l s about, or shoot a few b a s k e t -
balls.
Views overlooking play a r e a s a l s o often
h a v e a focus such as a p l e a s a n t looking
building, a s e a t , a pond or a particular
tree.
Retrofitting existing houses
In the world in which we all live, owning
a h o u s e , let alone building one t h a t you
would like, is not a reality for m a n y peo-
ple. S o m e people do own, or a r e p a y i n g off,
their h o u s e s , b u t m a n y people cannot af-
ford this luxury.
You m a y h a v e to e x a m i n e how the design
of buildings on a property (which is j u s t as
important as the design of the g a r d e n s )
Figure 8.16 Air is a good insulator. A vertical living screen will shade a wall and reduce heat
gain by the house during summer.
fits into your p a r t i c u l a r situation. In m o s t
c a s e s , retrofitting an e x i s t i n g h o u s e is far
more economical t h a n pulling it down a n d
starting again.
Retrofitting is the t e r m t h a t describes the
c h a n g e s y o u m a k e to an e x i s t i n g energy-
inefficient h o u s e so t h a t it becomes more
energy efficient.
I n m a n y c a s e s , the h o u s e u t i l i s e s p a s s i v e
solar g a i n a n d d e s i g n s t r a t e g i e s to mini-
m i s e h e a t l o s s a n d m a x i m i s e h e a t gain
d u r i n g winter a n d vice v e r s a for the hot-
ter s u m m e r m o n t h s .
Y o u m a y be able to s u g g e s t retrofitting
i d e a s to a m e l i o r a t e the influence of cli-
m a t e on the h o u s e . T h e s e include the u s e
of s h a d e h o u s e s , g r e e n h o u s e s , trellis a n d
p e r g o l a s , earth b e r m s , the p l a c e m e n t of
d e c i d u o u s a n d e v e r g r e e n t r e e s , wind-
breaks and ponds.
Figure 8.17 A solar pergola allows winter sunlight into a house.
81
S o m e of t h e s e were d i s c u s s e d in the pre-
vious section, so we will focus on three
s i m p l e i d e a s a s e x a m p l e s o f retrofitting
strategies.
A solar p e r g o l a is an effective way to allow
winter sunlight into a h o u s e b u t k e e p
s u m m e r sunlight out.
Wooden or sheet m e t a l b l a d e s a r e p l a c e d
a t a n angle s o t h a t s u m m e r s u n l i g h t can-
not p a s s through, b u t winter sunlight, a t
a lower a n g l e , can.
T h e b l a d e s a r e normally f i x e d a n d set, s o
t h a t m a x i m u m light will p a s s through
into a room at the winter solstice, when
the sun is at the lowest a l t i t u d e in the sky.
S p a c i n g between the b l a d e s r e g u l a t e s
when sunlight is able to p a s s through, so
t h a t you could h a v e s h a d i n g for four or
more m o n t h s d u r i n g the h o t t e s t p a r t o f
the year.
In e x i s t i n g h o u s e s y o u m a y h a v e to re-
place s o m e of the roof p a n e l s with clear
polycarbonate s h e e t i n g or g l a s s so t h a t
s u n l i g h t can enter a room. T h e solar per-
g o l a is p l a c e d a n d supported on top of this.
A d a r k s l a t e floor or walls with high ther-
m a l m a s s will a b s o r b this energy a n d
r e l e a s e it d u r i n g the night.
S o l a r air p a n e l s can b e easily m a d e a n d
fixed to a roof. T h e s e a r e s i m i l a r to solar
h o t w a t e r s y s t e m p a n e l s except t h a t air,
a n d not w a t e r , i s p a s s e d o r p u m p e d
through them.
D u r i n g the. winter m o n t h s a i r i s d r a w n
from either r o o m s , roof s p a c e or the out-
s i d e a t m o s p h e r e a n d i s h e a t e d a s i t blows
a c r o s s the panel. T h e hot air is then ducted
into the h o u s e a n d can enter d e s i g n a t e d
rooms. S e n s o r s detect differences between
room a n d p a n e l or outside environmental
t e m p e r a t u r e s , c a u s i n g a n air fan o r p u m p
to turn on or off. T h e m o v e m e n t of a i r is
t h u s r e g u l a t e d . N a t u r a l l y , the solar a i r
Figure 8.18 A solar air panel heats up cold air and blows it into the house.
82
s y s t e m doesn't o p e r a t e d u r i n g s u m m e r .
M o s t h e a t loss from a h o u s e occurs through
the roof a n d roof s p a c e . I n s u l a t i n g is an
obvious solution a n d this does indeed help
keep the house cool in s u m m e r and warmer
in winter. However, you a l s o m i g h t w a n t
to vent the roof s p a c e so t h a t the hot air
t h a t builds up in the s u m m e r t i m e can be
directed a w a y into the a t m o s p h e r e . Even
d r a w i n g hot air from r o o m s v i a the roof
s p a c e is possible as shown in the following
diagrams.
T h e r e a r e m a n y other i d e a s a b o u t retro-
fitting. T h e s e include p l a c i n g p e l m e t s a n d
ceiling-to-floor c u r t a i n s over windows to
reduce convection currents, blocking off
windows on the w e s t e r n side and building
windows on the sun-facing (equatorial)
side, placing door s t o p s a n d s e a l s under-
n e a t h and/or behind doors to reduce wind
flow-through in winter a n d s u b s e q u e n t
h e a t l o s s , and building sheltered skylights
in the roof which only allow additional
 Figure 8.19 Roof space can be vented for summer cooling and winter warmth.

winter s u n l i g h t into t h e h o u s e . T h e a c r o s s , lots of other ideas- about how to

number of retrofitting s t r a t e g i e s are end- m a k e your home m o r e comfortable a n d
less a n d I'm s u r e you'll think, or come more energy efficient.

Figure 8.20 Warm air can be ducted from the ceiling area via the roof space to the outside
atmosphere during summer. Vents are closed during winter.

My notes

Things I need to find out

83
9 Water harvesting
P u r e , clean w a t e r is the n u m b e r one prior­
ity for any p e r m a c u l t u r e s y s t e m . P e r m a ­
culture d e s i g n s try to h a r v e s t , r e t a i n a n d
r e u s e a s m u c h water a s p o s s i b l e before i t
is lost from the s y s t e m . T h i s is especially
true in dry a n d a r i d c l i m a t e s where rain
m a i n l y falls in a few m o n t h s . In countries
such a s the U K a n d those i n E u r o p e ,
rainfall is often s p r e a d over the whole
year and water harvesting techniques are
not so critical.
In drier countries we need to incorporate
a r a n g e of s t r a t e g i e s to h a r v e s t a n d store
a s m u c h w a t e r a s possible. T h i n k o f the
soil a n d y o u r g a r d e n p l a n t s a s w a t e r stor­
a g e v e s s e l s . A forest of t r e e s is s o m e t i m e s
referred to as a l a k e above the g r o u n d
b e c a u s e l a r g e a m o u n t s of w a t e r can be
found in the living t i s s u e of every plant.
On the suburban block
S t r a t e g i e s to h a r v e s t water on u r b a n s i t e s
include directing r a i n water from the roofs
of h o u s e s a n d o u t b u i l d i n g s into the gar­
den, s w a l e s in sloping ground, d r a i n s ,
ponds, s m a l l d a m s , r a i n w a t e r t a n k s , re­
u s i n g g r e y w a t e r onto the g a r d e n (check
Figure 9.1 Rainwater collected from a house
roof can be stored in a tank.
84
first to see if this is illegal in your a r e a ) ,
wells a n d b o r e s .
To c a l c u l a t e how much w a t e r f a l l s on your
h o u s e roof, multiply the a v e r a g e y e a r l y
rainfall by the roof a r e a of the h o u s e . F o r
e x a m p l e , for a roof a r e a = 2 0 0 m a n d
3
a n n u a l rainfall = 1000 mm or 1 m, 2 0 0 m 3
or 2 0 0 0 0 0 L can be collected (200 χ 1000).
T h i s is quite a lot of water, provided you
can h a r v e s t a n d store all of it.
G u t t e r s a r e not needed o n h o u s e s u n l e s s
r a i n w a t e r is collected a n d stored. A stone
or pebble filled trench is u s e d to drain
s o m e water a w a y a n d to direct w a t e r into
the nearby soil.
T e r r a c i n g is a n o t h e r way to build g a r d e n s
on slopes. T h e soil is r e m o v e d in a cut-
and-fill operation. You u s u a l l y h a v e to
Figure 9.2 Rainwater can be directed into the
garden.
build a r e t a i n i n g wall. T h i s can be m a d e
from tyres (filled with soil), s h e e t s of roof-
ing iron or wooden p l a n k s - whatever you
can afford or w h a t a r e a v a i l a b l e as inex-
pensive r e s o u r c e s . T h e terrace should be
wide enough to include a path a n d garden
bed - up to two a n d a h a l f m e t r e s a c r o s s ,
with h a l f a m e t r e for the path and up to
two m e t r e s for the bed. R e m e m b e r , the
bed can be this wide b e c a u s e you h a v e
a c c e s s to both s i d e s - although you only
h a v e to s t a n d on one side b u t bend over
the other.
G r e y w a t e r is another water h a r v e s t i n g
s t r a t e g y to provide additional g a r d e n
w a t e r for your home. G r e y w a t e r is the
Figure 9.3 Water will flow down the slope into garden beds.
w a s t e w a t e r from s o u r c e s such a s the
kitchen sink, the shower and bath, hand-
b a s i n s a n d l a u n d r y trough. If the toilet
water, commonly referred t o a s black
water, i s isolated a n d t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y ,
then the g r e y w a t e r can be recycled on
site.
W a t e r which you wish to r e u s e can be
p a s s e d through a biological filter. T h e s e
can be reed b e d s of p l a n t s which are able
to t a k e up e x c e s s nutrients and store
t h e m in their t i s s u e s .
R e e d bed s y s t e m s a r e now being u s e d
t h r o u g h o u t the world to t r e a t and purify
85
domestic wastewater. Before you decide
to build a s y s t e m such as t h a t shown in
F i g u r e 9.4, check with your s t a t e or local
government authority to s e e if you can
install this type of s y s t e m . You m a y be
able to direct all of your b a t h and laundry
water into a reed bed which will remove
m a n y of the nutrients, d i s e a s e o r g a n i s m s
and pollutants before you pour it onto
your g a r d e n .
It is important to u s e local wetland p l a n t s .
These types of plants are especially
a d a p t e d to exist in waterlogged soil. Their
l e a v e s can t r a n s p o r t oxygen from the air
to their roots so t h a t all p a r t s of the p l a n t
can function effectively. S m a l l a m o u n t s of
oxygen diffuse out of the roots into the
surrounding water m e d i u m . T h i s oxygen
s u p p o r t s a large r a n g e of b a c t e r i a a n d
other micro-organisms which a r e impor-
t a n t in the t r e a t m e n t of w a s t e w a t e r .
T h e m o s t commonly-used reed bed p l a n t s
a r e s p e c i e s o f Typha ( b u l r u s h ) a n d
Phragmites (common reed) b u t t h e s e pro-
duce wind-blown s e e d s a n d their u s e
should be limited.
Contact your local university, h e r b a r i u m
or wetland m a n a g e m e n t g r o u p to find out
what p l a n t s a r e in your a r e a and if they
a r e suitable.
 Figure 9.4 A typical reed bed system to treat and recycle your greywater.
Figure 9.5 Wetland plants can transfer oxygen from the air to the plant roots.
On the farm
Water should be stored in the soil. Every
effort should be m a d e to get water into the
ground. It is i m p o r t a n t to reduce water
flow (slow it down) and hold it; otherwise
erosion could occur. For small-acre a n d
broad-acre properties water should be
stored a s high a s possible. Provided t h a t
w a t e r can be economically placed there,
d a m s can be built on ridges, on top of hills
a n d a t the keypoint.
Keyline cultivation
Before we launch into the concepts of
keyline cultivation, we need to d i s c u s s
contours a n d their relevance in holding,
storing or moving water. A contour is an
i m a g i n a r y horizontal line, where all points
86
along it a r e at the s a m e height or altitude.
A contour line is at right a n g l e s to the
slope of the land, so as slope c h a n g e s so too
will the contour lines curve and turn.
A contour m a p d i s p l a y s the location of
contours, a n d l a n d s c a p e a n d m a n y topo-
graphical d e t a i l s can be interpreted from
it. For e x a m p l e , lines close together s u g -
g e s t steep slope, contour lines further
a p a r t indicate flatter, valley ground, while
circular contour lines s u g g e s t hills.
Contour lines a r e arbitrarily placed at 5
or 10 m altitude intervals, so one line will
be 5 or 10 m e t r e s above or below the n e x t
line. From the number, spacing and s h a p e
of these lines on a property, you can deter-
mine the total a m o u n t of fall, the degree of
 Figure 9.6 A contour map shows the amount of slope and landform change on a site.
slope a n d the p o s s i b l e location s i t e s for
d a m s a n d other w a t e r h a r v e s t i n g s t r a t e -
gies.
T h e keypoint is identified by finding the
s t a r t of a valley. T h i s can be found by
noticing either a slope or contour change
s o m e w h e r e on the hillside. You can often
find evidence of the valley forming in the
u p p e r h a l f of the hillside, or somewhere
around the middle. T h i s can be confirmed
by m e a s u r i n g the contours at a n d around
this point.
T h e point at which the slope c h a n g e s
direction, from convex to concave, is called
the keypoint. T h e keyline is the contour at
this point. Other lines a r e drawn parallel
to the keyline as p a r t of keyline cultiva-
87
tion. S o m e of t h e s e keylines will be off the
contour, permitting water to flow in the
direction t o w a r d s the r i d g e s .
D a m s a r e constructed a l o n g t h e s e key-
lines so t h a t they a r e linked a n d water can
flow from one to another. A d a m at the
keypoint, or s t a r t of the valley, would be
one of the first and h i g h e s t in the slope.
Generally, d a m s built in the h i g h e s t coun-
try would give the g r e a t e s t potential ben-
efit, as water can be e a s i l y stored a n d
moved. Ideally, d a m s are d u g a n d built on
poorly drained sites, such as clay a r e a s .
Consideration m u s t also be given to the
s t o r a g e ratio. In other words, how much
water can be stored for the a m o u n t of soil
t h a t is moved to construct the d a m . A
 Figure 9.7 Contours, ridges and valleys in the landscape. The keypoint is found by looking at the
changes in slope.
ratio of 3 : 1 , or higher, is b e s t a n d this ratio
g e n e r a l l y i n c r e a s e s with d e c r e a s i n g slope
a s the l a n d flattens.
S l o p e on your property is to be u s e d for
a d v a n t a g e . W a t e r t h a t i s stored higher u p
the slope can be let to i r r i g a t e your g a r d e n
a r e a b y gravity.
W a t e r can a l s o be directed from the val-
leys or gully a r e a s , where it a c c u m u l a t e s ,
to the drier ridge a r e a s by m a k i n g it flow
a l o n g contours a s p a r t o f the keyline s y s -
tem of d r a i n s a n d c h a n n e l s . Generally,
s t e e p e r g r o u n d i s drier a n d s h a d e d a r e a s
a r e wetter or, at l e a s t , dry out slowly.
To c a l c u l a t e how m u c h w a t e r you can
expect to h a r v e s t you h a v e to find out the
Figure 9.8 The higher the slope, the lower the storage ratio. The flatter the slope, the more water
that can be stored efficiently.
88
a n n u a l rainfall for your a r e a or property.
I m a g i n e if you owned, or were doing a
design for a client who lived on, 4 0 0 ha
(1000 acres).
F o r a 1000 mm a n n u a l rainfall a n d 10%
w a t e r l o s s , you would expect 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 m 3
or 4 0 0 0 million litres h a r v e s t e d , of which
4 0 0 0 0 0 m or 4 0 0 million litres would be
3
lost each year. To v i s u a l i s e a 1000 mm
rainfall i m a g i n e water one m e t r e deep
completely over the land.
Keyline cultivation is like h u n d r e d s of
s m a l l absorbent d r a i n s , each holding some
water, so t h a t the w a t e r does not fall
t o w a r d s the valley. K e y l i n e cultivation is
p r i m a r i l y a soil i m p r o v e m e n t s y s t e m .
 Figure 9.9 Dams should be built along a slope so water can move by gravity.
As soil becomes fertile, more water can be
absorbed a n d stored a n d the a m o u n t of air
in the soil i n c r e a s e s .
Along with m o v i n g water out towards the
ridges is the r e p l a n t i n g of t r e e s in these
a r e a s . T r e e s should be left or r e p l a n t e d on
all ridgelines.
F u r t h e r m o r e , if ridge a r e a s contain rem-
n a n t vegetation, then these a r e a s should
be fenced to prevent stock from destroy-
ing w h a t is there.
Figure 9.10 Keyline cultivation makes fur-
rows along lines which are parallel to the
keyline.
89
Dams
When siting a d a m u s e the keyline strat-
egy. Don't put the d a m in the valley in the
belief t h a t the bottom is b e s t for water
collection. Place s m a l l e r d a m s higher u p
the hill at the s t a r t of the gully or valley,
to h a r v e s t water which can be stored a n d
then moved by gravity alone.
R e m e m b e r to scalp the topsoil a n d store it
when b u i l d i n g a d a m or doing major
earthworks. T h e topsoil (the first 15 cm or
so) should be u s e d to help rehabilitate a n d
l a n d s c a p e the changed a r e a , so t h a t p l a n t s
a n d soil s y s t e m s , such as fungi, b a c t e r i a
and a n i m a l s , become re-established. How-
ever, do not leave a l a r g e h e a p of top soil
for too long - the soil life will eventually
die.
T h e r e a r e m a n y types of p l a n t s which can
a s s i s t i n stabilising d a m walls. B a m b o o s
and clumping g r a s s species, such as vetiver
g r a s s a n d b a n n a g r a s s , a r e useful.
You can also sow o a t s , native g r a s s e s or
living mulch p l a n t s . T h e s e will hold the
soil and i n c r e a s e the h u m u s a n d nutrient
content of the soil, if they a r e s l a s h e d a n d
left as a surface mulch. L a r g e t r e e s should
only be planted beyond the w a l l s as they
often fall a n d remove the d a m wall as they
do.
D a m wall slopes should be at l e a s t 1:2 a n d
preferably 1:3 or 1:4. T h i s is the ratio of
the height of the wall compared to the
b a s e . D a m walls will s l u m p a n d fall in if
they a r e too steep.

Figure 9.11 Large trees can shade and protect
water supplies in dams. Grasses, bamboos and
ground covers are useful plants for slopes as
their extensive root systems help bind and
protect the soil.
Occasionally, a silt or chemical trap m a y
need to be built whenever severe run-offis
known to contain silt, fine clay or excess
nutrients.
Wetland p l a n t s can be u s e d to help filter
a n d settle soil particles from the w a t e r as
shown in F i g u r e 9.13.
T h i s holding pond can also be u s e d as an
initial t r e a t m e n t site for fertiliser accu-
mulation. F o r e x a m p l e , e x c e s s p h o s p h a t e
can be precipitated by a d d i n g a l u m , a n d
calcium a n d p h o s p h a t e can be removed by
a d d i n g soluble ferrous s u l p h a t e where
the s u l p h a t e links with calcium a n d the
iron (ferrous) with p h o s p h a t e .
S o m e nitrate will be removed by u p t a k e
from the a q u a t i c p l a n t s in the pond. You
a l s o m a y need to consider possible health
p r o b l e m s , such a s b a c t e r i a l d i s e a s e s ,
c a u s e d by contamination of the soil or
w a t e r by a n i m a l droppings.
Figure 9.12 The slope of dam walls should be such that they don't cave in. Slopes of 1:2 (27°) or
1:3 (18°) are the minimum.
90
D r a i n s which collect water can h a v e sev-
eral u s e s . T h e structure a n d construction
of these d r a i n s vary depending on the
function you wish them to perform. For
e x a m p l e , d r a i n s can be called s w a l e s , di-
versions, interceptors or s p r e a d e r s de-
pending on the situation.
Moving water through drains
S w a l e s a r e ditches on the contour. When
they fill or catch water, the water does not
flow a w a y . They hold run-off water a n d
allow it to seep into the soil. F u r t h e r m o r e ,
placing a c c e s s r o a d s along contours in
effect doubles up as a s w a l e where water
can be collected and/or directed to other
p a r t s of the property.
S w a l e s work b e s t on s a n d y soil b e c a u s e
the water can be c a u g h t and then allowed
to soak into the ground. If s w a l e s a r e
constructed in h e a v y clay soil you m a y
h a v e to rip the ground and/or a d d g y p s u m
which will c o a g u l a t e (clump together) the
clay particles. T h i s will improve drain-
a g e , and water a n d root penetration of the
soil.
Deep ripping of h a r d ground to a b o u t one
m e t r e is often u s e d before tree p l a n t i n g
occurs. Only t h a t a r e a where t r e e s a r e
actually planted n e e d s to be ripped.
S m a l l s w a l e s in s u b u r b a n b a c k y a r d s or
on small a c r e a g e properties can be
mulched a n d sown with s e e d s to grow food
crops such as melons. Y o u don't normally
follow this practice on rural properties
b e c a u s e of the e x p e n s e and time needed
for the operation. However, aim to utilise
all p a r t s of the s w a l e .
Figure 9.13 A settling pond and reed bed is used to remove excess nutrients. Here are two
different ways this can be set up.

Figure 9.14 A swale is a ditch cut along a contour. Water is held in the ditch until it soaks into
the soil.

Figure 9.15 Permaculture uses multifunctional elements. An access road built along a contour
can also act as a swale.

91
S w a l e s a l s o t r a p organic m a t t e r a n d t h e
ditch b e c o m e s a rich, thick layer of h u m u s
which h o l d s lots of water. You can p l a n t
directly into t h e ditch (good for m e l o n s ) or
u s e t h e ditch as a p a t h w a y . E v e n t u a l l y ,
t h e s w a l e will fill up a n d you m i g h t end up
with a t e r r a c e .
T e r r a c i n g i s p o s s i b l e o n s o m e slopes, b u t
is m o r e common in tropical a n d subtropi­
cal a r e a s t h a n i n dry a n d M e d i t e r r a n e a n
areas.
T e r r a c i n g is effective in high rainfall ar­
e a s as a m e a n s of h a r v e s t i n g water, re­
d u c i n g erosion a n d growing water-loving
p l a n t s such a s t a r o a n d rice. T e r r a c e d
s l o p e s still n e e d a r a n g e of p l a n t s to stabi­
lise t h e soil.
S w a l e s in f a r m p a d d o c k s will n a t u r a l l y
a c c u m u l a t e a n i m a l m a n u r e s from stock,
t h u s providing a nutrient-rich fertiliser
for t r e e s grown in or on the s w a l e s . S w a l e s
Figure 9.16 Terraces form when swales fill up.
Figure 9.17 Spreader drains can be filled and then allowed to overflow to irrigate crops.
92
should be wide enough to p e r m i t a c c e s s -
either footpath, wheelbarrow or even trac­
tor.
Flood irrigation can be achieved by u s i n g
s p r e a d e r d r a i n s , which a r e e s s e n t i a l l y
like s w a l e s in t h a t they a r e level a n d on
the contour. Water from a d a m or s t r e a m
is directed into the drain, it fdls up a n d
overflows over the top side, a l o n g i t s length,
a n d c a s c a d e s downhill over crops or p a d ­
docks. A word of caution: on s t e e p slopes,
a n d compounded by non-wetting soils,
s h e e t erosion can occur. S p r e a d e r d r a i n s
a r e only s u i t a b l e for g e n t l e slopes.
U n l i k e s w a l e s , which a r e normally b u i l t
on p e r m e a b l e soils, diversion d r a i n s h a v e
a slight g r a d i e n t . E v e n a slope of 1:1000
will drain water, b u t g r a d i e n t s of 1:100 or
l e s s a r e m u c h m o r e effective. T h i s m e a n s
t h a t there is a one m e t r e fall over a dis­
t a n c e of 100 m e t r e s . A slope of 1 in 2 0 0 is
enough to move water and slow enough to
minimise erosion and u n w a n t e d move-
ment of s a n d and silt.
Diversion d r a i n s work better when the
b a s e a n d s i d e s a r e clay-lined. T h i s m a y
mean t h a t the drain cut is deep enough to
slice into the clay layer, often below the
sand layer. D r a i n s m a y be 0.5 m or more
deep.
Interceptor b a n k s , b a s e d on the work of
Harry Whittington in Western A u s t r a l i a ,
are known as W I S A L T S - Whittington
Interceptor S u s t a i n a b l e Agricultural L a n d
Treatment System.
T h e s e t y p e s of d r a i n s a r e a l w a y s cut into
the clay a n d compacted, no m a t t e r how
deep it is (often up to 2 m down).
The clay is u s e d to line the trenches,
which can be cut on the contour, as a swale
is, or cut slightly off the contour so t h a t
water d r a i n s a w a y . If no clay is a v a i l a b l e ,
plastic s h e e t i n g m a y b e used.
W I S A L T d r a i n s a r e u s e d t o t a k e water
a n d salt-affected water a w a y from water-
logged a r e a s , such a s p a d d o c k s , and dis-
charge it into d a m s or s t r e a m s .
T h e compacted, clay-lined, downward side
prevents salt-laden water moving through
the soil d o w n w a r d s , t h u s reducing fur-
ther soil collapse.
In effect, interceptor b a n k s drain and dry
the soil, removing potential waterlogging
problems, including problems of anaerobic
conditions a n d p l a n t death.
W I S A L T b a n k s should only b e installed
Figure 9.18 Interceptor banks have to be cut into the clay layer to prevent water from seeping
downslope. The water can be used upslope -it moves through the soil by capillary action - or taken
to a dam or safe disposal site.
93
by licensed consultants, b e c a u s e the s p a c -
ing a n d placement of t h e s e types of d r a i n s
is critical to the s u c c e s s of the s y s t e m .
T h e s e trained consultants can recognise
n a t u r a l field barriers, dykes, throughflows
a n d recharge a r e a s . They also u n d e r s t a n d
the chemical c h a n g e s t h a t t a k e place un-
der waterlogged conditions, a s well a s
perched a n d rising w a t e r t a b l e s a n d other
water m o v e m e n t s in the l a n d s c a p e .
We have to a d d r e s s the salt and
waterlogging p r o b l e m s by d r a i n a g e , soil
improvement a n d so on before trees a r e
planted.
D e g r a d e d l a n d and soils, with high salin-
ity problems, a r i s e from either ground-
w a t e r rising a n d bringing dissolved s a l t to
the surface or from soil collapse, where
the l a n d is cleared, cultivated a n d com-
pacted, and the soil structure b r e a k s down
or changes.
Erosion removes the topsoil. T h e r e is l e s s
h u m u s a n d air, a n d more waterlogging.
Clay s e a l s the ground on the surface a n d
often somewhere below the surface. In
effect, a soil s w a m p or bog is produced in
this collapsed soil situation.
U s u a l l y before soil collapse occurs, there
a r e tell-tale s i g n s , which include particu-
lar vegetation growing in p a r t i c u l a r a r e a s
(rising water table, waterlogged a r e a s ) ,
such as reeds, barley g r a s s a n d dock, or a
noticeable wet a r e a which r e m a i n s wet
well into the s u m m e r (farm vehicles e a s -
ily bogged). S o m e s a l t is u s u a l l y evident
on top of the ground. Generally, there is
a l s o evidence of reduced crop yield or
p a s t u r e growth, as well as the yellowing
of p l a n t s in waterlogged a r e a s .
You can u s e a backhoe to dig a three metre
deep test hole which will allow you to
determine if soil collapse is occurring.
Water t h a t trickles or s e e p s from the top
l a y e r s downward to fill the bottom (dia-
g r a m A below) s u g g e s t s soil collapse and
a h a r d p a n clay layer, c a u s i n g s e e p a g e .
Water that a p p e a r s to well u p w a r d s from
the bottom of the hole ( d i a g r a m B) also
can s u g g e s t poor d r a i n a g e . T h e digging
r e l e a s e s p r e s s u r e and the water bubbles
u p w a r d s . T h i s m a y also indicate possible
s a l t problems due to the collapsed soil.
S t r a t e g i e s for both of these situations
would include building interceptor b a n k s
to restrict the recharge water from mov-

Figure 9.19 Digging test holes to examine soil collapse and drainage.

Figure 9.20 Clay-lined drains are barriers to water movement downslope. These drains can
divert water from salt scalds and help to dry paddocks which waterlog easily.

94
ing through the soil. P l a n t i n g trees in
these r e c h a r g e a r e a s would also help to
utilise some of the excess water. You should
expect t h a t good soils, with a high holding
capacity, will h a v e little water m o v e m e n t
through them.
Land clearing h a s also c a u s e d the water
table to r i s e , b r i n g i n g s a l t with it to the
surface. T r e e s n a t u r a l l y act a s p u m p s ,
keeping the water t a b l e below the sur-
face. When t h e s e trees were removed the
water r o s e .
Waterlogging a n d flooded a r e a s killed all
soil life as the air w a s expelled. T h e soil
structure collapsed. Soon, all you see a r e
ever-increasing a r e a s o f s a l t s c a l d s . S o m e
salt is b r o u g h t up from lower soil l a y e r s ,
but much of it is t r a p p e d above the h a r d
pan a n d cannot drain away. T h e s a l t slowly
a c c u m u l a t e s a n d the concentration in-
c r e a s e s . B a c t e r i a a n d soil o r g a n i s m s die,
Figure 9.21 Hills are often recharge areas where rainwater enters the soil and moves down into
the soil and down the slope.
the soil becomes anaerobic and stock refuse
to e a t the r e m a i n i n g g r a s s growing on it.
After l a n d is cleared some soil, the topsoil,
is often w a s h e d a w a y by erosion. S m a l l
soil p a r t i c l e s a r e a l s o w a s h e d downwards
where they c o m p a c t and cement together
to seal the lower subsoil.
T h i s is w h a t is called the clay h a r d p a n ,
which g r a d u a l l y rises as more topsoil is
lost a n d g r e a t e r compaction occurs.
A s rain falls, m o s t i s lost a s run-off a n d
w h a t d o e s enter the soil p e r m e a t e s only to
the h a r d p a n , which m a y be only 200 mm
95
below the surface. T h e soil becomes wa-
terlogged. When this h a p p e n s further rain
cannot enter the soil at all a n d more
overland flow occurs. T h e problems esca-
late.
Keyline cultivation is u s e d to b r e a k up the
h a r d p a n , allowing w a t e r a n d air to enter
a n d infiltrate the soil. W a t e r is then per-
mitted to p e r m e a t e deeper into the soil,
Figure 9.22 Piezometers allow you to examine
water table height and water pressure and
salinity level.
where it is held, and t h u s able to be u s e d
by p l a n t s .
Planting trees often doesn't solve the prob-
lem - even if some of t h e s e p l a n t s can
survive in waterlogged soil. T h e environ-
mental movement's p u s h to "green" the
world by p l a n t i n g trees is futile if the soil
is not suitable for the trees to grow.
S o m e interceptor b a n k s hold the water
where it is needed m o s t - on the slopes.
T h e trenches don't allow w a t e r to drain
away, carrying nutrients, h u m u s a n d or-
ganic m a t t e r with it. T h e s e m a t e r i a l s s t a y
so t h a t p l a n t s can access them.
B a n k s by t h e m s e l v e s a r e of little u s e .
T r e e s h a v e to be planted along the whole
length of the drain. F o u r or five rows of
t r e e s a r e not uncommon and you could
expect to p l a n t about 1000 trees for one
kilometre of drain.
If stock a r e to be k e p t in a r e a s containing
d r a i n s then fencing of the trees m u s t
occur. E v e n electric fencing, which is the
l e a s t e x p e n s i v e option, does i n c r e a s e the
cost of l a n d m a n a g e m e n t s t r a t e g i e s .
However, u n l e s s fences a r e erected stock
will quickly devour the s h r u b s and trees.
In time, stock can be rotated through the
fenced tree belts as p a r t of the farm
grazing system.
S w a l e s a n d interceptor b a n k s a r e s p a c e d
d e p e n d i n g on soil type, rainfall and slope.
U s u a l l y s w a l e s a r e close together on the
steeper slopes a n d further a p a r t on the
shallower g r a d i e n t s . You m a y , for e x a m -
ple, cut s w a l e s every h u n d r e d m e t r e s on
Figure 9.23 When building swales and interceptor banks, start at the top of the hill and work
downwards.
Figure 9.24 Dams should be deeper in drier areas to minimise evaporation.
96
one p a r t of the farm and only h a l f t h a t
distance on a steeper a r e a . However, m a -
chinery cannot operate safely on slopes
g r e a t e r than 2 0 ° . On slopes of this size, or
l e s s , a bulldozer m a y be able to p u s h the
soil into a b a n k as it moves downwards.
T h i s is the b e s t way to build the d r a i n s .
In dry areas
In dryland a r e a s it is better to store the
water underground. In hot climates, wa-
ter quickly e v a p o r a t e s from d a m s , so it is
b e s t to m a k e water fall into trenches a n d
pits, where it can infiltrate into the nearby
soil and supply nourishment to the root
s y s t e m s of plants.
T e r r a c e s can also be u s e d in drier a r e a s .
S m a l l p a t c h e s of cereal crops or green
m a n u r e crops, such as m u s t a r d , can be
easily grown and h a r v e s t e d .
T e r r a c e d slopes a r e normally cut by h a n d
- u s i n g tools of course. P l a n t i n g on slopes
is essential for soil stability. Vetiver g r a s s ,
Vetiveria zizanioides, is a r e m a r k a b l e
Figure 9.25 A pit filled with compost and covered in stone or sand can trap and store water.
Natural seepage and drainage of water will slowly fill pits and wells.

p l a n t t h a t h a s a very long root s y s t e m a n d A m e r i c a , a s a t p r e s e n t they a r e u s e d

can survive in both drought a n d flood. m a i n l y in Africa.
H e d g e s of vetiver g r a s s a r e u s e d in a r i d In dry a r e a s , the d a y t i m e soil t e m p e r a -
a r e a s for erosion control a n d can t r a p a n d t u r e s can be very high. T h e surface could
a c c u m u l a t e l a r g e a m o u n t s of topsoil, thus
c r e a t i n g mini-terraces a t the s a m e time.
W h a t ' s m o r e , it's good fodder for stock a n d
e a s y to p r o p a g a t e . L e m o n g r a s s , Cymbo-
pogon citratus, is a l s o good for erosion
control.
Water u s e in the g a r d e n should be moni-
tored a n d controlled. Y o u r a i m is to obtain
the o p t i m u m benefit from the water t h a t
is u s e d a n d to m i n i m i s e evaporation a n d
s e e p a g e a w a y from p l a n t root zones.
B u r y u n g l a z e d clay pots in the vegetable
g a r d e n , fill with water a n d leave it to
slowly p e r m e a t e through the walls into
the s u r r o u n d i n g soil.
T h e s e t y p e s of s t r a t e g i e s should be tried Figure 9.27 Water held in clay pots can diffuse
more in the drier a r e a s of A u s t r a l i a a n d into the surrounding soil.

Figure 9.26 Vetiver grass is used to reduce erosion on slopes.

97
be over 4 0 ° C . T h e s e high t e m p e r a t u r e s
will c a u s e s t r e s s to p l a n t s , especially
exotic garden vegetables, and high tran-
spiration r a t e s resulting in wilting and
possible death.
T h e u s e of s h a d e trees, including some
that a r e nitrogen-fixing and general soil
builders, over a food crop is common in
some countries.
Mulches should be u s e d in these a r e a s too,
as these will help to keep the soil cool and
Figure 9.28 Even a stone mulch will protect
and cool the soil.
My notes
Things I need to find out
98
retain moisture. Even stone mulches can
be u s e d when this resource is available.
Often, timber-based mulches a r e j u s t not
available or would be expensive to buy
and transport in.
As water is very scarce in arid climates
m a n y s t r a t e g i e s m u s t be tried, even wire
fences which allow dew to condense a n d
drip onto the soil. Dew is a limited water
collection strategy, but in these a r e a s any
water is helpful for plant survival.
Figure 9.29 Dew will condense on objects.
Water can then drip into the soil.
10 Designs for urban settlement
Permaculture d e s i g n s for s u b u r b a n y a r d s
and s m a l l city properties h a v e to prima-
rily consider the lack of s p a c e a n d the lack
of n a t u r a l vegetation cover. T h e subur-
ban l a n d s c a p e in m a n y cities is being
decimated in much the s a m e way as for-
ests a r e b e i n g reduced to i s l a n d s of p l a n t s .
Consequently, you h a v e to utilise w h a t
space you h a v e very effectively, as there
j u s t isn't enough room to grow m a n y types
of p l a n t s . F o r e x a m p l e , you could only
h a v e one avocado, walnut or pecan in the
a v e r a g e b a c k y a r d - a n d not much else!
For t h e s e types of s i t u a t i o n s , we need to
better u s e vertical growing space, pro-
mote the u s e of d w a r f a n d multi-graft
fruit t r e e s , a n d focus on growing herbs
and v e g e t a b l e s for our culinary require-
m e n t s . We m a y not be able to grow all of
our food b u t we can s u p p l e m e n t our needs.
Gardens
M a n y g a r d e n b e d s in urban settlements
a r e narrow. T h e common bed s h a p e s dis-
c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 2, such as circle, herb
spiral, keyhole ( m a n d a l a pattern) a n d
plucking b e d s , a r e frequently u s e d in sub-
urban g a r d e n s .
U r b a n b a c k y a r d s m i g h t only contain zones
one a n d two, a n d possibly s o m e zone five.
T h i s m e a n s t h a t you will be able to grow
some v e g e t a b l e s , h a v e a few fruit trees
a n d m a y b e k e e p a couple of chickens.
E s s e n t i a l to all g a r d e n s a r e compost (plant
Figure 10.1 Use a 200 L (44 gal) drum as a compost turning device.
99
food), a variety of p l a n t s in g a r d e n a r e a s
and water. Here we d i s c u s s each of t h e s e
in turn.
Compost
C o m p o s t i s m a d e when p l a n t a n d a n i m a l
m a t e r i a l s b r e a k down into s i m p l e r s u b -
s t a n c e s . T h e process, which is normally
slow, can be sped up by a l t e r i n g one or
more of the n e c e s s a r y r e q u i r e m e n t s for
m a k i n g compost. T h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s in-
clude air, high t e m p e r a t u r e , a good bal-
ance of p l a n t and a n i m a l m a t e r i a l s a n d
water.
T h e b a l a n c e of p l a n t and a n i m a l m a t e r i -
a l s is reflected by the carbon-nitrogen
ratio, which should be about 2 0 : 1 for ideal
compost m a k i n g . Y o u can build compost
h e a p s from solely p l a n t m a t e r i a l , b u t the
overall process t a k e s longer.
Generally, the g r e a t e r the a m o u n t of air
available for the feeding m i c r o - o r g a n i s m s
a n d the l e s s loss of h e a t (higher t e m p e r a -
ture), the faster the decomposition. S o , by
turning the h e a p or allowing more air to
circulate through the pile, a n d by cover-
ing the h e a p so t h a t h e a t is not lost to the
environment, decomposition occurs
quickly.
M a n y people find t u r n i n g the compost
h e a p h a r d work, so here is a s i m p l e solu-
tion. Recycle a m e t a l 2 0 0 L (44 gallon)
drum by cutting h a l f of the lid a w a y . L a y
the drum on its side a n d s t a r t filling it
with compost m a t e r i a l s . To increase a e r a -
tion, roll the drum b a c k w a r d s a n d for-
w a r d s or, if possible, u s e a small r a m p as
shown in F i g u r e 10.1.
M a n y people j u s t build a compost pile
wherever they find some space in the
b a c k y a r d . Others h a v e a set area. Your
organic recycling centre can be built from
m a t e r i a l s such as old wooden pallets, or
timber s l a t s , as shown in F i g u r e 10.2, or
you m a y simply choose to place all of your
organic w a s t e s in the garden bed itself. A
b a n a n a circle is an ideal compost heap, as
food s c r a p s a n d leaf litter a r e placed in the
hollow in the middle and the surrounding
b a n a n a s or other p l a n t s feed on the w a s t e s
Figure 10.4 Small holes in bins such as these
increase air flow through the compost pile. If
the base is solid you should make holes in it to
allow drainage of excess water.

as they quickly b r e a k down. You m a y

h a v e to check to m a k e sure your local
council allows you to have a compost pile
in your backyard.
S o m e of the commercial plastic compost
bins that you can buy (or are supplied by
Figure 10.2 Compost bays are easy to con- some local authorities) do not work effec-
struct. tively b e c a u s e air is restricted from reach-
ing all p a r t s of the pile.
Cutting holes all over the bin, including
the lid, will increase air flow through the
compost.
To minimise insects a n d other p e s t s from
entering the bin, glue some flywire screen
over each hole. Holes in the lid a r e a l s o
important to allow rain water to enter the
bin to keep the compost moist.
Garden areas
Much of the urban yard should be mulched.
Sheet-mulched garden beds are common,
and all other trees, such as fruit, chicken
fodder and so on, are mulched, at l e a s t out
to their drip line. Mulch i n c r e a s e s the
microbial activity of the soil, and p l a n t s
growing nearby extend their root m a s s
Figure 10.3 A banana circle is a compost heap into the mulch, thus increasing their wa-
in disguise. ter and nutrient intake.

100
Mulch is u n d e r - u s e d in the community,
mainly b e c a u s e people a r e u n a w a r e of its
benefits. T h e m a n y conventional land-
scape practices t h a t a r e u s e d in g a r d e n s
are cosmetic, a n d they a r e u s e d to m a k e
the g a r d e n a r e a s look attractive.
P e r m a c u l t u r e , however, is about m a k i n g
these a r e a s useful - a n d beautiful as well.
So, we p l a n t a n d m a i n t a i n a variety of
herbs, v e g e t a b l e s a n d other p l a n t s t h a t
contribute to our daily needs.
P e r m a c u l t u r e is a l s o a b o u t s a v i n g energy,
so it m a k e s good s e n s e to place the food
production a r e a s n e a r the c o n s u m e r s ,
whether t h e s e a r e h u m a n s , chickens or
g o a t s . Y o u need to grow v e g e t a b l e s where
you can see t h e m - close to the h o u s e ,
along the p a t h s to the chicken pen, or in
view from the kitchen window.
When d e s i g n i n g your g a r d e n b e d s , choose
the p l a n t s m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e to your soil
type a n d microclimate a r e a s . I f you h a v e
lots of s h a d e ( a n d you can't change this),
Figure 10.5 An example of zoning in an urban property. Food production areas are placed close
to the house.
101
p l a n t s h r u b s t h a t a r e s h a d e tolerant, such
as comfrey and angelica.
You can't expect to grow all types of p l a n t s
successfully. S o m e like well-drained soils,
while others t o l e r a t e clay a n d water-
logging. For e x a m p l e , w a l n u t s a r e s u s c e p -
tible to root rot in heavy soil, b u t grow well
in s a n d y soils.
Generally, m o s t fruit t r e e s a r e s u i t a b l e
for b a c k y a r d s . In particular, lemon, m a n -
darin, orange, mulberry, a p p l e , g u a v a ,
b a n a n a (unless there i s r e g u l a r frost) a n d
early v a r i e t i e s of p l u m s u r v i v e in m o s t
climate types a n d a r e a p p r o p r i a t e in s m a l l
backyards.
S o m e t y p e s of fruit trees, including p e a r s ,
p e a c h e s a n d nectarines, a r e often not as
hardy, easily succumb to fungal d i s e a s e s
or a r e a t t a c k e d by p e s t s . U s e fruit trees
t h a t don't get r a v a g e d by b i r d s or fruit fly,
or become covered in fungus. E a r l y v a r i e -
ties of m o s t trees are b e s t as they a r e l e s s
susceptible to attack by d i s e a s e s a n d p e s t s .
F r u i t trees a n d g a r d e n b e d s need protec-
tion from d a m a g i n g winds, even in urban
b a c k y a r d s . F a s t - g r o w i n g , vertical wind-
b r e a k s h r u b s and trees, such a s clumping
b a m b o o s a n d b a n n a g r a s s , a r e ideal wind-
b r e a k species. B a m b o o s a r e very useful
p l a n t s a n d can be u s e d for g a r d e n s t a k e s ,
fence m a t e r i a l s a n d thatching, a n d poles
for p e r g o l a s a n d w a l k w a y s (besides eat-
i n g them, of course). How w i n d b r e a k s
function a n d how they a r e constructed is
d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 11.
Figure 10.6 Windbreaks are also needed in
urban properties to protect delicate plants.
D e s i g n e r s also need to consider g a r d e n
bed a c c e s s . Access to g a r d e n a r e a s can be
achieved by a variety of methods. For
e x a m p l e , the s i m p l e s t is probably step-
p i n g stones - of timber, s l a b s , stones or
concrete. P a t h s can also be "living" by
p l a n t i n g herb l a w n s , such a s chamomile,
lippia, Dichondra and thyme, in-between
the s t e p p i n g stones.
Figure 10.7 Stepping stones and herb lawns
make useful, functional paths.
102
P a t h s should be narrow and can be m a d e
of any type of m a t e r i a l , including saw-
dust, mulch, concrete and carpet. F o r slip-
pery surfaces and slopes or even wooden
s t e p s , consider stretching and securing
poultry wire across them. Your shoes will
h a v e better grip on the new surface. S t e p s
can also be m a d e from car tyres, filled
with soil, as shown in F i g u r e 10.9 on the
next p a g e .
Figure 10.8 Stretch chicken wire over slippery
slopes, paths and steps.
Ponds
Water is the m o s t important element in
p e r m a c u l t u r e design. Ponds a n d aquacul-
ture were covered in C h a p t e r two, so here
we a r e j u s t briefly looking at water in the
urban l a n d s c a p e .
Even small ponds can be productive, a n d
a l a r g e r a n g e of edible food crops can be
successfully grown in water, such as taro,
watercress, water c h e s t n u t s a n d C h i n e s e
water spinach ( k a n g kong).
A word of caution: m a n y p a r a s i t e s a n d
pathogens (disease-causing organisms)
h a v e p a r t of their life cycle in water, so
m a k e sure t h a t you obtain healthy, dis-
ease-free plant stock.
You might consider introducing tadpoles
caught from nearby s w a m p s or creeks, as
these will contribute to p e s t control in the
g a r d e n - after they turn into frogs.
F r o g s a r e a good indicator of the quality of
a waterway. If the water becomes pol-
luted or stale (low oxygen, anaerobic) the
 Figure 10.9 Use tyres filled with soil as steps.

frogs will d i s a p p e a r . They m i g h t also dis- T h e bog g a r d e n can be built by lining a

a p p e a r after predation by cats, so watch
this.
An alternative to ponds is the bog g a r d e n .
Here, a wet a r e a can be developed, as
m a n y of the p l a n t s t h a t live in ponds will
thrive in m a r s h y , wet soil as well.
hollow with plastic sheeting or clay and
filling it with soil t h a t is k e p t moist at all
times.
The idea of u s i n g a bog g a r d e n , i n s t e a d of
a pond, in a school design is also briefly
mentioned in C h a p t e r 12.

Figure 10.10 Top: Even small ponds can be productive. Bottom: A bog garden can replace a pond
in a garden area.

103
Animals
M a n y s m a l l a n i m a l s can be k e p t in the
urban y a r d . However, the three m o s t com-
mon useful a n i m a l s a r e earthworms, bees
and chickens. The use of a n i m a l s in
permaculture s y s t e m s is further discussed
in the next chapter.
Earthworms
E a r t h w o r m s are the n u m b e r one a n i m a l
to h a v e in the urban l a n d s c a p e . They a r e
e a s y to k e e p a n d cultivate. E a r t h w o r m s
can be bred in a box, but they should be
livingin the garden! Here, e a r t h w o r m s do
what they do b e s t - improve the soil. You
don't need an earthworm box to p u t your
kitchen s c r a p s in. J u s t dig the s c r a p s into
any g a r d e n bed and not only will they be
turned into nutrients for your p l a n t s , the
soil will benefit too. Garden b e d s should
become your earthworm farm.
Figure 10.11 Earthworms are nature's culti-
vators.
T h e r e a r e m a n y different types of earth-
worms, a n d the ones that are mostly u s e d
a r e the m a n u r e or compost worms, often
Figure 10.12 Earthworms can be kept and cultivated in a plastic, cardboard or foam box. Make
sure that you have air holes in the top and bottom of the box.
104
small, red worms which a r e distinct from
the larger earthworm found in some gar-
dens and p a s t u r e s . It is the m a n u r e worms
which we a r e generally talking about,
even though we j u s t call them all earth-
worms, as these can breed quickly and be
u s e d to digest household w a s t e s .
People who do not h a v e g a r d e n s , or who
rent a property, or m a y not h a v e much
room, can keep e a r t h w o r m s a l m o s t any-
where, even in a small box similar to that
shown in F i g u r e 10.12. Kitchen s c r a p s ,
torn n e w s p a p e r and other organic m a t e -
rial can be placed in the box each day. An
earthworm farm such as this m i g h t con-
tain several t h o u s a n d earthworms, each
consuming up to their own weight in food
every day.
An active earthworm farm of m a n u r e
worms such as red wrigglers a n d tiger
worms, properly m a n a g e d , can d i g e s t up
to a kilogram of food s c r a p s each day.
Provided that you keep them warm, moist,
a e r a t e d a n d well-fed, e a r t h w o r m s will be
tireless workers for you day in and day
out. An earthworm farm can replace the
need for a s e p a r a t e compost pile.
Although earthworms e a t anything or-
ganic, they don't like too much of one
thing, especially acid foodstuffs, so excess
citrus peel, onion s k i n s a n d t e a b a g s can
be placed directly into the compost h e a p .
E a r t h w o r m s also cannot digest bones, so
after they h a v e consumed the skin or
feathers and soft t i s s u e , p u t the skeleton,
after a little crushing if possible, into the
compost pile as well, or burn the bones
and apply the a s h to your g a r d e n beds.
Bees
B e e s h a v e a role to play in a l m o s t all
natural ecosystems. They pollinate m a n y
different types of p l a n t s and therefore are
essential in the plant's life cycle.
Not everyone likes to keep bees. S o m e
people a r e allergic to bee s t i n g s and oth-
ers h a v e a fear about bee a t t a c k s . S o m e
people can't keep bees b e c a u s e of local
authority r e g u l a t i o n s - check with your
local g o v e r n m e n t before you buy and s e t
up a hive. In s o m e s t a t e s or countries you
m a y need a license to k e e p bees. M a k e
s u r e you tell your neighbours about your Figure 10.13 A bee hive can be mounted on a
p l a n s too. roof. This would only be practical if nearby
trees provide some shade during the hotter
B e e s a r e very productive a n i m a l s . You
months.
can h a r v e s t a b o u t 50 kg of honey from one
hive (double s u p e r ) each y e a r - more than they fly to a n d from the hive during forage
enough for your own n e e d s a n d to sell or times.
give a w a y to friends, family a n d neigh- If you want to keep the hive on the ground,
bours. you can still force the bees to t a k e a high
Y o u need to obtain a hive two boxes (su- flight path as shown in F i g u r e 10.14. Here
p e r s ) high. T h e bottom box is where the a tree screen, shed wall or fence is u s e d to
queen r e s i d e s , a n d there will be a m i x t u r e m a k e the bees fly high to g e t over the
of y o u n g l a r v a e , p u p a e , pollen a n d honey obstruction. Once over, the bees m o s t of-
a m o n g s t the honeycomb. You don't t a k e ten s t a y on the s a m e flight path until they
any honey from this box. arrive at their destination.
T h e top box is where the worker bees store If you've never kept b e e s or don't h a v e the
their honey. You can often extract this
honey three or four t i m e s a year, depend-
i n g on the strength of the hive a n d the
s e a s o n . F o r e x a m p l e , you don't u s u a l l y
h a r v e s t honey during winter and the bees
a r e m o s t active d u r i n g the s u m m e r , so
more honey is a v a i l a b l e then.
B e e s like to live in a hive with the sun
shining on it m o s t of the time. T h i s m a y be
a problem in a s h a d e d b a c k y a r d .
T h e solution is to place the hive on top of
a s h e d or g a r a g e roof. T h i s will also m e a n
t h a t the b e e s ' flight p a t h will be high and Figure 10.14 Use a hedge or wall to force bees
this will reduce encounters with bees as to use a high flight path.

105
n e c e s s a r y equipment, you might like to
contact people from the D e p a r t m e n t of
Agriculture, local authority or council,
local A p i a r i s t Association and bee product
suppliers.
You m a y choose to let someone else m a n -
a g e your hives a n d extract the honey. T h e
person who t a k e s the time a n d m a k e s the
effort to extract the honey gets some a n d
you g e t some. It's one of those win-win
situations.
S e t t i n g up with a smoker, suit, h a t and
veil, h a n d tools, extractor, b u c k e t s a n d
filters is expensive. For e x a m p l e , a hand-
operated extractor might cost several hun-
dred dollars, while a motorised one could
be well over a t h o u s a n d dollars (£500).
However, once you h a v e t a s t e d pure honey
from your own hive, you'll never buy com-
mercial b l e n d s a g a i n . You m i g h t consider
s h a r i n g the costs for the n e c e s s a r y equip-
m e n t with neighbours, or friends in differ-
ent a r e a s , who m a y extract honey at dif-
ferent t i m e s d u r i n g the year.
Poultry
A couple of chickens a r e useful additions
to any p e r m a c u l t u r e s y s t e m . A g a i n , there
m a y be r e g u l a t i o n s about whether you
can keep poultry in your locality or how
m a n y you can h a v e - especially roosters!
Check with your local authority. T h r e e
healthy chickens will provide one to two
e g g s a d a y for m o s t of the year.
Chickens, d u c k s a n d g e e s e can be k e p t in
an u r b a n b a c k y a r d , b u t g e e s e tend to be
noisy at t i m e s a n d they prefer the larger
open a r e a s of rural properties. D u c k s need
to h a v e water, at l e a s t a good bucketful so
t h a t they can dunk their h e a d s a n d b e a k s .
They also a r e noisy when you h a v e a few
of them.
Their w a t e r n e e d s to be changed regu-
larly as they will foul and muddy it quickly.
While d u c k s a r e good at e a t i n g s l u g s ,
s n a i l s a n d m o s t food s c r a p s , they don't
seem to b r e a k all things down like chick-
ens do.
106
It is best to keep ducks, g e e s e a n d chick-
ens in s e p a r a t e pens, as g e e s e will h a r a s s
d u c k s and chickens, while ducks can at-
tack chickens. Both g e e s e and d u c k s will
foul drinking water quickly, which m a y
c a u s e health problems for other poultry.
Generally, ducks a n d g e e s e suffer fewer
d i s e a s e s than chickens. You need to re-
cognise that each poultry species h a s par-
ticular needs, a n d fulfilling those n e e d s
can best occur when they a r e s e p a r a t e d .
In the urban situation most people j u s t
h a v e chooks. There is a l a r g e r a n g e of
different breeds of chickens and you can
buy them from a variety of sources, in-
cluding your p e r m a c u l t u r e friends, poul-
try b r e e d e r s and b a c k y a r d e n t h u s i a s t s .
S o m e are m e a t birds, some produce an
abundance of eggs, some a r e black-skinned
a n d some a r e small.
T h e s m a l l e r b a n t a m s a r e e a s y to k e e p a n d
feed, a n d m a k e good mothers, although
their e g g s a r e about h a l f the size of the
larger breeds of birds.
To recycle all domestic organic w a s t e you
only need three elements - a compost
h e a p , chickens and earthworms. Give all
of the household s c r a p s to the chooks. L e t
them t a k e what they want. After a few
d a y s , r a k e up what is left a n d place it in
the earthworm farm or compost h e a p .
Of course, you will need to s u p p l e m e n t the
household s c r a p s with other foodstuffs
such a s g r a i n s (cereals), herbs a n d g r e e n s
to provide a b a l a n c e d diet for the poultry.
All poultry m a k e good pets. Children like
to pick them up and hold a n d p a t them.
However, if you intend to eat any e x c e s s
poultry that you breed, don't give them
n a m e s . It is very h a r d to kill a n d e a t Alice,
F r e d or Muffin.
If you h a v e a big b a c k y a r d you m i g h t
consider a rotating chicken pen as shown
in F i g u r e 10.15. In a rotating poultry pen,
chickens, d u c k s or g e e s e can be k e p t in
pen 1, while p e n s 2 and 3 a r e cropped with
vegetables or planted with poultry fodder
species.
When a p p r o p r i a t e , the poultry can then
be moved into the n e x t pen and allowed to
clean up the r e m a i n i n g v e g e t a b l e s or e a t
the fodder p l a n t s .
Chicken m a n u r e and food s c r a p s provide
the n e c e s s a r y nitrogen for b a c t e r i a a n d
fungi to b r e a k down the s a w d u s t , p a p e r s
a n d l e a v e s , m a k i n g a good compost within
a few weeks.

T h i s is a useful s t r a t e g y for the s u m m e r All you do is r a k e out the layer once a

a n d a u t u m n m o n t h s when there is not a
lot of green feed.
Poultry will weed, m a n u r e and a e r a t e the
soil, p r e p a r i n g the ground ready for the
next crop. It is i m p o r t a n t t h a t poultry
h a v e a c c e s s to the h o u s i n g shed, no m a t -
ter w h a t pen they a r e using. A c c e s s holes
to each of the other p e n s a r e covered up.
H a v i n g three c o m p a r t m e n t s or p e n s a l s o
allows one pen to be rested, one pen for the
b i r d s a n d the other p l a n t e d with food for
you or the poultry, or both.
F o r s m a l l e r b a c k y a r d s , either a chicken
tractor or a deep litter s y s t e m is ideal. In
the deep litter pen, poultry a r e k e p t in a
pen or s h e d a n d a thick layer of s a w d u s t ,
l e a v e s or even n e w s p a p e r s is placed over
the floor.
month or so a n d p u t it on the g a r d e n , or if
it does need a little m o r e t i m e to b r e a k
down, throw it on the compost h e a p .
T h i s method of placing l e a v e s , p a p e r or
c a r d b o a r d on the ground works well in the
rotating chook pen too.
It is an e a s y way to m a k e compost, so you
don't need a special compost a r e a or h e a p
i f you u s e this s y s t e m .
A chicken tractor can also be u s e d in s m a l l
b a c k y a r d s , where it can be e a s i l y moved
to different a r e a s . It is e s s e n t i a l l y a port-
able poultry pen, often on wheels, so it can
be easily p u s h e d or pulled a r o u n d .
P l a c i n g a mother hen a n d b a b y chicks in
a chicken tractor is a good s t r a t e g y to
protect the young from p r e d a t o r s like c a t s ,
foxes and l a r g e b i r d s .

Figure 10.15 A rotating poultry pen.

Figure 10.16 A deep litter chicken pen.

107
 Figure 10.17 A chicken tractor.
Limited spaces
P e r m a c u l t u r e is not restricted to the wide
open s p a c e s of l a r g e properties. You can
p r a c t i s e the principles of p e r m a c u l t u r e
a n d d e m o n s t r a t e the design concepts by
building mini g a r d e n s and growing food
on balconies, window sills and in h a n g i n g
b a s k e t s , a n d even the occasional aquatic
p l a n t s in an a q u a r i u m inside your home.
You a r e only limited by your imagination
a n d your design skills.
Balconies and windows
M a n y people don't h a v e the luxury of a
back a n d front y a r d . Although they m a y
live in flats a n d units, they can still grow
food in the s p a c e they do h a v e a v a i l a b l e ,
a n d be clever about how they do it.
M a n y h o u s i n g u n i t s h a v e small balconies
which, in m o s t c a s e s , are under-utilised
for growing food. It is e a s y to m a k e or buy
Figure 10.18 Stepped pot stands allow sun-
light access for all plants.
108
stepped pot s t a n d s , free-standing mini-
garden b e d s , or g a r d e n containers which
you can screw or secure to a wall.
Herbs and plucking (green s a l a d ) v e g e t a -
bles can be grown in these s t a n d s so t h a t
Figure 10.19 Free-standing mini gardens can
be easily moved in a small area.
you h a v e some food all y e a r round. You
can even utilise the underside of the bal-
cony above you by growing p l a n t s in h a n g -
ing b a s k e t s or securing trellis from one
balcony to the next.
Windows and window sills in a h o u s e or
shed can be u s e d if there is limited g a r d e n
space.
S h e l v e s can easily be m a d e to fit within
the window frame, and window b o x e s a n d
lattice or trellis can be secured to the wall
either side of the window.
Again, a variety of culinary h e r b s a n d
vegetables can be grown, including climb-
ers such a s p e a s , b e a n s , n a s t u r t i u m s a n d
even passionfruit.
 Figure 10.20 A planter box outside a window.

Figure 10.21 Use every available growing space in small areas.

109
 trees in pots which can be rolled away
when needed, trellis (both horizontal a n d
vertical), a n d h a n g i n g b a s k e t s which can
be secured to pergolas, existing l a r g e trees
or v e r a n d a h a r e a s .
Trellis can t a k e a variety of forms a n d be
m a d e from a variety of m a t e r i a l s , includ-
ing wire mesh, poultry wire, bamboo sticks
and roofing b a t t e n s . Ingenuity a n d com-
mon sense are u s e d as we realise t h a t in
our y a r d s we don't h a v e j u n k , only t r e a s -
ured resources.
You can u s e some m a t e r i a l s to construct a
pergola-type walkway so t h a t vines can be
grown up and over the trellis, or you can
Figure 10.22 Build shelves inside a window place trellis vertically to grow climbers
frame. a n d vines.
Figure 10.22 Build shelves inside a window
frame. Multi-graft fruit trees a r e another option.
Small backyards Multi-grafts h a v e two or more different
There a r e m a n y design strategies for small varieties of the s a m e type of fruit on the
a r e a s . T h e s e include h a v i n g dwarf fruit

Figure 10.23 Dwarf fruit trees in pots are easy to move about.

110
 Figure 10.24 Trellis and other structures use vertical height for growing food crops.

Figure 10.25 Fruit trees can be espaliered along a wall or vertical trellis. Vine crops, such as
passionfruit, can be grown along a fence.

111
 Figure 10.26 Garden beds need to be compact and functional.

Figure 10.27 Permaculture design is an integrated, holistic approach to human settlement.

112
 one tree. A p p l e s a n d citrus can easily be
grafted onto root stock, or an existing
variety of tree, so you could potentially
h a v e fruit for a l a r g e p a r t of the y e a r from
the "one" a p p l e or lemon tree in the y a r d .
Before you graft different varieties onto
your tree, or g e t someone else to do this,
find out the fruiting t i m e s and other quali-
ties of the v a r i e t i e s you a r e going to u s e .
Otherwise, you m a y h a v e one p a r t of the
tree growing faster a n d t a k i n g over the
slower growing varieties, or you m a y h a v e
an a b u n d a n c e of fruit at the s a m e time
rather than the total yield s p r e a d over
m a n y months.
Figure 10.28 Hanging baskets are ideal food
growing gardens.
Germinating seed
A l a r g e n u m b e r of s e e d s p r o u t s are edible
a n d can provide high levels of nutrition in
the form of proteins, v i t a m i n s and miner-
a l s , a n d occasionally carbohydrates. S e e d s
of wheat, barley, sweet corn and lentils,
a l o n g with the commonly sprouted m u n g
b e a n s , s o y b e a n s a n d alfalfa, a r e easily
germinated.
113
T h e s i m p l e s t way is to place the s e e d s in
a g l a s s j a r . Cover them with w a t e r a n d
leave overnight, or for m o s t of a day. U s e
a cheesecloth, stocking or clean kitchen-
wiper cloth to cover the mouth of the j a r -
in p l a c e of the lid.
An elastic b a n d or string is placed, or tied,
over the stretched cloth to hold it in place.
P l a c e the seed j a r in a w a r m p l a c e , such as
on a window sill.
D i s c a r d broken and shrivelled s e e d s or
s e e d s t h a t a r e floating when you i n s p e c t
the j a r the next day. D r a i n the water off
a n d rinse the s e e d s each d a y until the
s p r o u t s a r e l a r g e enough to e a t .
Invert the j a r after rinsing so e x c e s s w a t e r
d r a i n s away. T h i s daily w a s h i n g of the
s e e d s m a y t a k e a week or more, depend-
ing on the actual type of seed u s e d , the
temperature and other climatic conditions.
Figure 10.29 Many seeds are easy to germi-
nate in the kitchen.
Don't buy commercial seed p a c k e t s , as
some seed c o m p a n i e s u s e fungicides a n d
other chemicals to protect their s e e d s from
d i s e a s e s . U s e only organically grown seeds
or, better still, ones you h a v e h a r v e s t e d
yourself from your g a r d e n .
S e e d s need to be from the l a s t s e a s o n ' s
crop. M a n y s e e d s lose their viability after
a y e a r or more a n d so will not sprout, a n d
those that do m a y contain little nutrition.
S o m e s p r o u t s mould quickly, so by trial
a n d error you will know when to e a t them.
For e x a m p l e , lentils, p e a s a n d sunflower
s p r o u t s a r e eaten when they a r e l e s s than
two centimetres long, whereas m u n g b e a n s
a n d alfalfa a r e eaten when they a r e twice
t h i s length. G e n e r a l l y , the longer the
s p r o u t the more n o u r i s h m e n t it contains,
b u t if they get too long they do not t a s t e as
nice.
To g e r m i n a t e l a r g e r a m o u n t s of s e e d s you
should u s e a cold frame or hothouse. Here,
a g l a s s lid covers a wooden or steel box so
t h a t winter sunlight can penetrate and
w a r m the interior. S e e d l i n g t r a y s a r e
p l a c e d inside the box and watered each
day. As s e e d s g e r m i n a t e , the t r a y can be
removed and the seedlings pricked out
into pots or placed directly into g a r d e n Figure 10.30 You can use a cold frame to
b e d s , provided t h a t the d a n g e r of frost is germinate trays of seeds for the garden. All
over a n d the ground t e m p e r a t u r e is well you need is a box with a clear glass or plastic
above zero. lid. Heat is trapped and held inside the box.

My notes

Things I need to find out

114
11 Designing for rural properties
Whole farm plans
P l a n n i n g is required for any s u s t a i n a b l e
f a r m i n g development. T h e development
of whole farm p l a n s a n d the integration of
all components on the farm further illus-
t r a t e s the importance of functional de-
sign.
T h e d e s i g n of shelterbelts, fodder lock-up
areas, water harvesting drains and
woodlot a r e a s m u s t contain information
a b o u t the m a i n t e n a n c e and m a n a g e m e n t
of the s y s t e m .
Economical a n a l y s i s of the monetary out-
lay a n d income of f a r m i n g a n d land m a n -
a g e m e n t s t r a t e g i e s h a s shown that putting
in tree b e l t s , building d a m s a n d under-
t a k i n g e a r t h w o r k s for d r a i n a g e and so on,
can all h a v e a high benefit-to-cost ratio.
E s s e n t i a l l y , this m e a n s t h a t t h e s e s t r a t e -
g i e s can m a k e more money than they cost
the farmer.
N o t all benefits a r e financial in nature.
L a n d c a r e , conservation a n d land m a n -
a g e m e n t s t r a t e g i e s will help improve the
quality of the environment a n d also m a k e
the farm look p l e a s i n g - a e s t h e t i c s a r e
important to h u m a n s . Improving the qual-
ity of w a t e r w a y s , conserving a n d restor-
i n g n a t u r a l w e t l a n d s , wildlife h a b i t a t s
a n d b u s h a r e a s , and i n c r e a s i n g the rec-
reational v a l u e of l a n d all benefit the
community.
F a r m e r s a n d l a n d owners m u s t consider
w h a t they will do to e n s u r e the b e s t return
for money i n v e s t e d for l a n d improvement
work. When money is not freely a v a i l a b l e
for all f a r m p l a n n i n g s t r a t e g i e s , then some
prioritising of all of the options should
occur. S e t t i n g priorities h e l p s the l a n d
owner to work t o w a r d s realistic g o a l s a n d
the slow, ongoing implementation of the
design.
An i n t e g r a t e d whole farm plan allows all
a p p r o p r i a t e conservation a n d develop-
m e n t p r a c t i c e s to be blended together into
a s i n g l e s y s t e m . T h e outcome will be good
115
land m a n a g e m e n t practice, a s waterlogged
a r e a s dry out, dry a r e a s g e t water, salin-
ity problems are a d d r e s s e d a n d soil qual-
ity improves.
It might a l s o m e a n t h a t waterlogged ar-
e a s a r e better u s e d b y p l a n t i n g wetland
p l a n t s , and dryland species a r e u s e d to
m a x i m i s e the potential of dry a r e a s . Whole
farm p l a n s often h a v e the following char-
acteristics:
• paddocks a r e divided into homogen-
eous land u n i t s by soil type, natur-
al topographical f e a t u r e s , v e g e -
tation t y p e s , or w a t e r d r a i n a g e
areas.
• each l a n d unit is m a n a g e d a n d
developed after e x a m i n a t i o n of the
potential stock carrying capacity,
crop yield, a m o u n t of d e g r a d a t i o n
a n d erosion, a n d soil fertility.
• the impact of d e v e l o p m e n t s a n d
improvements such as roads,
revegetation, water harvesting
s t r a t e g i e s a n d crop a n d p a s t u r e
c h a n g e s a r e considered in the light
of the whole farm - in an inte-
g r a t e d , holistic way.
• farm m a n a g e m e n t s t r a t e g i e s m u s t
incorporate s u s t a i n a b l e practices,
such as m a x i m i s i n g nutrient recy-
cling, m i n i m i s i n g energy a n d re-
source u s e , m a i n t a i n i n g land pro-
ductivity, p r e s e r v i n g n a t u r a l eco-
s y s t e m s and increasing species di-
versity, a s well a s m a k i n g s u r e
t h a t the farm is profitable.
T h e successful implementation of a whole
farm plan is a long-term p r o c e s s . It liter-
ally t a k e s m a n y y e a r s before financial
benefits to crops, p a s t u r e s a n d a n i m a l s
r e s u l t from tree p l a n t i n g a n d other s u s -
tainable l a n d practices.
However, even though land owners m a k e
s u b s t a n t i a l capital i n v e s t m e n t s on im-
p r o v e m e n t s to the soil, fences, fodder
a r e a s a n d water c a t c h m e n t s , the v a l u e of
the farm l a n d i n c r e a s e s a n d other bene-
fits to the environment follow.
M o s t f a r m e r s view r e p l a n t i n g and
revegetation initiatives in t e r m s of eco-
nomic return. They need to be convinced
t h a t shelterbelts, regeneration of native
forest a r e a s a n d r e p l a n t i n g of riparian
( s t r e a m or river b a n k ) a r e a s will a d d v a l u e
to their property, m a k e the u s e of the land
more s u s t a i n a b l e a n d give a potential
income in the long term.
Income from woodlots a n d specialised tim-
ber m a y t a k e ten y e a r s or more. Even
fodder tree species h a v e to be fenced from
stock for two to three y e a r s before cutting
or g r a z i n g is allowed. F a r m e r s should be
e n c o u r a g e d to become foresters a n d to
r e p l a n t t r e e s in d e g r a d e d a r e a s a n d near
remnant vegetation patches. Further-
more, conservation m u s t be seen as good
business.
Economic viability m u s t be equated to
ecological stability. For e x a m p l e , on s m a l l
a n d b r o a d - a c r e properties the practice of
m i n i m u m tillage should be investigated.
N a t u r e doesn't plough and turn the soil,
a n d nor should we. You m a y need to b r e a k
up compacted ground, either by u s i n g a
chisel plough or, in some c a s e s , ripping to
p l a n t tree belts.
R i p p i n g along the contour also i n c r e a s e s
w a t e r absorption by the soil. T h i s can be
an effective s t r a t e g y as this technique is
cheaper than building s w a l e s .
Figure 11.1 Tree shape gives some indication of the direction of prevailing winds.
116
Windbreaks and shelterbelts
S e v e r e winds reduce food production. T h e
m o s t d a m a g i n g winds a r e hot a n d dry or
those coming from offshore laden with
salt. T h e s e types of winds increase the
transpiration and desiccation of the plant.
Cold winds during winter will also ad-
versely affect m a n y subtropical species.
S t r o n g winds can do physical or mechani-
cal d a m a g e and the ferocity of severe
winds needs to be tempered. M a n y food
producing trees such as kiwifruit,
m a c a d a m i a nut and b a n a n a s a r e easily
d a m a g e d by wind, with food yield reduced.
W i n d b r e a k s should be positioned to coun-
ter the effects of severe winds, whether
they a r e p r e v a i l i n g or not. P r e v a i l i n g
winds are those blowing m o s t often from
a particular direction.
In some places your windbreak tree belt
m a y h a v e to be placed on the e a s t e r n side
of the house, in other a r e a s the western
side. In other places, the prevailing winds
could be south-westerly or north-easterly.
T h e wind direction of prevailing winds in
winter will differ from those in s u m m e r ,
and cooling, s u m m e r afternoon (ocean)
breezes a r e often in opposite directions to
night-time (land) breezes.
You might like to re-read C h a p t e r 3, which
d e a l s with sector planning, to h a v e a bet-
ter u n d e r s t a n d i n g of where w i n d b r e a k s
a r e placed and how the energies t h a t
move through a s y s t e m a r e directed a n d
controlled.
L a n d a n d s e a b r e e z e s occur b e c a u s e of the
uneven h e a t i n g a n d cooling r a t e s of land
(soil) a n d water. D u r i n g the day, the l a n d
h e a t s up f a s t e r than the s e a . Hot a i r r i s e s
above the land a n d is replaced by a cool
sea breeze which u s u a l l y blows in the
afternoon. At night, the land cools faster
than the s e a a n d cold air from the land
flows t o w a r d s the ocean.
S o m e t i m e s , wind blowing a c r o s s the land
h e a t s up a n d it is not uncommon to expe-
rience hot, dry l a n d b r e e z e s early in the
morning. W a t e r t e n d s to h e a t up a n d cool
down slower than the land.
T h e r e a r e several t e r m s which h a v e the
s a m e m e a n i n g a n d hence a r e interchange-
able. For e x a m p l e , shelterbelts a r e essen-
tially windbreaks. However, we sometimes
u s e shelterbelts to describe rows of trees
Figure 11.2 Land and
sea breezes.
surrounding agricultural land while wind-
b r e a k s m a y refer to those trees protecting
buildings, o r c h a r d s a n d g a r d e n a r e a s .
S h e l t e r b e l t s a n d windbreaks are planted
in a direction which is about 9 0 ° (right
Figure 11.3 Shelterbelts are windbreaks that provide protection of stock.
117
a n g l e s ) to the prevailing winds.
Shelterbelts, a s the n a m e implies, a r e
often a r r a n g e d so t h a t stock can find shel-
ter a n d refuge in them, especially when
giving birth and during s t o r m s .
Windbreaks protect the soil, preventing it
from drying out and minimising the loss
of topsoil by wind erosion. G r e a t e r pro-
duction occurs in a r e a s protected by wind-
b r e a k s . T r e e s m a k e the b e s t windbreaks.
Solid fences should never be built as they
can be p u s h e d over by the force of strong
winds and they c a u s e turbulence.
As a general rule of t h u m b the a r e a pro-
tected by a tree windbreak s y s t e m is about
twenty times the height of the trees. In
F i g u r e 11.5, if the trees were 5 m e t r e s
high, the distance t h a t is protected on the
leeward side is about 100 metres.
Windbreaks should be a minimum of three
rows, but preferably five rows in some
circumstances. Five row windbreaks can
be u s e d for paddock fence lines within the
property. T h e s e give protection to the
p a d d o c k s on both s i d e s of the windbreak
s y s t e m b e c a u s e wind speed is reduced
a n d winds a r e r a m p e d over them.
T r e e s also reduce the a m o u n t of wind
p a s s i n g through the a r e a . At l e a s t h a l f of
the wind m a y still p a s s through, b u t at a
much slower, l e s s d a m a g i n g speed. T r e e s
further reduce wind erosion by t r a p p i n g
s a n d and silt.
L a r g e trees which a r e slow-growing, such
as oaks and carobs, should be planted in
the middle rows (of a five-row set) a n d the
fast-growing (and nitrogen-fixing) trees,
such a s wattles, t a g a s a s t e and c a s u a r i n a ,

Figure 11.4 Windbreaks are used to deflect wind upwards.

Figure 11.5 Tree windbreaks offer protection for 15 - 20 times their height.
Figure 11.6 Poorly designed windbreaks
can intensify the problem. Shrubs and trees
should have foliage to ground level.
a r e planted on the outside. T h e s e offer
protection while the more productive a n d
often c o m m e r c i a l l y - v i a b l e s p e c i e s a r e
growing.
L i k e all p e r m a c u l t u r e elements, wind-
b r e a k s should also serve several other
functions. For e x a m p l e , windbreak trees
can also be u s e d for bee forage, sources of
mulch and firewood, screens for noise,
absorbers of pollution, shelterbelts for
stock and s u n t r a p s for climate modifica-
tion. S p e c i e s which can serve as fodder
and windbreak include acacia, t a g a s a s t e ,
carob, o a k s and leucaena.

118
Well-designed w i n d b r e a k s can a l s o slow a
fire to one-tenth of i t s speed. Windbreak
trees, which a r e u s e d a s n a t u r a l f i r e -
b r e a k s as well, should h a v e high m o i s t u r e
contents, low levels of f l a m m a b l e resin
and oils, and should not s h e d l e a v e s a n d
branches.
Whenever a n y p l a n t i n g occurs, the se-
quence of s h r u b s a n d t r e e s should follow
nature's p a t h w a y . Pioneer trees need to
be p l a n t e d first on d e n u d e d a n d d e g r a d e d
land.
Once t h e s e a r e e s t a b l i s h e d the l a r g e r cli-
m a x species can be planted. R e m e m b e r
that the pioneer species such as a c a c i a s ,
c a s u a r i n a s (or holly a n d b r a m b l e s in colder
climates) a r e good windbreak species a n d
protect the climax species such as o a k s ,
nuts, beech or carobs. Figure 11.7 Windbreaks should contain sev-
Stock need shelter from cold winds as eral rows of trees.

Figure 11.8 Trees have to be staggered so that both wind speed and wind penetration is
reduced.

119
 Figure 11.9 Wind must be able to penetrate some of the tree belt, or turbulence will occur.
m a n y will die in e x t r e m e conditions l a s t - and m e a t production. T h e p l a c e m e n t of
i n g s e v e r a l d a y s . S h e l t e r b e l t s of t r e e s pro- these belts of trees, fences for stock y a r d s
vide refuge as well as fodder during these a n d water s u p p l i e s a r e crucial to any
lean t i m e s . property containing stock.
Stock production d e c r e a s e s both during S h e l t e r b e l t s can also be productive in
e x t r e m e cold and e x t r e m e heat. In fact, other w a y s - as sources of firewood, honey,
shelter is crucial to stock productivity, as mulch, building timber and edible crops.
open p a s t u r e s will d e c r e a s e milk, wool For e x a m p l e , c h e s t n u t s for h u m a n s a n d

Figure 11.10 Windbreaks should be curved so that wind is deflected as well as slowed. Banna
grass (Pennisetum spp.) or clumping bamboos are useful windbreaks. Here a windbreak also acts
as a suntrap.

120

Figure 11.11 Nurse trees such as tagasaste or . tional w a t e r i n g of the trees. T h e higher
wattles are used to protect wind- and sun-
sensitive plants such as macadamia nut trees.
Nurse trees can be continually pruned as the
protected tree grows.
o a k s for stock. F a s t growing, potentially
commercial timber species include
paulownia (Paulownia tomentosa),
blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon), silky oak
(Grevillea robusta) and o a k s (Quercus spp.)
generally. F a s t - g r o w i n g nursery, stock
feed a n d nitrogen-fixing t r e e s include
wattles (Acacia spp.), t a g a s a s t e
(Chamaecytisus palmensis) a n d Albizia
lophantha.
T h e a r r a n g e m e n t of tree b e l t s with a r a b l e a n d timber for s a l e .
l a n d in-between, which is u s e d to grow
s o m e sort of crop, is called alley cropping
or h e d g e r o w intercropping. Even though
a r a b l e l a n d is lost in the p l a n t i n g of t h e s e a m o u n t of protection t h a t this shelterbelt
t r e e belts, the total production of the l a n d
i n c r e a s e s a n d it is a worthy s y s t e m to
adopt.
Alley cropping, which is a l s o known as
agroforestry or forest f a r m i n g , is growing
t r e e s , u s u a l l y as tree b e l t s , in conjunction
with a g r i c u l t u r a l crops or p a s t u r e a n d
d o m e s t i c g r a z i n g a n i m a l s , or both.
T h e other i s s u e for p e r m a c u l t u r a l i s t s is
t h a t we should be a d v o c a t i n g the u s e of
p e r e n n i a l p a s t u r e crops r a t h e r t h a n a n -
n u a l p a s t u r e s . Perennial p a s t u r e p l a n t s
include h e r b s such a s comfrey and d a n d e -
lion, a n d fodder s h r u b s a n d trees such a s
Coprosma, willows, p o p l a r s , t a g a s a s t e a n d
medics. Finally, larger nut and berry trees,
such a s o a k s , l e u c e a n a and carobs, should
be u s e d as they drop pods or n u t s with
high carbohydrate and/or protein content
during the lean a u t u m n or fall periods.
Alley cropping practices in the paddock
should follow the contour as much as
possible ( a g a i n to h a r v e s t water to sup-
plement their needs). E v e n s m a l l pockets
of trees would effectively improve p a s -
t u r e s a n d reduce erosion. For s o m e wind-
b r e a k s on a slope, place s w a l e s every 10 m
or more to capture water to provide addi-
slope a r e a s tend to dry out first so you
should rotate stock from high a r e a s down-
wards.
T r e e b e l t s h a v e the a d d e d a d v a n t a g e s of:
stock shelter a n d s h a d e ; microclimate
c h a n g e s so t h a t crop a r e a s a r e more pro-
ductive; g r e a t e r a n i m a l a n d bird life on
the f a r m ; source of nectar a n d pollen for
b e e s ; and source of firewood, construction
poles, fencing p o s t s a n d timber. All of this
m e a n s , in turn, g r e a t e r stock carrying
capacity a n d g r e a t e r opportunity to diver-
sify f a r m income, by developing a q u a c u l -
ture in the d a m s , honey from bee hives
On l a r g e agricultural a r e a s , shelterbelts
m a y be s p a c e d about 20x the h e i g h t of the
tallest tree. T h i s corresponds to the
offers.
P l a n t i n g t r e e s close t o g e t h e r e n s u r e s
canopy closure which, in turn, m i n i m i s e s
wind infiltration. However, light is re-
stricted from p e n e t r a t i n g to the ground
l a y e r a n d few p l a n t s will g r o w a s
understorey. Understorey s h r u b s i n c r e a s e
the ecological diversity a n d stability, a n d
they a r e i m p o r t a n t in the tree belt s y s t e m .
Good design of shelterbelts will allow thin-
ning a n d p r u n i n g without affecting their
effectiveness a g a i n s t wind.
T h e r e is no m a g i c a l n u m b e r for the per-
c e n t a g e of f a r m l a n d which s h o u l d be
p l a n t e d or replanted with trees. Even at
121
1 5 % tree cover, the loss of production of
p a s t u r e is m o r e t h a n c o m p e n s a t e d by in-
c r e a s e d crop production and potential in-
come from tree-based enterprises.
F u r t h e r m o r e , try to design zone 5 a r e a s so
t h a t they a r e linked to n a t u r a l b u s h l a n d ,
r e m n a n t b u s h a r e a s a n d wildlife corri-
dors. C o n s i d e r p l a n t i n g r a r e and endan-
g e r e d species from t h e s e a r e a s - especially
on s t e e p slopes g r e a t e r than 15 to 18° - as
one way you can contribute to their sur-
vival.
T h e r e p l a n t i n g of indigenous tree species
in a r e a s which were once forested b u t a r e
now depleted, such a s s p a r s e b u s h l a n d
a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s , is called "refor-
estation". Afforestation is p l a n t i n g trees
in a r e a s which a r e devoid of trees, such as
desert a r e a s . Even so, m a n y of these desert
a r e a s were once forested, b u t are no longer
Figure 11.12 Trees planted close together (1 m apart) tend to be tall and narrow while those of
the same species planted further apart tend to become more bushy and widespread.
b e c a u s e of climatic change a n d h u m a n
intervention.
T o g e t p l a n t s e s t a b l i s h e d , some p r e p a r a -
tion a n d care should be u n d e r t a k e n . Di-
rect s e e d i n g is a cheap method of tree
planting, a n d provided the s e e d s h a v e
been pre-treated, such as pelletising the
s e e d or scarifying the seed coat, s u c c e s s
should follow.
S m a l l s e e d can be mixed with s a n d before
s p r e a d i n g . T h e l a n d owner is a d v i s e d to
initially proceed on a s m a l l scale, until a
working s y s t e m is developed and e s t a b -
lished.
122
Overgrazing a weed-infested a r e a by stock,
before planting, m a y give new s e e d l i n g s a
greater chance of survival. Generally, seed
p l a n t i n g i s more successful than tubestock
planting, a s g e r m i n a t e d s e e d s send down
long roots in search of water, w h e r e a s
roots a r e often p r u n e d (air or physical) in
tubestock pots a n d do not re-establish
quickly in the ground.
Poor weed control is p e r h a p s the g r e a t e s t
hindrance to p l a n t e s t a b l i s h m e n t .
Animals in the system
E a c h farm a n i m a l h a s its own special
r e q u i r e m e n t s and i t s own special func-
tions. L a r g e a n i m a l s such a s h o r s e s a n d
cows require l a r g e a m o u n t s of w a t e r a n d
feed, a r e difficult to control a n d pen, a r e
l e s s efficient at converting p l a n t m a t e r i a l
into a n i m a l protein a n d h a v e a low repro-
ductive potential.
A s you can i m a g i n e , m o s t s m a l l a n i m a l s ,
such a s sheep, g u i n e a p i g s a n d poultry,
a r e much the opposite.
T h e selection of the n u m b e r a n d type of
a n i m a l s t h a t a r e placed in the s y s t e m
depends on factors such a s :
• climate a n d environment condi-
tions. S o m e b r e e d s of s h e e p , for
e x a m p l e , prefer dry climates, while
others survive on poor hill s i t e s or
in fertile lowland a r e a s .
• size of property. For e x a m p l e , you
m a y only h a v e enough l a n d to carry
one cow b u t ten sheep.
• breeding habits. S o m e animate pro-
duce l a r g e litters (pigs) while oth-
ers only one or two offspring (cows,
sheep). You m a y need to a s s e s s the
potential d a m a g e t h a t could be
c a u s e d by domestic stock which
e s c a p e and become feral, including
their effects on native a n i m a l s and
p l a n t populations.
• forage a n d fodder requirements.
C h i c k e n s require a m i n i m u m of
about 2 0 0 g a day, while sheep
c o n s u m e 1 to 2 kg a n d cows u s u a l l y
g r e a t e r t h a n 5 to 6 k g .
• stocking r a t e . For e x a m p l e , only
one cow for every ten a c r e s , one
sheep an a c r e a n d so on. T h i s de-
p e n d s on the carrying capacity of
the land.
• p u r p o s e . You m i g h t choose stock
for m e a t , wool, milk or m a n u r e .
You m a y w a n t an a n i m a l to keep
the weeds down in the paddock. If
you w a n t l a n d cleared, a n d s h r u b s ,
t r e e s a n d w e e d s removed, then g e t
Pigs-
P i g s can be contained by electric
fencing, as shown in figure 11.13.
A simple electric line is all you
need. T h e p i g s will "learn" quickly
a n d t e s t the line periodically - or
p u s h one of their m a t e s into the
electric fence to s e e if it is still on!
Figure 11.13 Pigs can be contained by electric fencing.
123
• p e r s o n a l preference. S o m e people
prefer particular a n i m a l s a n d not
others. S i n c e you will be looking
after the a n i m a l s , t a k e time to con-
sider your opinion.
• h u s b a n d r y needs. A n i m a l s h a v e
particular needs. For example,
sheep may need dipping and
drenching (for lice a n d p a r a s i t i c
worms respectively), while cattle
m i g h t h a v e t o b e t r e a t e d for
mastitis, ringworm or warbles
(lumps under the skin c a u s e d by
the g r u b s of warble flies).
In p l a n n i n g for stock, m a k e s u r e y o u con-
sider both the l a n d capability a n d the sex
ratio. For e x a m p l e , one sheep per a c r e ,
one cow per ten a c r e s , one r a m for fifty
ewes a n d one rooster for 10 h e n s . S t o c k i n g
levels need to be low enough to allow p l a n t
regrowth. S o m e characteristics a n d re-
q u i r e m e n t s for p a r t i c u l a r a n i m a l s a r e
listed in the t a b l e s t h a t follow.
Stock lock-up a r e a s a r e a good way to
provide feed all y e a r round. In F i g u r e
11.14 stock a r e m a i n t a i n e d in pen A for a
few w e e k s and then moved into pen B.
T h i s set-up a n d rotation can be r e p e a t e d
all along the farm boundary (if s e r v i n g as
a windbreak as well), or wherever stock
a r e kept. Stock should only be locked up in
the fodder p e n s for a short time, then
moved on.
 Animal Size Financial Feeding habit Reproductive
commitment fecundity
Horse large large grazer low
Cow large large grazer low
Sheep medium small grazer low
Rabbits small small grazer high
Pigs medium medium scratcher high
Chickens small small scratcher high
Goat medium medium browser low

Table 11.1 Some characteristics of animals.

Animal Uses, notes M a n u r e as fertiliser Special r e q u i r e m e n t s

Horse draft a n i m a l fair shelter
Cow milk producer, poor, slow r e l e a s e consistent good quality
manure feed for milk
Sheep wool or m e a t fair shearing
Rabbits m e a t , fur very good shelter, protection from
predators
Pigs m e a t , omnivorous poor shelter
diet
Chickens eggs, meat good shelter, protection from
predators
Goat milk producer, good consistent good q u a l i t y
need strong, feed for milk
secure fencing

Table 11.2 More characteristics of selected animals.

Note: 1. A n i m a l m a n u r e for u s e as fertiliser is j u d g e d by the p e r c e n t a g e of nitrogen
a n d phosphorus.
2. G r a z e r s mow the g r a s s e s to n e a r ground level. B r o w s e r s prefer new leafy
shoots a n d b u d s of s h r u b s a n d trees. They e a t above the ground.

It is i m p o r t a n t to only allow the stock a the n u m b e r of p l a n t s and a n i m a l s in the

short s t a y in each enclosure, as p l a n t s
t h a t a r e too b a d l y eaten a n d pruned m a y
never recover.
Different t y p e s of stock can be rotated
through the s a m e a r e a , one after another.
F o r e x a m p l e , cattle could be contained
first. They will chop off higher limbs, some
of which will fall on the ground or h a n g
lower. After a week or two (depending on
pen a r e a ) they can be moved on a n d re-
placed by sheep which will browse the
broken a n d lower-hanging b r a n c h e s .
Stock m u s t b e rotated through g r a z i n g
a r e a s . P l a n t s t h a t a r e overgrazed react by
producing and secreting toxins to deter
browsers. Moving stock on also allows
trees and s h r u b s to recover a n d produce
new shoots.

124
 Figure 11.14 An example of a stock lock-up forage system.

A m o v e a b l e electric fence is u s e d in this mentioned above) a n d s h r u b s such a s tree

intensive s t r i p - g r a z i n g paddock. Fodder
species such as wattles (e.g. Acacia saligna,
A. longifolia), t a g a s a s t e (Chaemocytisus
palmensis), albizia (Albizia lophantha),
honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) a n d
l e u c a e n a ( L e u c a e n a leucocephala) a r e
grown, u s u a l l y in r o w s a b o u t five m e t r e s
a p a r t so t h a t m a c h i n e r y can be driven
between them.
An a l t e r n a t i v e s y s t e m combines fodder
with a w i n d b r e a k strip. F o d d e r t r e e s ( a s
medic (Medicago arborea) a r e p l a n t e d as
a windbreak a l o n g the length of a p a d -
dock. Stock can be directed into the fodder
strip, which i s u s u a l l y u s e d a s a n occa-
sional feeding lot, especially d u r i n g the
" a u t u m n feed g a p " , or they can forage
along the fence line at all times.
If electric or conventional fencing is too
difficult or too costly, or other factors limit
this type of s y s t e m , you can simply cut
p l a n t m a t e r i a l and feed the stock at your

Figure 11.15 Stock start at the top and are directed downhill as the paddock dries up or tree
damage is imminent.

125
will. P r u n e t r e e s at w a i s t to shoulder
height. If you let the trees get too big,
stock won't be able to reach and you'll
need a l a d d e r to prune them yourself.
C o m m e r c i a l s l a s h e r s a n d cutters are now

Figure 11.17 Coppicing of willow species pro-

duces many wands or canes which are used for
craft work or stock fodder.

available, so trimming the p l a n t s occa-

Figure 11.16 Suckering or running varieties of
poplar, wattle and bamboo can be used as a
fodder provision strategy for stock. As long as
the parent tree is not devastated or eaten, the
tree will survive even if the suckering growth
parts are eaten to the ground. Established
trees may not even need fencing.
sionally by machine m a y be practical, if
you can hire or find a contractor. T r e e
cutters a r e expensive to buy, but for l a r g e
f a r m s , h a v i n g your own machine m a y be
necessary.
M a n y trees can be coppiced. T h i s m e a n s
that you can cut the tree at s t u m p height
a n d it will re-grow. T h e cut foliage can be
u s e d as fodder, building timber or fire-
wood. Poplars and willows are well-known
coppicing trees.

My notes

Things I need to find out

126
12 Permaculture in schools
Schools a r e a special situation in p e r m a -
culture d e s i g n . No-one lives there, stu-
dents grow up a n d leave each year, there
is no p e r m a n e n t ownership of the g a r d e n
a r e a , no-one looks after it all of the time,
and much of w h a t we put in m a y be
cosmetic a n d for demonstration.
However, w h a t better place is there to
become p a r t n e r s with n a t u r e a n d to learn
about the water cycle, nutrient cycles,
e a r t h w o r m s , food chains, soil a n d foods
than a school g a r d e n ? T e a c h e r s do not
h a v e to t a k e c l a s s e s long d i s t a n c e s to
observe n a t u r e . They can create g a r d e n s
a n d b u s h or mini-forest a r e a s right at the
school.
G a r d e n i n g allows t e a c h e r s to instil a love
for n a t u r e a n d for the land, a n d if stu-
dents feel intimately involved with na-
ture, their concern for environmental prob-
l e m s will be long-lasting. S o m e of the
positive outcomes from building g a r d e n s
a r e the s e n s e of pride a n d accomplish-
m e n t in m e e t i n g s u c c e s s , a n d feelings of
self-worth as t h i n g s s t a r t to grow a n d
c h a n g e occurs.
E v e n so, it is difficult to grow h e a p s of
v e g e t a b l e s b e c a u s e other s t u d e n t s , van-
d a l s a n d community m e m b e r s m a y r a i d
the g a r d e n a n d destroy or steal things.
C h i c k e n s can d i s a p p e a r after a weekend,
ponds m a y be s p i k e d a n d then leak, a n d
p l a n t s a r e uprooted and thrown about the
place. T h i s doesn't h a p p e n all of the time
or at all schools. B u t it does occasionally
h a p p e n a n d t e a c h e r s and d e s i g n e r s need
to be a w a r e of this. In other words, schools
h a v e different n e e d s t h a t m u s t be consid-
ered in the design process.
A needs analysis
In working with children a n d schools, as
with any p e r m a c u l t u r e client, you need to
determine:
• the n e e d s a n d w a n t s of the chil-
dren, t e a c h e r s a n d the school.
127
• what the b u d g e t is (how much can
they spend).
• how much time and energy is avail-
able to implement, m a i n t a i n a n d
develop the g a r d e n a r e a .
• what resources a r e a v a i l a b l e - b o t h
on site and in the local commu-
nity.
• the potential site - its limitations,
existing s t r u c t u r e s a n d positive
qualities.
T h e b i g g e s t stumbling block for the devel-
opment of school grounds is money. U s u -
ally the school administration a n d staff
a r e on-side b u t lack of resources often
d a m p e n s the e n t h u s i a s m . M a t e r i a l s can
be obtained from a variety of sources, such
as donations from the local n u r s e r i e s a n d
l a n d s c a p e suppliers, but often you h a v e to
b e g students, p a r e n t s a n d staff for p l a n t s ,
pond m a t e r i a l s a n d other donations. Ac-
c e s s i n g resources a n d m a t e r i a l s is an on-
going project, a n d this needs to be consid-
ered in the initial designing s t a g e s .
To determine the needs of a school, the
budget and level of support in the commu-
nity, you really need to d i s c u s s your i d e a s
with a wide number of people, some of
whom will include the teachers who want
to u s e the a r e a , school principal, other
school staff, the gardener, and m e m b e r s
of the school council and/or the p a r e n t s
a n d citizens (or p a r e n t s a n d friends) a s s o -
ciation.
Determining resources
T h e resources a v a i l a b l e should b e a s -
s e s s e d . Does the school d u m p its lawn
clippings or a r e they composted on site? Is
there money for p l a n t s , mulch a n d com-
post? How much land is a v a i l a b l e ? Is a
source of water and irrigation n e a r the
proposed a r e a ? Ask yourself these types of
questions.
R e s o u r c e s can t a k e the form of people,
m a t e r i a l s , money a n d energy. M a t e r i a l
r e s o u r c e s can be a s s e s s e d , for e x a m p l e , by
g e t t i n g s t u d e n t s to conduct s u r v e y s which
determine the a m o u n t of building sup-
plies, n e w s p a p e r s , carpet or underfelt,
tyres, sleepers and bricks which the school
can obtain from the local community -
either by way of donation or, at least, at
reduced cost.
S e c u r i n g "people resources" should be a
high priority. S t a f f training and profes-
sional development a r e crucial to the suc-
c e s s of a school g a r d e n a r e a .
Individual teachers don't h a v e time to
spend m a i n t a i n i n g the g a r d e n , so this
responsibility should be shared.
It is b e s t if all staff could have some
t r a i n i n g in permaculture, b u t this m a y
not be possible. At the very least, the
school should m a k e a financial and sup-
portive commitment to m a k e sure several
staff h a v e an active interest in the garden.
H a v i n g a school g a r d e n e r who is s y m p a -
thetic to p e r m a c u l t u r e i d e a s is an added
bonus for any school. However, schools
which do not h a v e a regular gardener, or
which rely on community or p a r e n t sup-
port to m a i n t a i n the school l a w n s and
g a r d e n a r e a s , should not be seen as disad-
vantaged.
T h e r e a r e m a n y p a r e n t s and community
m e m b e r s , not directly associated with a
particular school, who j u m p at a chance to
put in g a r d e n s and gain practical experi-
ence after they h a v e done a permaculture
course. S o m e of these m a y be working
t o w a r d s their Permaculture Diploma and
a r e m o r e than willing to devote some
regular time and energy to the school
grounds.
Guidelines for designing school
grounds
Involve children as much as you can. Teach
them about design. Get them to m e a s u r e
the a r e a and do scale drawings.
Show them how to build sheet mulch
g a r d e n b e d s , v i s i t e s t a b l i s h e d local
p e r m a c u l t u r e properties and d i s c u s s the
128
main principles and concepts of p e r m a -
culture. Many students will begin to un-
d e r s t a n d the i d e a s after they can visual-
ise what they can do at their school. S t u -
dents learn by seeing and then doing.
It m a y not be possible for the s t u d e n t s to
come up with a fully-functioning design,
but unless they h a v e some ownership,
along with the teacher, of the plan, the
future success of the g a r d e n a r e a is not
g u a r a n t e e d . Children get excited and will-
ing to work when they know t h a t what
they a r e doing is something they h a v e
contributed to. You m a y be s u r p r i s e d at
the number of really good (and innova-
tive) suggestions they m a k e about the
garden and site development. L e a d them
gently through the process.
Your role, as a designer, is to oversee the
development and offer expertise and help.
It should not be your job to draw the
design without input from the "users".
K e e p i n g this in mind, here a r e some u s e -
ful guidelines when considering building
g a r d e n s in schools:
• consider the a g e s of the children.
S m a l l a r e a s are g r e a t for s m a l l
children, not so good for teen-
a g e r s . Garden beds m a y h a v e to be
smaller than u s u a l so t h a t chil-
dren can access all a r e a s easily.
• children like their own g a r d e n
beds. Groups of two or three work
well together and can easily build,
p l a n t and look after their beds.
Individuals should be allowed to
develop their own garden if they
a s k , but encourage group co-op-
eration. Remember that we a r e
trying to teach life skills and com-
munity v a l u e s , a s well a s garden-
ing.
• sometimes different c l a s s e s w a n t
a p a r t of the g a r d e n . It m a y be
better to consider building small
garden a r e a s nearby each c l a s s -
room, rather than one larger a r e a
a w a y from the school. S m a l l e r
Figure 12.1 Small, easy-to-build and maintain garden beds should be developed by different
groups of students.
g a r d e n s , solely the responsibility
of one c l a s s and one teacher, are
more intimate for the children.
Alternatively, allocate different
a r e a s in the larger garden for those
c l a s s e s and teachers that do want
their own space.
• will other groups of people, be-
sides those directly building and
maintaining the garden, be u s i n g
the a r e a ? How can you u s e other
teachers and their c l a s s e s in the
g a r d e n ? Can you a s k the a r t de-
p a r t m e n t to g e t their students to
design and m a k e clay-fired bird-
b a t h s ? Do they want to display
some of their sculptures in the
g a r d e n ? Will m a n u a l a r t s help
build the s e a t s you want to put in
the a r e a ? Do any science teachers
want to set up and stock a pond? If
you involve everyone, then every-
one will own the garden.
• will the produce from the garden
be sold, taken home or given away?
Is the school canteen willing to
buy foodstuffs from the students?
What kinds of foods would the
canteen want? Gardening gives a
129
d i r e c t connection to our food
source. Many students initially fail
to see the connection of what they
are growing to the food they eat at
home.
• some garden beds could contain
plants for propagation work. These
stock garden beds m a y be small
b e d s of particular herbs t h a t are
u s e d for cuttings a n d grafting
work. B e d s could have different
themes. For example, one bed for
culinary herbs, another for me-
dicinal herbs and another for p e s t
repellent herbs. All students could
then take small pieces of these
plants from the stock beds for their
own u s e .
• outside activities should be organ-
ised and related to the curricu-
lum. Many educational objectives
and outcomes can be covered by
simple, fun-to-do activities in your
new outside classroom.
• other types of activities lend them-
selves to schools. For example,
nesting boxes for birds, p o s s u m s
and b a t s could be studied by sci-
ence students. Place one or two
Figure 12.2 Bird boxes and bird baths in the school grounds are useful teaching aids.
bird b a t h s and/or feeding t r a y s in
the g a r d e n - you'll be s u r p r i s e d
w h a t y o u will a t t r a c t . B u i l d a
w e a t h e r station t h a t h o l d s equip-
m e n t which m e a s u r e s daily tem-
perature and barometer changes,
humidity, rainfall and wind direc-
tion a n d speed.
• an energy a u d i t of the school build-
i n g s would provide information
about electricity consumption a n d
w a s t e in the classrooms. T h i s could
l e a d to the development of an en-
ergy m a n a g e m e n t policy and a
desire to reduce school operational
costs.
At all t i m e s we a r e trying to teach
y o u n g people a b o u t the six R ' s -
reduce, refuse, r e u s e , recycle, re-
p a i r a n d rethink.
• as schools move more into envi-
ronmental education other school-
directed activities follow. For ex-
a m p l e , the school m a y become the
recycling centre for the local com-
munity.
G l a s s , p a p e r , m e t a l s a n d plastic
130
a r e b r o u g h t in by s t u d e n t s or their
p a r e n t s , m a y b e once a w e e k .
Money r a i s e d from this v e n t u r e is
invested back into the school to
provide e q u i p m e n t and teaching
resources.
• in some c i r c u m s t a n c e s the school
g a r d e n could become the commu-
nity g a r d e n . P a r e n t s a n d commu-
nity m e m b e r s could help s t u d e n t s
with g a r d e n development and/or
be r e s p o n s i b l e for a r e a s them-
s e l v e s . They m a y grow t h i n g s to
t a k e home or for u s e by the school.
T h e r e is a g e n e r a l push by govern-
m e n t s a n d education a u t h o r i t i e s
to better u s e schools as this valu-
able resource is under-utilised at
present.
C o m m u n i t y g a r d e n s a r e one way
to e n s u r e a win-win situation. It
also helps alleviate some of the
potential v a n d a l p r o b l e m s men-
tioned earlier.
One of the p l e a s i n g outcomes is t h a t stu-
dents s t a r t to teach their p a r e n t s . Chil-
dren soon build ponds a n d g a r d e n s at
 Figure 12.3 Bush tucker and bush medicine plants make useful additions to any garden.
home, p l a n t v e g e t a b l e s and develop sim-
ple earthworm f a r m s and compost h e a p s
after they see how easily it is done at
school. T h e skills t h a t children learn help
build their self-esteem as they realise
that they h a v e the ability to grow things
and that they h a v e a role to play as p a r t of
a co-operative t e a m - a role that they learn
at school which they continue to develop
throughout their life as p a r t of the local
community.
P r a c t i c a l design considera-
tions
T h e development of the school grounds
should be within the p a r a m e t e r s of the
school plan or the vision for the future
direction of the school. For e x a m p l e , if the
school w a n t s to conserve water a n d plant
a native garden, then consider native bush
tucker and b u s h medicine plants. M a n y
schools already h a v e a m a s t e r grounds
p l a n . A permaculture design of one par-
ticular a r e a needs to complement any
existing school p l a n s .
If n a t u r a l b u s h l a n d or woodland is on the
school site, develop a strategy to replant,
m a i n t a i n a n d protect this area. P a r t of
your design for the school should a d d r e s s
131
this i s s u e . You m a y be able to develop a
walk or nature trail, register the b u s h l a n d
as a heritage v a l u e a r e a , or seek s t a t e or
local government a s s i s t a n c e to help pre-
serve the a r e a from overuse.
T h e number of activities, g a r d e n i d e a s
and design strategies a r e endless. Teach-
ers and students will be able to experi-
ment and see what works b e s t for them
and their school environment and situa-
tion. However, here a r e a few i d e a s a n d
practical considerations that have worked
well in schools:
• where will tools such as shovels,
pitch forks, h a n d trowels, gloves
and wheel barrows be stored? What
about potting mix, p l a n t pots,
watering c a n s and s e e d s ?
Can you put a lockable s h e d in the
design so that all of these are avail-
able on site? Worry about buying
or obtaining one later on.
• plan for open s p a c e . You h a v e to
get at l e a s t one c l a s s in the garden
a r e a at any one time. T h i s could be
up to thirty students - where are
you going to put them all?
Consider bench s e a t s and a r e a s of
 herb lawn where s t u d e n t s can sit
a n d work. Not everybody h a s to
work on the g a r d e n beds during
the lesson. S o m e will want to plan,
record, draw and think,
• m a i n p a t h w a y s h a v e to be wide. It
is not practical to h a v e the half-a-
m e t r e path t h a t you h a v e a t home
in the school g a r d e n a r e a . Plan for
a couple of s t u d e n t s walking side-
by-side or wide enough for a wheel-
barrow and s o m e leeway so acci-
dents don't h a p p e n .
A p a t h w a y about 1.2 m wide is
a m p l e for school g a r d e n s . S m a l l e r
p a t h w a y s a r e more suitable for
individual (student) g a r d e n a r e a s ,
or to lead to quiet places within
the g a r d e n .
T h e typical size of a M a n d a l a key-
hole g a r d e n is not appropriate in
s o m e schools. You either h a v e to
m a k e the p a t h s a n d k e y h o l e s
l a r g e r or consider m a k i n g a dou-
ble M a n d a l a with keyhole b e d s on
the outside as well,
• secret or quiet places are impor-
tant. Children like to hide, espe-
cially from t e a c h e r s , and secret
Figure 12.4 Two different ideas for a double Mandala which provides greater student access to
the garden beds.
132
g a r d e n a r e a s provide sanctuary.
Young children a r e quite h a p p y to
play hide and seek, older children
hide for different r e a s o n s , so teach-
ers should not m a k e secret p l a c e s
too secret or overgrown.
It is possible to include a r e a s for
s t u d e n t privacy, y e t still m a k e
these visible from the staffroom or
classroom.
s e a t i n g is essential. S i m p l e log or
•
bench s e a t s a r e more than s a t i s -
factory, b u t rock or carved s e a t s
can really look g r e a t .
Older s t u d e n t s do like to sit and
talk. Younger students a r e too busy
running around.
• plan for some g a r d e n a r e a s to be
shaded. T h i s could m e a n placing
some of the s e a t s under l a r g e t r e e s
or u s i n g s t r u c t u r e s like w a l k w a y s ,
vines and pergolas.
In hot climates, s h a d e from the
sun is a critical factor in design, as
s t u d e n t s will only u s e a n d s i t in
the garden a r e a if they feel com-
fortable.
M a n y schools h a v e policies about
 Figure 12.5 Students value a quiet place to sit and talk.

outside activities and the precau-
tions needed to be taken by stu-
dents, including wearing h a t s and
sunscreen cream, and the length
of exposure time in the sun. There
a r e g r e a t opportunities to design
a r e a s for s h a d e so that s t u d e n t s
can safely work in the garden.
• developing your own shrub and
tree n u r s e r y will help in reducing
costs of obtaining plant stock for
the garden. T h i s can be as simple
as a potting a r e a , s m a l l s h a d e -
house (covered frame) or a series
of benches in a hothouse for plant
propagation.
• compost a r e a s m a y c a u s e some
minor p r o b l e m s . F r e s h l y - m a d e
compost tends to smell, especially
when you u s e animal m a n u r e s and

Figure 12.6 A simple nursery can be set up to raise seedlings for your garden beds.

133
 Figure 12.7 Compost may smell if it is not covered up.
it is summer! If there is a likeli-
hood that odours m a y occur n e a r
c l a s s r o o m s , consider shifting the
compost a r e a to another p a r t of
the school away from buildings.
T h i s m a y not s o u n d the b e s t
s t r a t e g y from a p e r m a c u l t u r e
viewpoint, b u t you have to con-
sider the needs and comfort of
teachers and students.
O p e n , uncovered c o m p o s t a n d
m a n u r e piles could a t t r a c t flies
a n d p e s t s . It is worthwhile to build
proper s t o r a g e b a y s from wooden
sleepers or concrete s l a b s so that
these can be easily covered with
h e s s i a n , carpet or underfelt to re-
duce the smell and p e s t problem
while the compost is being m a d e .
While the end product m a y h a v e a
"nice earthy smell" the process of
decomposition produces a range of
noxious g a s e s if the ratio of plant
Figure 12.8 Ponds may need to be covered to
protect young children. Alternatively, consider
a bog garden which will not need the mesh
covering.
134
a n d animal m a t e r i a l s , water and
oxygen a r e not right.
• there are often some restrictions
on b u i l d i n g p o n d s in school
grounds. S o m e education depart-
m e n t s or authorities h a v e rules
and regulations, mainly for safety
reasons, about water a r e a s . Find
out what these are. Your pond
m a y h a v e to have a weld m e s h
cover over it, or only a certain
depth or a certain size.
Schools should be fun! Developing an out-
side classroom, where students can both
learn and enjoy, is a sensible way in which
educators can effectively teach the "cur-
riculum".
S o m e students only seem to learn by work-
ing outside in the garden or doing practi-
cal activities. Others thrive in the more
academic sphere. All students, however,
need s t i m u l a t i n g l e s s o n s to hold their
interest. What better way is there than to
go outside and observe and learn from
nature?
My notes
Things I need to find out
13 Permaculture communities
Hamlet - to be or not to be?
B e i n g isolated in the u r b a n sprawl m a y
not be the b e s t way to live. S o m e people
feel threatened by the u r b a n environment
and they will spend lots of money on
security. S u b u r b a n i t e s a r e renowned for
s t a y i n g in their h o m e s a n d not interact-
ing with the people a r o u n d them.
T h e type of h o u s i n g developments m o s t of
us live in do not encourage neighbourhood
interaction. S o m e urban developments a r e
successful, such as the general move to-
w a r d mixed-density "green street" a r e a s .
Even so, m a n y people don't even know
their neighbours' n a m e s . T h e r e is an al-
ternative - community living.
T h e s t r u c t u r e and beliefs and v a l u e s of
communities vary enormously, and one
t h a t s u i t s your lifestyle a n d n e e d s can
u s u a l l y be found. If not, consider s t a r t i n g
your own group.
V i l l a g e or community living h a s the po-
tential to reduce the g e n e r a l cost of living
for i n d i v i d u a l s a n d families. T h e r e could
be some relief from the economic burden
t h a t m a n y people carry with the u s u a l
m o r t g a g e on a h o u s e in the s u b u r b s .
T h e d r e a m of owning your own home is
really j u s t that, a d r e a m . Money lenders,
b a n k s and other financial institutions own
the security of a l m o s t everyone's home.
If you w a n t a different lifestyle, it m a y be
achieved m o r e easily if you a r e debt-free.
Village living m a y give you the opportu-
nity for this to h a p p e n , although this does
depend on m a n y other factors such as
your financial position, b e c a u s e you still
m a y need to borrow money.
It w a s n ' t t h a t long a g o that people lived in
s m a l l v i l l a g e s dotted about the country-
side. T h e s e little h a m l e t s , a s they are also
known, a m a l g a m a t e d a s h o u s e s were built
between them on m a i n r o a d s . As the popu-
lation increased, the "village" s o m e t i m e s
135
grew to become regional towns a n d finally
larger cities.
M a n y people a r e now s t a r t i n g to seriously
consider returning to the s m a l l commu-
nity living i d e a s where you know your
neighbours and life doesn't seem so hec-
tic.
T h e t e r m s community, village a n d h a m l e t
a r e generally i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e a s they
m e a n much the s a m e thing - a form of
h u m a n settlement where a group of peo-
ple deliberately live nearby to each other
for a particular purpose.
However, in this context, a "hamlet" re-
fers to a cluster or group of 20 to 50 h o u s e s
with facilities such as a hall, service s t a -
tion and general store.
A "village" m e a n s a l a r g e r grouping of
h o u s e s (several h a m l e t s ) with the addi-
tional services such as a school, post office
a n d other shops, while a "community"
often m e a n s the people, r a t h e r than the
h o u s e s , that live together in the s a m e
locality.
A community of people often s h a r e the
s a m e ideals a n d beliefs or hold s i m i l a r
ethics.
T h e s e ideals can be common religious
beliefs, ethical beliefs or some other be-
liefs a n d v a l u e s . For e x a m p l e , the term
"ecovillage" often describes a group of
people who s h a r e a concern for the envi-
ronment and who wish to live in a s u s t a i n -
able way.
T h e village infrastructure is d e s i g n e d so
that it h a s little i m p a c t on the environ-
ment, a n d the lifestyle of those living on
the site is one of "treading lightly on the
earth".
T h i s d e s c r i b e s the t r u e e s s e n c e of a
p e r m a c u l t u r e village. People with like-
m i n d s , with commonly-held beliefs or a s -
pirations, coming together to form vil-
l a g e s , need to hold similar g o a l s , or the
 Figure 13.1 The concept of zoning can be symbolically applied to human settlements.
community will s t r u g g l e to survive.
L i v i n g in a close community h a s m a n y
benefits. T h e s e include income genera-
tion on site (from a r a n g e of agricultural
a n d financial activities), g r e a t e r self-em-
ployment, l e s s reliance on vehicles, m a -
chinery a n d equipment, the ability to pool
labour (in building h o u s e s and other struc-
t u r e s ) , g r e a t e r provision of the b a s i c hu-
m a n n e e d s of food a n d shelter, reduced
household o p e r a t i n g costs, a n d on-site
energy a n d electricity generation (thus
l e s s need to rely on s t a t e or private com-
p a n y services). In s u m m a r y , the a i m s of
any eco-village should be to:
• develop e n t e r p r i s e s so t h a t resi-
d e n t s can earn a living on the site.
T h i s r e d u c e s t r a n s p o r t costs and
provides income and material
goods for m a n y r e s i d e n t s .
• provide the b a s i c life e s s e n t i a l s of
shelter, food a n d energy for each
resident. T h i s m a y m e a n t h a t some
r e s i d e n t s e a r n income from grow-
136
i n g food for o t h e r s , g e n e r a t i n g
power for the community, or build-
ing h o u s e s a n d other s t r u c t u r e s
for individuals.
• provide services, such as educa-
tion, and recreational facilities.
If more of these communities were
s e t up then the incidence of social
problems might d e c r e a s e .
T h i s , is turn, could m e a n h u g e s a v -
i n g s in welfare a n d m a y reduce the
need for counselling services a n d
other g o v e r n m e n t a n d private
agencies.
Ecovillages a r e m e a n t to only contain a
s m a l l number of people. One h u n d r e d
households, with a total population be-
tween two hundred to five hundred, would
probably be the ideal.
A t this number, L E T S t r a d i n g can b e
effective, a n d several people can work the
land and derive income from b u s i n e s s e s
a n d activities on the property.
It is i m p o r t a n t to at l e a s t know each
 Figure .1.3.2 An example of income producing enterprises in a community.
other's n a m e s and be able to hold a con-
v e r s a t i o n with another community m e m -
ber.
It is also p o s s i b l e to s e t up a school where
funding from the regional or s t a t e educa-
tion authority will often p a y for a teach-
er's s a l a r y .
T h e r e a r e also enough people to m a i n t a i n
a n d develop the common a r e a s a n d any
r e s e r v e s s e t a s i d e by the community.
M o s t communities a r o u n d the world a r e
u s u a l l y s m a l l , with p e r h a p s l e s s than one
h u n d r e d people being the m o s t common
population size.
I t h a s been e s t i m a t e d t h a t b y the y e a r
2 0 3 0 two-thirds of the world's population
will live in major cities.
F i n a l l y , ecovillages should link into other
s i m i l a r s e t t l e m e n t s in the bioregion, so
t h a t the u n n e c e s s a r y duplication of serv-
ices is reduced, a n d t r a d e a n d support can
b e encouraged.
A variation to community life is the co-
137
h o u s i n g v i l l a g e s set up in E u r o p e (origi-
nally D e n m a r k ) in the late 1970's. Here, a
group of individual family h o m e s a r e built
s u r r o u n d i n g a central, common h o u s e so
t h a t facilities can be s h a r e d .
In this way, i n d i v i d u a l s retain their pri-
vacy by living in their own units, b u t can
participate in community life by h a v i n g
m e a l s a n d activities together. T h e central
house might contain l a u n d r y a n d full
kitchen facilities, m a k i n g t h e s e obsolete
in every home or unit a n d t h u s reducing
overall building costs. S o m e of the differ-
ent w a y s t h a t communities can be s e t up
are d i s c u s s e d in the p a g e s t h a t follow.
D e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s for
ecovillages
Bylaws and regulations
T h e development of v i l l a g e s n e e d s consid-
erable research a n d thought. E a c h s t a t e ,
county or country h a s rules a n d r e g u l a -
tions about the type of h o u s i n g develop-
m e n t s they will approve.
 Guidelines for land development
H e r e is a short checklist of the types of
considerations a n d i s s u e s that h a v e to
be a d d r e s s e d when communities a r e
d e s i g n e d or built.
• will development enhance the
quality of life for those who live
a n d work on the property?
• will biodiversity, existing vege-
tation cover and soil a n d water
quality be protected or enhanced?
• a r e w a t e r c o u r s e s being changed
or new w a t e r w a y s and water-
bodies developed? Will these wa-
tercourses a n d the surrounding
c a t c h m e n t a r e a b e protected?
Will recharge a r e a s be protected
a n d rehabilitated?
• how a r e w a s t e s b e i n g t r e a t e d ?
Will the soil be contaminated by
the possible unintentional dump-
ing of household rubbish?
• will the proposed land u s e prac-
tices be s u s t a i n a b l e ? Will the
environment benefit from activi-
ties u n d e r t a k e n on the l a n d ?
• will the community development
be compatible with the general
character a n d l a n d u s e of adjoin-
ing properties?
You need to be a w a r e of t h e s e regulations
well before you s t a r t looking for land or a
group to s h a r e it with.
F u r t h e r m o r e , the development of any
ecovillage n e e d s to fit into the existing or
proposed p l a n s for the bioregion.
Local, s t a t e or federal government a u -
thorities can be contacted for information
a b o u t the restrictions a n d conditions for
site development such a s :
• r o a d t y p e s needed - wide, narrow,
gravel, brick-paved or bitumen.
E a c h o f t h e s e h a s a d v a n t a g e s , dis-
a d v a n t a g e s , different costs a n d
138
• will the aesthetic qualities of the
p r o p e r t y be r e t a i n e d , or can
visual improvements be m a d e ?
• what will be the i m p a c t s of pro-
viding services such as water,
power and telephone on the land?
• is there provision for m i n i m i s i n g
the i m p a c t of feral a n i m a l s , fire,
drought, flood, hail a n d other
n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r s on the prop-
erty?
• a r e resources well-managed so
that they a r e not quickly de-
pleted?
• does l a n d u s e provide a r a n g e of
opportunities for h u m a n enter-
prises?
• will development enhance a n d
complement local l a n d care ini-
tiatives?
• h a s there been observation a n d
consideration of the natural
d r a i n a g e and flow of water on
the property?
• will the development foster com-
munity a w a r e n e s s a n d educa-
tion?
• is there potential for rehabilita-
tion of wildlife corridors?
particular applications for a c c e s s
requirements.
• power, telephone and w a t e r serv-
ices layout - u n d e r g r o u n d or over-
head. Overhead power supply is
cheaper to install, but underground
is more aesthetically p l e a s i n g a n d
safer in a r e a s t h a t h a v e frequent
s t o r m s and high winds.
• n u m b e r of dwellings p e r m i t t e d .
T h i s m a y depend on the zoning of
the land.
• n a t u r e of the titles - multiple occu-
pancy, s t r a t a title or other. S o m e
 a r r a n g e m e n t s permit individuals
to own their own l a n d within the
site, while other set-ups h a v e the
community owning all of the titles
and individuals l e a s i n g their h o u s e
area.
T h e r e a r e m a n y other combina-
tions of conditions, each h a v i n g
p a r t i c u l a r rules a n d regulations.
• s e w a g e a n d w a s t e disposal options.
T h i s is of i n c r e a s i n g concern to
local authorities, as they a n d the
general public a r e a w a r e of the
potential pollution p r o b l e m s to un-
derground a n d surface w a t e r s u p -
plies.
• d r a i n a g e , earth works, restrictions
on d a m s a n d w a t e r w a y s . For ex-
a m p l e , you m a y h a v e to obtain
p u m p i n g r i g h t s to t a k e water from
e x i s t i n g creeks and rivers, or you
m a y not be able to clear some a r e a s
of the site for o r c h a r d s or a h o u s e
site without written approval.
F i n d i n g the right piece of land for you
does present problems. S o m e a r e grounded
i n l e g a l constraints, a s w e h a v e j u s t seen,
a n d others a r e related to availability, cost,
size a n d the specific f e a t u r e s you desire,
such a s a s p e c t , sun-facing slopes, a n d
a b u n d a n c e a n d quality of water.
T h e r e a r e m a n y w a y s in which land for
v i l l a g e s becomes a v a i l a b l e a n d here a r e a
few:
• a property owner w a n t s to better
use land he or she already has.
M a y b e a f a r m e r w a n t s to develop
an ecological village on one hun-
dred or m o r e a c r e s (40 h a ) of land
on p a r t of the property.
• a group who h a v e common inter-
e s t s s e a r c h for a n d buy a block of
l a n d s u i t a b l e for their needs.
• a person h a s a property and invites
others to buy a s h a r e so t h a t they
can jointly develop it.
Which p a t h you travel down d e p e n d s on
139
your c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d the s i t u a t i o n s
that a r i s e . S h a r i n g t h a t journey with oth-
ers reduces the burden a n d is generally
more r e w a r d i n g a n d fruitful.
Looking at options
L i k e any p e r m a c u l t u r e design, the forma-
tion of ecovillages involves a series of
s t a g e s such a s r e s e a r c h a n d collating in-
formation about the site, the design of the
infrastructure on the l a n d s c a p e , a n d de-
veloping guidelines for the i m p l e m e n t a -
tion a n d m a n a g e m e n t p h a s e s .
T h e actual design of the community a l s o
develops in a series of s t a g e s - generally in
the order of:
• water h a r v e s t i n g .
• r o a d s a n d services.
• dwellings a n d outbuildings.
• primary producing a r e a s , such as
orchards, n u r s e r y a n d livestock.
• r e s e r v e s a n d c o m m u n a l land, in-
cluding forested a r e a s , w a l k w a y s ,
trails a n d recreation (such as ovals).
Ecovillages need to h a v e s t r u c t u r e s a n d
p l a n s to m a x i m i s e water s t o r a g e , set a s i d e
l a n d for housing, o r c h a r d s a n d g a r d e n
a r e a s , n a t u r a l forest a n d crop a r e a s , a n d
sites for community shops, school, hall
and roadways.
E l e m e n t s , such a s those j u s t listed, placed
in the design need to be connected, rather
than isolated objects on their own.
H u m a n s need to be connected too, a n d
h u m a n settlements and communities a r e
an integral p a r t of the p e r m a c u l t u r e life-
style.
T h e development of particular infrastruc-
ture such as earthworks, b u i l d i n g s , r o a d s
a n d installation of services n e e d s to be
funded.
Potential b u y e r s or r e s i d e n t s of the vil-
l a g e m a y need to provide money for site
development, which can be placed in a
trust a n d u s e d a s v a r i o u s s t a g e s occur.
Either the group pools their r e s o u r c e s a n d
funds in this way, or a l a n d developer
provides the financial outlay a n d he/she
t a k e s their p e r c e n t a g e a n d costs from the
s a l e of titles. T h e developer m a y either
h a v e the n e c e s s a r y funds or they will
r a i s e the capital from potential investors
or through l o a n s .
T h e costs for some s t a g e s m a y be paid by
m e a n s other t h a n money. C o n t r a c t o r s for
e a r t h w o r k s , r o a d construction or other
major service s u p p l i e s m a y choose to t a k e
equity in the property, as one or more
h o u s e s i t e s , r a t h e r than cash. They m a y
choose to become r e s i d e n t s t h e m s e l v e s or
sell the h o u s e site/s at s o m e later d a t e -
provided t h a t this is legal in your s t a t e or
country.
N o t all v i l l a g e s need to be located on
v a c a n t or r u r a l land. Ecovillages can be
s e t up in a city by utilising adjoining
h o u s e s in a block, or the flats or units of a
h o u s i n g complex.
A community really focuses on the h u m a n
component, r a t h e r than the structural
a n d physical components.
Any village development on rural land,
however, generally h a s the g r e a t e s t start-
up costs. It is better for a group of people
who w a n t to form a village to look for land
Figure 13.3 On-site waste disposal can be achieved for a community.
140
alongside an existing village or where
essential services a r e already establish ed.
It is especially i m p o r t a n t that a b u n d a n t ,
clean water is a v a i l a b l e and t h a t enough
water can be h a r v e s t e d , stored and recy-
cled on the site.
F u r t h e r m o r e , if energy generation is to be
considered, then s u p p l i e s of wood or high
p r e s s u r e water m a y b e important. T h e
site m i g h t lend itself to solar a n d wind
harvesting, as alternative or a p p r o p r i a t e
energies such as these h a v e l e s s i m p a c t on
the environment. S o m e of the criteria
t h a t you could consider when p u r c h a s i n g
a block or looking for a site were d i s c u s s e d
in C h a p t e r 7.
On-site w a s t e disposal is an i m p o r t a n t
consideration. Dry composting toilets for
each household m i n i m i s e water u s e . All
greywater can be treated at each h o u s e
site or, where appropriate, at one or more
central treatment plants. These could com-
p r i s e a series of settling t a n k s or ponds
a n d reed b e d s - in either ponds or subsur-
face flow.
T h e community should t a k e responsibil-
ity for its own w a s t e s a n d recycle or t r e a t
these as much as possible. We h a v e to
 Figure 13.4 Larger villages might have a central hall, shops and workshops.
change the belief t h a t the E a r t h h a s an
e n d l e s s capacity to a b s o r b h u m a n w a s t e s .
A village m a y refer to h o u s e s in a particu-
lar a r e a , b u t it also contains the village
centre where workshops, the school, stores,
hall and other buildings a r e found. In
particular, a community hall with meet-
i n g rooms and a kitchen is e s s e n t i a l .
T h i s m a y be u s e d as a school; the commu-
nity library; to run workshops a n d courses;
g e n e r a l m e e t i n g s of community m e m b e r s ;
the co-ordinating centre in c a s e s of emer-
gency, such as t h r e a t s of fire; and for
b u s i n e s s operations, such as a coffee shop,
fruit a n d vegetable co-op or a community
deli.
L a r g e r communities m a y want to build a
l a r g e workshop where vehicle r e p a i r s ,
welding a n d wood t u r n i n g can be carried
out. T h e village design should advocate
the m i n i m a l u s e of c a r s by designing for
people a n d not m a c h i n e s .
R o a d s should be narrow or curved (even
i n s t a l l i n g speed h u m p s a t the main road
entry) to reduce the speed of traffic, and
w a l k w a y s a n d narrow pedestrian streets
can be built.
S o m e vehicles a r e a necessity these d a y s .
C o n s i d e r a bulk fuel supply for r e s i d e n t s
by h a v i n g a community petrol bowser or
petrol stored in t a n k s or d r u m s at a cen-
tral depot. T h i s can m e a n s a v i n g s to resi-
dents.
141
However, you u s u a l l y h a v e to obtain per-
mission for fuel depots such as t h e s e from
local and s t a t e authorities. F i n d out a b o u t
the rules and regulations before you s t a r t
planning.
A full range of tools such as lathes, posthole
digger, chipper or mulcher, electric s a w s
and so on, can be loaned to m e m b e r s
through the community L E T S s y s t e m .
T h e community m a y also own a r a n g e of
vehicles such as a backhoe, a front-end-
loader ( F E L ) tractor with i m p l e m e n t s a n d
a t t a c h m e n t s for soil conditioning, a n d a
truck or van for carting large objects a n d
goods. A bobcat is not needed as the slower
backhoe a n d F E L tractor will do the s a m e
job.
T h e site design for the community, the
implementation schedule and m a n a g e -
ment plan should be m a d e a v a i l a b l e to all
residents.
T h e r e m a y also be legal r e q u i r e m e n t s for
certain m a n a g e m e n t statements a n d prop-
erty p l a n s to be p r e p a r e d .
In particular, the t r u s t e e s of the l a n d
t r u s t need to set up monitoring a n d re-
porting s t r a t e g i e s on the development of
the site a s time p a s s e s .
C h a n g e s to the design, a n d other initia-
tives, should be recorded so t h a t future
monitoring and m a n a g e m e n t can be effec-
tive.
E x i s t i n g r e s i d e n t s and intending b u y e r s
should be informed of any c h a n g e s to the
design a n d , wherever possible, actively
involved in the review process.
Housing structures
A r a n g e of different types of dwellings is
a p p r o p r i a t e for villages. M o s t would be
individual family h o m e s , b u t the commu-
nity m a y wish to h a v e single or double
bedroom units for temporary accommoda-
tion for visitors or workers (either con-
tractors or employees). T h e s e units could
a l s o be u s e d for emergency accommoda-
tion in t i m e s of family crisis.
Furthermore, elderly people m a y prefer
small units, so a selection of h o u s i n g types
m a y be required to meet all of the needs of
future residents.
T h e actual style of the house and its build-
ing m a t e r i a l s should be left up to the
individual.
However, it would be hoped t h a t a com-
munity would insist that all h o u s e s h a v e
solar a c c e s s , screens for privacy, and be
able to utilise gravity for water m o v e m e n t
- from greywater, roof run-off and so on,
down towards g a r d e n a r e a s or s t o r a g e
tanks.

Figure 13.5 Many building materials can be used for house construction.

142
 Figure 13.4 Larger villages might have a central hall, shops and workshops.
change the belief t h a t the E a r t h h a s an
e n d l e s s capacity to a b s o r b h u m a n w a s t e s .
A village m a y refer to h o u s e s in a particu-
lar a r e a , b u t it also contains the village
centre where workshops, the school, stores,
hall and other buildings a r e found. In
particular, a community hall with meet-
i n g rooms and a kitchen is e s s e n t i a l .
T h i s m a y be u s e d as a school; the commu-
nity library; to run workshops a n d courses;
g e n e r a l m e e t i n g s of community m e m b e r s ;
the co-ordinating centre in c a s e s of emer-
gency, such as t h r e a t s of fire; and for
b u s i n e s s operations, such as a coffee shop,
fruit a n d vegetable co-op or a community
deli.
L a r g e r communities m a y want to build a
l a r g e workshop where vehicle r e p a i r s ,
welding a n d wood t u r n i n g can be carried
out. T h e village design should advocate
the m i n i m a l u s e of c a r s by designing for
people a n d not m a c h i n e s .
R o a d s should be narrow or curved (even
i n s t a l l i n g speed h u m p s a t the main road
entry) to reduce the speed of traffic, and
w a l k w a y s a n d narrow pedestrian streets
can be built.
S o m e vehicles a r e a necessity these d a y s .
C o n s i d e r a bulk fuel supply for r e s i d e n t s
by h a v i n g a community petrol bowser or
petrol stored in t a n k s or d r u m s at a cen-
tral depot. T h i s can m e a n s a v i n g s to resi-
dents.
141
However, you u s u a l l y h a v e to obtain per-
mission for fuel depots such as t h e s e from
local and s t a t e authorities. F i n d out a b o u t
the rules and regulations before you s t a r t
planning.
A full range of tools such as lathes, posthole
digger, chipper or mulcher, electric s a w s
and so on, can be loaned to m e m b e r s
through the community L E T S s y s t e m .
T h e community m a y also own a r a n g e of
vehicles such as a backhoe, a front-end-
loader ( F E L ) tractor with i m p l e m e n t s a n d
a t t a c h m e n t s for soil conditioning, a n d a
truck or van for carting large objects a n d
goods. A bobcat is not needed as the slower
backhoe a n d F E L tractor will do the s a m e
job.
T h e site design for the community, the
implementation schedule and m a n a g e -
ment plan should be m a d e a v a i l a b l e to all
residents.
T h e r e m a y also be legal r e q u i r e m e n t s for
certain m a n a g e m e n t statements a n d prop-
erty p l a n s to be p r e p a r e d .
In particular, the t r u s t e e s of the l a n d
t r u s t need to set up monitoring a n d re-
porting s t r a t e g i e s on the development of
the site a s time p a s s e s .
C h a n g e s to the design, a n d other initia-
tives, should be recorded so t h a t future
monitoring and m a n a g e m e n t can be effec-
tive.
Ideally, all h o u s e s i t e s are placed in prac-
tical, w a r m e r a r e a s of the hillside. If a
client w a n t s a view, they can walk up the
hill to an observation p o s t where they can
sit a n d view the s u r r o u n d i n g countryside
a t their leisure.
B u i l d i n g h o u s e s in the t h e r m a l belt on a
hillside m a k e s s e n s e . All services can be
s u p p l i e d along one m a i n r o a d on the con-
tour as it curves a r o u n d the hills.
T h i s is a single service s y s t e m - power,
water, g a s , telephone line a n d a c c e s s road
all a l o n g the s a m e p a t h , as shown in
Figure 13.8 Clusters of houses (an enclave) is
a good design strategy. There is a balance
between privacy and community living and
social interaction.
Figure 13.9 Design for people. Here, houses
are grouped around a common area, with cycle
paths and walkways to link small hamlets.
The access road is positioned at the back of the
houses.
144
F i g u r e 13.6.
E a r t h w o r k s and contractors' fees will be
m i n i m i s e d if the j o b is e a s y and simple to
do, a n d can be done in a short time.
T h e a r r a n g e m e n t of h o u s e s v a r i e s from
community to community. S m a l l clusters
of about half-a-dozen h o u s e s (an enclave)
is a good h u m a n settlement strategy, as
there is s o m e privacy as well as allowing
for social interaction.
You can even h a v e clusters a s t h e m e s ,
such a s a r t and craft, p l a n t s a n d p r o p a g a -
tion or wilderness conservation. People
can then choose which group h a s similar
interests to t h e m s e l v e s a n d live in t h a t
area.
Figure 13.10 Another alternative is to have
houses around a central access road.
Social and legal structures of
human settlements
E a r l y in the formative s t a g e , prior to any
development of the village, v a r i o u s a i m s ,
objectives a n d general s t a t e m e n t s about
the ethics of the group should be devel-
oped.
T h i s mission or ethic s t a t e m e n t should be
a broad, realistic goal t h a t u s u a l l y does
not promote a particular belief s y s t e m and
which is universally accepted by all mem-
b e r s of the community.
Often, the s t a t e m e n t reflects a steward-
ship focus, such as "care of the Earth".
Obviously, religious g r o u p s will w a n t to
specify the beliefs a n d v a l u e s they wish
all m e m b e r s to uphold, a n d this becomes
their creed.
T h e ethics s t a t e m e n t influences the direc-
tion t a k e n in the development of any
financial, legal a n d physical s t r u c t u r e s in
human settlements.
S e v e r a l t r u s t s m a y n e e d to be s e t up to
a d m i n i s t e r t h e s e a s p e c t s of the commu-
nity. For e x a m p l e , one t r u s t m a y be needed
for the s a l e of l a n d a n d the general m a n -
a g e m e n t of common land, including the
future development of community build-
ings.
T h i s would be a l a n d t r u s t t h a t is s h a r e d
equally by all m e m b e r s of the community
or is u s e d by p a r t i c u l a r r e s i d e n t s for some
purpose.
L e g a l s t r u c t u r e s a r e needed so t h a t com-
mon l a n d held by a t r u s t is m a n a g e d by a
c o m p a n y ( a s t r u s t e e ) with v a r i o u s elected
r e s i d e n t s a s company directors.
T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t will then allow resi-
d e n t s to be able to l e a s e p a r c e l s of l a n d for
s o m e s m a l l s u m of money or u n d e r t a k e its
u s e with an agreed-to a r r a n g e m e n t .
F o r e x a m p l e , it m i g h t be a g r e e d t h a t ten
percent of profits from an enterprise be
r e t u r n e d to the community as community
funds.
Figure 13.11 Some aspects of community life.
145
A second t r u s t could h a n d l e all b u s i n e s s
t r a d i n g operations. T h e b u s i n e s s , money-
e a r n i n g activities from land u s e a n d other
community enterprises should be m a n -
a g e d by a trustee for this type of trust.
T h i s t r u s t n e e d s continual income for the
m a i n t e n a n c e of r o a d s , fences, w a t e r s u p -
ply and other services, as well as capital
expenditure for machinery a n d equipment.
It can g e n e r a t e income from the l e a s e or
hire of equipment, tools or land, or s e t
a n n u a l c h a r g e s ( a s a m a i n t e n a n c e fee)
t h a t all households pay.
You can find out a b o u t t r u s t s a n d how
they operate from a c c o u n t a n t s a n d law-
y e r s . T h e s e people will complete a n d s u b -
m i t the n e c e s s a r y p a p e r w o r k to register a
t r u s t a n d t r u s t e e companies.
T r u s t s d o h a v e some r u l e s , such a s a n
annual meeting of trustees, but these are
minimal and not overbearing.
It is possible for l a r g e communities to
g e n e r a t e j o b s for m a n y v i l l a g e r s on the
site - r a n g i n g from firewood collection to
s u p p l i e s of fruit a n d v e g e t a b l e s a n d m e a t ,
milk and milk products, h e r b s , n u r s e r y
p l a n t s , building m a t e r i a l s such a s timber
and mudbricks, a n d so on.
M a n y people should be able to earn some
income from e n t e r p r i s e s on the site.
F o r e x a m p l e , a dairy processing centre is
one option. One family could operate a
dairy for g o a t s or cows and sell milk a n d
milk products such as yoghurt, cream,
butter a n d cheese to villagers.
T h i s is another e x a m p l e of k e e p i n g money
inside the community b o u n d a r i e s a n d let-
t i n g it circulate only within the commu-
nity.
A n u m b e r of s m a l l v i l l a g e s in a region can
form a t r a d i n g co-operative. T h i s opens
up other opportunities for trade, m a n u -
facturing a n d industry.
S c a t t e r e d ecovillages t h e m s e l v e s need to
network with other villages to further
pool resources.
V i l l a g e s should encourage the settlement
of a b r o a d r a n g e of people who will provide
n a t u r a l diversity wthin the group.
I n d i v i d u a l s or families, with a wide r a n g e
of incomes, should be able to join the
community. T h e y m a y be able to "pay for
their s h a r e " by s w e a t equity or some other
satisfactory a r r a n g e m e n t .
T h i s m e a n s t h a t i n s t e a d of p a y i n g money
for their s h a r e in the property, they m a y
be able to physically work for the commu-
nity in some way, from administration
t a s k s to building h o u s e s , to m a i n t a i n i n g
common food-producing a r e a s , to plant-
i n g trees to rehabilitate degraded a r e a s .
One option for the community is to set up
a credit union as a financial body to m a k e
low-interest l o a n s a v a i l a b l e to residents,
so t h a t everyone is able to h a v e the s a m e
opportunities of living a n d working in the
community.
F u r t h e r m o r e , the community m a y want
to recruit p a r t i c u l a r individuals who they
need for further development and expan-
sion. Providing house sites, s h a r e s or other
incentives will entice prospective commu-
nity villagers.
T h e actual s a l e of land units or titles, held
by a g r o u p of people, m a y h a v e to be
undertaken by a licensed real e s t a t e agent,
146
depending on the l a w s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s in
the s t a t e or country. Individuals can u s u -
ally sell their own land. T h e n e c e s s a r y
information a n d the offer and acceptance
forms a r e readily a v a i l a b l e from newsa-
g e n t s and some stationery s u p p l i e r s .
T h e other main a s p e c t of community life
is the community b y l a w s . E a c h commu-
nity group needs to get together to decide
the 'house rules', such as whether pets can
be kept, and, if so, which ones a r e suit-
able, which ones a r e not, how m a n y , which
a r e a s a r e restricted to pets a n d which
allow a c c e s s .
T h i s should not be an e x h a u s t i v e list of
restrictions, but rather a short list of ten
or so basic rules to which everybody agrees.
V a r i o u s community m e m b e r s should be
responsible for different a s p e c t s of com-
munity life. It is a good idea to give re-
sponsibility to different individuals, so
that m a n y residents a r e involved in the
day-to-day running operations.
It might be t h a t a s m a l l group of r e s i d e n t s
becomes responsible for a d m i n i s t r a t i n g
a n d formulating these b y l a w s , and they
might develop regulations about m u s i c
a n d noise curfews, or about how people
can buy into or out of the community. For
e x a m p l e , the a r r a n g e m e n t for b u y i n g a n d
selling h o u s i n g sites can vary.
In some villages, r e s i d e n t s can live in
h o u s e s they build, but they cannot sell for
profit.
If they leave, the ownership of the h o u s e
reverts back to the community. S o m e
money can be paid by the community as
compensation.
In other communities, h o u s e s a n d a s m a l l
a r e a of l a n d surrounding the h o u s e site
a r e privately owned. Owners can sell their
h o u s e s for whatever price they wish.
In some communities the new b u y e r s h a v e
to be approved by the group, in other
communities there a r e no such restric-
tions.
P e r m a c u l t u r e c o m m u n i t i e s , I believe,
should be developed in such a way t h a t
those who live on the property a r e all like-
minded, a n d only those who adhere to the
community ethics should be encouraged
to settle in the community.
Good m a n a g e m e n t skills a r e essential for
the s u c c e s s of a n y community.
Administrators h a v e to h a v e a clear vi-
My notes
Things I need to find out
147
sion for the future potential and develop-
ment of the community, including pro-
moting responsible land u s e practices,
h a v i n g a good knowledge of financial deal-
i n g s and constraints, a n d being able to
m a k e decisions t h a t will benefit both indi-
v i d u a l s and all m e m b e r s of the commu-
nity.
14 Appropriate technology
Appropriate technology is the u s e and
promotion of m a c h i n e s , techniques and
equipment that are environmentally
friendly. It m a y be technology that har-
v e s t s renewable energy sources such as
the s u n or wind, h a s low energy require-
m e n t s itself or does not produce w a s t e and
pollution. Appropriate technology includes
the u s e of alternative energy sources, such
as b i o g a s a n d solar energy, a n d most often
can be easily built or developed. Only
some a s p e c t s of appropriate technology
a r e d i s c u s s e d here: those related to pro-
ducing or u s i n g electricity or power, pump-
i n g water a n d cooking food.
Generating power
Photovoltaic cells
A photovoltaic panel or module is com-
posed of m a n y individual solar cells that
a r e electrically joined together. E a c h so-
lar cell only produces about 0.6 volt, so
m a n y a r e needed to produce sufficient
voltage to recharge a battery or run an
a p p l i a n c e such as a solar p u m p .
S o l a r p a n e l s come in a r a n g e of sizes with
the m o s t cost-effective being about the 40
to 90 w a t t (W) r a n g e . An eighty watt panel
will produce up to five a m p e r e s of current
when charging a 12 V battery. T h i s is
enough to trickle charge the battery dur-
ing the day.
T h e solar panel m a y h a v e a blocking diode
in the output box so t h a t current cannot
flow from the battery back into the panel.
A diode is like a one way valve which only
lets electricity flow in one direction.
Figure 14.1 Ammeters allow monitoring of the electrical system.
148
Polycrystalline p a n e l s require this diode
because of current leakage, whereas
monocrystalline p a n e l s u s u a l l y do not.
You can monitor the r a t e of charge a n d
the panel performance by wiring one a m -
meter into the circuit. A m m e t e r s can be
placed to m e a s u r e both the current flow-
ing into the battery b a n k a n d that flowing
out through the circuit, as shown in the
following d i a g r a m . A regulator is a l s o
placed in the circuit to stop the battery
from overcharging.
While some appliances and motors can be
run directly off a solar panel, m o s t appli-
cations u s e a battery to store the electric-
ity until it is needed. B a t t e r i e s convert
direct current (DC) into chemical energy
which is stored on the battery p l a t e s . In
effect, b a t t e r i e s u s e direct c u r r e n t to
change the chemical s t a t e of the battery
p l a t e s . T h i s chemical reaction can be re-
versed to produce an electrical current.
M o s t house appliances rely on a l t e r n a t i n g
current (AC) which is electricity flow t h a t
c h a n g e s direction (alternates) about fifty
times each second. To u s e the low voltage
DC power to run high voltage AC appli-
ances we need an inverter. Inverters b a s i -
cally convert DC into A C . M o s t h a v e both
12 V and 24 V input, so various combina-
tions of battery voltage can be used.
A full r a n g e of inverters a r e a v a i l a b l e a n d
you should h a v e no trouble finding one to
suit your budget and requirements. C h e a p
inverters, however, m a y not produce a
proper sine wave, so you m a y experience
background noise - a h u m m i n g when ap-
pliances, stereos or amplifiers a r e used.
You usually find t h a t a p p l i a n c e s will not
work as well if you u s e an inverter which
does not produce a true sine wave.
Always buy or recommend an inverter
which produces g r e a t e r power than t h a t
actually required as s o m e t i m e s they a r e
over-rated by the m a n u f a c t u r e r s ; they
can be slightly inefficient a n d they m a y
only supply the s t a t e d w a t t a g e output for
a short time, a n d cannot s u s t a i n continu-
ous u s e at the higher output. Inverters
should specify a continuous, intermittent
and a s u r g e rating. M a n y appliances, in
particular motor-driven appliances, will
r e q u i r e a s t a r t - u p s u r g e significantly
higher than their continuous power con-
sumption.
S o l a r p a n e l s a r e m o s t effective when they
a r e facing the sun. A m a n u a l or electronic
tracker can be u s e d to move the panel or
p a n e l s so t h a t it faces the sun throughout
the day. T r a c k e r s follow the s u n on one
a x i s - e a s t to w e s t - and they are m o s t
beneficial in the early morning or late
afternoon a n d in s u m m e r with the longer
daylight hours. T r a c k e r s can squeeze up
to 5 0 % e x t r a power during t h e s e times,
depending on l a t i t u d e and climatic condi-
tions. T r a c k e r s aren't that effective in
winter as the s u n ' s arc is l e s s than t h a t in
summer.
M a n u a l t r a c k e r s , where you physically
Figure 14.2 A solar array needs to be seasonally adjusted for the greatest current production.
149
move the p a n e l s d u r i n g the day yourself,
are only suitable for those people who can
remember to do this t a s k every now and
again. You m a y h a v e to move the panels
four or five times a day to i n c r e a s e the
effectiveness of energy production.
S o l a r p a n e l s alone are limited, by the
availability of clear sunny d a y s , in s u p -
plying the energy needs of a household.
M o s t often a combination of energy har-
vesting s t r a t e g i e s a r e u s e d , in what is
called a hybrid system. Here, solar p a n e l s
m a y be used in conjunction either with a
wind generator, diesel generator or hy-
dro-electric s y s t e m to produce power day
and night a n d s e a s o n to s e a s o n . T h e prin-
ciple of a hybrid s y s t e m is t h a t when one
energy h a r v e s t i n g source is non-opera-
tional, another m a y be sufficient to k e e p
the batteries charged or motors running.
Wind generators
T h e rotational motion of the b l a d e s of a
windmill can be directly u s e d to p u m p
water or generate electricity. Wind gener-
ated power usually costs l e s s to produce
than solar p a n e l s if a windy site is avail-
able.
S o l a r p a n e l s do not get cheaper as the
array g e t s larger. However, wind genera-
tors can become cheaper as they get big-
ger, m a k i n g the unit energy production
costs lower. Furthermore, wind genera-
tors m a y be up to ten times more cost-
effective than solar cells. T h i s m e a n s that
 Figure 14.3 A hybrid system combines several energy harvesting strategies.

they proportionally produce more elec-
tricity a n d lose l e s s energy in the s y s t e m .
Efficiency is the ratio of the energy out-
p u t compared to the energy input. For
e x a m p l e , a car battery (accumulator) is
a b o u t 8 0 % efficient in converting chemi-
cal energy into electrical energy, w h e r e a s
a solar cell is only about 10 to 15% effi-
cient in changing light into electricity.
T h e a m o u n t of electricity produced by
wind g e n e r a t o r s d e p e n d s on factors such
as the wind speed, size a n d number of
propeller b l a d e s , a n d the degree of turbu-
lence or v a r i a t i o n s in wind speed. Gener-
ally, wind speed i n c r e a s e s dramatically
with the h e i g h t above the ground, so
towers up to twenty m e t r e s high are
used.
Wind towers need to be placed reason-
ably close to h o u s e s (less than 100 m if it
is a DC turbine) b e c a u s e the further a w a y
it i s , the g r e a t e r will be the voltage drop,
size of wiring a n d general installation
costs. High voltage AC t u r b i n e s can be
placed further away from h o u s e s i t e s . T h e
high voltage output of some t u r b i n e s can
help overcome voltage drop a n d signifi-
cantly reduce the cost of cable.
T h e tower should be at l e a s t 8 m above
any obstructions for at l e a s t 150 m in any
direction. T h i s m i n i m i s e s the effects of air
turbulence a s wind p a s s e s over t r e e s a n d
buildings. N o i s e from wind t u r b i n e s can
be h e a r d on their downwind side.
Altitude also p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t p a r t in
calculating the size of the generator. Wind
g e n e r a t o r s a r e r a t e d for p a r t i c u l a r r a n g e s
of wind s p e e d s . As you travel higher above
s e a level, the density of air c h a n g e s a n d
t h u s higher wind s p e e d s a r e required for
the s a m e output.
Wind towers a l s o need to be e a r t h e d

Figure 14.4 It is important to place wind generators in areas not subject to turbulence.

150
 Figure 14.5 The siting of the wind generator is crucial to its success in supplying energy.
a g a i n s t lightning and guyed with cable,
j u s t in c a s e of s t o r m s a n d very strong
winds. It is a d v i s a b l e to monitor a poten-
tial wind site for at l e a s t one y e a r before
installing the tower a n d generator.
U s e an a n e m o m e t e r to m e a s u r e daily wind
s p e e d s to a s s e s s the viability of a site. You
can u s u a l l y buy a r a n g e of digital a n d
hand-held a n e m o m e t e r s which a r e accu-
r a t e enough to a s s e s s the site.
Wind g e n e r a t o r s for domestic u s e a r e not
that costly or large. However, if you wanted
to supply the power r e q u i r e m e n t s for a
community the wind generator would be
expensive, l a r g e a n d noisy.
They a r e ineffective at very low wind
s p e e d s , a n d a t higher s p e e d s (during sev-
ere s t o r m s , cyclones a n d h u r r i c a n e s ) d a m -
a g e can occur.
However, wind g e n e r a t o r s normally h a v e
a feathering device to protect them again st
high winds.
T h e tower i s placed several h u n d r e d me-
t r e s a w a y , a s the l a r g e r g e n e r a t o r s m a k e
a continuous h u m which can be annoying
at times.
Y o u w a n t to h a v e the wind generator in
the windiest site - but not your house.
Hydro-electric systems
S m a l l hydro-electric s y s t e m s will be much
c h e a p e r t h a n the equivalent power pro-
duction from solar cells if a good hydro site
is a v a i l a b l e . If sufficient water flows all-
year-round, power is g e n e r a t e d day a n d
151
night. S o l a r p a n e l s only produce current
when the sun is shining a n d a r e j u s t not
suitable in countries or c l i m a t e s where
the n u m b e r of blue sky d a y s is low.
T h e type of hydro-system you m a y need
depends on the a m o u n t of w a t e r flow a n d
h e a d of p r e s s u r e a v a i l a b l e .
T h e "head" is the vertical height t h a t the
water drops as it flows from the inlet pipe
to the generator, as shown in F i g u r e 14.7.
Power output from a hydro-system is a
product of h e a d a n d flow, so with l e s s h e a d
you will require g r e a t e r volume of water
(or increased flow) to achieve the desired
w a t t a g e output.
T h u s , when e v a l u a t i n g the u s e of a hydro-
s y s t e m you need to establish both the
h e a d a n d w a t e r flow. G r e a t e r h e a d per-
m i t s l e s s volume a n d greater volume re-
duces the h e a d requirement.
Hydro-electric s y s t e m s complement
photovoltaics as there is u s u a l l y an abun-
dance of water in the winter months or
wet s e a s o n but sunshine is scarce.
Pelton wheels, as shown in F i g u r e 14.8,
a r e e x a m p l e s of small hydro-electric power
stations. They a r e designed to work b e s t
with low volume, b u t higher p r e s s u r e ,
water sources. Pelton wheels g e n e r a t e
electricity when a fine j e t s p r a y of water is
directed into a series of cup-like b u c k e t s
which c a u s e the wheel to turn. T h e wheel
is a t t a c h e d to a g e n e r a t i n g device a n d
electricity is produced.
 Figure 14. 6 Wind generators are cost-effective in many areas.

Figure 14.7 The head of water is the vertical height of the water column.

152
Figure 14.8 Pelton wheels generate electricity when a jet of water causes the wheel to turn.
Electric fencing
Electric fencing is cheap to build, gener-
ally reliable and can keep out p r e d a t o r s
a n d feral a n i m a l s a s well a s containing
stock a n d domestic a n i m a l s .
Y o u can either buy build-your-own k i t s
from electrical s u p p l i e r s or buy cheap
commercial v a r i e t i e s from a r a n g e of farm
supply stores.
S o m e require a motor vehicle coil and
m o s t need a 12 V l e a d acid (accumulator)
battery. In this type of s y s t e m , a s m a l l
solar p a n e l can be u s e d to charge the
battery.
Y o u can a l s o g e t m a i n s power e n e r g i s e r s ,
b u t t h e s e a r e generally dearer and they
require a m a i n power supply to run the
equipment.
T h i s is how it works. T h e energiser s e n d s
153
out a p u l s e of low current, high voltage
electricity along the wire. When an ani-
m a l touches the wire, the electricity can
p a s s through the a n i m a l ' s body to the
earth. T h e a n i m a l receives a high voltage
shock for a split second, enough to m a k e
the a n i m a l wary of the fence in future.
T h e r e a r e two common electric fence s y s -
t e m s . T h e s i m p l e s t is a single wire or
t h r e a d t h a t is e a r t h e d at the control box.
T h e wire m u s t be i n s u l a t e d from any
other m e t a l conductors or short circuiting
will occur.
T h e second method u s e s more wire in an
a l t e r n a t i n g pattern of "live" a n d "earth"
wires. An a n i m a l will receive a shock
when it s i m u l t a n e o u s l y touches any live
and e a r t h wires. Nothing occurs if the
earth wire alone is touched.
 Figure 14.9 When an animal touches the wire electricity passes through its body to the ground.
The circuit is complete.

Pumping water
P u m p i n g w a t e r requires a fair a m o u n t of
power. W a t e r is h e a v y stuff. It weighs one
k i l o g r a m a litre (over 8 pounds per gallon)
a n d considerable power is often required
to lift it g r e a t d i s t a n c e s .
It would be g r e a t if we could all live on a
hillside with a fresh mountain s t r e a m at
the top so t h a t water could be directed by
g r a v i t y t o w a r d s the h o u s e . T h i s is the
exception, not the rule. F e w people h a v e
this luxury, so water h a s to be p u m p e d
a n d stored.
F o r g a r d e n s p r i n k l e r s to function effec-
tively, or for you to h a v e r e a s o n a b l e p r e s -
s u r e at the kitchen t a p , we h a v e to h a v e
a b o u t fifteen to twenty m e t r e s of head. We
can g e t by with ten to fifteen m e t r e s b u t
the p r e s s u r e obviously i s reduced a n d j u s t
trickles out of the g a r d e n hose.
You shouldn't recommend a h e a d of water
a n y l e s s than twenty m e t r e s if you w a n t
crop a n d tree irrigation by gravity alone.
It m a y be all right for the client to h a v e a
weak s u p p l y to the kitchen, b u t there j u s t
won't be enough p r e s s u r e to irrigate or-
c h a r d s a n d food crops.
You m a y be able to g e t a booster p u m p
t h a t will i n c r e a s e the p r e s s u r e from the
s t o r a g e t a n k to the h o u s e . Alternatively,
u s i n g l a r g e r d i a m e t e r pipe to i n c r e a s e the
flow of w a t e r achieves the s a m e result as
u s i n g higher water p r e s s u r e .
B a t t e r i e s can be u s e d to p u m p water by
Figure 14.10 This system is more reliable as
more wires are used and earthing occurs easier.
supplying the n e c e s s a r y energy to run a
DC pump.
It is also possible to run the p u m p directly
off a solar module or wind g e n e r a t o r if the
conditions a r e right.
However, s m a l l , cheap electronic devices,
called m a x i m i s e r s , can be built or b o u g h t
to amplify the current output from solar
p a n e l s or wind g e n e r a t o r s when the sun is
partly covered or wind speed is low.
M a x i m i s e r s e x a m i n e the w a t t a g e coming
in a n d what is required by the battery or
p u m p and change the output accordingly.
M a x i m u m power can be obtained from a
solar panel or wind turbine by continu-
ously a d j u s t i n g the voltage to suit the
application.
T h i s , in turn, produces the m a x i m u m cur-
rent so that the power (watts) r e m a i n s the
same.

154
 Figure 14.11 To irrigate crops and trees by gravity you need at least 20 metres of head.

Solar pump work - even if it is very slow at times.

A s w e h a v e j u s t d i s c u s s e d , p u m p s can run
off a s o l a r panel directly. Modern elec-
tronics is such t h a t the low current pro-
duced, even d u r i n g cloudy d a y s , can be
i n c r e a s e d ( m a x i m i s e d ) by electronic cir-
cuitry a n d the p u m p will continue to work
m o s t of the day, lifting a n d shifting water
to where it is u s e d or can be stored for later
use.
M a n y A C s u b m e r s i b l e p u m p s consume
three to four t i m e s more power than a DC
powered p u m p to move the s a m e a m o u n t
of water. Generally, AC s u b m e r s i b l e mo-
tors a r e h a r d e r to s t a r t , a r e not designed
to be energy-efficient nor engineered with
the quarterly power bill in mind.
D C powered p u m p s t h a t a r e run directly
off a solar p a n e l a r e the c h e a p e s t a n d
e a s i e s t solution to w a t e r supply problems.
As long as the s u n s h i n e s the p u m p will
R e m e m b e r t h a t the total volume of water
p u m p e d by a s u b m e r s i b l e p u m p d e c r e a s e s
with the total lift from the bore or d a m .
T h e deeper the p u m p i s , the l e s s water
that can be p u m p e d each d a y - for t h a t size
of p u m p .
Hydraulic ram
Hydraulic r a m s u s e the water itself a s the
power source. Water flows down a drive
pipe to the r a m , a valve closes a n d the
hydraulic h a m m e r effect forces some wa-
ter into a delivery pipe or small tank. M o s t
of the water is expelled from the r a m
when t h a t s a m e valve opens. E s s e n t i a l l y ,
a l a r g e a m o u n t of water falls a short
distance, c a u s i n g a s m a l l a m o u n t of water
to be lifted a g r e a t e r distance.
While hydraulic r a m s can only effectively
transfer 10 to 2 0 % of the water t h a t en-
ters, they can lift this water twenty times

Figure 14.12 Submersible solar pumps are very reliable.

155
 Figure 14.13 A floating solar pump is another option.

the incoming (drive) h e a d . F o r e x a m p l e , a

3 m supply h e a d can be p u m p e d to a t a n k
or d a m 60 m up the hillside.
S o m e hydraulic r a m s can be placed di-
rectly in the w a t e r of a s t r e a m , while
others a r e placed on dry land a n d the inlet
pipe c a r r i e s w a t e r from the s t r e a m to the
pump.
Cooking devices
Solar oven
A p p r o p r i a t e technology can be u s e d to
m a k e a r a n g e of cooking devices. T h r e e
common ones a r e described here. S o l a r
ovens a r e u s u a l l y m a d e by painting the
Figure 14. 14 A hydraulic ram uses water as
inner lining of a cardboard or wooden box a source of power to drive it.
with m a t t black paint. T h i s i n c r e a s e s h e a t
absorption a n d re-radiation. About 50 mm the h e a t in.
of wool, f i b r e g l a s s or some other type of T h e solar oven is placed in direct s u n l i g h t
insulation is placed between the inner a n d moveable side flaps and lid flap (all
a n d outer box walls. A clear g l a s s lid, coated with a l u m i n i u m foil) a r e adjusted
preferably double glazed, is s e a l e d to keep so t h a t sunlight is directed into the oven.

Figure 14.15 Hydraulic rams work day and night to pump water uphill to a storage tank.

156
Solar ovens will h e a t up to well over 150°C,
which is enough to cook most things - even
if it does t a k e a little longer than conven-
tional wood, g a s or electric ovens.
Solar food dryer
A solar food dryer is an effective way to
dry e x c e s s fruits a n d some vegetables.
S u n l i g h t is absorbed by the black rear
surface a n d r e - r a d i a t e s this a s heat.
T h e air slowly b e c o m e s hotter inside the
dryer a n d r i s e s u p w a r d s a n d vents out a t
the top. As the hot air rises, cool air is
drawn in at the bottom a n d this, in turn,
h e a t s u p a s well.
T h e fruit slices are placed in t r a y s at the
top. T h e hot air p a s s e s through the t r a y s
and dries the fruit, u s u a l l y within a few
hours.
Haybox cooker
A haybox cooker doesn't h a v e to be m a d e
out of hay, although h a y is a very good
insulator. T h e cooker doesn't supply any
energy to cook the food either. It simply
allows the food to continue to s i m m e r long

Figure 14.16 A solar oven uses free energy to cook food.

Figure 14.17 A solar food dryer allows you to preserve some foodstuffs for later use.

157
after the food is removed from a stove or
burner.
The haybox cooker is an insulated box
that helps to contain the heat of the actual
cooking vessel inside it.
A stew or other dish is cooked for a short
time, usually until it boils for a few min-
utes, and is placed inside the haybox
cooker.
A lid is tightly positioned and the cooker is
left for as long as you need. The heat from
the cooked meal is prevented from escap-
ing and this energy can continue to cook Figure 14.18 A haybox cooker keeps the heat
and simmer the food for several hours. in so that food continues to cook slowly.

My notes

Things I need to find out

158
15 Glossary
A c t i v e s o l a r : a s y s t e m h a r v e s t i n g and
u s i n g the s u n ' s energy, b u t where some
energy is a l s o e x p e n d e d in m o v i n g air or
water ( u s u a l l y by p u m p s or f a n s ) through
the s y s t e m .
A f f o r e s t a t i o n : planting trees in areas
currently devoid of trees.
A g r o f o r e s t r y : f a r m l a n d where t r e e s a r e
grown for timber or other u s e s , as well as
crops or p a s t u r e s .
A l l e y c r o p p i n g : rows o f t r e e s s e p a r a t i n g
b a n d s of crops.
A l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t ( A C ) : electricity
which r e v e r s e s i t s direction at a constant
r a t e . N o m i n a l l y 50 hertz (cycles per sec-
ond).
A n a e r o b i c : r e s p i r a t i o n without oxygen.
V a r i o u s noxious g a s e s , such a s m e t h a n e
a n d a m m o n i a , a s well a s carbon dioxide,
m a y b e produced.
A n i m a l h u s b a n d r y : the practices in-
volved in the m a n a g e m e n t and welfare of
raising farm animals.
A n n u a l p l a n t s : p l a n t s t h a t complete their
life cycle within one year.
A p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g y : the promo-
tion a n d u s e of low-energy, low-mainten-
ance, environmentally-friendly equipment
and materials.
A q u a c u l t u r e : food production u s i n g wa-
ter a s the m e d i u m .
A r a b l e l a n d : l a n d t h a t can b e cultivated
a n d u s e d for crops or p a s t u r e .
A r i d : a r e a s where the r a t e o f t r a n s p i r a -
tion a n d evaporation exceeds precipita-
tion.
A s p e c t : direction or orientation of the
slope of land. e.g. facing north or south.
A z i m u t h : a n g l e between north and the
direction of the s u n , on the horizontal
plane.
B i e n n i a l p l a n t s : p l a n t s t h a t t a k e about
two y e a r s to grow a n d produce seeds.
B i o d i v e r s i t y : the diverse r a n g e and var-
iety of life in a region.
159
B i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l : the u s e o f n a t u r a l
p r e d a t o r s to c o m b a t p e s t s .
B i o m a s s : the weight o r m a s s o f the living
components of the e c o s y s t e m .
B i o t a : living o r g a n i s m s .
B u n y i p l e v e l : common n a m e for a w a t e r
level which can be u s e d to e s t a b l i s h m a r k s
or points at the s a m e level.
C a r b o n - n i t r o g e n r a t i o : the ratio o f car-
bon a t o m s to nitrogen a t o m s in organic
matter. T h e decomposition r a t e of com-
post i n c r e a s e s with a CN ratio of 20:1 or
less.
C a t c h m e n t a r e a : the land a r e a t h a t col-
lects water for a p a r t i c u l a r s t r e a m or
waterway.
C a t i o n : positive charged atom, u s u a l l y of
a metal or hydrogen.
C h i c k e n ( a n i m a l ) t r a c t o r : a portable,
fenced pen structure which holds s m a l l
n u m b e r s of poultry or other a n i m a l s .
C h i n a m p a : s e r i e s o f channels o f water
between fingers of land. A very productive
aquaculture system.
C h i s e l p l o u g h i n g : tillage operation
where soil is s h a t t e r e d b u t not inverted.
C l i m a x s p e c i e s : d o m i n a n t p l a n t species
in an ecosystem.
C o l d f r a m e : a box, with a g l a s s lid, which
a c t s as a mini-hothouse. U s e d to germi-
n a t e s e e d s in the colder months.
C o m b u s t i o n : the b u r n i n g o f o r g a n i c
matter, which r e l e a s e s water, a s h , g a s e s
a n d s m o k e into the a t m o s p h e r e .
C o m p a n i o n p l a n t s : plants, such a s
h e r b s , which a r e beneficial to o t h e r s
nearby. For example, they m a y repel p e s t s ,
d i s g u i s e a food crop or exude beneficial
chemicals into the soil.
C o m p o s t : a mixture of decomposing p l a n t
and animal material.
C o m m u n i t y : a group (of any size) of like-
minded people who live, and s o m e t i m e s
work, together on the s a m e property.
C o n d e n s a t i o n : process o f water v a p o u r
c h a n g i n g to a liquid, such as dew on the
surface of l e a v e s or the ground.
C o n s e r v a t i o n : looking after our envi-
ronment, which includes n a t u r a l forest
a r e a s , soil a n d w a t e r w a y s .
C o n t o u r : i m a g i n a r y line with all points
at the s a m e altitude or level.
C o n t o u r b a n k : trench a n d b a n k d u g
a l o n g the contour which catches water
a n d p r e v e n t s erosion.
C o n v e c t i o n : transfer of h e a t by the natu-
ral flow or circulation of air or water.
W a r m e r air or w a t e r tends to e x p a n d a n d
rise c a r r y i n g h e a t with it as it moves.
C o p p i c i n g : chopping trees down at s t u m p
level, where they will regrow.
C o v e r c r o p : p l a n t s grown t o reduce ero-
sion, t r a p n u t r i e n t s a n d protect the soil.
C r o p r o t a t i o n : growing a succession of
different crops on the s a m e a r e a of land.
C u r r e n t : the flow of electricity. M e a s -
u r e d in a m p e r e s ( a m p s ) .
D e c i d u o u s : tree t h a t loses i t s l e a v e s dur-
i n g winter and becomes dormant.
D i o d e : s m a l l electronic device which only
allows electricity (current) to p a s s through
it in one direction.
D i r e c t c u r r e n t ( D C ) : electric current
t h a t flows in only one direction, from nega-
tive to positive.
D i r e c t s e e d i n g : s e e d s a r e placed directly
into the ground, often by a m a c h i n e towed
behind a tractor.
D i v e r s i o n d r a i n : drain which m o v e s
water off the l a n d into d a m s or other
waterways.
D r e n c h : a chemical given orally to ani-
m a l s , u s u a l l y to control internal p a r a -
sites.
D u m p y l e v e l : a telescopic i n s t r u m e n t
which allows vertical height and horizon-
tal distance to be calculated. U s e d to m a r k
out contour lines a n d determine slopes for
drains.
160
D y n a m i c a c c u m u l a t o r s : p l a n t s which
t a k e in a n d a c c u m u l a t e high levels of par-
ticular m i n e r a l s from the soil.
E c o l o g y : study of the interaction between
o r g a n i s m s and their environment.
E c o s y s t e m : a s y s t e m in which m a t t e r
a n d energy flow. It consists of a commu-
nity of p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l s and the sur-
rounding environment.
E c o v i l l a g e : a community of people who
live in buildings and s u r r o u n d i n g s which
a r e designed to be energy efficient a n d
h a v e low i m p a c t on the environment.
E d g e : the boundary between two differ-
ent ecosystems, such a s where l a n d m e e t s
water.
E l e m e n t : anything which is u s e d in a
p e r m a c u l t u r e design. E l e m e n t s include
plants, animals, humans, structures and
environmental components such a s rocks
and water.
E n v i r o n m e n t : the living and non-living
s u r r o u n d i n g s of an o r g a n i s m . C o m p o s e d
of biotic factors, such as p r e d a t o r s a n d
p a r a s i t e s , a n d abiotic (non-living) factors
such a s water, air a n d t e m p e r a t u r e .
E r o s i o n : the m o v e m e n t of soil m a t e r i a l
from one a r e a to another. C a u s e d by wind,
water or gravity.
E s p a l i e r : trees, u s u a l l y fruit, which a r e
pruned a n d trained to grow flat a g a i n s t a
wall or on a trellis structure.
E v e r g r e e n : p l a n t t h a t k e e p s its foliage
all y e a r round.
E x c h a n g e c a p a c i t y (of soil): a measure
of the ability of the soil to e x c h a n g e min-
eral ions with a plant.
F e r t i l i s e r : any s u b s t a n c e , such a s m a -
nure or chemicals, a d d e d to the soil to
improve fertility.
F o d d e r c r o p : a crop grown to be cut a n d
fed to a n i m a l s .
F o r a g e c r o p : a crop grown to be g r a z e d
by a n i m a l s .
G e r m i n a t i o n : process where s e e d s s t a r t
to sprout a n d grow.
G r e e n h o u s e : (see hothouse).
G r e e n m a n u r e : p l a n t s grown a n d then
s l a s h e d or cut a n d turned into the soil to
provide additional n u t r i e n t s to the soil.
G r e y w a t e r : all w a s t e water, except toilet
water, from s o u r c e s such as the kitchen,
bathroom a n d laundry.
G u i l d : a n a s s e m b l y o f elements such that
they a r e m u t u a l l y beneficial. C a n consist
of any combination of p l a n t s , a n i m a l s a n d
physical factors such as rocks, soil a n d
water.
H a m l e t : s m a l l group of h o u s e s in a com-
munity.
H a y b o x c o o k e r : i n s u l a t e d box which
r e t a i n s h e a t from a cooking pot so t h a t the
food can continue to s i m m e r for some time
after b e i n g removed from a stove or fire.
H e a d ( w a t e r ) : the vertical difference,
m e a s u r e d in m e t r e s , between the top and
bottom of a water column.
H o t h o u s e : covered structure, with p l a s -
tic or g l a s s , which k e e p s the internal tem-
p e r a t u r e h i g h e r t h a n the s u r r o u n d i n g
atmosphere. Used to germinate seeds and
protect p l a n t s d u r i n g the cold winter
m o n t h s . Also known as a greenhouse.
H u m i d i t y : a m o u n t of w a t e r v a p o u r in
the a t m o s p h e r e .
H y d r a u l i c r a m : m a c h i n e t h a t u s e s wa-
ter to provide the energy needed to p u m p
s o m e of that water to another location or
storage area.
H y d r o - e l e c t r i c s y s t e m : a system or
m a c h i n e t h a t g e n e r a t e s electricity by har-
n e s s i n g flowing water, c a u s i n g a turbine
to turn.
I n s o l a t i o n : a m e a s u r e of the a m o u n t of
solar radiation over a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a .
I o n s : charged atoms.
I n t e g r a t e d p e s t m a n a g e m e n t : the u s e
of s e v e r a l s t r a t e g i e s to control p e s t s , such
a s companion planting, p e s t t r a p s a n d
crop rotation.
I n t e r c e p t o r b a n k : a trench a n d b a n k
cut into the clay layer so t h a t surface or
s u b s u r f a c e w a t e r is able to be collected
a n d prevented from further downward
flow.
161
I n v e r t e r : a m a c h i n e which converts DC
into AC so that conventional, domestic
electrical a p p l i a n c e s can be used.
K e y h o l e b e d : a g a r d e n bed surrounding
a keyhole s h a p e (which is normally the
p a t h you step into to a c c e s s the p l a n t s ) .
K e y p o i n t : position on a slope where cur-
v a t u r e of the l a n d c h a n g e s from convex to
concave. L o c a t e d by finding a contour
t h a t suddenly i n c r e a s e s in width when
compared to contour lines either side of it.
U s u a l l y is found at the s t a r t of a valley.
L a n d b r e e z e : breeze produced b y differ-
ences between air p r e s s u r e on the l a n d
a n d water. Air flows from the l a n d m a s s
t o w a r d s the ocean or s e a .
L a n d d e g r a d a t i o n : the reduction i n the
productive capability of the l a n d d u e to
soil erosion, salinity or other factors.
L e a c h i n g : m o v e m e n t o f soluble nutri-
ents from the top soil d o w n w a r d s into the
water table.
L e g u m e : plant which can m a n u f a c t u r e
its own nitrogen with the help of b a c t e r i a
living in the p l a n t roots. E x a m p l e s in-
clude p e a s , clover a n d lucerne.
L E T S : Local E x c h a n g e T r a d i n g S y s t e m .
A community-based scheme t r a d i n g in
"green dollars" for goods and/or services.
M i c r o c l i m a t e : local climate differences
which occur in a confined or s m a l l a r e a .
For e x a m p l e , it m i g h t refer to the s m a l l
t e m p e r a t u r e differences either side of a
plant where one side is exposed to direct
sunlight a n d the other side is shaded, a n d
therefore cooler.
M i n i m u m t i l l a g e : ground i s not cut u p
a n d ploughed a s u s u a l , b u t lightly loos-
ened a s s e e d s a r e planted.
M o n o c u l t u r e : the growing of only one
type of crop on a particular a r e a of land.
M u l c h : natural or artificially applied pro-
tective covering to the soil. M a t e r i a l u s e d
as mulch includes chipped tree prunings,
stone, plastic sheeting and s t r a w .
M u l t i - g r a f t f r u i t t r e e : a fruit tree t h a t
contains at l e a s t two different v a r i e t i e s of
the s a m e fruit grafted onto the tree.
N u r s e t r e e : fast-growing shrub o r tree
which protects, u s u a l l y from wind, sun or
frost, another slower-growing, often com-
mercial species.
P a s s i v e s o l a r : the gain o f solar energy
without the u s e of additional energy ex-
penditure. F o r e x a m p l e , a h o u s e able to be
h e a t e d by sunlight b e i n g absorbed by the
floor a n d walls.
P a s t u r e : p l a n t s , u s u a l l y g r a s s e s and leg-
u m e s , which generally provide g r a z i n g
stock with their nutrient r e q u i r e m e n t s .
P a t t e r n : the s h a p e , geometry or form of
an edge, including circles a n d s p i r a l s .
P e l t o n w h e e l : hydro-electric device
which g e n e r a t e s electricity as flowing
w a t e r p a s s e s over an internal cupped
wheel.
P e r e n n i a l : long-lived plant.
P e r m a c u l t u r e d e s i g n : a n integrated,
holistic l a n d s c a p e practice. U s u a l l y physi-
cally r e p r e s e n t e d by a detailed d r a w i n g of
the potential development of a site. T h e
design a l s o considers the interaction and
i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s between o r g a n i s m s
a n d their s u r r o u n d i n g s .
P e r m a f r o s t : a r e a s where the ground i s
p e r m a n e n t l y frozen.
P e r s p i r a t i o n : w a t e r loss from the skin
or surface of an a n i m a l .
P h o t o v o l t a i c c e l l s : solar cells which
produce electricity (current) when sun-
light s h i n e s on them.
P i o n e e r : p l a n t which is first to invade
a n d grow on cleared or d e g r a d e d a r e a s .
U s u a l l y t h e s e p l a n t s a r e short-lived a n d
f a s t growing.
P i e z o m e t e r : inspection pipe in the ground
which p e r m i t s determination of the height
of the w a t e r table a n d possible s a l t con-
tamination.
F o r e x a m p l e , salty water e x e r t s higher
p r e s s u r e than freshwater a n d t h u s r i s e s
higher in the pipe.
P l o u g h i n g : tillage operation where soil
is s h a t t e r e d a n d partially inverted to kill
a n d bury e x i s t i n g vegetation.
162
P o l y c u l t u r e : the growing of several dif-
ferent crops, p l a n t s or a n i m a l s on a com-
mon a r e a of land.
P r e c i p i t a t i o n : water from the a t m o s -
phere which r e t u r n s to the E a r t h ' s sur-
face, mainly as rain, hail or snow.
P r e v a i l i n g w i n d : the m o s t common dir-
ection t h a t wind blows.
R a d i a t i o n ( h e a t ) : invisible h e a t energy
given off by a hot object.
R e f o r e s t a t i o n : r e p l a n t i n g native or in-
digenous species in a r e a s which h a v e been
cleared.
R e t r o f i t t i n g : changing the structure of
an e x i s t i n g h o u s e to m a k e it more energy-
efficient.
R i p a r i a n : the p l a n t s a n d ecology of the
b a n k s of a river, s t r e a m or other water-
way.
R i p p i n g : tillage of sub-surface soil with-
out inverting soil layers. Tynes are d r a g g e d
up to a metre below the surface of the
ground, b r e a k i n g up the h a r d - c r u s t clay
layer to permit better water a n d air pen-
etration.
R o t a t i o n a l g r a z i n g : moving livestock
from one paddock to another.
S a l i n i t y : the a m o u n t of s a l t in water or
soil.
S e a b r e e z e : cool breeze which blows,
u s u a l l y during the day, from the ocean or
s e a t o w a r d s (and over) the hotter land.
S e c t o r : region of a property t h a t h a s
particular external energies such as fire,
wind, sun and water moving through the
site. Sector p l a n n i n g allows us to control,
direct or h a r n e s s t h e s e energies.
S h a d e h o u s e : covered or partly covered
structure which shades and protects plants
during the hot s u m m e r m o n t h s .
S h e e t m u l c h i n g : a technique of g a r d e n
building where l a y e r s of mulch and com-
post a r e used to m a k e garden b e d s on top
of the ground.
S h e l t e r b e l t : g r o u p i n g of trees which pro-
tect stock a s well a s acting a s windbreaks.
S l o p e : the g r a d i e n t of the land. U s u a l l y
e x p r e s s e d as the a n g l e of the ground to the
horizontal p l a n e .
S o i l : the p a r t i c l e s of the E a r t h ' s surface,
which contain both inorganic a n d organic
m a t t e r a s well a s living o r g a n i s m s .
S o i l c o n d i t i o n i n g : c h a n g i n g the struc-
ture of soil by physical or chemical m e a n s .
S o l a r a r r a y : a group of solar panels elec-
trically connected together.
S o l a r f o o d d r y e r : s t r u c t u r e which u s e s
the s u n ' s energy to h e a t air which, in turn,
dries food slices or pieces.
S o l a r o v e n : i n s u l a t e d cardboard, wooden
or m e t a l box, with a clear g l a s s lid, which
u s e s the s u n ' s energy to cook food.
S o l a r p e r g o l a : a n g l e d , b l a d e d structure
which a l l o w s winter s u n l i g h t to p a s s
through into a room or house, b u t s h a d e s
out s u m m e r sunlight.
S t a c k i n g : the placing a n d layering o f a s
m a n y p l a n t s as possible in a particular
a r e a . S o m e will be ground dwelling, some
h e r b a c e o u s a n d others taller s h r u b s and
trees.
S t o c k i n g r a t e : the n u m b e r of one type of
livestock a n i m a l k e p t on a hectare of land.
S t r i p c r o p p i n g : crops a r e grown i n strips
or b a n d s to help reduce water a n d wind
erosion of the soil. T r e e s a r e s o m e t i m e s
p l a n t e d between the s t r i p s or rows.
S t r i p g r a z i n g : livestock g r a z i n g fenced-
off sections of a paddock.
S u c c e s s i o n : the slow progressive change
in an e c o s y s t e m .
S u n t r a p : semi-circular structure, u s u -
ally as a row of t r e e s , which reflects sun-
light a n d c o n t a i n s it, t h u s creating a
w a r m e r microclimate.
S u s t a i n a b l e a g r i c u l t u r e : a system of
a g r i c u l t u r e which m a i n t a i n s productivity
without detrimental effects on the ecosys-
tem, over a long time.
S w a l e : ditch d u g on a contour so t h a t
w a t e r can be held long enough for it to
s o a k into the ground where it can be u s e d
by p l a n t s .
163
T e r r a c e : land that h a s been stepped down
a slope - levelled and stepped down to the
next level and so on.
T h e o d o l i t e : surveying i n s t r u m e n t which
m e a s u r e s the horizontal and vertical an-
gles of landforms.
T i l l a g e : practice of turning the soil. T h i s
often involves tractors and ploughs on
f a r m s , b u t also refers to garden forks a n d
other i m p l e m e n t s being u s e d in urban
yards.
T o p o g r a p h y : the type of terrain a n d
landforms present, e.g. rock outcrops.
T r a n s p i r a t i o n : loss of water from the
leaves of a plant.
T r e l l i s : structure t h a t allows climbing
p l a n t s and vines to grow on it - either
vertically u p w a r d s or horizontally across.
T y n e : a steel point on a tillage implement
which disturbs the soil as it is d r a g g e d
through it.
V o l t a g e r e g u l a t o r : electronic device
which produces a constant voltage output
even though the input voltage m a y vary.
W a t e r c y c l e : n a t u r a l process where wa-
ter, in its m a n y forms, circulates between
the oceans and other waterways, the at-
mosphere and the land.
W a t e r t a b l e : the top of permanent ground
water in the soil.
W i n d b r e a k : trees a n d shrubs, or struc-
tures, which are used to reduce wind speed
and t h u s protect an a r e a from d a m a g e or
desiccation.
W i n d g e n e r a t o r : machine which pro-
duces electricity by the action of wind
turning the blades of a turbine.
W I S A L T S : Whittington Interceptor S u s -
tainable Agriculture L a n d Treatment
S y s t e m . A s y s t e m of drains, cut into the
clay layer, which are designed to capture
water and direct it to other p a r t s of a
property.
Z o n e : i m a g i n a r y regions around a house,
or some other focus, indicating the loca-
tion and placement of p l a n t s , a n i m a l s and
structures in a design.
16 Bibliography
About Permaculture
Books
Bell, G. (1992). The Permaculture Way. T h o r s o n s . London.
Bell, G. (1994). The Permaculture Garden. H a r p e r Collins. London.
Brown, D. (Ed.) (1989). Western Permaculture Manual. A publication of the P e r m a c u l ­
ture Association of W.A. Cornucopia P r e s s . Perth.
F i r t h , J. (1996). Permaculture - Dry Coastal Regions. Yilgarn T r a d e r s . Geraldton.
H o l m g r e n , D. (1992). Permaculture in the Bush. N a s c i m a n e r e . M a l e n y , Qld.
L i n d e g g e r , M. a n d T a p , R. ( E d s . ) (1990). The Best of Permaculture. N a s c i m a n e r e .
Maleny, Qld.
M a r s , R. a n d J. (1994). Getting Started in Permaculture. C a n d l e l i g h t T r u s t . Perth.
M a r s , R . a n d Willis, R. ( E d s . ) ( 1 9 9 6 ) . The Best of PAWA Volume 1. Selected Articles from
the Newsletters of the Permaculture Association of Western Australia. Candlelight
T r u s t . Perth.
Mollison, B. (1994). Introduction to Permaculture (2nd Ed.). Tagari Publications,
Tyalgum.
Mollison, B. (1988). Permaculture:a Designers' Manual. Τ&g&r\ Publications, T y a l g u m .
Morrow, R. (1993). Earth User's Guide to Permaculture. K a n g a r o o P r e s s . K e n t h u r s t .
W a t k i n s , D. (1993). Urban Permaculture. P e r m a n e n t Publications. Clanfield ( U K ) .
Whitefield, P. (1993). Permaculture in a Nutshell. P e r m a n e n t Publications. Clanfield
(UK).
Whitefield, P. (1996). How to Make a Forest Garden. P e r m a n e n t Publications. Clanfield
(UK).
Woodrow, L. (1996). The Permaculture Home Garden. P e n g u i n B o o k s . Melbourne.
Journals
Permaculture International Journal. PO Box 6039, S o u t h L i s m o r e N.S.W. 2 4 8 0 . F o u r
issues per annum.
The Permaculture Edge. PO Box 148, Inglewood, WA. 6052. F o u r i s s u e s for $ 1 6 .
Permaculture Magazine. Permanent Publications. Little Hyden Lane, Clanfield,
Hampshire P 0 8 ORU England.

About Organic Gardening, Herbs and Growing Vegetables

Books
B e n n e t t , P. (1989). Organic Gardening. N a t i o n a l Book D i s t r i b u t o r s . S y d n e y .
B r e m n e s s , L. (1988). The Complete Book of Herbs. R e a d e r s D i g e s t P r e s s . Melbourne.
B r e m n e s s , L. ( E d . ) (1990). Pocket Encyclopedia of Herbs. Dorling Kindersley. London.
C o n a c h e r , J. (1980). Pests, Predators and Pesticides. Organic G r o w i n g Association
WA. Perth.
C u n d a l l , P. Organic Gardening. G a r d e n i n g A u s t r a l i a Collector S e r i e s N o . 1. F e d e r a l
Publishers. Sydney.
D e a n s , E. (1992). Esther Dean's Gardening Book. A n g u s a n d Robertson. Sydney.

164
F a n t o n , Μ. a n d J. (1993). The Seed Saver's Handbook. S e e d S a v e r ' s Network. Byron
Bay, N.S.W.
French, J. (1989). Organic Control of Common Weeds. Aird B o o k s . Melbourne.
French, J. (1990). Natural Control of Garden Pests. Aird Books. Melbourne.
French, J. (1991). Jackie French's Guide to Companion Planting in Australia and New
Zealand. Aird Books. Melbourne.
French, J. ( 1 9 9 2 ) . The Wilderness Garden (Beyond Organic Gardening). Aird B o o k s .
Melbourne.
Kourik, R. (1986). Designing and Maintaining Your Edible Garden Naturally. Meta-
morphic P r e s s . S a n t a R o s a .
Little, B. (1992). Backyard Organic Gardening in Australia. S a n d p i p e r P r e s s . Sydney.
Little, B. (1993). Companion Planting in Australia (2nd Ed.). S a n d p i p e r P r e s s . Sydney.
R o a d s , M. (1989). The Natural Magic of Mulch. Greenhouse Publications. Elwood
(Vic).
S m i t h , K. (1993). The Australian Organic Gardener's Handbook. Lothian. Melbourne.
Wilkinson, J. (1989). Herbs and Flowers in the Cottage Garden. I n k a t a P r e s s . Mel­
bourne.
Newspaper
Acres Australia. PO Box 27, E u m u n d i . Qld. 4562. Six i s s u e s per a n n u m .

About Appropriate Technology, Housing and Lifestyle

Books
B a l l i n g e r , J . , P r a s a d , D. a n d Rudder, D. (1992). Energy Efficient Australian Housing.
A u s t r a l i a n G o v e r n m e n t Publishing Service. C a n b e r r a .
E n e r g y Victoria. (1995). Guidelines for Building an Energy Efficient Home. Renewable
E n e r g y Authority. Melbourne.
French, J. (1992). Backyard Self-Sufficiency. Aird Books. Melbourne.
Gordon, S. (1987). Complete Self-Sufficiency Handbook. Doubleday. Sydney.
H a r r i s , M. a n d Hutchinson, A. ( E d s . ) (1990). Build Your Own Green Technology. A T A
Publications. Melbourne.
H a r r i s , M. a n d B e a u m o n t , L. ( E d s . ) (1993). Green Technology House and Garden Book.
A T A Publications. Melbourne.
Paolino, S . (1992). Living with the Climate. G r a p h i c S y s t e m s . Perth.
P e d a l s , P. (Ed.) (1993). Energy From Nature (5th Ed.). Rainbow Power Company.
N i m b i n , N.S.W.
Schaeffer, J. (Ed.) (1992). Alternative Energy Sourcebook. Real Goods. U k i a h ( U S A ) .
Smith, K. a n d I., a n d T h o m a s , A. ( E d s . ) (1992). The Australian Self-Sufficiency
Handbook. Viking O'Neil Publishers. Melbourne.
Journals and Magazines
Earth Garden. R M B 427, T r e n t h a m . Vic. 3458. Four i s s u e s per a n n u m .
Grass Roots. N i g h t Owl Publishers. PO Box 242, E u r o a . Vic. 3666. S i x i s s u e s per
annum.
ReNew (formerly Soft Technology). Alternative Technology Association. 247 Flinders
L a n e , Melbourne. Vic. 3000. F o u r i s s u e s per a n n u m .

165
17 Index
A clay h a r d p a n 95
A-frame level 46
active hot water s y s t e m 75
afforestation 122
agroforestry 121
a i d s to design 38
air p a n e l s , solar 82
alley cropping 121
a l t e r n a t i n g current 148
alternative energy sources
altitude, of sun 65
a m m e t e r s 148
a n i m a l s , characteristics 124
a n i m a l s , in p e r m a c u l t u r e
a n i m a l s , rural 122
a p p r o p r i a t e technology
a q u a c u l t u r e 14
a s p e c t 26, 68
a s s e s s i n g a site 68
azimuth angle 65
B contour m a p 86
balcony g a r d e n i n g 108
b a n a n a circle 100
bare-rooted trees 63
b e e s 105
bentonite 57, 64
bog g a r d e n 103, 134
Bunyip level 45
b y l a w s , community 146
C
catch crops 56
cation exchange capacity 52
chemical t r a p 90
chicken pen, rotating
chicken tractor 107
chickens 106
chill h o u r s 25
c h i n a m p a s y s t e m 17
chisel plough 55
choosing a property 67
circle g a r d e n bed 11
classification of soil 51
climate, local 65
climax species 22
clusters, h o u s e s 144
co-housing 137
cold frame 114
community buildings 141
community b y l a w s 146
community g a r d e n s 130
community living 135
148
community mission s t a t e m e n t 144
companion p l a n t s 57
c o m p a s s , for d r a w i n g 50
compass, magnetic 44
104
compost 99, 133
compost b i n s 100
148
condensation 66
conditioning a pond 15
conditioning of soil 54
contour, definition 86
contour lines 36
cooking devices 156
coppicing 126
crop rotation 57
D
d a m location 89
d a m s , keyline 87
d a m s , storage ratio 88
deciduous trees 75
deep litter poultry pen 107
design considerations 34
design, of h o u s e s 72
design process 32
design report 39
106 design s t e p s 35
designing for c a t a s t r o p h e 28
dew 98
direct current 148
diversion d r a i n s 92
dolomite 57
d r a i n s 90
drains, diversion 92
drawing a i d s 5 0
166
dryland w a t e r h a r v e s t i n g 96 h a r v e s t i n g water 84
d u c k s 106 haybox cooker 157
dumpy level 47 h e a d , of water 151
herb lawn 102
E herb spiral 11
e a r t h m o u n d 27 hot water s y s t e m s 75
earth-covered h o u s e s 73 hothouse 77
earthworm farm 104 house, construction m a t e r i a l s 142
e a r t h w o r m s 5 5 , 104 house design 72
ecosystem 4 house site, determination 69
ecovillage 135 h o u s e s , clusters 144
ecovillages, designing 137 h o u s e s , earth-covered 73
edge effects 10 hybrid power s y s t e m 149
electric fence 125, 153 hydraulic r a m 155
element 18 hydro-electric power 151
energy a u d i t 130
I
espalier, fruit trees 111
ethics, p e r m a c u l t u r e 2 implementation, of design 41
evergreen t r e e s for climate control 7£ indicators of soil 54
e x c h a n g e capacity 5 1 insolation 65
e x c h a n g e capacity, cation 52 integrated p e s t m a n a g e m e n t 56
integrating house and garden 75
F interceptor b a n k s 93, 95
fire 28 inverter 148
flood irrigation 92
fodder t r e e s 125
K
food dryer, solar 157 keyhole b e d s 11
frogs 102 keyline cultivation 86, 88, 95
frost 24 keyline d a m s 87
keypoint 87
G
garden paths 63
L
geese 106 land breeze 117
g e n e r a t o r s , wind 149 land clearing, problems 95
g e r m i n a t i o n of s e e d s 113 land development, guidelines 138
green m a n u r e crop 56, 5 7 , 96 land titles 143
g r e e n h o u s e 77 land t r u s t 145
g r e y w a t e r 85 land u s e 68
g u i d e l i n e s for designing schools 128 land u s e , restrictions 69
g u i d e l i n e s , land development 138 LETS 136
guild, rock 63 level, "A" frame 46
guilds 62 level, Bunyip 45
gypsum 57 level, dumpy 47
H level, theodolite 47
light box 48
h a m l e t s 135 lime 57
h a n g i n g b a s k e t s 110, 113 limited g a r d e n i n g s p a c e s 108
h a r d p a n , clay 95 local climate 65

167
M ponds 102, 134
ponds, bog garden 103
magnetic compass 44 poultry 106
M a n d a l a keyhole garden 132 predators, in g a r d e n 58
m a n u r e , a n i m a l 57 property, choosing 67
m a x i m i s e r s 154 protractor, for d r a w i n g 50
meter, pH 45
p u m p i n g water 154
meter, salinity 45
microclimate 23, 79, 101 R
m i n i m u m tillage 55
mulch 53, 98, 101 rainwater t a n k s 84
r a i s e d g a r d e n b e d s 12
N recharge a r e a s 94
reed b e d s 85
n a t u r a l resources 68 reforestation 122
non-wetting soil 64
regulator 148
n u r s e trees 121
resources, site 68
O retrofitting, h o u s e s 80
ripping, ground 90, 116
organic fertiliser 57 rock d u s t 57
organic produce 51 rock guild 63
rotating chicken pen 106
P
rotation, of crops 57
p a s s i v e hot water s y s t e m 75
p a s s i v e solar h o u s e 72 S
p a t h s 63, 132 salinity meter 45
p a t h s , living 102 scale ruler 48
pattern, in design 10 school, design guidelines 128
pelton wheels 151 school d e s i g n s 127
penetrometer 44 schools, needs a n a l y s i s 127
pergola 79, 110 schools, recycling centres 130
pergola, solar 81 seabreeze 117
permaculture 1 sector plan 77
p e r m a c u l t u r e design, rural 115 sectors 22
p e r m a c u l t u r e design, schools 127 seed, germination 113
p e r m a c u l t u r e design, urban 99 sheet-mulched g a r d e n b e d s 100
p e s t m a n a g e m e n t , integrated 56 shelterbelts 117, 120, 121
pH meter 44 silt t r a p 90
photovoltaic panel 148 site a n a l y s i s 40
piezometer 95 site, a s s e s s m e n t 68
pioneer species 5 slope 68
plane table 47 sod roof 73
planter box 109 soil 51
p l a n t s , companion 57 soil collapse 93
plants, indicators of soil 54 soil collapse, testing 94
plough, Wallace 55 soil conditioning 54
plough, Y e o m a n 55 soil, non-wetting 64
plucking b e d s 12 soil t r e a t m e n t s and a m e n d m e n t s
polyculture 15, 56 solar air p a n e l s 82

168
 solar chimney 74 water h a r v e s t i n g , dryland 96
solar food dryer 157 water "head" 151
solar hot water s y s t e m s 75 water, p u m p i n g 154
solar house, p a s s i v e 72 water repellency 64
solar oven 156 waterlogging 93, 95
solar panel 148 wetland p l a n t s 8 5 , 90
solar pergola 8 1 whole farm plan 115
solar p u m p 155 wind g e n e r a t o r s 149
spreader drains 92 wind towers 150
stacking 60 windbreak, construction 117
s t a c k i n g , time 6 1 w i n d b r e a k s 116
stock lock-up a r e a s 123 window sills 108
s t o r a g e ratio, of d a m s 88 WISALTS 93
succession 4
surveying equipment 45 Y
s u s t a i n a b l e l a n d u s e 7, 115 Y e o m a n ' s plough 55
s w a l e 90, 96
Z
T
zenith 22
tanks, rainwater 84
tape measure 43 zones 19
t e r r a c i n g 84, 9 2
theodolite 47
tillage, m i n i m u m 5 5
time s t a c k i n g 6 1
titles, l a n d 143
tracker, for s o l a r panel 149
transpiration 66
treating greywater 85
tree b e l t s 121
trees, fodder 125
t r e e s , for climate control 75
trellis 12, 79, 110
t r u s t s , community 145

U
underground houses 73

V
vents, in h o u s e s 82
village living 135

W
W a l l a c e plough 55
w a s t e d i s p o s a l , communities 139
w a s t e d i s p o s a l options 140
w a t e r cycle 66
water, h a r v e s t i n g 84

169
 Notes

"We can make forests into deserts or deserts into forests. It is our choice"
Bill Mollison, 1994

170