Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7565–7580
DOI 10.1007/s10661-013-3119-1
Efficient control of air pollution through plants,
a cost-effective alternative: studies on Dalbergia sissoo Roxb
C. S. Kapoor & B. R. Bamniya & K. Kapoor
Received: 15 September 2012 / Accepted: 30 January 2013 / Published online: 20 February 2013
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013
Abstract Plants can be used as both passive biomoni-
tors and biomitigators in urban and industrial environ-
ments to indicate the environmental quality and to
ameliorate pollution level in a locality. Many studies
reveal that plants are negatively affected by the ambient
levels of air pollutants. The present study was conducted
to evaluate the impact of air pollution on comparative
basis with reference to changes in photosynthetic pig-
ments, plant height, leaves, as well as, biochemical
parameters of plants of different sites around Udaipur
city receiving varying levels of pollution load. The
investigated tree species Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.
(Family: Fabaceae) exhibited a reduction in various
physiological and biochemical growth parameters that
correspond with air pollution levels at different sites.
The tree species growing in polluted and control areas
were compared with respect to foliar dust load, leaf area,
and chlorophyll and total carbohydrate and total protein
concentration in the leaves. Our studies suggest that D.
sissoo Roxb. can successfully be grown in an area for
monitoring air pollution, where it is mild and droughts
are common. It will prove as an ideal tree species to
C. S. Kapoor (*) : B. R. Bamniya
Department of Environmental Sciences,
Mohan Lal Sukhadia University,
Udaipur 313001 Rajasthan, India
e-mail: drcskapoor@yahoo.co.in
K. Kapoor
Department of Botany, Mohan Lal Sukhadia University,
Udaipur 313001 Rajasthan, India
control pollution effectively beside acting as a shade tree
and being a source of food for birds and animals. By
plantation of D. sissoo Roxb., mitigative measure at the
polluted sites to control generation of particulate matter
and the air quality required can be ensured. Our results
also confirm that industrial and vehicular air pollution
level in Udaipur city is shifting beyond limits.
Keywords Toxic gases . Industrialization . Dalbergia
sissoo Roxb . Physiological responses . Air pollutants
Introduction
Natural air pollution existed around us for millions of
years, but during the last century, pollution created by
humans has become a major concern. Air pollution is a
major environmental health problem affecting the devel-
oping and the developed countries alike. It is not only the
ambient air quality in the cities but also the indoor air
quality in the rural and the urban areas that are causing
concern, and highest air pollution exposures are in the
indoor environment. We are most familiar with visible air
pollution like smog; however, many other types of air
pollution, including some of the most dangerous, are
totally invisible. Air pollutants rarely exist singly, but the
combined pollutants may have synergistic, additive, or
antagonistic effects. These directly affect the quality of
life, human’s and other beings’ health, and climate.
Because of its general impact on environment and health,
air pollution is continuously monitored worldwide in
7566
bigger cities. With increasing industrialization, forests are
being affected adversely because of contamination of air,
water, and soil by growth-inhibiting (or generally toxic)
substances that include gases, acids, particles, etc. It has
been observed that various stresses affect plants in differ-
ent ways. Inhaled air pollutants have serious impact on the
lungs so on the respiratory system and may reach all over
the body. These pollutants are also deposited in soil,
plants, and water, further contributing to human exposure
(Douwes et al. 2003; Ilyas et al. 2010).
Li (2003) evaluated peroxidase and superoxide dis-
mutase activities in fig leaves in response to ambient air
pollution in a subtropical city. Cox (2003) studied the
use of passive sampling to monitor forest exposure to
O3, NO2, and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Liu and Ding (2008)
studied variation in air pollution tolerance index of
plants near a steel factory. Yan-Ju and Hui (2008)
observed variation in air pollution tolerance index of
plant near a steel factory; implications for landscape-
plant species selection for industrial areas. Escobedo et
al. (2008) analyzed cost-effectiveness of Santiago,
Chile’s policy of using urban forest to improve air
quality. Prajapati and Tripathi (2008) concluded that
most air pollutants decrease photosynthetic activity of
woody plants, accelerating internal physiological
changes leading to growth inhibition and cause visible
injury and death. Value assessment of exotic and native
tree plantations based upon short-term gains from wood
and otherwise has suggested that exotic plantations are
more profitable than native tree plantations, but such
estimations have largely ignored the value of ecological
services. Agbaire (2009) studied air pollution tolerance
indices of some plants around Erhoike-Kpkori oil ex-
ploration site of Delta state, Nigeria. Joshi et al. (2009)
studied effect of industrial air pollutants on certain
plants. Honour et al. (2009) worked out responses of
herbaceous plants to urban air pollution in terms of
effects on growth, phenology, and leaf surface character-
istics. Sharma and Tripathi (2009) carried investigations
on some biochemical responses in tree foliage exposed
to coal-fired power plant emission in seasonally dry
tropical environment. Rai et al. (2010) observed leaf
surface structure alterations due to particulate pollution
in some common plants. Govindaraju et al. (2010) ana-
lyzed the impact assessment of air pollution stress on
plants species through biochemical estimations. Alföldy
and Steib (2011) and Seeyeednejad et al. (2009a, b,
2011) and Seeyeednejad and Koochak (2011) investi-
gated varied effects of air pollution on certain plants.
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7565–7580
Comparative studies were carried out on some tree spe-
cies commonly found in Udaipur and its adjoining areas,
and these revealed that tree species, viz., Mangifera
indica L., Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre, and
Holoptelea integrifolia L. act as efficient sink for air
pollutants and help in rejuvenating the industrial and
urban environments (Kapoor et al. 2009a, b; 2012;
Bamniya et al. 2012a, b, c). Objectives of this study is
to establish sissoo tree plantations as a cost-effective
means to control air pollution caused by industries,
vehicles, and climatic disturbances in areas where it
can be successfully grown. Besides this, its economic
worth can be utilized which is an added advantage.
Although the results and interpretations represent a
particular study at a determined time, investigations
must be carried periodically that will help in the
continuous monitoring and regular assessment of am-
bient air quality to prevent any disastrous situation.
Materials and methods
Study area
The city of Udaipur (state Rajasthan, India), known as
the “City of Lakes,” is situated about 600 m above the
mean sea level and is located among the lush green
hills of Aravalli Range between 24°35′ N latitude and
73°42′ E longitude (see Fig. 1). There are three major
lakes around and within Udaipur, e.g., Fateh Sagar,
Swaroop Sagar, and Pichhola. The city has a popula-
tion of around 0.65 million and has a distinct tropical
climate with marked monsoonal effect. The climate of
Udaipur can be divided into three distinct seasons, i.e.,
summer (March–June), rain (July–October), and win-
ter (November–February). The average temperature
ranges from 5 °C in winter to a maximum of 41 °C
in summers. The annual average rainfall ranges
between 62.5 and 125 cm during normal monsoon
regime. In order to assess the status of air pollution
on the growth and biochemical and physiological
parameters along with morphological changes, three
sites were selected, viz., Forest area (Kevede ki Naal
lying at 24°25′00.90″ N and 73°46′05.40″ E and an
elevation of 449 m), Industrial area (Madri Industrial
Area lying at 24°35′01.23″ N and 73°44′59.52″ E and
an elevation of 600 m), and Urban area (Surajpole
lying at 24°34′45.95″ N and 73°41′46.31″ E and an
elevation of 612 m).
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7565–7580
Fig. 1 Locations map
showing India, Rajasthan,
and investigation sites at
Udaipur city
Sample collection
The concentrations of different air pollutants, viz.,
SO2, nitrogen oxide (NOx), suspended particulate
matter (SPM), and respirable suspended partial mat-
ter (RSPM) were monitored into 100 transects
(100×100 m with a difference of 10 m), and obser-
vations taken indicate mean value of all these sites,
on the basis of daily recording at different times,
7567
i.e., morning (0700 hours), noon (1200 hours), and
evening (1800 hours) on an 8-h basis. The matured
leaves from each plant species were plucked
through random selection; the leaves of the sample
plants were brought in polythene bags to the labo-
ratory, and activity of enzymes was studied imme-
diately. For further analysis, these were preserved
at −14 °C in a freezer till analyzed for different
parameters within 24 h from harvest.
7568
Plant studies and analysis
The plant’s biochemical parameters studied were
amount of chlorophyll (Chl) a, Chl b, total Chl, car-
otenoids, and their absorbance was measured by
Systronix spectrophotometer 108 UV–VIS model in
visible range using aqueous 80 % acetone as solvent
(Jenson 1978). The activities of two oxidative
enzymes peroxidase and polyphenol oxidase were
studied along with the above parameters in the de-
scribed schedule (Mahadevan and Sridhar 1982).
Increased activity of these two enzymes has been
found in plants facing pollution. Dust capturing ca-
pacity of the leaves of sample trees was another pa-
rameter which substantiated our data on the effect of
ambient air pollution and its monitoring. Dust captur-
ing capacity and leaf size of the leaves of sample trees
were measured by method given by Pandey and
Sharma (2003). Total carbohydrate (Dubois et al.
1956) and total protein of the plant samples as a
soluble fraction were determined (Lowry et al. 1951).
Air pollution monitoring
Ambient air samples were collected using high-
volume sampler (Envirotech model, APM-410) and
respirable dust sampler (Envirotech model APM
460) with suitable gas attachment. SPM and RSPM
were collected on glass fiber filter papers by using
high-volume sampler and respirable dust sampler
(Rehme et al. 1984). Particulate concentrations were
determined gravimetrically by taking pre- and post-
sampling filter weights and considering the sampled
air volume. Gaseous pollutants were scrubbed sepa-
rately in 0.1 M potassium tetrachloromercurate and
sodium hydroxide (0.1 N), respectively. These absorb-
ing solutions were later analyzed colorimetrically for
SO2 through the modified West and Gaeke (1956)
method and NO2 through the modified Jacobs and
Hochheiser (1958) method. The ambient air quality
and toxic effect of air pollutants on the tree species as
above were investigated at these points for two con-
secutive years, i.e., from September 2007 to October
2009 on bimonthly basis.
Statistical analysis
For determining the significant differences between sites
and months/seasons, data were subjected to analysis of
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7565–7580
Table 1 Coefficient of correlation between various parameters
of ambient air quality of Madri Industrial area during first year
(September 2007–August 2008) of study
Parameters SO2 NOx SPM RSPM
SO2 −0.07411 +0.594375 +0.406105
NOx +0.107405 +0.063992
SPM +0.869035
RSPM
variance (ANOVA) test. The correlation coefficients
were also determined between air pollutant concentra-
tions and selected plant parameters in additions to sites.
The significant values were then analyzed. Significant
negative/positive correlations between air-quality
parameters and different biochemical parameters of the
tree species at the sites studied have been shown
(Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6).
Economic importance of investigated species
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. (Family: Fabaceae) grows in
moist tropics and sub-tropics of up to 1,000 m of
altitude. Growth is most prolific in tropical and
sub-tropical climates, particularly in areas where
there is considerable soil moisture (but not water-
logged). It is planted on road sides and as a shade
tree in tea plantations. In durability and adaptability
to treatment and working qualities, sissoo wood
resembles Indian rosewood. Like Indian rosewood,
it is a high class furniture and cabinet wood widely
used throughout North India. It is esteemed also for
railway sleepers, musical instruments, wooden cot
legs, electric casing, hammer handles, shoe heels,
tobacco smoking tubes and pipes, etc. It is an
excellent fuel and is suitable for making charcoal.
A decoction of leaves is useful in gonorrhoea.
Table 2 Coefficient of correlation between various parameters
of ambient air quality of Madri Industrial area during second
year (September 2008–August 2009) of study
Parameters SO2 NOx SPM RSPM
SO2 −0.523300 −0.464670 −0.333350
NOx −0.318090 −0.559860
SPM −0.589225
RSPM
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7565–7580 7569

Table 3 Coefficient of correlation between various parameters Table 5 Coefficient of correlation between various parameters
of ambient air quality of forest (Kevede ki Naal) area during first of ambient air quality of urban area (Surajpole) during first year
year (September 2007–August 2008) of study (September 2007–August 2008) of study

Parameters SO2 NOx SPM RSPM Parameters SO2 NOx SPM RSPM

SO2 +0.699845 +0.744020 +0.688154 SO2 −0.347890 +0.011510 −0.077230

NOx +0.906032 +0.950898 NOx −0.367510 −0.203100
SPM +0.898159 SPM +0.112810
RSPM RSPM

Results and highest in the month of November 2008, at

Ambient air quality
Results of investigation were recorded for 2 years
(September 2007–October 2009) and discussed. The
national standards of SO2/NOx, SPM, and RSPM for
urban area are 80, 200, and 100 μg/m3, respectively.
During study period in urban area, it was lowest in the
month of October 2008 at 4.99 μg/m3 while it was
highest in the month of October 2007, as 10.72 μg/m3,
the possible reason being climatic factors. Lowest
concentration of NO2 was observed at 21.30 μg/m3
in the month of April 2008, and it was highest in the
month of November 2008 at 48.38 μg/m3. In case of
SPM, the lowest value was recorded in the month of
October 2007, at 66.55 μg/m3 and highest value in the
month of 08 March, at 375.33 μg/m3. In case of
RSPM, lowest value was recorded in the month of
August 2009, at 25.59 μg/m3 and highest in the month
of February 2008, at 179.52 μg/m3. While National
standards for industrial area for SO 2 /NO x is
120 μg/m3, for SPM is 500 μg/m3, and RSPM is
150 μg/m3. In industrial area, lowest concentration
of SO2 was observed in the month of March 2009 at
5.07 μg/m3 and highest in the month of October 2008,
at 16.23 μg/m3. In case of NOx, the lowest value was
recorded in the month of March 2008, at 21.74 μg/m3
63.94 μg/m3. In the case of SPM, lowest value was
recorded in the month of June 2009, at 131.48 μg/m3
and highest in the month of October 2007, at
915.76 μg/m3. In case of RSPM, observed concentra-
tion was lowest in the month of June 2008, at
35.58 μg/m3 and highest in the month of November
2007, at 746.06 μg/m3. In comparison, lowest concen-
tration of SO2 was recorded in forest area in the month
of August 2008, at 2.53 μg/m3 and highest in the
month of May 2008, at 6.29 μg/m3. While lowest
value of NO 2 was recorded in the month of
September 2007, at 23.94 μg/m3 and highest in the
month of May 2009, at 39 μg/m3. In case of SPM,
lowest value was recorded in the month August 2009,
at 197.5 μg/m3 and highest in the month of May 2009,
at 353.5 μg/m3. In case of RSPM, lowest value was
recorded in the month of August 2008, at 73.5 μg/m3
and highest in the month of May 2008, at
110.5 μg/m3. For the forest area, National standards
of SO2/NOx is 30 μg/m3, for SPM it is 100 μg/m3, and
for RSPM it is 75 μg/m3 in the sensitive area. Various
parameters of ambient air quality of Madri Industrial,
forest, and urban areas during study period have been
represented in Figs. 2, 3, and 4.
Coefficient of correlation among various parame-
ters of air quality of forest area recorded were: r=+
0.6998 (SO2 and NOx), r=+0.07440 (SO2 and SPM),

Table 4 Coefficient of correlation between various parameters Table 6 Coefficient of correlation between various parameters
of ambient air quality of forest (Kevede ki Naal) area during of ambient air quality of urban area (Surajpole) during second
second year (September 2008–August 2009) of study year (September 2008–August 2009) of study

Parameters SO2 NOx SPM RSPM Parameters SO2 NOx SPM RSPM

SO2 +0.767279 +0.828922 +0.750942 SO2 +0.08557 −0.2861 −0.11071

NOx +0.918798 +0.952877 NOx −0.43931 −0.53014
SPM +0.928494 SPM +0.72598
RSPM RSPM
7570 Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7565–7580

Fig. 2 Mean values of vari- SO2

ous parameters of Ambient 1000
NOX
air quality in industrial area 900
(MIA) of Udaipur city 800 SPM
700 RSPM
600

µg/m3
500
400
300
200
100
0

Aug.2008

Aug.2009
Sep. 07

Feb. 08

Jun-08
Jul-08

Sep. 08

Feb. 09

Jun-09
Jul-09
Nov. 07
Dec. 07
Jan. 08

Mar.08
Apr. 08
May-08

Nov. 08
Dec. 08
Jan. 09

Mar. 09
Apr. 09
May-09
Oct. 07

Oct. 08
Time (Months)

r=+0.6881 (SO2 and RSPM), r=+0.9060 (NOx and 2009 the correlations between SO2 and NOx, SPM,
SPM), r=+0.9508 (NOx and RSPM), and r=+0.8981 and RSPM were −0.5233, −0.4646, and −0.3333,
(SPM and RSPM) during September 2007 to August respectively, and between NOx and SPM, NOx and
2008. During September 2008 to August 2009, these RSPM, and SPM and RSPM were −0.3180, −0.5598,
were r=+0.7672 (SO2 and NOx), r=+0.8289 (SO2 and and + 0.5898, respectively.
SPM), r=+0.7509 (SO2 and RSPM), r=+0.9187 (NOx
and SPM), r=+0.9528 (NOx and RSPM), and r=+ Biochemical parameters studied
0.9285 (SPM and RSPM). The values in urban area
were: r=−0.3478 (SO2 and NOx), r=+0.0115 (SO2 During the first year of the study, the leaves of D.
and SPM), r=−0.0772 (SO2 and RSPM), r=−0.3675 sissoo Roxb. in industrial area were recorded to have a
(NOx and SPM), r=−0.2031 (NOx and RSPM), as well very low amount of Chl a during May–June 2008
as, correlation among SPM and RSPM was +0.1128. (0.000178 mg/g). While higher amount of Chl a was
During September 2008 to August 2009, the correlation recorded during the same period (0.727 mg/g) in the
coefficient was: +0.08585 (SO2 and NOx), −0.2861 samples of forest area. Chl b content was higher dur-
(SPM), −0.1107 (RSPM), r=−0.4393 (NOx and SPM), ing September–October 2007 (0.357 mg/g),
r=−0.5301 (NOx and RSPM), and +0.7259 (SPM and November–December 2007 (0.169 mg/g), and
RSPM). In industrial area, during September 2007– March–April 2008 (0.725 mg/g) in the samples of
August 2008, the values were r=−0.0741 (SO2 and urban, industrial, and forest areas, respectively. Total
NOx), r=+0.5943 (SO2 and SPM), r=+0.4061 (SO2 Chl was recorded highest during September–October
and RSPM), r = +0.1074 (NO x and SPM), r = + 2007 (0.652 mg/g) in urban area, November–
0.0639 (NOx and RSPM), and SPM and RSPM December 2007 (0.387 mg/g) in industrial area, and
was +0.8690. During September 2008 to August May–June 2008 (1.412 mg/g) in forest area and lowest

Fig. 3 Mean values of vari- SO2

ous parameters of Ambient
NOX
air quality in forest area
(Kevede ki naal) 400 SPM
of Udaipur city 350 RSPM
300
250
µg/m3

200
150
100
50
0
Aug.2008

Aug.2009
Sep. 07

Feb. 08

Jun-08
Jul-08

Sep. 08

Feb. 09

Jun-09
Jul-09
Nov. 07
Dec. 07
Jan. 08

Mar.08
Apr. 08
May-08

Nov. 08
Dec. 08
Jan. 09

Mar. 09
Apr. 09
May-09
Oct. 07

Oct. 08

Time (Months)
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7565–7580 7571

Fig. 4 Mean values of vari- SO2

ous parameters of Ambient
NOX
air quality in urban area 400
(Surajpole) of Udaipur city 350 SPM
300 RSPM
250

µg/m3
200
150
100
50
0

Aug.2008

Aug.2009
Sep. 07

Feb. 08

Jun-08
Jul-08

Sep. 08

Feb. 09

Jun-09
Jul-09
Nov. 07
Dec. 07
Jan. 08

Mar.08
Apr. 08
May-08

Nov. 08
Dec. 08
Jan. 09

Mar. 09
Apr. 09
May-09
Oct. 07

Oct. 08
Time (Months)

during January–February 2008 (0.82 mg/g), May– higher during November–December 2007 (8.69 mg/g)
June 2008 (0.099 mg/g), and November–December and lower during March–April 2008 (1.2 mg/g);
2008 (0.584 mg/g), respectively. In urban and indus- whereas, in industrial area it was so during January–
trial areas, the amount of carotenoids were recorded February 2008 (7.0 mg/g) and March–April 2008
higher during January–February 2008 (0.121 mg/g) (1.3 mg/g), and in forest area it recorded like above
and November–December 2007 (0.113 mg/g), respec- during July–August 2008 (17.68 mg/g) and May–June
tively, and lowest during May–June 2008 in both sites. 2008 (2.84 mg/g), respectively. Dust capturing capac-
Whereas in forest area, the highest and lowest values ity was found to be highest in the samples of industrial
were recorded during September–October 2007 area with its highest value recorded during January–
(0.399 mg/g) and January–February 2008 February 2008 (41.0 mg/cm2). It was negligible during
(0.128 mg/g), respectively (Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, September–October 2007 (0.0 mg/cm2) in the samples
and 11). Higher values of total carbohydrate were of forest area. The leaf size of forest area recorded
estimated during January–February 2008 (5.4 mg/g) highest during March–April 2008 (30.1 cm2) and the
in urban area, September–October 2007 (23.25 mg/g) smallest size was recorded in the samples of industrial
in industrial area, and March–April 2008 (12.58 mg/g) area during March–April 2008 (11.75 cm2) (Table 7).
in the forest area. The lowest values were recorded Two oxidative enzymes of plants peroxidase and poly-
during July–August 2008 in the industrial and forest phenol oxidase show their maximum activity at the
areas. In urban area, the protein content was recorded time the plant is subjected to any stress; in the present

Fig. 5 Amount of photo- Chl.a

synthetic pigments of D.
sissoo Roxb. in urban area 0.9 Chl.b
of Udaipur city 0.8 Total chl.

0.7 Carotenoids

0.6
0.5
(mg/g)

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Sep- Nov- Jan- Ma May- July- Sep- Nov- Jan- Ma May- July-
Oct Dec Feb 08 rch- June Aug Oct Dec Feb 09 rch- June Aug
07 07 April 08 08 08 08 April 09 09
08 09
Time (Months)
7572 Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7565–7580

Fig. 6 Amount of photo- Chl.a

0.9
synthetic pigments of D.
sissoo Roxb. in Industrial Chl.b
0.8
area (Madri) of Udaipur city Total chl.
0.7
Carotenoids
0.6

0.5

(mg/g)
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
Sep-Oct Nov- Jan-Feb March- May- July- Sep-Oct Nov- Jan- Feb March- May- July-
07 Dec 07 08 April 08 June 08 Aug 08 08 Dec 08 09 April 09 June 09 Aug 09
Time (Months)

case, it is the stress developed by the presence of
various kinds of pollutants in the ambient air of the
study sites, i.e., urban, industrial, and forest areas. The
activity of polyphenol oxidase in samples of leaf tis-
sues of urban area (Surajpole) was at its lowest level
during the months of July–August 2008, while it was
definitely higher in other months of the year in the
order of January–February 2008 (highest activity)>
November–December 2007 > March–April 2008 >
2008>September–October 2007>May–June 2008. In
samples of Madri Industrial Area, the activity was at
its lowest level during the months of March–April
2008, but it was higher in other months of the year
in the order of September–October 2007>May–June
2008 > January–February 2008 > and November–
December 2007>July–August 2008. In the samples
of forest area (Kevede ki Naal), the activity of the
enzyme was at its lowest possible ebb during the
months of May–June 2008 and it was higher in other
months of the year in the order of January–February
2008 > November–December 2007 > March–April
2008>September–October 2007>July–August 2008.
In leaf samples of urban area (Surajpole), the activity
of peroxidase increased from initial level to its highest
level at 20-s interval up to 180 s during all months
studied. The order of increased activity was March–
April 2008 followed by January–February 2008,
November–December 2007, September–October
2007, May–June 2008, and July–August 2008 (lowest
activity observed). In the samples of Madri Industrial
Area, the activity of peroxidase was observed to in-
crease from initial level to its highest level at 20-s
interval up to 180 s in the same pattern as above
during the months of March–April 2008 (highest ac-
tivity) followed by January–February 2008 (abnormal
highest activity at 80 s), September–October 2007,

Fig. 7 Amount of photo- Chl.a

synthetic pigments of D. 2
Chl.b
sissoo Roxb. in forest area 1.8
Total chl.
(Kevede ki naal) of Udaipur 1.6
Carotenoids
city 1.4
1.2
(mg/g)

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Sep- Nov- Jan- Ma May- July- Sep- Nov- Jan- Ma May- July-
Oct 07 Dec 07 Feb 08 rch- June Aug Oct 08 Dec 08 Feb 09 rch- June Aug
April 08 08 April 09 09
08 Time (Months) 09
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7565–7580 7573

Fig. 8 Amount of protein 10 Carbohydrate

and carbohydrate of D. sis-
soo Roxb. in urban area of 9 Protein
Udaipur city 8
7
6

(mg/g)
5
4
3
2
1
0
Sep-Oct Nov- Jan-Feb March- May- July- Sep-Oct Nov- Jan- March- May- July-
07 Dec 07 08 April June 08 Aug 08 08 Dec 08 Feb 09 April June 09 Aug 09
08 09
Time (Months)

November–December 2007, May–June 2008, and
July–August 2008 (lowest activity observed). In the
samples of forest area (Kevede ki Naal), the activity of
the enzyme was at its minimum level and found to
increase from initial level to its highest level at 20-s
interval up to 180 s in all the months, but abnormal
high activity of the enzyme occurred in the months of
May–June 2008 at 60 s and highest at 160 s. The
values of ANOVA, i.e., 1.969, 2.792, 4.787, and
2.234 and 1.620, 2.087, 3.072, and 1.775 were found
to be significant at 1 and 5 % levels of significance
(Tables 8 and 9).
During the second year of the study, the amount of
Chl a and total Chl were recorded higher during
March–April 2009 in the leaf samples of all the three
sites; whereas; Chl b was recorded higher during
September–October 2008 in urban and forest areas
and during November–December 2008 in industrial
area. The carotenoids content were recorded highest
during November–December 2008 in urban
(0.121 mg/g) and industrial areas (0.103 mg/g) and
during September–October 2008 in forest area
(0.402 mg/g). In urban, industrial, and forest areas,
the higher values of total carbohydrates were recorded
as 5.55 (January–February 2009), 4.8 (March–April
2009), and 6.1 mg/g (September–October 2008), re-
spectively. Their lower values were estimated during
July–August 2009 in urban (4.15 mg/g) and forest

Fig. 9 Amount of protein 8 Carbohydrate

and carbohydrate of D. sis- Protein
soo Roxb. in industrial area
7
(Madri) of Udaipur city
6

5
(mg/g)

0
Sep-Oct Nov-Dec Jan-Feb March- May- July- Sep-Oct Nov-Dec Jan- Feb March- May- July-Aug
07 07 08 April 08 June 08 Aug 08 08 08 09 April 09 June 09 09
Time (Months)
7574 Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7565–7580

Fig. 10 Amount of protein Carbohydrate

and carbohydrate of 20
Protein
D. sissoo Roxb. in forest 18
area (Kevede ki naal)
16
of Udaipur city
14

12

(mg/g)
10

0
Sep-Oct Nov-Dec Jan-Feb March- May- July- Sep-Oct N ov-Dec Jan- Feb March- May- July-
07 07 08 April 08 June 08 Aug 08 08 08 09 April 09 June 09 Aug 09

Time (Months)

areas (4.65 mg/g) and in May–June 2009 in industrial
area (2.3 mg/g). In urban, industrial, and forest areas,
protein content was recorded highest during
September–October 2008 (8.76 mg/g), March–April
2009 (7.2 mg/g), and November–December 2008
(13.44 mg/g), respectively, and lowest during May–
June 2009 (2.5, 2.4, and 2.9 mg/g, respectively) at all
the three sites. In urban and industrial areas, dust
capturing capacity was highest during January–
February 2009 (3.185 and 42.133 mg/cm2, respective-
ly) and during November–December 2008
(2.59 mg/cm2) in forest area; whereas, its value were
found to be lowest during September–October 2008 at
all the three sites. In the samples of urban and forest
areas, the size of the leaves were recorded maximum
during January–February 2009 (21.25 and 28.25 cm2,
respectively); whereas; it was so during September–
October 2008 (19.25 cm 2 ) in industrial area
(Table 10). The activity of polyphenol oxidase in leaf
tissue samples urban area (Surajpole) during the sec-
ond year of study in months of July–August 2009 was
at low ebb, while it was higher in other months of the
year in the order of January–February 2009 >
November–December 2008 > September–October
2008>March–April 2009>May–June 2009. The ac-
tivity of polyphenol oxidase in leaf tissue samples of
Madri Industrial area was at low ebb during the
months of March–April 2009, but it was increased
(higher) in other months of the year in the order of
January–February 2009<November–December 2008

Fig. 11 Comparative foliar 45 Urban

Dust capturing capacity of
40 Industrial
D. sissoo Roxb. in urban,
industrial and forest area of Forest
35
Udaipur city
30
(mg/cm2)

25

20

15

10

0
Sep-Oct Nov- Jan-Feb March- May- July- Sep-Oct Nov- Jan- March- May- July-
07 Dec 07 08 April June 08 Aug 08 08 Dec 08 Feb 09 April June 09 Aug 09
08 09
Time (Months)
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7565–7580 7575

Table 7 Biochemical growth parameters of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. at different investigation sites of Udaipur city during first year
(September 2007–August 2008) of study

Parameter studied Sites September– November– January– March–April May–June July–August

October 2007 December 2007 February 2008 2008 2008 2008

Chlorophyll Urban 0.241 0.327 0.151 0.294 0.257 0.281

(Chl) a (mg/g) Industrial 0.129 0.169 0.088 0.204 0.001 0.218
Forest 0.265 0.382 0.409 0.497 0.727 0.337
Chl b (mg/g) Urban 0.357 0.201 0.137 0.173 0.170 0.230
Industrial 0.051 0.169 0.119 0.020 0.033 0.105
Forest 0.400 0.209 0.251 0.725 0.684 0.554
Total Chl (mg/g) Urban 0.652 0.515 0.282 0.378 0.398 0.512
Industrial 0.241 0.387 0.213 0.273 0.099 0.324
Forest 0.694 0.584 0.628 1.223 1.412 0.880
Carotenoids (mg/g) Urban 0.111 0.115 0.121 0.105 0.101 0.104
Industrial 0.039 0.113 0.079 0.048 0.035 0.043
Forest 0.399 0.131 0.128 0.146 0.184 0.214
Total carbohydrates Urban 4.370 4.380 5.400 3.850 4.750 4.450
(mg/g) Industrial 23.250 3.990 3.600 1.800 2.200 1.100
Forest 5.900 5.400 5.900 12.580 5.500 4.95
Total protein (mg/g) Urban 8.500 8.690 7.500 1.200 2.780 5.440
Industrial 6.000 3.600 7.000 1.030 2.280 3.340
Forest 11.900 13.000 8.000 15.030 2.840 17.680
Dust capturing Urban 0.961 3.100 3.000 9.060 4.337 1.496
capacity (mg/cm2) Industrial 0.947 11.220 41.000 12.760 5.581 3.265
Forest 0.000 2.490 0.980 0.815 1.756 1.203
Leaf size (cm2) Urban 20.250 20.000 22.000 24.530 20.750 16.620
Industrial 19.000 18.000 19.000 11.750 17.070 12.250
Forest 21.500 23.000 28.000 30.100 21.500 20.500

< September–October 2008 < July–August 2009 <
May–June 2009 (highest activity observed). The ac-
tivity of polyphenol oxidase in leaf tissue samples of
forest area (Kevede ki Naal) was at lowest during the
months of May–June 2009,and it was definitely higher
in other months of the year in the order of March–
April 2009<July–August 2009<September–October
2008 < November–December 2008 < January–
February 2009 (highest activity observed). In leaf
tissue samples of urban area (Surajpole), the activity
of peroxidase increased from initial level to its highest
level at 20-s interval of up to 180 s and increased

Table 8 Statistical data between chosen investigation sites and biochemical growth parameters of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. during first
year of study

Treatment Chlorophyll Chl b Total Chl Total Total Total DCC TLS Total Mean
(Chl) a carotenoids carbohydrate protein

Urban area 1.551 1.268 2.737 0.657 27.200 34.110 21.954 124.150 213.627 35.605
Industrial 0.808 0.977 1.537 0.357 35.940 32.250 74.773 97.070 234.712 39.119
area
Forest area 2.617 2.823 5.421 1.202 40.230 68.450 7.244 144.600 272.587 45.431
Total 4.976 5.068 9.695 2.216 103.370 125.810 103.971 365.820
Mean 1.659 1.689 3.232 0.739 34.457 41.937 34.657 121.940
7576 Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7565–7580

Table 9 Data on analysis of variance between chosen investigation sites and biochemical growth parameters of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.
during first year of study

S.O.V. df SS MSS F cal S/NS F tab SEM+ CD

5% 1% 5% 1%

Treatment 23 6,719.321 292.144 18.290 –a 1.620 1.969 1.632 4.569 6.040

C 7 37.190 5.313 0.333 NS 2.087 2.792 0.666 1.865 2.466
A 2 5,907.237 2,953.619 184.909 –a 3.072 4.787 0.942 2.638 3.487
C×A 14 774.894 55.350 3.465 –a 1.775 2.234 1.632 4.569 6.040
Error 120 1,916.799 15.973
Total 143 8,636.120
Mean 5.006
CV% 79.831
a
Value significant at 1 and 5 % levels of significance

Table 10 Biochemical growth parameters of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. at different investigation sites of Udaipur city during second year
(September 2008–August 2009) of study

Parameter studied Sites September– November– January– March–April May–June July–August

October 2008 December 2008 February 2009 2009 2009 2009

Chlorophyll Urban 0.234 0.334 0.145 0.731 0.222 0.232

(Chl) a (mg/g) Industrial 0.136 0.175 0.094 0.698 0.186 0.074
Forest 0.255 0.375 0.414 1.529 0.341 0.769
Chl b (mg/g) Urban 0.362 0.199 0.130 0.0984 0.006 0.150
Industrial 0.044 0.174 0.109 0.080 0.006 0.095
Forest 0.392 0.202 0.241 0.304 0.071 0.316
Total Chl (mg/g) Urban 0.647 0.508 0.275 0.812 0.228 0.383
Industrial 0.235 0.377 0.203 0.771 0.192 0.169
Forest 0.686 0.574 0.620 1.832 0.412 1.086
Carotenoids (mg/g) Urban 0.102 0.121 0.112 0.093 0.066 0.074
Industrial 0.042 0.103 0.069 0.092 0.065 0.042
Forest 0.402 0.126 0.119 0.117 0.091 0.202
Total carbohydrate Urban 4.450 4.450 5.550 4.950 4.500 4.150
(mg/g) Industrial 3.750 3.950 3.500 4.800 2.300 3.150
Forest 6.100 5.200 5.850 5.400 5.700 4.650
Total protein (mg/g) Urban 8.760 8.400 7.120 7.400 2.500 8.000
Industrial 7.000 3.720 6.960 7.200 2.400 3.600
Forest 12.800 13.440 7.440 8.500 2.900 9.500
Dust capturing Urban 0.952 3.200 3.185 1.311 2.623 1.066
capacity (mg/cm2) Industrial 0.963 11.868 42.133 1.643 2.927 1.666
Forest 0.000 2.590 0.941 1.012 2.439 0.301
Leaf size (cm2) Urban 20.750 19.250 21.250 18.250 18.250 18.750
Industrial 19.500 18.750 18.750 15.250 15.250 12.000
Forest 21.000 22.750 28.250 19.750 20.500 33.250
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7565–7580 7577

further up to 180 s in the order of July–August 2009,
May–June 2009, September–October 2008, March–
April 2009, November–December 2008, and
January–February 2009 (highest activity observed).
In the leaf tissue samples of Madri Industrial Area,
the activity of peroxidase increased from initial level
to its highest level at 20-s interval of up to 180 s and
increased further up to 180 s in the order of July–
August 2009, March–April 2009, November–
December 2008, May–June 2009, January–February
2009, and September–October 2008 (highest activity
observed). In leaf tissue samples of forest area
(Kevede ki Naal), the activity of peroxidase increased
from initial level to its highest level at 20-s interval up
to 180 s during the months of May–June 2009 fol-
lowed by March–April 2009, July–August 2009,
January–February 2009, September–October 2008,
and November–December 2008 (highest activity).
The values of ANOVA, i.e., 1.969, 2.792, 4.787,
2.234, 1.620, 2.087, 3.072, and 1.775 were found to
be significant at 1 and 5 % levels of significance
(Tables 11 and 12).
Discussion
Environmental stress, such as air pollution, is among
the most limiting factors related to plant productivity
and survivorship. Urban air pollution is a serious
problem in both developing and developed countries.
When exposed to airborne pollutants, most plants
experience physiological changes before exhibiting
visible damage to leaves. Dust interception capacity
of plants depends on their surface geometry, phyllo-
taxy, leaf external characteristics, such as hairs, cuti-
cle, length of petioles, height and canopy of trees, etc.;
weather conditions with direction; and speed of wind.
It has been reported that SO2, NO2, and O3 could
inhibit net photosynthesis of Populus euamericana
and Helianthus annuus. The inhibition of net photo-
synthesis would inhibit the assimilated translocation
and eventually leaf area would decrease. Nandeswar
and Banerjee (2002) assessed the level of air pollution
in the coal-mining areas and its impact on the existing
vegetation. It was found that dust-trapping capacity
differed considerably among different plant species
(Kapoor et al. 2009a; 2012; Bamniya et al. 2012a,
b). On the basis of the quantum of dust load per unit
leaf area, Madhuca indica, Butea monosperma, and
Ficus benghalensis L. are efficient dust collectors.
Alkaline dust deposited on leaf surface can also result
in chlorosis and death of leaf tissue by combination of
thick crust and alkaline toxicity produced in wet
weather. Shamim et al. (2002) reported the occurrence
of chromosomal aberration in Cestrum diurnum result-
ing in genotypic and phenotypic variation and decreas-
ing pollen fertility and seed set. Joshi and Sikka
(2002) reported reduction in size, fresh and dry weight
of flowers of tree species, i.e., Cassia fistula, Delonix
regia, and Peltophornum inermis. It has been reported
by many workers that varied range of air pollutants
normally inhibit growth and ultimately productivity
(Verma et al. 2000; Ribas and Penulas 2003; Kapoor
et al. 2009a; Bamniya et al. 2012a, b). Deposition may
increase the soil pH to levels that are adverse for the
crop growth (Griffiths 2003). Dineva (2004) recorded
reduction of leaf area and petiole length under pollu-
tion stress conditions. It was reported that D. sissoo
Roxb antioxidants scavenge the oxygen-free radicals
in plants exposed to relatively low concentrations of
ambient air pollutants for long durations. In addition to
this, there are damaging effects on seed germination,
length of pedicles, numbers of flowers, and
Inflorescences (Nithamathi and Indira 2005). Use of

Table 11 Statistical data between chosen investigation sites and biochemical growth parameters of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. during
second year of study

Treatment Chlorophyll (Chl) a Chl b Total Chl Total Total Total DCC TLS Total Mean
carotenoids carbohydrate protein

Urban area 1.898 4.203 2.853 0.568 28.050 42.180 12.337 116.500 208.589 34.765
Industrial 1.363 0.903 1.956 0.413 21.450 30.880 61.200 99.500 217.664 36.227
area
Forest area 3.683 1.526 5.210 1.056 32.900 54.580 7.283 145.500 251.738 41.956
Total 6.944 6.633 10.019 2.037 82.400 127.640 80.819 361.500
Mean 2.315 2.211 3.340 0.679 27.467 42.547 26.940 120.500
7578 Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7565–7580

Table 12 Data on analysis of variance between chosen investigation sites and biochemical growth parameters of Dalbergia sissoo
Roxb. during second year of study

S.O.V. df SS MSS F cal S/NS F tab SEM+ CD

5% 1% 5% 1%

Treatment 23 6,260.326 272.188 19.713 –a 1.620 1.969 1.517 4.248 5.615

C 7 21.565 3.081 0.223 NS 2.087 2.792 0. 196 1.734 2.292
A 2 5,724.079 2,862.040 207.279 –a 3.072 4.787 0.876 2.452 3.242
C×A 14 514.683 36.763 2.663 –a 1.775 2.234 1.517 4.248 5.615
Error 120 1,656.923 13.808
Total 143 7,917.249
Mean 4.708
CV% 78.922
a
Value significant at 1 and 5 % levels of significance

leaves for monitoring dust pollution using various mor-
phological consideration has recently been worked out
by many workers (Joshi and Sikka 2002; Chaurasia et
al. 2002; Aftab and Sakil 2003; Panichev and Crindle
2004; Sulistijorini et al. 2008; Kapoor et al. 2012).
Decrease in Chl content of leaves may be due to the
alkaline condition created by dissolution of chemicals
present in the dust particulates, i.e., metals and polycy-
clic hydrocarbons in cell sap which block the stomatal
pores for diffusion of air and thus put stress on plant
metabolism resulting in Chl degradation. Another rea-
son for degradation of Chl pigment attributed to action
of SO2 and NOx on the metabolism of Chl, both of these
gases are the constituents of vehicular emission. The
reduction in the concentration of Chl might have also
been caused due to the increase in chlorophyllase en-
zyme activities which in turn effects the Chl concentra-
tion in plants. It has been reported that plants exposed to
environmental pollutants absorb and accumulate into
their systems (Tiwari et al. 2006; Agbaire and
Esiefarienrhe 2009). High exposure of air pollutants
forces chloroplasts to reach into an excess energy level
which in turn increase the generation of electrons and
induced oxidative stress (Woo et al. 2007). Increases
were observed in superoxide dismutase, peroxidase ac-
tivity, sulfate, and leaf area to dry weight ratio and
decreases in stomatal conductance, ascorbic acid, pro-
tein content, and total lipids, as a general response of all
the plants in the polluted area (Sharma and Tripathi
2009). It appears that monitoring of antioxidant activi-
ties offers a useful tool in understanding the mechanisms
which make plants relatively tolerant in field conditions.
Joshi and Bora (2011) reported the impact of air quality
on physiological attributes of certain plants. Our finding
supports the works of Joshi and Swami (2007), Sharma
and Tripathi (2009), and Joshi and Bora (2011), and our
earlier work supports effectiveness of common tree
species as pollution monitors in urban areas, prone to
industrial and automobile pollution (Kapoor et al.
2009a, b; 2012; Bamniya et al. 2012a, b, c).
Conclusions
Plants have the potential to act as excellent quantitative
and qualitative bio-indicators of pollution. Sometimes the
species are ranked as poor and very poor performer, and it
may exhibit pollution stress depending on the intensity of
pollutants in an area. Plant which are the main green belt
component in any area act as a sink and as bio-filters to
check air pollution by various physical and biological
processes like absorption, adsorption, detoxification, ac-
cumulation, and metabolization with minimum foliar
damage or decline in growth as higher Chl content in
plants favor tolerance to pollutants. Thus improving air
quality and aesthetic value of landscape by their presence.
Precipitation accelerates the deposition of particulate
matter and gaseous pollutants on the ground; it also helps
in minimum deposition of dust on the leaves of the
vegetation in the vicinity. That is why pollutant concen-
trations were at a minimum during rainy season. During
winter months, frequent late night and early morning
thermal inversions inhibit vertical mixing and dispersion
of pollutants/dust and thus raising the concentration of
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7565–7580
SO2 and NO2 (elevated winter concentration of SO2 and
NO2) around the sites. D. sissoo Roxb. can successfully
be grown in area for monitoring air pollution, where it is
mild and drought are common and it is the right choice
for the development of greenbelts. The tree can thrive on
a variety of soil types, from dry to wet but is not partic-
ularly salt tolerant. Absorption of few metal ions is pos-
sible by it, and the tree has the potential of removing these
heavy metals from industrial and commercial waste.
Hence, Indian rosewood provides numerous services to
the landscape and environment and is commonly
employed in agroforestry. Since it is prone to suckering,
it is commonly used for erosion control and soil stabili-
zation along stream and river banks. Moreover, the pres-
ent study recommends that the analysis of photosynthetic
pigments and selected biochemical parameters furnishes
a reliable method for status of air pollution load in an
industrial/residential/freshly polluted region.
References
Aftab, A., & Sakil, A. (2003). Study of sulfur accumulation on
plant foliage due to coal smoke pollution. Geobios, 30,
284–285.
Agbaire, P. O. (2009). Air pollution tolerance indices of some
plants around Erhoike–Kpkori oil exploration site of Delta
state, Nigeria. International Journal of the Physical
Sciences, 4, 366–368.
Agbaire, P. O., & Esiefarienrhe, E. (2009). Air pollution toler-
ance indices of some plants around Otorogun gas plant in
Delta State, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences &
Environmental Management, 13, 11–14.
Alföldy, B., & Steib, R. (2011). Investigating the real air pollu-
tion exchange at urban sites based on time variation of
columnar content of the components. Water, Air, and Soil
Pollution, 220, 9–21.
Bamniya, B. R., Kapoor, C. S., & Kapoor, K. (2012). Searching
for efficient sink for air pollutants—studies on Mangifera
indica L. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy,
14, 107–114.
Bamniya, B. R., Kapoor, C. S., Kapoor, K., & Kapasya, V.
(2012). Harmful effects of air pollution on physiological
activities of Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre. Clean
Technologies and Environmental Policy, 14, 115–124.
Bamniya, B. R., Kapoor, C. S., Jain, S., & Kapoor, K. (2012).
Impact assessment of air pollution in industrial areas of
Rajasmand and Udaipur Districts. Journal of Environmental
Science, Computer Science and Engineering & Technology,
1(3), 411–417.
Chaurasia, B., Mahajan, S., & Chauhan, S. V. S. (2002). Impact
of automobile pollution on phenology and reproductive
biology of Cassia siamea Lam. Indian Journal of
Environmental Science, 6, 85–90.
7579
Cox, R. M. (2003). The use of passive sampling to monitor
forest exposure to O3, NO2 and SO2: a review and some
case studies. Environmental Pollution, 126, 301–311.
Dineva, S. B. (2004). Comparative studies of the leaf morphol-
ogy and structure of white ash Fraxinus americana L. and
London plane tree Platanus acerifolia wild growing in
polluted area. Dendrobiology, 52, 3–8.
Douwes, J., Thorne, P., Pearce, N., & Heederik, D. (2003).
Review: Bio-aerosol health effects and exposure assessment:
progress and prospects. The Annals of Occupational
Hygiene, 47(3), 187–200.
Dubois, M., Gilles, K. A., Hamilton, J. K., Rebers, P. A., &
Smith, F. (1956). A colorimetric method for the determi-
nation of sugars and related substances. Analytical
Chemistry, 28, 350–356.
Escobedo, F. J., Wagner, J. E., & Nowak, D. J. (2008).
Analyzing the cost effectiveness of Santiago, Chile’s poli-
cy of using urban forest to improve air quality. Journal of
Environmental Management, 86, 148–157.
Govindaraju, M., Ganeshkumar, R. S., Suganthi, P.,
Muthukmaran, V. R., & Visvanathan, P. (2010). Impact
assessment of air pollution stress on plants species through
biochemical estimations. World Academy of Science &
Engineering and Technology, 72, 935–938.
Griffiths, H. (2003). Air pollution on agricultural crops,
Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Ontario.
Fact Sheet, Order No. 85–002.
Honour, S. L., Bell, J. N., Ashenden, T. W., Cape, J. N., &
Power, S. A. (2009). Responses of herbaceous plants to
urban air pollution: effects on growth, phenology and leaf
surface characteristics. Environmental Pollution, 157,
1279–1286.
Ilyas, S. Z., Khattak, A. I., Nasir, S. M., Qurashi, T., & Durrani,
R. (2010). Air pollution assessment in urban areas and its
impact on human health in the city of Quetta, Pakistan.
Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, 12, 291–
299.
Jacobs, M. B., & Hochheiser, S. (1958). Continuous sampling
and ultramicro determination of nitrogen dioxide in air.
Analytical Chemistry, 30, 426–428.
Jenson, A. (1978). Chlorophylls and carotenoids. In J. A.
Hellebust & J. S. Craigie (Eds.), Handbook of phycological
methods (pp. 59–70). London: Cambridge University Press.
Joshi, N., & Bora, M. (2011). Impact of air quality on physio-
logical attributes of certain plants. Reports and Opinion,
3(2), Marshland Press, Michigan, USA, pp. 42–47. (http://
www.sciencepub.net/report).
Joshi, O. P., & Sikka, J. (2002). Floral response of some tree
species to air pollution. Pollution Research, 21, 417–419.
Joshi, P. C., & Swami, A. (2007). Physiological responses of
some tree species under roadside automobile pollution
stress around city of Haridwar, India. Environmentalist,
27, 365–374.
Joshi, N., Chauhan, A., & Joshi, P. C. (2009). Impact of indus-
trial air pollutants on some biochemical parameters and
yield in wheat and mustard plants. Environmentalist, 29,
398–404.
Kapoor, C. S., Kapasya, V., Bamniya, B. R., & Kapoor, K.
(2009a). Physiological and biochemical studies on some
common tree species in Udaipur city under pollution stress.
Journal of Current Sciences, 14(1), 181–186.
7580
Kapoor, C. S., Kapasya, V., Bamniya, B. R., & Kapoor, K.
(2009b). Studies on the quality of ambient air in the
Udaipur city (Rajasthan). Journal of Current Sciences,
14(1), 187–192.
Kapoor, C. S., Bamniya, B. R., & Kapoor, K. (2012). Natural and
effective control of air pollution through plants—studies on a
tree species: Holoptelea integrifolia L. Mitigation and
Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 17, 793–803.
Li, M. H. (2003). Peroxidase and superoxide dismutase activities
in fig leaves in response to ambient air pollution in a sub-
tropical city. Archives of Environmental Contamination and
Toxicology, 45, 168–176.
Liu, Y. J., & Ding, H. (2008). Variation in air pollution tolerance
index of plants near a steel factory: implication for land-
scape–plant species selection for industrial areas. WSEAS
Transactions on Environment and Development, 4, 24–32.
Lowry, O. H., Rosebrough, N. J., Farr, A. L., & Randal, R. J.
(1951). Protein measurement with the Folin-phenol
reagent. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 193, 265–275.
Mahadevan, A., & Sridhar, R. (1982). Methods in physiological
plant pathology (IIth ed., pp. 157–159). Madras: Sivakami
Publications.
Nandeswar, D. L., & Banerjee, S. K. (2002). Impact of open-
cast mining pollutants on vegetation at Bisrampur colliery
of M.P. Advances in Forestry Research in India, 21, 1–21.
Nithamathi, C. P., & Indira, V. (2005). Impact of air pollution on
Ceasalpinia sepiaria Linn. In Tuticorin city. Indian
Journal of Environment and Ecoplanning, 10(2), 449–452.
Pandey, J., & Sharma, M. (2003). Environmental Sciences.
Bikaner, India: Yash Publications. 90 pp.
Panichev, N., & Crindle, M. (2004). The application of bioindi-
cators for assessment of air pollution. Journal of
Environmental Monitoring, 6, 121–123.
Prajapati, S. K., & Tripathi, B. D. (2008). Anticipated perfor-
mance index of some tree species considered for green belt
development in and around an urban area: a case study of
Varanasi city, India. Journal of Environmental
Management, 88, 1343–1349.
Rai, A., Kulshreshtha, K., Srivastava, P. K., & Mohanty, C. S.
(2010). Leaf surface structure alterations due to particulate
pollution in some common plants. Environmentalist, 30,
18–23.
Rehme, K. A., Smith, C. F., Fitizsimmons, M. I. (1984).
Investigation for use in the determination of ambient par-
ticulate matter. Research Triangle Park NC, pp. 048.
Ribas, A., & Penulas, J. (2003). Biomonotoring of tropospheric
ozone phytotoxicity in rural Catalonia. Atmosphere and
Environment, 37, 63–71.
Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185:7565–7580
Seeyeednejad, S. M., & Koochak, H. (2011). A study on air
pollution-induced biochemical alterations in Eucalyptus
camaldulensis. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied
Sciences, 5(3), 601–606.
Seeyeednejad, S. M., Niknejad, M., & Yusefi, M. (2009a).
Study of air pollution effects on some physiology and
morphology factors of Albizia lebbeck in high temperature
condition in Khuzestan. Journal of Plant Sciences, 4, 122–
126.
Seeyeednejad, S. M., Niknejad, M., & Yusefi, M. (2009b). The
effect of air pollution on some morphological and bio-
chemical factors of Callistemon citrinus in petrochemical
zone in south of Iran. Asian Journal of Plant Sciences, 8,
562.
Seeyeednejad, S. M., Niknejad, M., & Koochak, H. (2011). A
review of some different effect of air pollution on plants.
Research Journal of Environmental Sciences, 5(4), 302–
309.
Shamim, A., Siddiqui, A., & Khan, S. (2002). Genotoxic effects
of smoke as a pollutant on Cestrum diurnum Linn.
Advances in Plant Sciences, 15, 573–577.
Sharma, A. P., & Tripathi, B. D. (2009). Biochemical responses
in tree foliage exposed to coal-fired power plant emission
in seasonally dry tropical environment. Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment, 158, 197–212.
Sulistijorini, et al. (2008). Tolerance levels of roadside tress to
air pollutants based on relative growth rate and air pollu-
tion tolerance index. Hayati Journal of Biosciences, 15(3),
123–129.
Tiwari, S., Agrawal, M., & Marshall, F. M. (2006). Evaluation
of ambient air pollution impact on carrot plants at a sub
urban site using open top open chambers. Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment, 199, 15–30.
Verma, M., Agrawal, M., & Deepika, S. S. (2000). Interactive
effects of sulphur dioxide and mineral nutrients supply on
photosynthetic characteristics and yield of four wheat cul-
tivars. Photosynthetica, 38(1), 91–96.
West, P. W., & Gaeke, G. C. (1956). Fixation of sulphur dioxide
as disulfitomercurate and subsequent colorimetric determi-
nation. Analytical Chemistry, 28, 1816–1819.
Woo, S. Y., Lee, D. K., & Lee, Y. K. (2007). Net photosynthetic
rate, ascorbate peroxide and glutathione reductase activities
of Erythrina orientalis in polluted and non-polluted areas.
Photosynthetica, 45, 293–295.
Yan-Ju, L., & Hui, D. (2008). Variation in air pollution tolerance
index of plant near a steel factory; implications for
landscape-plant species selection for industrial areas.
Environment and Development, 1(4), 24–30.