Designation: D 257 – 99 An American National Standard

Standard Test Methods for

DC Resistance or Conductance of Insulating Materials1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation D 257; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the Department of Defense.

1. Scope D 150 Test Methods for AC Loss Characteristics and Per-

1.1 These test methods cover direct-current procedures for mittivity Dielectric Contant of Solid Electrical Insulation2
the determination of dc insulation resistance, volume resis- D 374 Test Methods for Thickness of Solid Electrical Insu-
tance, volume resistivity, surface resistance, and surface resis- lation2
tivity of electrical insulating materials, or the corresponding D 618 Practice for Conditioning Plastics for Testing3
conductances and conductivities. D 1169 Test Method for Specific Resistance (Resistivity) of
1.2 These test methods are not suitable for use in measuring Electrical Insulating Liquids4
the electrical resistivity/conductivity of moderately conductive D 1711 Terminology Relating to Electrical Insulation2
materials. Use Test Method D 4496 to evaluate such materials. D 4496 Test Method for DC Resistance or Conductance of
1.3 The test methods and procedures appear in the follow- Moderately Conductive Materials5
ing sections: D 5032 Practice for Maintaining Constant Relative Humid-
Test Method or Procedure Section
ity by Means of Aqueous Glycerin Solutions5
Calculation 13 E 104 Practice for Maintaining Constant Relative Humidity
Choice of Apparatus and Test Method 7 by Means of Aqueous Solutions6
Cleaning Solid Specimens 10.1
Conditioning of Specimens 11
Effective Area of Guarded Electrode X2
3. Terminology
Electrode Systems 6 3.1 Definitions—The following definitions are taken from
Factors Affecting Insulation Resistance or Conductance X1
Measurements
Terminology D 1711 and apply to the terms used in these test
Humidity Control 11.2 methods.
Liquid Specimens and Cells 9.4 3.1.1 conductance, insulation, n—the ratio of the total
Precision and Bias 15
Procedure for the Measurement of Resist- 12
volume and surface current between two electrodes (on or in a
ance or Conductance specimen) to the dc voltage applied to the two electrodes.
Referenced Documents 2 3.1.1.1 Discussion—Insulation conductance is the recipro-
Report 14
Sampling 8
cal of insulation resistance.
Significance and Use 5 3.1.2 conductance, surface, n—the ratio of the current
Specimen Mounting 10 between two electrodes (on the surface of a specimen) to the dc
Summary of Test Methods 4
Terminology 3 voltage applied to the electrodes.
Test Specimens for Insulation, Volume, and Surface 9 3.1.2.1 Discussion—(Some volume conductance is un-
Resistance or Conductance Determination avoidably included in the actual measurement.) Surface con-
Typical Measurement Methods X3
ductance is the reciprocal of surface resistance.
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the 3.1.3 conductance, volume, n—the ratio of the current in the
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the volume of a specimen between two electrodes (on or in the
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- specimen) to the dc voltage applied to the two electrodes.
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica- 3.1.3.1 Discussion—Volume conductance is the reciprocal
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. For a specific of volume resistance.
hazard statement, see 6.1.8. 3.1.4 conductivity, surface, n—the surface conductance
multiplied by that ratio of specimen surface dimensions (dis-
2. Referenced Documents tance between electrodes divided by the width of electrodes
2.1 ASTM Standards: defining the current path) which transforms the measured

1 2
These test methods are under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D-9 on Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 10.01.
3
Electrical and Electronic Insulating Materials and are the direct responsibility of Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 08.01.
4
Subcommittee D09.12 on Electrical Tests. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 10.03.
5
Current edition approved Oct. 10, 1999. Published November 1999. Originally Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 10.02.
6
published as D 257 – 25 T. Last previous edition D 257 – 93 (1998). Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 11.03.

Copyright © ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.

1
 D 257
conductance to that obtained if the electrodes had formed the
opposite sides of a square.
3.1.4.1 Discussion—Surface conductivity is expressed in
siemens. It is popularly expressed as siemens/square (the size
of the square is immaterial). Surface conductivity is the
reciprocal of surface resistivity.
3.1.5 conductivity, volume, n—the volume conductance
multiplied by that ratio of specimen volume dimensions
(distance between electrodes divided by the cross-sectional
area of the electrodes) which transforms the measured conduc-
tance to that conductance obtained if the electrodes had formed
the opposite sides of a unit cube.
3.1.5.1 Discussion—Volume conductivity is usually ex-
pressed in siemens/centimetre or in siemens/metre and is the
reciprocal of volume resistivity.
3.1.6 moderately conductive, adj—describes a solid mate-
rial having a volume resistivity between 1 and 10 000 000
V-cm.
3.1.7 resistance, insulation, (Ri), n—the ratio of the dc
voltage applied to two electrodes (on or in a specimen) to the
total volume and surface current between them.
3.1.7.1 Discussion—Insulation resistance is the reciprocal
of insulation conductance.
3.1.8 resistance, surface, (Rs), n—the ratio of the dc voltage
applied to two electrodes (on the surface of a specimen) to the
current between them.
3.1.8.1 Discussion—(Some volume resistance is unavoid-
ably included in the actual measurement.) Surface resistance is
the reciprocal of surface conductance.
3.1.9 resistance, volume, (Rv), n—the ratio of the dc voltage
applied to two electrodes (on or in a specimen) to the current
in the volume of the specimen between the electrodes.
3.1.9.1 Discussion—Volume resistance is the reciprocal of
volume conductance.
3.1.10 resistivity, surface, (rs), n—the surface resistance
multiplied by that ratio of specimen surface dimensions (width
of electrodes defining the current path divided by the distance
between electrodes) which transforms the measured resistance
to that obtained if the electrodes had formed the opposite sides
of a square.
3.1.10.1 Discussion—Surface resistivity is expressed in
ohms. It is popularly expressed also as ohms/square (the size of
the square is immaterial). Surface resistivity is the reciprocal of
surface conductivity.
3.1.11 resistivity, volume, (rv), n—the volume resistance
multiplied by that ratio of specimen volume dimensions
(cross-sectional area of the specimen between the electrodes
divided by the distance between electrodes) which transforms
the measured resistance to that resistance obtained if the
electrodes had formed the opposite sides of a unit cube.
3.1.11.1 Discussion—Volume resistivity is usually ex-
pressed in ohm-centimetres (preferred) or in ohm-metres.
Volume resistivity is the reciprocal of volume conductivity.
4. Summary of Test Methods
4.1 The resistance or conductance of a material specimen or
of a capacitor is determined from a measurement of current or
of voltage drop under specified conditions. By using the
appropriate electrode systems, surface and volume resistance
2
or conductance may be measured separately. The resistivity or
conductivity can then be calculated when the required speci-
men and electrode dimensions are known.
5. Significance and Use
5.1 Insulating materials are used to isolate components of an
electrical system from each other and from ground, as well as
to provide mechanical support for the components. For this
purpose, it is generally desirable to have the insulation resis-
tance as high as possible, consistent with acceptable mechani-
cal, chemical, and heat-resisting properties. Since insulation
resistance or conductance combines both volume and surface
resistance or conductance, its measured value is most useful
when the test specimen and electrodes have the same form as
is required in actual use. Surface resistance or conductance
changes rapidly with humidity, while volume resistance or
conductance changes slowly although the final change may
eventually be greater.
5.2 Resistivity or conductivity may be used to predict,
indirectly, the low-frequency dielectric breakdown and dissi-
pation factor properties of some materials. Resistivity or
contivity is often used as an indirect measure of moisture
content, degree of cure, mechanical continuity, and deteriora-
tion of various types. The usefulness of these indirect measure-
ments is dependent on the degree of correlation established by
supporting theoretical or experimental investigations. A de-
crease of surface resistance may result either in an increase of
the dielectric breakdown voltage because the electric field
intensity is reduced, or a decrease of the dielectric breakdown
voltage because the area under stress is increased.
5.3 All the dielectric resistances or conductances depend on
the length of time of electrification and on the value of applied
voltage (in addition to the usual environmental variables).
These must be known to make the measured value of resistance
or conductance meaningful.
5.4 Volume resistivity or conductivity can be used as an aid
in designing an insulator for a specific application. The change
of resistivity or conductivity with temperature and humidity
may be great (1, 2, 3, 4),7 and must be known when designing
for operating conditions. Volume resistivity or conductivity
determinations are often used in checking the uniformity of an
insulating material, either with regard to processing or to detect
conductive impurities that affect the quality of the material and
that may not be readily detectable by other methods.
5.5 Volume resistivities above 1021 V·cm (1019 V·m), ob-
tained on specimens under usual laboratory conditions, are of
doubtful validity, considering the limitations of commonly
used measuring equipment.
5.6 Surface resistance or conductance cannot be measured
accurately, only approximated, because some degree of volume
resistance or conductance is always involved in the measure-
ment. The measured value is also affected by the surface
contamination. Surface contamination, and its rate of accumu-
lation, is affected by many factors including electrostatic
charging and interfacial tension. These, in turn, may affect the
7
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references appended to
these test methods.
 D 257
surface resistivity. Surface resistivity or conductivity can be
considered to be related to material properties when contami-
nation is involved but is not a material property in the usual
sense.
6. Electrode Systems
6.1 The electrodes for insulating materials should be of a
material that is readily applied, allows intimate contact with the
specimen surface, and introduces no appreciable error because
of electrode resistance or contamination of the specimen (5).
The electrode material should be corrosion-resistant under the
conditions of test. For tests of fabricated specimens such as
feed-through bushings, cables, etc., the electrodes employed
are a part of the specimen or its mounting. Measurements of
insulation resistance or conductance, then, include the contami-
nating effects of electrode or mounting materials and are
generally related to the performance of the specimen in actual
use.
6.1.1 Binding-Post and Taper-Pin Electrodes, Fig. 1 and
Fig. 2, provide a means of applying voltage to rigid insulating
materials to permit an evaluation of their resistive or conduc-
tive properties. These electrodes simulate to some degree the
actual conditions of use, such as binding posts on instrument
panels and terminal strips. In the case of laminated insulating
materials having high-resin-content surfaces, somewhat lower
insulation resistance values may be obtained with taper-pin
than with binding posts, due to more intimate contact with the
body of the insulating material. Resistance or conductance
values obtained are highly influenced by the individual contact
between each pin and the dielectric material, the surface FIG. 2 Taper-Pin Electrodes
roughness of the pins, and the smoothness of the hole in the
dielectric material. Reproducibility of results on different
specimens is difficult to obtain.
6.1.2 Metal Bars in the arrangement of Fig. 3 were prima-
rily devised to evaluate the insulation resistance or conduc-
tance of flexible tapes and thin, solid specimens as a fairly
simple and convenient means of electrical quality control. This
arrangement is somewhat more satisfactory for obtaining
approximate values of surface resistance or conductance when
the width of the insulating material is much greater than its
thickness.
6.1.3 Silver Paint, Fig. 4, Fig. 5, and Fig. 6, is available
commercially with a high conductivity, either air-drying or
low-temperature-baking varieties, which are sufficiently po-

FIG. 3 Strip Electrodes for Tapes and Flat, Solid Specimens

rous to permit diffusion of moisture through them and thereby

FIG. 1 Binding-Post Electrodes for Flat, Solid Specimens
allow the test specimen to be conditioned after the application
of the electrodes. This is a particularly useful feature in
studying resistance-humidity effects, as well as change with
temperature. However, before conductive paint is used as an
electrode material, it should be established that the solvent in
the paint does not attack the material so as to change its

3
 D 257
Volume Resistivity g |Ls 2t Surface Resistivity
FIG. 4 Flat Specimen for Measuring Volume and Surface
Resistances or Conductances
D0 5 (D1 + D2)/2 L > 4t g |La 2t Volume Resistivity g |Ls 2t Surface Resistivity
FIG. 5 Tubular Specimen for Measuring Volume and Surface
Resistances or Conductances
electrical properties. Reasonably smooth edges of guard elec-
trodes may be obtained with a fine-bristle brush. However, for
circular electrodes, sharper edges can be obtained by the use of
a ruling compass and silver paint for drawing the outline circles
of the electrodes and filling in the enclosed areas by brush. A
narrow strip of masking tape may be used, provided the
pressure-sensitive adhesive used does not contaminate the
4
surface of the specimen. Clamp-on masks also may be used if
the electrode paint is sprayed on.
6.1.4 Sprayed Metal, Fig. 4, Fig. 5, and Fig. 6, may be used
if satisfactory adhesion to the test specimen can be obtained.
Thin sprayed electrodes may have certain advantages in that
they are ready for use as soon as applied. They may be
sufficiently porous to allow the specimen to be conditioned, but
this should be verified. Narrow strips of masking tape or
clamp-on masks must be used to produce a gap between the
guarded and the guard electrodes. The tape shall be such as not
to contaminate the gap surface.
6.1.5 Evaporated Metal may be used under the same con-
ditions given in 6.1.4.
6.1.6 Metal Foil, Fig. 4, may be applied to specimen
surfaces as electrodes. The usual thickness of metal foil used
for resistance or conductance studies of dielectrics ranges from
6 to 80 µm. Lead or tin foil is in most common use, and is
usually attached to the test specimen by a minimum quantity of
petrolatum, silicone grease, oil, or other suitable material, as an
adhesive. Such electrodes shall be applied under a smoothing
pressure sufficient to eliminate all wrinkles, and to work excess
adhesive toward the edge of the foil where it can be wiped off
with a cleansing tissue. One very effective method is to use a
hard narrow roller (10 to 15 mm wide), and to roll outward on
the surface until no visible imprint can be made on the foil with
the roller. This technique can be used satisfactorily only on
specimens that have very flat surfaces. With care, the adhesive
film can be reduced to 2.5 µm. As this film is in series with the
specimen, it will always cause the measured resistance to be
too high. This error may become excessive for the lower-
resistivity specimens of thickness less than 250 µm. Also the
hard roller can force sharp particles into or through thin films
(50 µm). Foil electrodes are not porous and will not allow the
test specimen to condition after the electrodes have been
applied. The adhesive may lose its effectiveness at elevated
temperatures necessitating the use of flat metal back-up plates
under pressure. It is possible, with the aid of a suitable cutting
device, to cut a proper width strip from one electrode to form
a guarded and guard electrode. Such a three-terminal specimen
normally cannot be used for surface resistance or conductance
measurements because of the grease remaining on the gap
surface. It may be very difficult to clean the entire gap surface
without disturbing the adjacent edges of the electrode.
6.1.7 Colloidal Graphite, Fig. 4, dispersed in water or other
suitable vehicle, may be brushed on nonporous, sheet insulat-
ing materials to form an air-drying electrode. Masking tapes or
clamp-on masks may be used (6.1.4). This electrode material is
recommended only if all of the following conditions are met:
6.1.7.1 The material to be tested must accept a graphite
coating that will not flake before testing,
6.1.7.2 The material being tested must not absorb water
readily, and
6.1.7.3 Conditioning must be in a dry atmosphere (Proce-
dure B, Methods D 618), and measurements made in this same
atmosphere.
6.1.8 Mercury or other liquid metal electrodes give satisfac-
tory results. Mercury is not recommended for continuous use
or at elevated temperatures due to toxic effects. (Warning—
 D 257

FIG. 6 Conducting-Paint Electrodes

Mercury metal vapor poisoning has long been recognized as a

hazard in industry. The maximum exposure limits are set by the
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.8
The concentration of mercury vapor over spills from broken
thermometers, barometers, or other instruments using mercury
can easily exceed these exposure limits. Mercury, being a
liquid and quite heavy, will disintegrate into small droplets and
seep into cracks and crevices in the floor. The use of a
commercially available emergency spill kit is recommended
whenever a spill occurs. The increased area of exposure adds
significantly to the mercury vapor concentration in air. Mer-
cury vapor concentration is easily monitored using commer-
cially available sniffers. Spot checks should be made periodi-
cally around operations where mercury is exposed to the
atmosphere. Thorough checks should be made after spills.) The
metal forming the upper electrodes should be confined by
stainless steel rings, each of which should have its lower rim
reduced to a sharp edge by beveling on the side away from the
liquid metal. Fig. 7A and Fig. 7B show two electrode arrange-
ments.
6.1.9 Flat Metal Plates, Fig. 4, (preferably guarded) may be
used for testing flexible and compressible materials, both at
room temperature and at elevated temperatures. They may be NOTE 1—Warning: See 6.1.8
circular or rectangular (for tapes). To ensure intimate contact FIG. 7 Mercury Electrodes for Flat, Solid Specimens
with the specimen, considerable pressure is usually required.
Pressures of 140 to 700 kPa have been found satisfactory (see tested is either added to the cell between fixed electrodes or the
material specifications). electrodes are forced into the material to a predetermined
6.1.9.1 A variation of flat metal plate electrode systems is electrode spacing. Because the configuration of the electrodes
found in certain cell designs used to measure greases or filling in these cells is such that the effective electrode area and the
compounds. Such cells are preassembled and the material to be distance between them is difficult to measure, each cell
constant, K, (equivalent to the A/t factor from Table 1) can be
8
derived from the following equation:
American Conference of Governmental and Industrial Hygienists, 6500 Glen-
way Ave., Building D-7, Cincinnati, OH, 45211. K 5 3.6 p C 5 11.3 C (1)

5
 D 257
NOTE 1—Warning: See 6.1.8
FIG. 7 Mercury Cell for Thin Sheet Material (continued)
where:
K has units of centimetres, and
C has units of picofarads and is the capacitance of the electrode system with
air as the dielectric. See Test Methods D 150 for methods of measurement
for C.
6.1.10 Conducting Rubber has been used as electrode ma-
terial, as in Fig. 4, and has the advantage that it can quickly and
easily be applied and removed from the specimen. As the
electrodes are applied only during the time of measurement,
they do not interfere with the conditioning of the specimen.
The conductive-rubber material must be backed by proper
plates and be soft enough so that effective contact with the
specimen is obtained when a reasonable pressure is applied.
NOTE 1—There is evidence that values of conductivity obtained using
conductive-rubber electrodes are always smaller (20 to 70 %) than values
obtained with tinfoil electrodes (6). When only order-of-magnitude
accuracies are required, and these contact errors can be neglected, a
properly designed set of conductive-rubber electrodes can provide a rapid
means for making conductivity and resistivity determinations.
6.1.11 Water is widely employed as one electrode in testing
insulation on wires and cables. Both ends of the specimen must
be out of the water and of such length that leakage along the
insulation is negligible. Guard rings may be necessary at each
end. It may be desirable to add a small amount of sodium
chloride to the water to ensure high conductivity. Measure-
ments may be performed at temperatures up to about 100°C.
7. Choice of Apparatus and Test Method
7.1 Power Supply—A source of very steady direct voltage is
required (see X1.7.3). Batteries or other stable direct voltage
supplies may be used.
7.2 Guard Circuit—Whether measuring resistance of an
insulating material with two electrodes (no guard) or with a
6
three-terminal system (two electrodes plus guard), consider
how the electrical connections are made between the test
instrument and the test sample. If the test specimen is at some
distance from the test instrument, or the test specimen is tested
under humid conditions, or if a relatively high (1010 to 1015
ohms) specimen resistance is expected, spurious resistance
paths can easily exist between the test instrument and test
specimen. A guard circuit is necessary to minimize interference
from these spurious paths (see also X1.9).
7.2.1 With Guard Electrode—Use coaxial cable, with the
core lead to the guarded electrode and the shield to the guard
electrode, to make adequate guarded connections between the
test equipment and test specimen. Coaxial cable (again with the
shield tied back to the guard) for the unguarded lead is not
mandatory here (or in 7.2.2), although its use provides some
reduction in background noise (see also Fig. 8).
7.2.2 Without Guard Electrode—Use coaxial cable, with the
core lead to one electrode and the shield terminated about 1 cm
from the end of the core lead (see also Fig. 9).
7.3 Direct Measurements—The current through a specimen
at a fixed voltage may be measured using any equipment that
has the required sensitivity and accuracy (610 % is usually
adequate). Current-measuring devices available include elec-
trometers, d-c amplifiers with indicating meters, and galva-
nometers. Typical methods and circuits are given in Appendix
X3. When the measuring device scale is calibrated to read
ohms directly no calculations are required.
7.4 Comparison Methods—A Wheatstone-bridge circuit
may be used to compare the resistance of the specimen with
that of a standard resistor (see Appendix X3).
7.5 Precision and Bias Considerations:
7.5.1 General—As a guide in the choice of apparatus, the
pertinent considerations are summarized in Table 2, but it is not
implied that the examples enumerated are the only ones
applicable. This table is not intended to indicate the limits of
sensitivity and error of the various methods per se, but rather
is intended to indicate limits that are distinctly possible with
modern apparatus. In any case, such limits can be achieved or
exceeded only through careful selection and combination of the
apparatus employed. It must be emphasized, however, that the
errors considered are those of instrumentation only. Errors such
as those discussed in Appendix X1 are an entirely different
matter. In this latter connection, the last column of Table 2 lists
the resistance that is shunted by the insulation resistance
between the guarded electrode and the guard system for the
various methods. In general, the lower such resistance, the less
probability of error from undue shunting.
NOTE 2—No matter what measurement method is employed, the
highest precisions are achieved only with careful evaluation of all sources
of error. It is possible either to set up any of these methods from the
component parts, or to acquire a completely integrated apparatus. In
general, the methods using high-sensitivity galvanometers require a more
permanent installation than those using indicating meters or recorders. The
methods using indicating devices such as voltmeters, galvanometers, d-c
amplifiers, and electrometers require the minimum of manual adjustment
and are easy to read but the operator is required to make the reading at a
particular time. The Wheatstone bridge (Fig. X1.4) and the potentiometer
method (Fig. X1.2 (b)) require the undivided attention of the operator in
 D 257
TABLE 1 Calculation of Resistivity or ConductivityA
Type of Electrodes or Specimen Volume Resistivity, V-cm Volume Conductivity, S/cm
A t
rv 5 gv 5
t Rv A Gv
Circular (Fig. 4) p~D1 1 g! 2
A 5 4
Rectangular A 5 (a + g) (b + g)
Square A 5 (a + g) 2
Tubes (Fig. 5) A 5 pD0(L + g)
Cables 2pLRv
rv 5
D2
ln
D1
D2
ln
D1
gv 5
2pLRv

Surface Resistivity, V (per square) Surface Conductivity, S (per square)

P g
p s 5 g Rs gs 5
P Gs
Circular (Fig. 4) P 5 pD0
Rectangular P 5 2(a + b + 2g)
Square P 5 4(a + g)
Tubes (Figs. 5 and 6) P 5 2p D 2
Nomenclature:
A 5 the effective area of the measuring electrode for the particular arrangement employed,
P 5 the effective perimeter of the guarded electrode for the particular arrangement employed,
Rv 5 measured volume resistance in ohms,
Gv 5 measured volume conductance in siemens,
Rs 5 measured surface resistance in ohms,
Gs 5 measured surface conductance in siemens,
t 5 average thickness of the specimen,
D0, D1, D2, g, L 5 dimensions indicated in Figs. 4 and 6 (see Appendix X2 for correction to g),
a, b, 5 lengths of the sides of rectangular electrodes, and
ln 5 natural logarithm.
A
All dimensions are in centimetres.

keeping a balance, but allow the setting at a particular time to be read at

leisure.
7.5.2 Direct Measurements:
7.5.2.1 Galvanometer-Voltmeter—The maximum percent-
age error in the measurement of resistance by the
galvanometer-voltmeter method is the sum of the percentage
errors of galvanometer indication, galvanometer readability,
and voltmeter indication. As an example: a galvanometer
having a sensitivity of 500 pA/scale division will be deflected
25 divisions with 500 V applied to a resistance of 40 GV
(conductance of 25 pS). If the deflection can be read to the
nearest 0.5 division, and the calibration error (including Ayrton
Shunt error) is 62 % of the observed value, the resultant
galvanometer error will not exceed 64 %. If the voltmeter has
an error of 62 % of full scale, this resistance can be measured
with a maximum error of 66 % when the voltmeter reads full
scale, and 610 % when it reads one-third full scale. The
desirability of readings near full scale are readily apparent.
7.5.2.2 Voltmeter-Ammeter—The maximum percentage er-
ror in the computed value is the sum of the percentage errors
in the voltages, Vx and Vs, and the resistance, Rs. The errors in
Vs and Rs are generally dependent more on the characteristics
of the apparatus used than on the particular method. The most
significant factors that determine the errors in Vs are indicator
errors, amplifier zero drift, and amplifier gain stability. With
modern, well-designed amplifiers or electrometers, gain stabil- FIG. 8 Connections to Guarded Electrode for Volume and Surface
Resistivity Measurements (Volume Resistance hook-up shown)
ity is usually not a matter of concern. With existing techniques,
the zero drift of direct voltage amplifiers or electrometers
cannot be eliminated but it can be made slow enough to be relatively insignificant for these measurements. The zero drift

7
 D 257
FIG. 9 Connections to Unguarded Electrodes for Unguarded
Surface Measurements
is virtually nonexistent for carefully designed converter-type
amplifiers. Consequently, the null method of Fig. X1.2 (b) is
theoretically less subject to error than those methods employ-
ing an indicating instrument, provided, however, that the
potentiometer voltage is accurately known. The error in Rs is to
some extent dependent on the amplifier sensitivity. For mea-
surement of a given current, the higher the amplifier sensitivity,
the greater likelihood that lower valued, highly precise wire-
wound standard resistors can be used. Such amplifiers can be
obtained. Standard resistances of 100 GV known to 62 %, are
available. If 10-mV input to the amplifier or electrometer gives
full-scale deflection with an error not greater than 2 % of full
scale, with 500 V applied, a resistance of 5000 TV can be
measured with a maximum error of 6 % when the voltmeter
reads full scale, and 10 % when it reads 1⁄3 scale.
7.5.2.3 Comparison-Galvanometer—The maximum per-
centage error in the computed resistance or conductance is
given by the sum of the percentage errors in Rs, the galvanom-
eter deflections or amplifier readings, and the assumption that
the current sensitivities are independent of the deflections. The
latter assumption is correct to well within 62 % over the useful
range (above 1⁄10 full-scale deflection) of a good, modern
galvanometer (probably 1⁄3 scale deflection for a dc current
amplifier). The error in Rs depends on the type of resistor used,
but resistances of 1 MV with a limit of error as low as 0.1 %
are available. With a galvanometer or d-c current amplifier
having a sensitivity of 10 nA for full-scale deflection, 500 V
applied to a resistance of 5 TV will produce a 1 % deflection.
At this voltage, with the preceding noted standard resistor, and
with Fs 5 105, ds would be about half of full-scale deflection,
with a readability error not more than 61 %. If dx is approxi-
mately 1⁄4 of full-scale deflection, the readability error would
not exceed 64 %, and a resistance of the order of 200 GV
8
could be measured with a maximum error of 651⁄2 %.
7.5.2.4 Voltage Rate-of-Change—The accuracy of the mea-
surement is directly proportional to the accuracy of the
measurement of applied voltage and time rate of change of the
electrometer reading. The length of time that the electrometer
switch is open and the scale used should be such that the time
can be measured accurately and a full-scale reading obtained.
Under these conditions, the accuracy will be comparable with
that of the other methods of measuring current.
7.5.2.5 Comparison Bridge—When the detector has ad-
equate sensitivity, the maximum percentage error in the com-
puter resistance is the sum of the percentage errors in the arms,
A, B, and N. With a detector sensitivity of 1 mV/scale division,
500 V applied to the bridge, and RN 5 1 GV, a resistance of
1000 TV will produce a detector deflection of one scale
division. Assuming negligible errors in RA and RB, with RN 5 1
GV known to within 62 % and with the bridge balanced to one
detector-scale division, a resistance of 100 TV can be mea-
sured with a maximum error of 66 %.
8. Sampling
8.1 Refer to applicable materials specifications for sam-
pling instructions.
9. Test Specimens
9.1 Insulation Resistance or Conductance Determination:
9.1.1 The measurement is of greatest value when the speci-
men has the form, electrodes, and mounting required in actual
use. Bushings, cables, and capacitors are typical examples for
which the test electrodes are a part of the specimen and its
normal mounting means.
9.1.2 For solid materials, the test specimen may be of any
practical form. The specimen forms most commonly used are
flat plates, tapes, rods, and tubes. The electrode arrangements
of Fig. 2 may be used for flat plates, rods, or rigid tubes whose
inner diameter is about 20 mm or more. The electrode
arrangement of Fig. 3 may be used for strips of sheet material
or for flexible tape. For rigid strip specimens the metal support
may not be required. The electrode arrangements of Fig. 6 may
be used for flat plates, rods, or tubes. Comparison of materials
when using different electrode arrangements is frequently
inconclusive and should be avoided.
9.2 Volume Resistance or Conductance Determination:
9.2.1 The test specimen may have any practical form that
allows the use of a third electrode, when necessary, to guard
against error from surface effects. Test specimens may be in the
form of flat plates, tapes, or tubes. Fig. 4 and Fig. 7 illustrate
the application and arrangement of electrodes for plate or sheet
specimens. Fig. 5 is a diametral cross section of three elec-
trodes applied to a tubular specimen, in which electrode No. 1
is the guarded electrode, electrode No. 2 is a guard electrode
consisting of a ring at each end of electrode No. 1, and
electrode No. 3 is the unguarded electrode (7, 8). For materials
that have negligible surface leakage, the guard rings may be
omitted. Convenient and generally suitable dimensions appli-
cable to Fig. 4 in the case of test specimens that are 3 mm in
thickness are as follows: D3 5 100 mm, D2 5 88 mm, and
D1 5 76 mm, or alternatively, D3 5 50 mm, D2 5 38 mm, and
D1 5 25 mm. For a given sensitivity, the larger specimen
 D 257
TABLE 2 Apparatus and Conditions for Use
Ohms Shunted by
Reference Maximum Ohms Maximum Ohms Insulation Resistance
Type of
Method Detectable Measurable to from Guard to
Measurement
Section Figure at 500 V 66 % at 500 V Guarded
Electrode
Voltmeter-ammeter (galvanometer) X3.1 X1 1012 1011 deflection 10 to 105
Comparison (galvanometer) X3.4 X3 1012 1011 deflection 10 to 105
Voltmeter-ammeter (dc amplifica- X3.2 X2(a) deflection 102 to 109
tion, electrometer) (Position 1) 1015 1013
X2(a) deflection 102 to 103
(Position 2) 1015 1013 deflection 103 to 1011
X2(b) 1017 1015 null 0 (effective)
X2(b) 1017 1015
Comparison (Wheatstone bridge) X3.5 X4 1015 1014 null 105 to 106
Voltage rate-of-change X3.3 X5 ;100 MV·F deflection unguarded
Megohmmeter (typical) commercial instruments 1015 1014 direct-reading 104 to 1010

allows more accurate measurements on materials of higher
resistivity.
9.2.2 Measure the average thickness of the specimens in
accordance with one of the methods in Test Methods D 374
pertaining to the material being tested. The actual points of
measurement shall be uniformly distributed over the area to be
covered by the measuring electrodes.
9.2.3 It is not necessary that the electrodes have the circular
symmetry shown in Fig. 4 although this is generally conve-
nient. The guarded electrode (No. 1) may be circular, square, or
rectangular, allowing ready computation of the guarded elec-
trode area for volume resistivity or conductivity determination
when such is desired. The diameter of a circular electrode, the
side of a square, or the shortest side of a rectangular electrode,
should be at least four times the specimen thickness. The gap
width should be great enough so that the surface leakage
between electrodes No. 1 and No. 2 does not cause an error in
the measurement (this is particularly important for high-input-
impedance instruments, such as electrometers). If the gap is
made equal to twice the specimen thickness, as suggested in
9.3.3, so that the specimen can be used also for surface
resistance or conductance determinations, the effective area of
electrode No. 1 can be taken, usually with sufficient accuracy,
as extending to the center of the gap. If, under special
conditions, it becomes desirable to determine a more accurate
value for the effective area of electrode No. 1, the correction
for the gap width can be obtained from Appendix X2. Elec-
trode No. 3 may have any shape provided that it extends at all
points beyond the inner edge of electrode No. 2 by at least
twice the specimen thickness.
9.2.4 For tubular specimens, electrode No. 1 should encircle
the outside of the specimen and its axial length should be at
least four times the specimen wall thickness. Considerations
regarding the gap width are the same as those given in 9.2.3.
Electrode No. 2 consists of an encircling electrode at each end
of the tube, the two parts being electrically connected by
external means. The axial length of each of these parts should
be at least twice the wall thickness of the specimen. Electrode
No. 3 must cover the inside surface of the specimen for an axial
length extending beyond the outside gap edges by at least twice
the wall thickness. The tubular specimen (Fig. 5) may take the
form of an insulated wire or cable. If the length of electrode is
more than 100 times the thickness of the insulation, the effects
of the ends of the guarded electrode become negligible, and
careful spacing of the guard electrodes is not required. Thus,
the gap between electrodes No. 1 and No. 2 may be several
centimetres to permit sufficient surface resistance between
these electrodes when water is used as electrode No. 1. In this
case, no correction is made for the gap width.
9.3 Surface Resistance or Conductance Determination:
9.3.1 The test specimen may be of any practical form
consistent with the particular objective, such as flat plates,
tapes, or tubes.
9.3.2 The arrangements of Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 were devised for
those cases where the volume resistance is known to be high
relative to that of the surface (2). However, the combination of
molded and machined surfaces makes the result obtained
generally inconclusive for rigid strip specimens. The arrange-
ment of Fig. 3 is somewhat more satisfactory when applied to
specimens for which the width is much greater than the
thickness, the cut edge effect thus tending to become relatively
small. Hence, this arrangement is more suitable for testing thin
specimens such as tape, than for testing relatively thicker
specimens. The arrangements of Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 should never
be used for surface resistance or conductance determinations
without due considerations of the limitations noted previously.
9.3.3 The three electrode arrangements of Fig. 4, Fig. 6 and
Fig. 7 may be used for purposes of material comparison. The
resistance or conductance of the surface gap between elec-
trodes No. 1 and No. 2 is determined directly by using
electrode No. 1 as the guarded electrode, electrode No. 3 as the
guard electrode, and electrode No. 2 as the unguarded electrode
(7, 8). The resistance or conductance so determined is actually
the resultant of the surface resistance or conductance between
electrodes No. 1 and No. 2 in parallel with some volume
resistance or conductance between the same two electrodes.
For this arrangement the surface gap width, g, should be
approximately twice the specimen thickness, t, except for thin
specimens, where g may be much greater than twice the
material thickness.
9.3.4 Special techniques and electrode dimensions may be
required for very thin specimens having such a low volume
resistivity that the resultant low resistance between the guarded
electrode and the guard system would cause excessive error.
9.4 Liquid Insulation Resistance—The sampling of liquid
insulating materials, the test cells employed, and the methods

9
 D 257
of cleaning the cells shall be in accordance with Test Method
D 1169.
10. Specimen Mounting
10.1 In mounting the specimens for measurements, it is
important that there shall be no conductive paths between the
electrodes or between the measuring electrodes and ground that
will have a significant effect on the reading of the measuring
instrument (9). Insulating surfaces should not be handled with
bare fingers (acetate rayon gloves are recommended). For
referee tests of volume resistivity or conductivity, the surfaces
should be cleaned with a suitable solvent before conditioning.
When surface resistance is to be measured, the surfaces should
be cleaned or not cleaned as specified or agreed upon.
11. Conditioning
11.1 The specimens shall be conditioned in accordance with
Practice D 618.
11.2 Circulating-air environmental chambers or the methods
described in Practices E 104 or D 5032 may be used for
controlling the relative humidity.
12. Procedure
12.1 Insulation Resistance or Conductance—Properly
mount the specimen in the test chamber. If the test chamber and
the conditioning chamber are the same (recommended proce-
dure), the specimens should be mounted before the condition-
ing is started. Make the measurement with a suitable device
having the required sensitivity and accuracy (see Appendix ).
Unless otherwise specified, the time of electrification shall be
60 s and the applied direct voltage shall be 500 6 5 V.
12.2 Volume Resistivity or Conductivity—Measure the di-
mensions of the electrodes and width of guard gap, g. Make the
measurement with a suitable device having the required
sensitivity and accuracy. Unless otherwise specified, the time
of electrification shall be 60 s, and the applied direct voltage
shall be 500 6 5 V.
12.3 Surface Resistance or Conductance:
12.3.1 Measure the electrode dimensions and the distance
between the electrodes, g. Measure the surface resistance or
conductance between electrodes No. 1 and 2 with a suitable
device having the required sensitivity and accuracy. Unless
otherwise specified, the time of electrification shall be 60 s, and
the applied direct voltage shall be 500 6 5 V.
10
12.3.2 When the electrode arrangement of Fig. 3 is used, P
is taken as the perimeter of the cross section of the specimen.
For thin specimens, such as tapes, this perimeter effectively
reduces to twice the specimen width.
12.3.3 When the electrode arrangements of Fig. 6 are used
(and the volume resistance is known to be high compared to the
surface resistance), P is taken to be the length of the electrodes
or circumference of the cylinder.
13. Calculation
13.1 Calculate the volume resistivity, rv, and the volume
conductivity, gv, using the equations in Table 1.
13.2 Calculate the surface resistivity, rs, and the surface
conductivity, gs, using the equations in Table 1.
14. Report
14.1 Report the following information:
14.1.1 A description and identification of the material
(name, grade, color, manufacturer, etc.),
14.1.2 Shape and dimensions of the test specimen,
14.1.3 Type and dimensions of electrodes,
14.1.4 Conditioning of the specimen (cleaning, predrying,
hours at humidity and temperature, etc.),
14.1.5 Test conditions (specimen temperature, relative hu-
midity, etc., at time of measurement),
14.1.6 Method of measurement (see Appendix X3),
14.1.7 Applied voltage,
14.1.8 Time of electrification of measurement,
14.1.9 Measured values of the appropriate resistances in
ohms or conductances in siemens,
14.1.10 Computed values when required, of volume resis-
tivity in ohm-centimetres, volume conductivity in siemens per
centimetre, surface resistivity in ohms (per square), or surface
conductivity in siemens (per square), and
14.1.11 Statement as to whether the reported values are
“apparent” or “steady-state.”
15. Precision and Bias
15.1 Precision and bias are inherently affected by the choice
of method, apparatus, and specimen. For analysis and details
see Sections 7 and 9, and particularly 7.5.1-7.5.2.5.
16. Keywords
16.1 DC resistance; insulation resistance; surface resistance;
surface resistivity; volume resistance; volume resistivity
 D 257
APPENDIXES
(Nonmandatory Information)
X1. FACTORS AFFECTING INSULATION RESISTANCE OR CONDUCTANCE MEASUREMENTS
X1.1 Inherent Variation in Materials—Because of the
variability of the resistance of a given specimen under similar
test conditions and the nonuniformity of the same material
from specimen to specimen, determinations are usually not
reproducible to closer than 10 % and often are even more
widely divergent (a range of values from 10 to 1 may be
obtained under apparently identical conditions).
X1.2 Temperature—The resistance of electrical insulating
materials is known to change with temperature, and the
variation often can be represented by a function of the form:
(18)
R 5 Bem/T (X1.1)
where:
R 5 resistance (or resistivity) of an insulating material or
system,
B 5 proportionality constant,
m 5 activation constant, and
T 5 absolute temperature in kelvin (K).
This equation is a simplified form of the Arrhenius equation
relating the activation energy of a chemical reaction to the
absolute temperature; and the Boltzmann principle, a general
law dealing with the statistical distribution of energy among
large numbers of minute particles subject to thermal agitation.
The activation constant, m, has a value that is characteristic of
a particular energy absorption process. Several such processes
may exist within the material, each with a different effective
temperature range, so that several values of m would be needed
to fully characterize the material. These values of m can be
determined experimentally by plotting the natural logarithm of
resistance against the reciprocal of the absolute temperature.
The desired values of m are obtained from such a plot by
measuring the slopes of the straight-line sections of the plot.
This derives from (Eq X1.1), for it follows that by taking the
natural logarithm of both sides:
1 are required, since the absorption of water into the body of the
1n R 5 ln B 1 m T (X1.2)
The change in resistance (or resistivity) corresponding to a
change in absolute temperature from T1 to T2, based on Eq
X1.1, and expressed in logarithmic form, is:
S1 1
D S D
DT
ln ~R2/R1! 5 m T 2 T 5 m T T
2 1 1 2
(X1.3)
These equations are valid over a temperature range only if
the material does not undergo a transition within this tempera-
ture range. Extrapolations are seldom safe since transitions are
seldom obvious or predictable. As a corollary, deviation of a
plot of the logarithm of R against 1/T from a straight line is
evidence that a transition is occurring. Furthermore, in making
comparisons between materials, it is essential that measure-
ments be made over the entire range of interest for all
materials.
11
NOTE X1.1—The resistance of an electrical insulating material may be
affected by the time of temperature exposure. Therefore, equivalent
temperature conditioning periods are essential for comparative measure-
ments.
NOTE X1.2—If the insulating material shows signs of deterioration after
conditioning at elevated temperatures, this information must be included
with the test data.
X1.3 Temperature and Humidity—The insulation resis-
tance of solid dielectric materials decreases both with increas-
ing temperature as described in X1.2 and with increasing
humidity (1, 2, 3, 4). Volume resistance is particularly sensitive
to temperature changes, while surface resistance changes
widely and very rapidly with humidity changes (2, 3). In both
cases the change is exponential. For some materials a change
from 25 to 100°C may change insulation resistance or conduc-
tance by a factor of 100 000, often due to the combined effects
of temperature and moisture content change; the effect of
temperature change alone is usually much smaller. A change
from 25 to 90 % relative humidity may change insulation
resistance or conductance by as much as a factor of 1 000 000
or more. Insulation resistance or conductance is a function of
both the volume and surface resistance or conductance of the
specimen, and surface resistance changes almost instanta-
neously with change of relative humidity. It is, therefore,
absolutely essential to maintain both temperature and relative
humidity within close limits during the conditioning period and
to make the insulation resistance or conductance measurements
in the specified conditioning environment. Another point not to
be overlooked is that at relative humidities above 90 %, surface
condensation may result from inadvertant fluctuations in hu-
midity or temperature produced by the conditioning system.
This problem can be avoided by the use of equivalent absolute
humidity at a slightly higher temperature, as equilibrium
moisture content remains nearly the same for a small tempera-
ture change. In determining the effect of humidity on volume
resistance or conductance, extended periods of conditioning
dielectric is a relatively slow process (10). Some specimens
require months to come to equilibrium. When such long
periods of conditioning are prohibitive, use of thinner speci-
mens or comparative measurements near equilibrium may be
reasonable alternatives, but the details must be included in the
test report.
X1.4 Time of Electrification—Measurement of a dielectric
material is not fundamentally different from that of a conductor
except that an additional parameter, time of electrification, (and
in some cases the voltage gradient) is involved. The relation-
ship between the applied voltage and the current is involved in
both cases. For dielectric materials, the standard resistance
placed in series with the unknown resistance must have a
relatively low value, so that essentially full voltage will be
applied across the unknown resistance. When a potential
 D 257
difference is applied to a specimen, the current through it
generally decreases asymptotically toward a limiting value
which may be less than 0.01 of the current observed at the end
of 1 min (9, 11). This decrease of current with time is due to
dielectric absorption (interfacial polarization, volume charge,
etc.) and the sweep of mobile ions to the electrodes. In general,
the relation of current and time is of the form I(t) 5 At −m, after
the initial charge is completed and until the true leakage current
becomes a significant factor (12, 13). In this relation A is a
constant, numerically the current at unit time, and m usually,
but not always, has a value between 0 and 1. Depending upon
the characteristics of the specimen material, the time required
for the current to decrease to within 1 % of this minimum value
may be from a few seconds to many hours. Thus, in order to
ensure that measurements on a given material will be compa-
rable, it is necessary to specify the time of electrification. The
conventional arbitrary time of electrification has been 1 min.
For some materials, misleading conclusions may be drawn
from the test results obtained at this arbitrary time. A
resistance-time or conductance-time curve should be obtained
under the conditions of test for a given material as a basis for
selection of a suitable time of electrification, which must be
specified in the test method for that material, or such curves
should be used for comparative purposes. Occasionally, a
material will be found for which the current increases with
time. In this case either the time curves must be used or a
special study undertaken, and arbitrary decisions made as to
the time of electrification.
X1.5 Magnitude of Voltage:
X1.5.1 Both volume and surface resistance or conductance
of a specimen may be voltage-sensitive (4). In that case, it is
necessary that the same voltage gradient be used if measure-
ments on similar specimens are to be comparable. Also, the
applied voltage should be within at least 5 % of the specified
voltage. This is a separate requirement from that given in
X1.7.3, which discusses voltage regulation and stability where
appreciable specimen capacitance is involved.
X1.5.2 Commonly specified test voltages to be applied to
the complete specimen are 100, 250, 500, 1000, 2500, 5000,
10 000 and 15 000 V. Of these, the most frequently used are
100 and 500 V. The higher voltages are used either to study the
voltage-resistance or voltage-conductance characteristics of
materials (to make tests at or near the operating voltage
gradients), or to increase the sensitivity of measurement.
X1.5.3 Specimen resistance or conductance of some mate-
rials may, depending upon the moisture content, be affected by
the polarity of the applied voltage. This effect, caused by
electrolysis or ionic migration, or both, particularly in the
presence of nonuniform fields, may be particularly noticeable
in insulation configurations such as those found in cables
where the test-voltage gradient is greater at the inner conductor
than at the outer surface. Where electrolysis or ionic migration
does exist in specimens, the electrical resistance will be lower
when the smaller test electrode is made negative with respect
to the larger. In such cases, the polarity of the applied voltage
shall be specified according to the requirements of the speci-
men under test.
12
X1.6 Contour of Specimen:
X1.6.1 The measured value of the insulation resistance or
conductance of a specimen results from the composite effect of
its volume and surface resistances or conductances. Since the
relative values of the components vary from material to
material, comparison of different materials by the use of the
electrode systems of Fig. 1, Fig. 2, and Fig. 3 is generally
inconclusive. There is no assurance that, if material A has a
higher insulation resistance than material B as measured by the
use of one of these electrode systems, it will also have a higher
resistance than B in the application for which it is intended.
X1.6.2 It is possible to devise specimen and electrode
configurations suitable for the separate evaluation of the
volume resistance or conductance and the approximate surface
resistance or conductance of the same specimen. In general,
this requires at least three electrodes so arranged that one may
select electrode pairs for which the resistance or conductance
measured is primarily that of either a volume current path or a
surface current path, not both (7).
X1.7 Deficiencies in the Measuring Circuit:
X1.7.1 The insulation resistance of many solid dielectric
specimens is extremely high at standard laboratory conditions,
approaching or exceeding the maximum measurable limits
given in Table 2. Unless extreme care is taken with the
insulation of the measuring circuit, the values obtained are
more a measure of apparatus limitations than of the material
itself. Thus errors in the measurement of the specimen may
arise from undue shunting of the specimen, reference resistors,
or the current-measuring device, by leakage resistances or
conductances of unknown, and possibly variable, magnitude.
X1.7.2 Electrolytic, contact, or thermal emf’s may exist in
the measuring circuit itself; or spurious emf’s may be caused
by leakage from external sources. Thermal emf’s are normally
insignificant except in the low resistance circuit of a galva-
nometer and shunt. When thermal emf’s are present, random
drifts in the galvanometer zero occur. Slow drifts due to air
currents may be troublesome. Electrolytic emf’s are usually
associated with moist specimens and dissimilar metals, but
emf’s of 20 mV or more can be obtained in the guard circuit of
a high-resistance detector when pieces of the same metal are in
contact with moist specimens. If a voltage is applied between
the guard and the guarded electrodes a polarization emf may
remain after the voltage is removed. True contact emf’s can be
detected only with an electrometer and are not a source of
error. The term “spurious emf’’ is sometimes applied to
electrolytic emf’s. To ensure the absence of spurious emf’s of
whatever origin, the deflection of the detecting device should
be observed before the application of voltage to the specimen
and after the voltage has been removed. If the two deflections
are the same, or nearly the same, a correction can be made to
the measured resistance or conductance, provided the correc-
tion is small. If the deflections differ widely, or approach the
deflection of the measurement, it will be necessary to find and
eliminate the source of the spurious emf (5). Capacitance
changes in the connecting shielded cables can cause serious
difficulties.
 D 257
X1.7.3 Where appreciable specimen capacitance is in-
volved, both the regulation and transient stability of the applied
voltage should be such that resistance or conductance measure-
ments can be made to prescribed accuracy. Short-time tran-
sients, as well as relatively long-time drifts in the applied
voltage may cause spurious capacitive charge and discharge
currents which can significantly affect the accuracy of mea-
surement. In the case of current-measuring methods particu-
larly, this can be a serious problem. The current in the
measuring instrument due to a voltage transient is I0 5 CxdV/
dt. The amplitude and rate of pointer excursions depend upon
the following factors:
X1.7.3.1 The capacitance of the specimen,
X1.7.3.2 The magnitude of the current being measured,
X1.7.3.3 The magnitude and duration of the incoming
voltage transient, and its rate of change,
X1.7.3.4 The ability of the stabilizing circuit used to pro-
vide a constant voltage with incoming transients of various
characteristics, and
X1.7.3.5 The time-constant of the complete test circuit as
compared to the period and damping of the current-measuring
instrument.
X1.7.4 Changes of range of a current-measuring instrument
may introduce a current transient. When Rm [Lt ] Rx and Cm[Lt
]Cx, the equation of this transient is
I 5 ~V0 / Rx!@I 2 e2t/RmCx# (X1.4)
where:
V0 5 applied voltage,
Rx 5 apparent resistance of the specimen,
Rm 5 effective input resistance of the measuring instru-
ment,
Cx 5 capacitance of the specimen at 1000 Hz,
Cm 5 input capacitance of the measuring instrument, and
t 5 time after Rm is switched into the circuit.
For not more than 5 % error due to this transient,
RmCx # t/3 (X1.5)
Microammeters employing feedback are usually free of this
source of error as the actual input resistance is divided,
effectively, by the amount of feedback, usually at least by 1000.
X1.8 Residual Charge—In X1.4 it was pointed out that the
current continues for a long time after the application of a
potential difference to the electrodes. Conversely, current will
continue for a long time after the electrodes of a charged
specimen are connected together. It should be established that
the test specimen is completely discharged before attempting
the first measurement, a repeat measurement, a measurement of
volume resistance following a measurement of surface resis-
tance, or a measurement with reversed voltage (9). The time of
discharge before making a measurement should be at least four
13
times any previous charging time. The specimen electrodes
should be connected together until the measurement is to be
made to prevent any build-up of charge from the surroundings.
X1.9 Guarding:
X1.9.1 Guarding depends on interposing, in all critical
insulated paths, guard conductors which intercept all stray
currents that might otherwise cause errors. The guard conduc-
tors are connected together, constituting the guard system and
forming, with the measuring terminals, a three-terminal net-
work. When suitable connections are made, stray currents from
spurious external voltages are shunted away from the measur-
ing circuit by the guard system.
X1.9.2 Proper use of the guard system for the methods
involving current measurement is illustrated in Figs. X1.1-
X1.3, inclusive, where the guard system is shown connected to
the junction of the voltage source and current-measuring
instrument or standard resistor. In Fig. X1.4 for the
Wheatstone-bridge method, the guard system is shown con-
nected to the junction of the two lower-valued-resistance arms.
In all cases, to be effective, guarding must be complete, and
must include any controls operated by the observer in making
the measurement. The guard system is generally maintained at
a potential close to that of the guarded terminal, but insulated
from it. This is because, among other things, the resistance of
many insulating materials is voltage-dependent. Otherwise, the
direct resistances or conductances of a three-terminal network
are independent of the electrode potentials. It is usual to ground
the guard system and hence one side of the voltage source and
current-measuring device. This places both terminals of the
specimen above ground. Sometimes, one terminal of the
specimen is permanently grounded. The current-measuring
device usually is then connected to this terminal, requiring that
the voltage source be well insulated from ground.
X1.9.3 Errors in current measurements may result from the
fact that the current-measuring device is shunted by the
resistance or conductance between the guarded terminal and
the guard system. This resistance should be at least 10 to 100
times the input resistance of the current measuring device. In
some bridge techniques, the guard and measuring terminals are
brought to nearly the same potentials, but a standard resistor in
the bridge is shunted between the unguarded terminal and the
guard system. This resistance should be at least 1000 times that
of the reference resistor.
FIG. X1.1 Voltmeter-Ammeter Method Using a Galvanometer
 D 257

FIG. X1.2 Voltmeter-Ammeter Method Using DC Amplification

FIG. X1.3 Comparison Method Using a Galvanometer

FIG. X1.4 Comparison Method Using a Wheatstone Bridge

X2. EFFECTIVE AREA OF GUARDED ELECTRODE

X2.1 General—Calculation of volume resistivity from the X2.2 Fringing:

measured volume resistance involves the quantity A, the X2.2.1 If the specimen material is homogeneous and isotro-
effective area of the guarded electrode. Depending on the pic, fringing effectively extends the guarded electrode edge by
material properties and the electrode configuration, A differs an amount (14, 19):
from the actual area of the guarded electrode for either, or both,
of the following reasons. ~g/2! 2 d (X2.1)

X2.1.1 Fringing of the lines of current in the region of the where:

electrode edges may effectively increase the electrode dimen- d 5 t$~2/p! ln cosh @~p/4!~g/t!#%, (X2.2)
sions.
and g and t are the dimensions indicated in Fig. 4 and Fig. 6.
X2.1.2 If plane electrodes are not parallel, or if tubular The correction may also be written
electrodes are not coaxial, the current density in the specimen
g@1 2 ~2d/g!# 5 Bg (X2.3)
will not be uniform, and an error may result. This error is
usually small and may be ignored. where B is the fraction of the gap width to be added to the

14
 D 257
diameter of circular electrodes or to the dimensions of rectan-
gular or cylindrical electrodes.
X2.2.2 Laminated materials, however, are somewhat aniso-
tropic after volume absorption of moisture. Volume resistivity
parallel to the laminations is then lower than that in the
perpendicular direction, and the fringing effect is increased.
With such moist laminates, d approaches zero, and the guarded
electrode effectively extends to the center of the gap between
guarded and unguarded electrodes (14).
X2.2.3 The fraction of the gap width g to be added to the
diameter of circular electrodes or to the electrode dimensions
of rectangular or cylindrical electrodes, B, as determined by the
preceding equation for d, is as follows:
g/t B g/t B
0.1 0.96 1.0 0.64
0.2 0.92 1.2 0.59
0.3 0.88 1.5 0.51
0.4 0.85 2.0 0.41
X3. TYPICAL MEASUREMENT METHODS
X3.1 Voltmeter-Ammeter Method Using a Galvanometer:
X3.1.1 A dc voltmeter and a galvanometer with a suitable
shunt are connected to the voltage source and to the test
specimen as shown in Fig. X1.1. The applied voltage is
measured by a dc voltmeter, having a range and accuracy that
will give minimum error in voltage indication. In no case shall
a voltmeter be used that has an error greater than 62 % of full
scale, nor a range such that the deflection is less than one third
of full scale (for a pivot-type instrument). The current is
measured by a galvanometer having a high current sensitivity
(a scale length of 0.5 m is assumed, as shorter scale lengths will
lead to proportionately higher errors) and provided with a
precision Ayrton universal shunt for so adjusting its deflection
that the readability error does not, in general, exceed 62 % of
the observed value. The galvanometer should be calibrated to
within 62 %. Current can be read directly if the galvanometer
is provided with an additional suitable fixed shunt.
X3.1.2 The unknown resistance, Rx, or conductance, Gx, is
calculated as follows:
Rx 5 1/Gx 5 Vx/Ix 5 Vx/KdF (X3.1)
where:
K 5 galvanometer sensitivity, in amperes per scale divi-
sion,
d 5 deflection in scale divisions,
F 5 ratio of the total current, Ix, to the galvanometer
current, and
Vx 5 applied voltage.
X3.2 Voltmeter-Ammeter Method Using DC Amplification
or Electrometer:
X3.2.1 The voltmeter-ammeter method can be extended to
measure higher resistances by using dc amplification or an
electrometer to increase the sensitivity of the current measuring
device (6, 15, 16). Generally, but not necessarily, this is
achieved only with some sacrifice in precision, depending on
the apparatus used. The dc voltmeter and the dc amplifier or
15
0.5 0.81 2.5 0.34
0.6 0.77 3.0 0.29
0.8 0.71
NOTE X2.1—The symbol “ln” designates logarithm to the base
e 5 2.718. ... When g is approximately equal to 2t, d is determined with
sufficient approximation by the equation:
d 5 0.586t (X2.4)
NOTE X2.2—For tests on thin films when t << g, or when a guard
electrode is not used and one electrode extends beyond the other by a
distance which is large compared with t, 0.883t should be added to the
diameter of circular electrodes or to the dimensions of rectangular
electrodes.
NOTE X2.3—During the transition between complete dryness and
subsequent relatively uniform volume distribution of moisture, a laminate
is neither homogeneous nor isotropic. Volume resistivity is of questionable
significance during this transition and accurate equations are neither
possible nor justified, calculations within an order of magnitude being
more than sufficient.
electrometer are connected to the voltage source and the
specimen as illustrated in Fig. X1.2. The applied voltage is
measured by a dc voltmeter having the same characteristics as
prescribed in X3.1.1. The current is measured in terms of the
voltage drop across a standard resistance, Rs.
X3.2.2 In the circuit shown in Fig. X1.2(a) the specimen
current, Ix, produces across the standard resistance, Rs, a
voltage drop which is amplified by the dc amplifier, and read
on an indicating meter or galvanometer. The net gain of the
amplifier usually is stabilized by means of a feedback resis-
tance, Rf, from the output of the amplifier. The indicating meter
can be calibrated to read directly in terms of the feedback
voltage,Vf, which is determined from the known value of the
resistance of Rf, and the feedback current passing through it.
When the amplifier has sufficient intrinsic gain, the feedback
voltage, Vs, differs from the voltage, IxRs, by a negligible
amount. As shown in Fig. X1.2(a) the return lead from the
voltage source, Vx, can be connected to either end of the
feedback resistor, Rf. With the connection made to the junction
of Rs andRf (switch in dotted position l), the entire resistance of
Rs is placed in the measuring circuit and any alternating
voltage appearing across the specimen resistance is amplified
only as much as the direct voltage Ix Rs , across Rs. With the
connection made to the other end of Rf (switch position 2), the
apparent resistance placed in the measuring circuit is Rs times
the ratio of the degenerated gain to the intrinsic gain of the
amplifier; any alternating voltage appearing across the speci-
men resistance is then amplified by the intrinsic amplifier gain.
X3.2.3 In the circuit shown in Fig. X1.2(b), the specimen
current, Ix, produces a voltage drop across the standard
resistance, Rs which may or may not be balanced out by
adjustment of an opposing voltage, Vs, from a calibrated
potentiometer. If no opposing voltage is used, the voltage drop
across the standard resistance, Rs, is amplified by the dc
amplifier or electrometer and read on an indicating meter or
galvanometer. This produces a voltage drop between the
 D 257
measuring electrode and the guard electrode which may cause
an error in the current measurement unless the resistance
between the measuring electrode and the guard electrode is at
least 10 to 100 times that of Rs. If an opposing voltage, Vs, is
used, the dc amplifier or electrometer serves only as a very
sensitive, high-resistance null detector. The return lead from
the voltage source, Vx, is connected as shown, to include the
potentiometer in the measuring circuit. When connections are
made in this manner, no resistance is placed in the measuring
circuit at balance and thus no voltage drop appears between the
measuring electrode and the guard electrode. However, a
steeply increasing fraction of Rs is included in the measuring
circuit, as the potentiometer is moved off balance. Any
alternating voltage appearing across the specimen resistance is
amplified by the net amplifier gain. The amplifier may be either
a direct voltage amplifier or an alternating voltage amplifier
provided with input and output converters. Induced alternating
voltages across the specimen often are sufficiently troublesome
that a resistance-capacitance filter preceding the amplifier is
required. The input resistance of this filter should be at least
100 times greater than the effect resistance that is placed in the
measurement circuit by resistance Rs.
X3.2.4 The resistance Rx, or the conductance,G x, is calcu-
lated as follows:
Rx 5 1/Gx 5 Vx/Ix 5 ~Vx/Vs!Rs (X3.2)
where:
Vx 5 applied voltage,
Ix 5 specimen current,
Rs 5 standard resistance, and
Vs 5 voltage drop across Rs, indicated by the amplifier
output meter, the electrometer or the calibrated
potentiometer.
X3.3 Voltage Rate-of-Change Method:
X3.3.1 If the specimen capacitance is relatively large, or
capacitors are to be measured, the apparent resistant, Rx, can be
determined from the charging voltage, V0, the specimen
capacitance value, C0 (capacitance of Cx at 1000 Hz), and the
rate-of-change of voltage, dV/dt, using the circuit of Fig. X3.1
(17). To make a measurement the specimen is charged by
closing S2, with the electrometer shorting switch S1 closed.
When S1 is subsequently opened, the voltage across the
specimen will fall because the leakage and absorption currents
must then be supplied by the capacitance C0 rather than by V0.
The drop in voltage across the specimen will be shown by the
electrometer. If a recorder is connected to the output of the
electrometer, the rate of change of voltage, dV/dt, can be read
from the recorder trace at any desired time after S2 is closed (60
FIG. X3.1 Voltage Rate-of-Change Method
16
s usually specified). Alternatively, the voltage, DV, appearing
on the electrometer in a time, Dt, can be used. Since this gives
an average of the rate-of-change of voltage during Dt, the time
Dt should be centered at the specified electrification time (time
since closing S2).
X3.3.2 If the input resistance of the electrometer is greater
than the apparent specimen resistance and the input capaci-
tance is 0.01 or less of that of the specimen, the apparent
resistance at the time at which dV/dt or DV/Dt is determined is
Rx 5 V0/Ix 5 V0dt/C0dVm or, V0Dt/C0DVm (X3.3)
depending on whether or not a recorder is used. When the
electrometer input resistance or capacitance cannot be ignored
or when Vmis more than a small fraction of V0 the complete
equation should be used.
Rs 5 $V0 @~Rx 1 Rm!/Rm#Vm% / ~C0 1 Cm!dVm/dt (X3.4)
where:
C0 5 capacitance of Cx at 1000 Hz,
Rm 5 input resistance of the electrometer,
Cm 5 input capacitance of the electrometer,
V0 5 applied voltage, and
Vm 5 electrometer reading 5 voltage decrease on Cx.
X3.4 Comparison Method Using a Galvanometer or DC
Amplifier (1):
X3.4.1 A standard resistance, Rs, and a galvanometer or dc
amplifier are connected to the voltage source and to the test
specimen as shown in Fig. X3.1 . The galvanometer and its
associated Ayrton shunt is the same as described in X3.1.1. An
amplifier of equivalent direct current sensitivity with an
appropriate indicator may be used in place of the galvanometer.
It is convenient, but not necessary, and not desirable if batteries
are used as the voltage source (unless a high-input resistance
voltmeter is used), to connect a voltmeter across the source for
a continuous check of its voltage. The switch is provided for
shorting the unknown resistance in the process of measure-
ment. Sometimes provision is made to short either the un-
known or standard resistance but not both at the same time.
X3.4.2 In general, it is preferable to leave the standard
resistance in the circuit at all times to prevent damage to the
current measuring instrument in case of specimen failure. With
the shunt set to the least sensitive position and with the switch
open, the voltage is applied. The Ayrton shunt is then adjusted
to give as near maximum scale reading as possible. At the end
of the electrification time the deflection, dx, and the shunt ratio,
Fx, are noted. The shunt is then set to the least sensitive
position and the switch is closed to short the unknown
resistance. Again the shunt is adjusted to give as near maxi-
mum scale reading as possible and the galvanometer or meter
deflection, ds, and the shunt ratio, Fs, are noted. It is assumed
that the current sensitivities of the galvanometer or amplifier
are equal for nearly equal deflections dxand ds.
X3.4.3 The unknown resistance, Rx, or conductance, Gx, is
calculated as follows:
R 5 1/Gx 5 Rs@~dsFs / dxFx! – 1# (X3.5)
where:
 D 257

Fxand Fs 5 ratios of the total current to the galvanometer
or dc amplifier with Rx in the circuit, and
shorted, respectively.
X3.4.4 In case Rs is shorted when Rx is in the circuit or the
ratio of Fs to Fx is greater than 100, the value of Rx or Gx is
computed as follows:
Rx 5 1/Gx 5 R ~dsFs/dxFx!
X3.5 Comparison Methods Using a Wheatstone Bridge (2):
X3.5.1 The test specimen is connected into one arm of a
Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. X1.4. The three known
arms shall be of as high resistance as practicable, limited by the
errors inherent in such resistors. Usually, the lowest resistance,
RA, is used for convenient balance adjustment, with either RBor
RNbeing changed in decade steps. The detector shall be a dc
amplifier, with an input resistance high compared to any of
these arms.
X3.5.2 The unknown resistance, Rx, or conductance, Gx, is
calculated as follows:
Rx 5 1/Gx 5 RBRN / RA
where RA, RB, and RN are as shown in Fig. X1.4. When arm
A is a rheostat, its dial can be calibrated to read directly in
megohms after multiplying by the factor RBRN which for
convenience can be varied in decade steps.
X3.6 Recordings—It is possible to record continuously
against time the values of the unknown resistance or the
corresponding value of current at a known voltage. Generally,
this is accomplished by an adaptation of the voltmeter-ammeter
method, using dc amplification (X3.2). The zero drift of direct
coupled dc amplifiers, while slow enough for the measure-
ments of X3.2, may be too fast for continuous recording. This
problem can be resolved by periodic checks of the zero, or by
using an ac amplifier with input and output converter. The
indicating meter of Fig. X1.2(a) can be replaced by a recording
milliammeter or millivoltmeter as appropriate for the amplifier
used. The recorder may be either the deflection type or the
null-balance type, the latter usually having a smaller error.
Null-balance-type recorders also can be employed to perform
the function of automatically adjusting the potentiometer
(X3.6)
shown in Fig. X1.2(b) and thereby indicating and recording the
quantity under measurement. The characteristics of amplifier,
recorder balancing mechanism, and potentiometer can be made
such as to constitute a well integrated, stable, electromechani-
cal, feedback system of high sensitivity and low error. Such
systems also can be arranged with the potentiometer fed from
the same source of stable voltage as the specimen, thereby
eliminating the voltmeter error, and allowing a sensitivity and
precision comparable with those of the Wheatstone-Bridge
Method (X3.5).
X3.7 Direct-Reading Instruments—There are available,
and in general use, instruments that indicate resistance directly,
(X3.7) by a determination of the ratio of voltage and current in bridge
methods or related modes. Some units incorporate various
advanced features and refinements such as digital readout.
Most direct reading instruments are self-contained, portable,
and comprise a stable dc power supply with multi-test voltage
capability, a null detector or an indicator, and all relevant
auxiliaries. Measurement accuracies vary somewhat with type
of equipment and range of resistances covered; for the more
elaborate instruments accuracies are comparable to those
obtained with the voltmeter-ammeter method using a galva-
nometer (X3.1). The direct-reading instruments do not neces-
sarily supplant any of the other typical measurement methods
described in this Appendix, but do offer simplicity and conve-
nience for both routine and investigative resistance measure-
ments.

REFERENCES

(1) Curtis, H. L., “Insulating Properties of Solid Dielectric,” Bulletin,
National Institute of Standards and Technology, Vol II, 1915, Scientific
Paper No. 234, pp. 369–417.
(2) Field, R. F., “How Humidity Affects Insulation, Part I, D-C Phenom-
ena,” General Radio Experimenter, Vol 20, Nos. 2 and 3, July–August
1945.
(3) Field, R. F., “The Formation of Ionized Water Films on Dielectrics
Under Conditions of High Humidity,” Journal of Applied Physics, Vol
5, May 1946.
(4) Herou, R., and LaCoste, R., “Sur La Mésure Des Resistivities et
L’Etude de Conditionnement des Isolantes en Feuilles,” Report IEC
15-GT2(France) April 4, 1963.
(5) Thompson, B. H., and Mathes, K. N., “Electrolytic Corrosion—
Methods of Evaluating Materials Used in Tropical Service,” Transac-
tions, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, Vol 64, June 1945, p.
287.
(6) Scott, A. H., “Anomalous Conductance Behavior in Polymers,” Report
of the 1965 Conference on Electrical Insulation, NRC-NAS.
(7) Amey, W. G., and Hamberger, F., Jr., “A Method for Evaluating the
Surface and Volume Resistance Characteristics of Solid Dielectric
Materials,” Proceedings, American Society for Testing and Materials,
Vol 49, 1949, pp. 1079–1091.
(8) Witt, R. K., Chapman, J. J., and Raskin, B. L.,“ Measuring of Surface
and Volume Resistance,” Modern Plastics, Vol 24, No. 8, April 1947,
p. 152.
(9) Scott, A. H.,“ Insulation Resistance Measurements,” Fourth Electrical
Insulation Conference, Washington, DC, February 19–22, 1962.
(10) Kline, G. M., Martin, A. R., and Crouse, W. A.,“ Sorption of Water by
Plastics,” Proceedings, American Society for Testing and Materials,
Vol 40, 1940, pp. 1273–1282.
(11) Greenfield, E. W.,“ Insulation Resistance Measurements,” Electrical
Engineering, Vol 66, July 1947, pp. 698–703.
(12) Cole, K. S., and Cole, R. H., “Dispersion and Absorption in
Dielectrics, II Direct Current Characteristics,” Journal of Chemical
Physics, Vol 10, 1942.
(13) Field, R. F., “Interpretation of Current-Time Curves as Applied to
Insulation Testing,” AIEE Boston District Meeting, April 19–20,
1944.
(14) Lauritzen, J. I., “The Effective Area of a Guarded Electrode,” Annual
Report, Conference on Electrical Insulation. NAS-NRC Publication
1141, 1963.
(15) Turner, E. F., Brancato, E. L., and Price, W., “The Measurement of
Insulation Conductivity,” NRL Report 5060, Naval Research Labo-
ratory, Feb. 25, 1958.

17
 D 257
(16) Dorcas, D. S., and Scott, R. N., “Instrumentation for Measuring the Impregnated Paper as Insulation for HV-DC Cables,” IEEE Transac-
D-C Conductivity of Very High Resistivity Materials,” Review of tions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol PAS-86, No. 3, March
Scientific Instruments, Vol 35, No. 9, September 1964. 1967.
(17) Endicott, H. S., “Insulation Resistance, Absorption, and Their Mea- (19) Endicott, H. S., “Guard-Gap Correction for Guarded-Electrode Mea-
surement,” Annual Report, Conference on Electrical Insulation, surements and Exact Equations for the Two-Fluid Method of Mea-
NAS-NRC Publication, 1958. suring Permittivity and Loss,” Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Vol
(18) Occhini, E., and Maschio, G., “Electrical Characteristics of Oil- 4, No. 3, May 1976, pp. 188–195.

The American Society for Testing and Materials takes no position respecting the validity of any patent rights asserted in connection
with any item mentioned in this standard. Users of this standard are expressly advised that determination of the validity of any such
patent rights, and the risk of infringement of such rights, are entirely their own responsibility.

This standard is subject to revision at any time by the responsible technical committee and must be reviewed every five years and
if not revised, either reapproved or withdrawn. Your comments are invited either for revision of this standard or for additional standards
and should be addressed to ASTM Headquarters. Your comments will receive careful consideration at a meeting of the responsible
technical committee, which you may attend. If you feel that your comments have not received a fair hearing you should make your
views known to the ASTM Committee on Standards, at the address shown below.

This standard is copyrighted by ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.
Individual reprints (single or multiple copies) of this standard may be obtained by contacting ASTM at the above address or at
610-832-9585 (phone), 610-832-9555 (fax), or service@astm.org (e-mail); or through the ASTM website (www.astm.org).

18