GREAT ZIMBABWE UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS

Relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in

secondary schools. The case for three secondary schools in Chivi district cluster 30
Masvingo province.

BY

MHUNGU LYDIA

M173104

A research project submitted to Great Zimbabwe University, Robert Mugabe School of

Education, Department of Educational Foundations in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of a Bachelor of Education (Agriculture-Secondary)
Honours degree.

SUPERVISOR: DR MASHOKO. D.

30 JUNE 2020

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 DECLARATION
I, Mhungu Lydia, declare that this work is my original work and affirm that it has not been

submitted to this or any University as a requirement for a degree or any other qualification.

Student: ___________________________ Date: __________________

Supervisor: _________________________ Date: __________________

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My Supervisor, Dr Mashoko D., I thank you for your expert guidance, patience,
encouragement and constructive criticisms that led to the success of this project. Actually, it
was a great privilege for me to have you as my supervisor.

Special thanks to the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education (MoPSE), for granting
me the permission to carry out this research in their schools. I also extend my heartfelt
gratitude to all participants (school heads, parents, teachers and learners) for volunteering and
sparing their precious time to contribute to this study.

To my husband, Rabson Chigara, and the whole family, I thank you for your unwavering
support and words of encouragement.

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 DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to my husband, Rabson Chigara. I honour all that love, support and
encouragement you gave me timeously, not forgetting your passion to see me exceling in
school.

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 ABSTRACT

Indigenous knowledge can be viewed as local knowledge that has been developed and
accumulated, over time, by a community and has been passed down over generations. This
knowledge is represented in most spheres of human activity, such as in agriculture, traditional
and alternative medicine, human and animal health, forestry and botany. The purpose of this
research study is to explore the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning
of Agriculture in secondary schools. The use of indigenous knowledge has been seen by
many as an alternative way of promoting development in poor rural communities in many
parts of the world. By reviewing much of the recent work on indigenous knowledge, the
study suggests that indigenous knowledge can be of great help in fostering effective teaching
and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools.

This research study provides a systematic quantitative and qualitative analysis of the
relevance of indigenous knowledge in the teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary
schools, with a specific focus on three secondary schools in Chivi district cluster 30
Masvingo province Zimbabwe. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect primary data
from three school heads from the three participating schools. In addition, questionnaires were
administered to thirty (30) Agriculture students [ten (10) from each of the three (3)
participating schools] and nine (9) Agriculture teachers [three (3) from each of the three (3)
participating schools].

The findings indicated to a number of distinct indigenous knowledge systems including;

methods of maintaining soil fertility and water conservation, methods of controlling pests and
cropping practices, methods of controlling weeds, methods of post-harvesting preservation
and storage, seed preservation, indigenous knowledge on animal health and diseases, and
weather and climate forecast. Furthermore, the study reveals that indigenous knowledge point
to a level of an area, an outline of stable locations of a certain people encompassing a
community, unique by their sharing of cultural characteristics. It has been discovered as
collective schemes, techniques, practices, intellectual resources, tools, explanations, cultural
beliefs and values of a group of people accumulated over time in a particular locality with
less interference and impositions from external forces.

Results further indicated there are various ways in which indigenous knowledge is relevance
in agriculture curriculum implementation. Respondents concurred that indigenous
knowledge; connects the learners’ needs and community values, helps in legitimising the

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Agriculture curriculum to the learners and community, provides cost effective measures and
practices in crop and animal production (like soil fertility, seed preservation, post-harvest
storage, animal health and care, and water conservation techniques among others.), helps in
weather and climate studies, improve environmental care practices, infuse Ubuntu/Unhu
philosophical principles in Agriculture teaching and learning, motivates learners in teaching
and learning processes, and has become a panacea to some of the challenges facing people in
everyday life including, hunger, poverty, drought, and natural disasters. The study exposed
that quality indigenous knowledge education entails developing an Agriculture curriculum
that place emphasis on and is connected to indigenous culture, knowledge and language.

In addition, the researcher explored on the challenges/constrains for incorporating indigenous

knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools. Findings revealed
that there are many challenges/constrains faced on incorporating indigenous knowledge
where some of these included the following; lack of knowledge of indigenous knowledge by
educators, lack of literature or written textbooks and other requisite teaching and learning
materials on indigenous knowledge systems, examination oriented curriculum, lacks clear
pedagogical approaches, distinctive nature of indigenous knowledge which is always
community specific thus non standardised form of knowledge, congested timetables leaving
limited time for Agricultural learning, marginalisation of indigenous knowledge as outdated,
and inadequately included in the curriculum as equals to other forms of knowledge. Hence,
the research exposed that despite the fact that the value of indigenous knowledge in
agriculture education has been recognised, this recognition is yet to translate into practical
curriculum processes.

The study further suggested intervention strategies to mitigate challenges/constraints for

incorporating indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary
schools. Questionnaires were administered to teachers and students whilst school heads were
interviewed to gather data on the possible intervention strategies to mitigate challenges for
incorporating indigenous knowledge. The conclusions revealed that there are a number of
strategies to mitigate challenges/constraints for incorporating indigenous knowledge among
the strategies included; serious consideration of indigenous knowledge from the curriculum
planning and implementation processes, legitimising its presence in Agriculture curriculum,
availing literature and other supporting teaching and learning materials as resources for
teachers and learners, providing adequate time for teaching and learning of Agriculture,
standardising this indigenous knowledge and document it, and demarginalisation of

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indigenous knowledge to represent the act of reconsideration of it as equal to other scientific
forms of knowledge.

Keywords: indigenous, knowledge, agriculture

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 CONTENTS PAGE

CONTENTS PAGE

Cover page i

Declaration ii

Acknowledgements iii

Dedication iv

Abstract v

Contents Page viii

List of Appendices xii

List of figures xiii

List of Tables xiv

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xv

CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Background of the study 1

1.3 Significance of the study 5

1.3.1 Agriculture teachers 5

1.3.2 Agriculture Students 6

1.3.3 Other researchers 6

1.3.4 Curriculum Developers 6

1.3.5 The Researcher 6

1.4 Statement of the problem 7

1.5 Research objectives 7

1.6 Research questions 8

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1.7 Delimitations of the study 8

1.8 Limitations of the study 9

1.9 Definition of key terms 10

1.9.1 Agriculture 10

1.9.2 Indigenous knowledge 10

1.9.3 Indigenous 11

1.9.4 Knowledge 11

1.9.5 Culture 11

1.9.6 Teaching 11

1.9.7 Learning 11

1.10 Summary of the chapter 12

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 13

2.2 Theoretical framework 13

2.2.1 Social Cultural Theory 13

2.2.2 The Postcolonial Theory 15

2.3 Different forms of indigenous knowledge relevant to teaching and learning of Agriculture
in secondary schools 17

2.3.1 Indigenous methods of maintaining soil fertility and water conservation 18

2.3.2 Indigenous methods of controlling pests 19

2.3.3 Indigenous cropping practices 20

2.3.4 Indigenous methods of controlling weeds 20

2.3.5 Indigenous methods of post-harvesting preservation and storage 20

2.3.5.1 Seed preservation 21

2.3.6 Indigenous knowledge on animal health and diseases 22

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2.3.7 Indigenous knowledge and weather forecast 22

2.3.8 Sources and methods used in disseminating indigenous agricultural knowledge 23

2.3.9 Indigenous knowledge manpower practices 24

2.4 The relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in

secondary schools 24

2.5 Challenges/constraints that are faced in incorporating indigenous knowledge in teaching

and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools 29

2.6 Intervention strategies that could be employed to mitigate the challenges/constrains faced
in incorporating indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary
schools 31

2.7 Related studies 34

2.8 Summary of chapter 36

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction 37

3.2 Research design 37

3.2.1 Qualitative research approach 38

3.2.2 Quantitative research approach 38

3.3 Research Design: Case Study 39

3.4 Population 40

3.5 Sample and Sampling procedures 40

3.6 Data generation instruments 41

3.6.1 Questionnaires 41

3.6.2 Structured-Interviews 43

3.7 Pilot study 44

3.8 Data Collection procedures 44

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3.9 Data presentation procedures 45

3.10 Data analysis procedures 45

3.11 Ethical considerations 45

3.12 Summary of chapter 46

CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction 47

4.2 Questionnaires for teachers on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and
learning of Agriculture in secondary schools 47

4.3 Questionnaire for learners on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and
learning of Agriculture in secondary schools 63

4.4 Interviews for school heads on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and
learning of Agriculture in secondary schools 73

4.5 Summary of chapter 86

CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction 87

5.2 Summary of the findings 87

5.3 Conclusion 89

5.4. Recommendations 90

References 92

Appendix 1 98

Appendix 2 99

Appendix 3 100

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List of Appendices
Appendix 1: Questionnaires for teachers on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in the
teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools

Appendix 2: Questionnaire for learners on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in

teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools

Appendix 3: Interviews for school heads on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in

teaching and learning Agriculture in secondary schools

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List of figures
Figure 1.1 Sketch map of Masvingo province 9

xiii
List of tables
Table. 4.1 Do Agriculture teachers use indigenous knowledge when teaching and learning
Agriculture in school? 48

Table. 4.2 Are there challenges faced in incorporating indigenous knowledge teaching and
learning Agriculture in secondary schools? 57

Table. 4.3 Do you learn about indigenous knowledge in school? 65

Table. 4.4 Do your Agriculture teacher make you practice some indigenous forms of
knowledge when teaching and learning Agriculture? 66

Table. 4.5 Are there problems you encounter as learners when using indigenous knowledge in
teaching and learning of Agriculture at school? 69

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List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

MoPSE: Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education

UN: United Nations
SDGs: Sustainable Development Goals
UNEP: United Nations Environmental Programme

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 CHAPTER ONE
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction

This chapter was an introductory one. This chapter provided information on the background
of the study, statement of the problem, major research questions. Focus was also on
objectives of the study, assumption of the study, significance of the study, delimitations of
the study, limitations, and organisation of the study and definitions of key terms in the
research question.

1.2 Background of the study

According to Hart (2017), indigenous knowledge has contributed to major developments in

agriculture such as the domestication of crops and livestock, the development of animal
traction, and the dissemination of species around the world. Based on research experiences in
south-western Uganda, Lin (2011) concurs that indigenous or local knowledge appears to be
important to achieving sustainable agriculture, especially regarding food security. Hence, for
centuries, farmers have planned agricultural production and conserved natural resources with
the instruments of indigenous knowledge. The development of indigenous knowledge
systems, including management of natural environment, has been a matter of survival to the
people who generated these systems. In addition, Muthee, Gwademba and Masinde (2019)
argue that such systems are cumulative, representing generations of experience, careful
observations and trial and error experiments. The authority further state that indigenous
Knowledge is stored in people’s memories and activities and it is expressed in stories, songs,
folklore, proverbs, dances, myths, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community laws, local
languages and taxonomy, agricultural practices, equipment, materials, plant species and
animal breeds. Furthermore, Hart and Mouton (2005) concur that indigenous forms of
communication are important to local level decision making processes and for the
preservation and spread of indigenous knowledge. This body of knowledge has developed
over generations through the process of man-environmental interaction and its continuity
depends on its transmission and the ability of the young generation to acquire and practice it.

In support, Hart (2017) propounds that indigenous knowledge systems in traditional African
have been used by communities to protect natural resources from unsustainable exploitation

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thereby averting disasters that may have occurred from such exploitation. It is considered as
the social capital of the poor which is their main asset to invest in the struggle for survival, to
produce food, to provide for shelter and to achieve control of their own lives. However, Lin
(2011) says that most of the indigenous knowledge disappears due to the intrusion of foreign
technologies and development concepts that promise short-term gains or solutions to
problems without being capable of sustaining them. The tragedy of the disappearance of this
knowledge system is most obvious to those who have developed it and make a living through
it. But the implication for others can be detrimental as well, when skills, technologies,
artefacts, problem solving strategies and expertise are lost.

According to Ihenacho, Orusha and Onogu (2019), indigenous Knowledge is dynamic and it
changes through creativity and innovativeness as well as through contact with other local and
international knowledge systems. In support, Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010) contend that
these knowledge systems represent mechanisms to ensure minimal livelihoods for local
people. Hence, the indigenous knowledge systems have a broad perspective of the
ecosystems and of sustainable ways of using natural resources and agricultural practices.

However, Hart and Mouton (2005) concur that colonial education system replaced the
practical everyday life aspects of indigenous knowledge and ways of learning with Western
ideas of theoretical knowledge and academic ways of learning. Today, there is a grave risk
that much indigenous knowledge is being lost and, along with it, valuable knowledge about
ways of living sustainably both ecologically and socially. Concurringly, Ihenacho, Orusha
and Onogu (2019) claim that due to the nineteenth century colonialism and early post-
colonial period which established negative values and attitudes towards indigenous
knowledge systems, many scientists and academics considered indigenous knowledge
systems as primitive, simple and static. Therefore, Mapara (2009) echoes that indigenous
knowledge systems have not been systematically recorded in written form and are not readily
accessible to agricultural researchers, development practitioners, and policy makers.
Additionally, Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010) assert that formal education systems considered
sound knowledge on indigenous knowledge to be out-dated and irrelevant in addressing
present-day agricultural challenges. Thus, there is a great risk that much indigenous
knowledge is being lost and, along with it, valuable knowledge about ways of living
sustainably both ecologically and socially.

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However, indigenous knowledge has been found to provide the basis for grassroots decision-
making. Hart (2017) confirms that it is recently found that the indigenous knowledge of
ecological zones, natural resources, agriculture, aquaculture, forest and game management is
far more sophisticated than previously assumed. Furthermore, this knowledge offers new
models for development that are both ecologically and socially sound. Therefore, it is a well-
known fact that development activities that work with and through indigenous knowledge
have several important advantages over projects that operate outside them. Apart from the
above, indigenous knowledge systems allows schools to be knowledgeable about their own
situations, resources, what works and what does not work, and how one change impacts other
parts of their system.

According to the UN General Assembly (2015), The United Nations Sustainable

Development Goals (SDGs) aims to increase agricultural productivity for smallholder
farmers at least twofold and thereby double incomes particularly for the vulnerable groups
such as women, pastoralists and those engaged in fishing, through safe and impartial access
to production resources such as land, capital and extension services by the year 2030. In
addition, United Nations General Assembly concurs that while the Sustainable Development
Goals propose ending poverty in all forms by 2030, this cannot be a reality unless social
protection for the underprivileged and people susceptible to weather-related disasters is
observed. This means that the role of native knowledge systems in enhancing agricultural
productivity cannot be ignored because its application can help to scale up sustainable
agricultural intensification in order to increase production, protect the environment and
reduce poverty.

In the report ‘Realising the Future We Want’, Muthee, Gwademba and Masinde (2019) agree
that the UN System Task Team on the Post 2015 UN Development Agenda acknowledges the
importance of indigenous knowledge for sustainable environment stating that traditional and
indigenous knowledge, adaptation and coping strategies can be major assets for local
response strategies. Therefore, in light of the new post-2015 sustainability agenda, it was
important to investigate the relationships between sustainable agricultural growth and
indigenous knowledge. This assessment offered an opportunity to understand how indigenous
peoples in most African states including Zimbabwe have been responding to environmental
and development challenges. This implied that their knowledge systems could be important
in maintaining the biodiversity and building resilience to adaptation to climate changes this
would eventually enhance agricultural productivity.

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According to studies by Lin (2011), the use of indigenous knowledge in agriculture allied
sectors in the Coastal Region of West Bengal, India, showed that people of the West Bengal,
India sustain farming through their indigenous knowledge. In addition, Ihenacho, Orusha and
Onogu (2019) concur that Coastal Region people continue substance farming in their kitchen
gardens and agriculture fields through their indigenous knowledge and climate forecast.
Basically, this practice involves improvement of soil fertility, structure, crops, selection of
seeds and storage for future purposes. Knowledge of rainfall calculations is helpful for
showing seasons. These indigenous knowledge practices could be helpful in the achievement
of the food security, which is of important nutritionally safe food supply of the family.

Furthermore, Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010) aver that based on research experiences in a
parish in South-Western Uganda, indigenous or local knowledge appears to be important to
achieving sustainable agriculture, especially regarding food security, and is therefore
important to future agricultural development programmes and strategies. The study showed
how in the resource-poor and marginal areas that were studied, the farmers survived and in
some cases prospered by almost exclusively relying on local resources, farming within the
parameters set by their access to these resources. The study also highlights a number of issues
relating to our current understanding of indigenous knowledge.

In Zimbabwe, Mapara (2009) argues that indigenous knowledge can be called by various
names such as indigenous knowledge of knowing, traditional knowledge, rural knowledge as
well as ethno science. Indigenous knowledge is therefore generated by a particular society
within a geographical area and transmitted from one generation to another in order to provide
solutions to the existing problems of that time. According to Lin (2011), the absence of
scientific knowledge in rural communities created value in the use of indigenous knowledge
to manage changes in seasons, disaster situations and food security. In agreement, Mapara
(2009) asserts that in Zimbabwe the use of taboos, totems and sacred places have been used
to protect and preserve the environment as part of the indigenous knowledge. The importance
of indigenous knowledge in Zimbabwe lies in that it has for a long time been used for
survival, including forecasting of local hazards by local communities. Access to weather
information, such as seasonal forecasts, has been limited among the rural populace in
Zimbabwe.

However, Eyong (2007) contends that as an answer to sustainable agriculture indigenous

knowledge presents an enormous wealth of knowledge to be tapped. In addition, the authority

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concurs that it has been an important resource in the sub-Saharan African region in terms of
agricultural practices and predicting hazard events. Therefore, this helped people to prepare
for the hazards thereby increasing their resilience. In Zimbabwe, Duri and Mapara (2007)
confirm that poor harvest, famine and other epidemics have been detected and reported
through the indigenous knowledge systems before they occurred. The indigenous knowledge
systems in Zimbabwe have created early warning systems in times of hazardous and
disastrous events. With such a phenomenon indigenous knowledge systems have shown
validity in day to day agricultural and environmental issues affecting the rural communities.
On a study in Mberengwa, Zimbabwe Shoko (2012) opines that indigenous knowledge such
as the use of biotic weather indicators to predict weather played an important role in decision
making in rural livelihoods. This provided a recipe to creating a sustainable environment.

Therefore, it is against this background that the researcher is motivated to explore on the
relevance of indigenous knowledge in the teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary
schools. Much of the studies alluded to how indigenous knowledge systems influence
community agricultural activities, food processing and sustainable environmental practices.
Very little has been said on how indigenous knowledge systems have been contributing in the
teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools. Hence, this study sought to fill this
research gap as it tried to explore the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and
learning of Agriculture in schools. The researcher was motivated to find out how indigenous
knowledge systems would allow schools to have an intimate knowledge of many aspects of
their surroundings and their daily lives. Focus would also aimed at finding out how secondary
schools could utilise indigenous knowledge for effective teaching and learning of Agriculture
in secondary schools.

1.3 Significance of the study

The study may help the following;

1.3.1 Agriculture teachers

The recommendations from this study may also help Agriculture teachers to receive adequate
training and refresher courses on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and
learning of Agriculture in schools. This may also make Agriculture teachers to provide
quality education to their students thereby heightening academic pass-rate and education with
production in schools. Again, Agriculture teachers may improve their knowledge, motivation,
attitudes and skills to upgrade competence and confidence on indigenous knowledge issues in

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Agriculture. In addition, the study may assist to create a positive perception towards
indigenous knowledge systems.

1.3.2 Agriculture students

The study may make learners appreciate and understand critical concepts related to
indigenous knowledge in Agriculture in school. Learners may have knowledge and skills to
apply indigenous knowledge in Agriculture learning in school. They might develop an
understanding of the various challenges involved when incorporating indigenous knowledge
in their Agriculture learning as well as the possible solutions to some of the challenges.

1.3.3 Other researchers

The study might lead to an understanding of indigenous knowledge, its various forms and
how it is relevant in teaching and learning of Agriculture in schools. Other researchers may
have knowledge on the challenges faced with indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning
of Agriculture in schools and the intervention strategies to deal with these challenges in
making Agriculture in schools a success. This research may be a contribution to the body of
literature in the area of the relevance of indigenous knowledge in Agriculture in schools,
thereby constituting the empirical literature for future research in the subject area.

1.3.4 Curriculum developers

The research may help curriculum developers to to effectively consider indigenous

knowledge systems in the teaching and learning of Agriculture in schools and equip teachers
with effective teaching and learning pedagogies to deal with indigenous knowledge in class.
As such, results obtained by the research may help curriculum developers to consider
indigenous knowledge in curriculum review in which indigenous knowledge systems may be
taken as fountain of knowledge equally good as other scientific forms of knowledge in the
teaching and learning of Agriculture in school.

1.3.5 The researcher

Furthermore, the study is very significant to the researcher since it is a project undertaken in
partial fulfilment of Bachelor of Education Honours Degree in Agriculture. Also as a
secondary school teacher the study may enable the researcher to realise the relevance of
indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in schools. The study may also

6
equip the researcher with research skills such that as she continues with her education
endeavours she may not encounter any difficulties in carrying out a research.

1.4 Statement of the problem

Currently, there is limited or no incorporation of indigenous knowledge systems in the

Agriculture curriculum in Zimbabwe. This is due to many constraints faced in the education
sector in Zimbabwe such as education is exam-oriented, limited financial resources and skills,
and poor infrastructure. Furthermore, there are weak linkages between the community and the
school resulting in discord between what is taught in school and its relevance to the
community. In support, Muthee, Gwademba and Masinde (2019) concur that lack of
incorporation of indigenous knowledge systems results in pupils failing to comprehend
pertinent issues necessary to understand fully the community they live in. The researcher’s
experience has shown that some schools are not tapping the valuable knowledge and
contributions from the indigenous knowledge systems to implement their school agricultural
systems. In addition, the researcher noted that the rapid and selective generation/manipulation
of data by science, while generally useful and accurate for short-term predictions, does not
always lend well for long-term predictions. According to Shoko (2012), African traditional
knowledge systems may not necessarily be better suited to making long-term predictions of
change, but indigenous knowledge (as observed in traditional survival strategies) may have
some advantages in recognising the onset of change and finding ingenious ways to
accommodate and mitigate them at early stages, within the community decision-making
structure. Today, Mapara (2009) claims that there is a grave risk th5`at much indigenous
knowledge is being lost and, along with it, valuable knowledge about ways of living
sustainably both ecologically and socially. Several forms of Indigenous Knowledge are
applicable to enhancing agriculture teaching, learning and production in schools in
Zimbabwe. Indigenous knowledge is therefore still applicable and relevant in modern
agriculture. Much of the research on the relevance of indigenous knowledge focused on
sustainable agriculture, food science and food security in the community. Little has been
recorded on how this valuable knowledge has been useful in secondary school Agriculture
teaching and learning. Therefore, this research study aimed to explore on the relevance of
indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools.

1.5 Research objectives

The study sought to achieve the following objectives:

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  Identify different forms of indigenous knowledge relevant for the teaching and
learning of Agriculture in secondary schools.

 Explore the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of

Agriculture in secondary schools.

 Challenges/constraints for incorporating indigenous knowledge in teaching and

learning of Agriculture in secondary schools.

 Suggest interventional strategies to mitigate challenges/constraints for incorporating

indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools.

1.6 Research questions

The research questions of this study were:

 What are the different forms of indigenous knowledge relevant for teaching and
learning of Agriculture in secondary schools?

 What is the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of

Agriculture in secondary schools?

 What challenges/constraints that are faced in incorporating indigenous knowledge in

teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools?

 What intervention strategies that could be employed to mitigate the

challenges/constrains faced in incorporating indigenous knowledge in teaching and
learning of Agriculture in secondary schools?

1.7 Delimitations of the study

Theofanidis and Fountouki (2018) regard delimitations as those characteristics that limit the
scope and define the boundaries of a study. The delimitations are in the researcher’s control.
In support, Korstjens and Moser (2018) concur that delimitations include the choice of
objectives, the research questions and research methodology that are adopted and the sample
chosen to collect data. The study was delimited to three (3) secondary schools in cluster 30
Chivi district Masvingo province. The researcher studied and observed Agriculture teaching
and learning at a secondary school level and had access to parents in the community for more
information on the indigenous knowledge systems of the local area. The results obtained in

8
this project may not be universal, they were limited to the Chivi cluster 30 in Chivi district,
and the immediate community around the schools within the cluster.

Sketch map of study area

Below is a sketch map for Masvingo province. It showed all the district within the province
including Chivi district which is the area under study.

Figure 1.1 Sketch map of Masvingo province. [Source: No source]

Chivi district is found in Masvingo province about 120km due west of Masvingo town. It is
where the researcher carried her study on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in the
teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools. Three secondary schools from
Chivi district cluster 30 made part of a sample of this study. Cluster 30 is about 15km south
of Chivi growth point.

1.8 Limitations of the study

According to Theofanidis and Fountouki (2018), limitations are potential weaknesses in the
researcher’s study that are mostly out of his/her control and are associated with the chosen
research design, funding constraints or other factors. In addition, Mugenda and Mugenda
(2003) limitations are aspects of the study that negatively affect the results of generalisation
of the study but which a researcher has no direct control over. In carrying out this research
the limitations to this study included financial resources to undertake a sound and

9
comprehensive research, uncooperative participants who were reluctant to fully participate
and time constraints.

One of the limitations of the study was that participants might fail to give authentic
information for fear of victimisation. The parents feared that the information they gave in the
questionnaire about participation in indigenous knowledge systems may threaten their social
status security. However, the researcher assured them that the information would be treated
with confidentiality and would be utilised for the purpose of the research only.

The researcher observed ethical issues pertaining research study to protect all the participants,
such as anonymity, use of pseudo names, right to participation and confidentiality among
others.

The researcher had the problem of finance. This limited the number of pupils under study
because stationary was expensive. This implied that the researcher was very careful in
choosing an appropriate and inexpensive type of research design, so as to limit the costs
during data collection.

Time was another limiting factor since the researcher was be busy with the actual teaching
activities. This made the researcher to liaise with the school administration so that time would
be given to her in order to come up with appropriate data for the research study.

1.9 Definition of key terms

1.9.1 Agriculture: Agriculture refers to the many ways in which crop, plants and domestic
animals sustain the global human population by providing food and other products (Hart,
2017). It is the science and art of cultivating the soil, including the allied pursuits of gathering
in the crops and rearing livestock.

1.9.2 Indigenous knowledge: Hart (2017)) defines the terms indigenous, traditional and/or
local knowledge make reference to knowledge and know-how that is accumulated over
generations and guides human societies in their innumerable interactions with their
surrounding environment. In addition, Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010) concur that indigenous
knowledge refers to the complex set of knowledge, skills and technologies existing and
developed around specific conditions of populations and communities indigenous to a
particular geographic area. Duri and Mapara (2007) aver that indigenous knowledge
constitutes the knowledge that people in a given community have developed over time, and
continue to develop. Therefore, indigenous knowledge can simply be viewed as the

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systematic body of knowledge acquired by local people through the accumulation of
experiences, informal experiments and intimate understanding of the environment in a given
culture.

1.9.3 Indigenous: Muthee, Gwademba and Masinde (2019) argue that indigenous refers to
local ideas, practices and visions that hold direct benefit for local people and broader impacts
for all people. In encompass historical continuity in societies, languages, cultural practices
and political systems and resolve to maintain and reproduce their ancestral environments and
systems as distinctive people and communities. Thus, it is produced, growing, living or
occurring natively or naturally in a particular region or environment.

1.9.4 Knowledge: The fact or condition of knowing something with familiarity gained
through experience or association.

1.9.5 Culture: According to The Human Rights Bulletin (2014), culture is the total range of
activities and ideas of a group of people with shared traditions which are transmitted and
reinforced by members of a group including the artistic and social pursuits, expression, and
tastes valued by a society or class, as in the arts, manners, and dress among other aspects of
life. In addition, Ihenacho, Orusha and Onogu (2019) say culture is the life style of a group of
people who live in a particular place at a particular time. Therefore, for this study, the
concept of culture refers to ways of life passed on from their ancestors, each generation
changes this culture and adds new elements. It may include society’s music, literature and art
as culture, a society’s every aspect like clothing, habits, food preferences, architecture, shape
of their farms and fields, education and legal system. Furthermore, culture is not only a
mosaic reflecting people’s life style but is a comprehensive concept covering values and
beliefs

1.9.6 Teaching: Mutasa (2011) defines teaching as an engagement with learners to enable
their understanding and application of knowledge, concepts and process. In addition, Louw
(2009) agrees that it includes design, content selection, delivery, assessment and reflection.
Therefore, it is simply a process in which one individual or instruct another individual. A
situations where the teacher instruct learners in a classroom situation.

1.9.7 Learning: According to Louw (2009), learning is an activity or a process of gaining

knowledge or skill by studying, practising, being taught or experiencing something. Mudaly
and Ismail (2013) concur that learning is the acquisition or mastery of what is already known
about something, the extension and clarification of meaning of one’s experience or an

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organised intentional process of testing ideas relevant to problems. Hence, learning is the
relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behaviour due to experience.

1.10 Summary of the chapter

The introductory chapter presented the background of the study on indigenous knowledge in
implementing agriculture in schools. The statement of the problem and objectives of the
study were presented. The chapter also highlighted research questions which guided the study
and significance of the study. The delimitations of the study, limitations of the study and an
organisation of the study were also presented. The chapter also defined important operational
concepts that enabled to provide a firm grasp of indigenous knowledge in implementing
agriculture in schools. The chapter ended with a summary.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter focuses on what other authorities say about indigenous knowledge systems and
the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in schools.
The researcher examined literature related to research questions mentioned in chapter one.
The above suggests that indigenous knowledge is an indispensable repository of such
traditional knowledge and ecological knowledge as a cumulative body of knowledge, practice
and belief, evolving by adaptation processes and handed down through generations by
cultural transmission, about the relationship of living beings (including humans) with their
environment. Answering the research questions in chapter will be the guiding principles of
this research study. A theoretical framework was provided.

2.2 Theoretical framework

Basically, Theofanidis and Fountouki (2018) claim that a theoretical framework consists of
concepts, together with their definitions and existing theory/theories for the study at hand.
The theoretical framework is intended to strengthen the study as it allows a critical evaluation
of theoretical assumptions, connects the researcher to existing knowledge, and with a relevant
theory. It provides the researcher with a basis for hypotheses and choice of research methods.
The how and why questions of the theoretical assumptions of the study are addressed. In
addition, Morgan (2010) concurs that generalisations are minimised since focus is on key
variables, and there is an examination of the differences in variables, as well as the
influencing circumstances. Overall, Flick (2013) agrees that a good theory helps to explain
the meaning, nature and challenges of a phenomenon so that people may use the knowledge
and understanding gained to solve problems. Theories give researchers the means with which
to tackle complex situations and social issues, they allow the assessment of problems as well
as the prescription of possible solutions. This study is theoretically delineated to the Social
Cultural Theory and The Postcolonial Theory.

2.2.1 Social Cultural Learning Theory

The Social learning cultural theory was propounded from a Russian psychologist Lev
Vygotsky (1962). The theory values the importance of interaction between people and the
culture in which they live. The theory argued that the influence of culture, is of paramount

13
importance as parents, caregivers, peers and culture in general are primary agents responsible
for the socialisation and development of children’s higher order functions.

Thus, Webb (2016) argues that the Social learning theories help in understanding how people
learn in social contexts and it is also deeply rooted in the constructivist learning paradigm
which upholds active learning among students. Lev Vygotsky (1978) further explains that
learning starts through interactions and communications with other individuals. This means
that there is influence from the social environment in which people live. As such, the theory
places great emphasis on peer learning, and scaffolding.

According to Shiva (2006), there is need for practitioners to create a learning environment
that take full advantage of the learners’ capability to cooperate with others, and that is
through discussion, collaboration, and feedback. Furthermore, Okoth (2016) asserts that
Vygotsky (1962) further illustrates that culture is the principal influential factor for
knowledge construction. Vygotsky posits that individuals learn through cultural lens by
interacting with societal members, and they are guided by the rules, skills, and abilities
shaped by the culture of that society. As claimed by Notsi (2012), interactive learning is
when students learn through what begins as an individual’s collective ability to experience
and interpret the world in a community context. This can be referred to as learning by doing.
The social theory of learning thus views the community as a social fabric for learning leading
to collective knowledge. The Vygotskian theory also looks at relations between individuals
and how members of the society shape their culture. Individuals in the society, Vygotsky
explains, learn from one another than in isolation. The learning process calls for collaboration
among students and it is based on dependable situations which allow students to reflect on
how knowledge is functional to everyday situations.

In the same view, Odora-Hoppers (2004) argues that Vygotsky theory explains the principle
of scaffolding which states that when an adult provides support for a child, they will adjust
the amount of help they give depending on the child’s progress. The kind of help given to the
child is a step-by-step procedure until the help is completely withdrawn (Vygotsky, 1978). In
support, Webb (2016) agrees that this development of different levels of help is what is called
‘scaffolding’. It appeals equivalents from real scaffolding for buildings which are used as a
support for construction of new material (the skill/information to be learnt) and then removed
once the building is complete (the skill/information has been learnt).

14
According to Senanayake (2006), the Social Cultural Theory shares the same assumption
with Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning Theory on the view that learning takes place
through observations by the learners during demonstrations by the teacher. Through
observations, Shiva (2006) concurs that Bandura explained that people learn through
watching the behaviour of those around them. The behaviour comes in the form of individual
performance, or as an instruction accompanied by vivid details on how certain activities are
done, typical of symbolising behaviour. Therefore, the Social learning theory is premised on
continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioural, and environmental
influences. In addition, Okoth (2016) says that while the Vygotskian theory explains that
knowledge is acquired by the learners through socialisation with knowledgeable members
by means such as observations and scaffolding, learners go through step-by-step procedures
to acquire the knowledge. For this study the theory would help to provide insight how culture
through indigenous knowledge systems could be relevant to the teaching and learning of
Agriculture in secondary schools. The key assumptions of the theory which include among
others interaction, socialisation, observation and scaffolding would be probed to further
reflect on the instructional process.

However, Webb (2016) argues that the same procedures, premised on systematic procedures
may not apply to the acquisition of indigenous knowledge. Since indigenous knowledge is
tacit in nature, it requires the initiative of the one who possess the knowledge in order for
those interested in knowing to benefit. Therefore, the Social cultural learning theory works
well in the scenario whereby the one possessing indigenous knowledge practices acts at the
mentor to the one interested in acquiring the knowledge.

2.2.2 The Postcolonial Theory

According to Okoth (2016), the term Postcolonial theory is often said to begin with the works
of Edward W. Said, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, and Homi K. Bhabha among others.
Mudaly and Ismail (2013) assert that the theory examines knowledge and society from two
broad perspectives: that is how the writer, artist, cultural worker, and his or her context
reflects a colonial past, and how they survive and carve out a new way of creating and
understanding the world. In addition, Notsi (2012) confirms that the post-colonial theory
argues that the Europeans divided the world into two parts; the east and the west or the
occident and the orient or the civilised and the uncivilised. This was totally an artificial
boundary; and it was laid on the basis of the concept of them and us or theirs and ours.

15
Senanayake (2006) concurs that the Europeans used orientalism to define themselves where
some particular attributes were associated with the orientals, and whatever the Orientals were
not, the Occidents were. The Europeans defined themselves as the superior race compared to
the orientals; and they justified colonisation by this concept. The theory according to Mutasa
(2011) gives the Europeans duty to the world to civilise the uncivilised world. Notsi (2012)
corresponds that the main challenge, however, arose when the Europeans started
oversimplifying the features they related with orientals, and started depicting these artificial
characteristics associated with orientals in their western world through their scientific reports,
literary work, and other media sources. The developments created a certain image about the
orientals in the European mind and in doing that infused a bias in the European attitude
towards the orientals.

Odora-Hoppers (2004) agrees that another proponent of the postcolonial theory is Franz
Fanon (1986), in his book, Black Skin, White Masks, he suggests that colonialism, because of
its explicit promotion of white racial superiority over non-white peoples, has created a sense
of division and alienation in the self-identity of the colonised. In support, Mudaly and Ismail
(2013) claim that Fanon argues that under colonialism, the history, language, culture, customs
as well as belief systems of the white coloniser are to be considered as universal and
normative as well as superior to the knowledge systems of the colonized that are treated as
the inferior other. The propagation and continuation of this fable fashioned a sense of
subordination among the colonised and this forced them to follow almost all of the
colonisers’ identity as their own. To make matters worse, Okoth (2016) says the colonised
emulated the coloniser’s language, culture and customs, thus being alienated from their
cultures, with some going to the extent of bleaching their skins so that they resemble the
whites. In order to relinquish the imperial yoke, the colonised first had to fight for political
liberation, thereafter; they would reclaim and reconstruct their own history and culture in a
postcolonial era.

In addition, Mudaly and Ismail (2013) concur that the Post-colonial theory has flaws in that it
fails to identify the dynamism of culture. The connections which happen between the various
ethnic group of the world or in particular the coloniser and the colonised, transformed
societies. For example, Mutasa (2011) explains the aspect of imitating foreign culture, diluted
indigenous practices, be it in agriculture or environmental conservation. Therefore, people
should adjust to the current practices and fuse the practices with useful indigenous ways. As
an example, Odora-Hoppers, (2004) maintains that conservation farming, which utilises local

16
resources, can be relied upon together with use of fertilizers for better agricultural yields.
Thus, instead of completely condemning colonialism, there should be an effort to bridge the
division between the coloniser and the once colonised so that either side can take what is
good discarding that which may not be good to the other. Therefore, the same analysis can be
applied to the teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools, whereby indigenous
knowledge practices can be used together with modern methods of agriculture. In order to
ensure effectiveness of secondary school teaching and learning, the inherent changes within
the communities should not be ignored. Factors like climate and weather predictions,
indigenous ways of soil fertility, food and seed preservations, animal health care and plant
diseases and pest control measures among others have to be incorporated for the common
good.

2.3 Different forms of indigenous knowledge relevant for the teaching and learning of
Agriculture in secondary schools

According to Muthee, Gwademba and Masinde (2019), indigenous indicates a level of

locality, a pattern of fixed whereabouts of a certain people comprising a community,
distinguishable by their sharing of cultural attributes. Emeagwali (2014) defines indigenous
knowledge as cumulative strategies, techniques, practices, intellectual resources, tools,
explanations, cultural beliefs and values of a group of people accumulated over time in a
particular locality with less interference and impositions from external forces. Masoga (2007)
regards indigenous knowledge as the totality of all knowledge and practice explicit or
implicit, used in the management of socio-economic, spiritual and ecological facets of life.
Additionally, Ihenacho, Orusha and Onogu (2019) concur that indigenous knowledge systems
are a body of knowledge, or bodies of knowledge of the indigenous people of particular
geographical areas that they have survived on for a very long time. These knowledge systems
are transmitted and renewed by each succeeding generation, ensuring the wellbeing of people
by providing food security, environmental conservation, and early warning systems for
disaster risk management.

In addition, Shava (2016) argues that local farmers generally use and manage local resources,
whereby they in fact ‘mimic’ nature. This implies that any agricultural development in
Zimbabwe and in areas where similar circumstances exist should concentrate on the use of
low external input sustainable agricultural principles and not on high external input usage as
had previously been promoted by the conventional research and extension model. Several

17
forms of indigenous knowledge are applicable to enhancing agriculture implementation and
production in schools. Abioye, Zaid and Egberongbe (2011) observe that the application of
indigenous agricultural farming has been reflected in the following: methods of maintaining
soil fertility, methods of controlling pests and diseases, soil preparation and planting
materials, methods of controlling weeds, and methods of harvesting and storage.

2.3.1 Indigenous methods of maintaining soil fertility and water conservation

Ihenacho, Orusha and Onogu (2019) concur that due to increase of populations and demand
for land, the scarcity of land prevented farmers from resting the land in between seasons.
Therefore, indigenous people had to develop alternative methods for restoring the nutrients
lost after planting and harvesting. Emeagwali (2014) argues that indigenous farmers practise
various methods of fertilisation, including slash and burn agriculture, the ploughing of
organic material into the plant beds before planting and after harvest, composting, and the
rotation of crops. Indigenous farmers seasonally rotate crops in order to restore nutrients into
the soil. In support, Singh and Sureja (2008) maintain that other methods of fertilisation
include the practice of slash and burn and the ploughing of organic material into the plant
beds before planting and after harvest, and manure is often used to fertilise the soil.

According to Mishra and Rai (2013), there are several indigenous knowledge methods of
maintaining soil fertility and these include shifting cultivation, mixed cropping, inter-
cropping, mulching, compost (dead leaves), animal manure (cow dung and goat droppings),
chicken waste, and planting local legumes (green manure, and charcoal ashes). In addition,
Shava (2016) the potential advantage of the traditional African vegetables has been identified
in improving soil fertility and weeds and pests suppression. Therefore, there is need for a
considerable prospect in incorporating of organic farming practices with the production of
traditional African vegetables. Some aspects of indigenous knowledge have found application
in conservation of soil fertility through the composting of plant remains.

Furthermore, Singh and Sureja (2008) observe that indigenous farmers are able to classify
soils, broadly as agricultural and non-agricultural soils that are used for farming and domestic
purposes. Based on their experience, local farmers are also able to classify soils according to
topography, texture and colour, stickiness, depth and crop comparability. Similarly, Hart
(2017) posits that local farmers perceive soil moisture and fertility in terms of soil
appearance, colour (black), and its capacity for long-term productivity, water holding
capacity, drainage, tillage, manure requirement and abundance of earthworms. According to

18
Shoko (2012), other methods of soil and water conservation include planting shrubs and
perennial grass on edges to prevent runoffs, mulching seeds to avoid wind erosion, earth
contour ridges, and ploughing and sowing across slopes.

2.3.2 Indigenous methods of controlling pests

Emeagwali (2014) asserts that traditional control practices are still the major means of pest
management for small-scale farmers in most parts of Africa and these control practices are
based on the built-in features of cropping systems (such as farm/plot location, crop rotation
and intercropping) or on specific responsive actions to reduce pest attacks (such as the timing
of weeding and the use of plants with repellent. Ihenacho, Orusha and Onogu (2019) identify
the major field pests reported by farmers, including banana weevil, bean fly, cereal stem
borers, pod feeders, grain moth, rodents, moths, termites, birds, aphids and cutworms.
According to Tikai and Karma (2004) and Singh and Sureja (2008), some of the methods of
controlling pests and diseases among crops include sanitation, burning and smoking, dusted
plant materials (ashes and sand), and hand picking, fallowing and shifting cultivation, hand
picking and squashing of beetles, slashing and burning.

According to Muthee, Gwademba and Masinde (2019), while local farmers use some external
inputs and external farming practices when cultivating traditional and exotic vegetables for
commercial purposes, they mainly use locally developed and available inputs to cultivate
traditional vegetables for household consumption, thus to meet food security requirements.
Fenta 2009) argues that natural plant materials (using ash and hot pepper mixed with ash, and
spraying animal urine on crops) provide effective substitutes for agrochemicals. Therefore,
the farmers use various home-made solutions that include ash, urine, water, acacia leaves and
chilli peppers to control pests and diseases. Most of the indigenous insect pest control
methods include measures to disrupt the life cycle of pests by periodically denying them food
and to achieve maximum control where the manipulation of ordinary agricultural practices
will follow. Shoko (2012) observes that in Zimbabwe, the stem borer, grasshoppers,
cutworms, millipedes, moles, birds and the maize storage weevil are some of the pests that
pose a major threat to maize growers. Traditional pest control methods particularly the use of
indigenous pesticide plants if improved offer a safer, eco-friendly, low-cost and more
dependable method of field crop protection. Therefore, using such fountain of knowledge of
pest control will help successful implementation of agriculture in schools.

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2.3.3 Indigenous cropping practices

In addition, Mapara (2009) concurs that indigenous knowledge systems in agriculture

involves knowledge on cropping practices. Muthee, Gwademba and Masinde, 2019)
correspond that local farmers regularly practise the use of hedgerows, multistorey-cropping
and companion planting. In the same view, Hart (2017) claims that while these act as means
of pest control, they also provide shade and windbreaks and reduce erosion. Crops grown in
this fashion provide foodstuffs and fuel for the household and occasionally extra income as
well. The seasonal organic matter from such crops is used to provide mulching which has the
benefit of conserving water and controlling weeds. It can also be used as compost for
fertilisation purposes.

Furthermore, Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010) contend that mixed and intercropping of
vegetables is the norm, as this allows farmers to spread their risk thus, the failure of one crop
does not necessarily result in the failure of the other crops. According to Fenta (2009), this
indigenous knowledge practices also allow them to maximise the use of the land at their
disposal and reduce erosion and weeds. This means that they spend less time on weed control
and have an extra means to control erosion. Crops are often planted at different intervals in
these separate areas, and crops from different families are planted in separate areas and
seasonally rotated. This system enabled them to manage their production output and to
fertilise the soil.

2.3.4 Indigenous methods of controlling weeds

Notsi (2012) observes that indigenous methods of controlling weeds include hand weeding,
shifting cultivation and fallowing, slashing and burning, intercropping and shallow
cultivation. Ploughing is a popular practice to enhance soil and water management as it
enables farmers to control pests, weeds and diseases. In support, Shoko (2012) argues that
ploughing helps by exposing the egg masses of insects and dormant spores of pathogenic
organisms to the hot sun, killing embryos of weed seeds, while enhancing the water holding
capacity of soil through reduced runoff losses.

2.3.5 Indigenous methods of post-harvesting preservation and storage

According to Abioye, Zaid and Egberongbe (2011), studies have shown that indigenous
communities preserve and store food for consumption after harvest, as most crops are
seasonal. UNEP (2008), for example, observes that in western Kenya, beanstalks were burnt

20
and the ashes used as a preservative for grain and cereals. Cowpea, apart from providing food
during the rainy season, is harvested, boiled, dried and stored in granaries to be consumed
during the dry season. In the same view, Emeagwali (2014) concurs that grain is harvested
and dried in the sun, after which it is sprinkled with ashes as long-term preservation against
pests and impending attacks. Ali, Yadav, Stobdan, and Singh (2012) identify three methods
of storing vegetables including the use underground pit, vegetable cellar and hanging. These
can keep root crops, carrots, cabbage, onions and turnips fresh for periods ranging from two
to eight months and in sub-zero temperatures in winter months. Shoko (2012) observes that
when farmers harvest cassava, for example, the tubers are buried in moist soil measuring one
foot deep; another method involves peeling, slicing, drying and storing them in baskets.
Furthermore, Hart (2017) looks at traditional storage practices in India and observe that in the
past, insect infestation was often a less serious problem because farmers cultivated traditional
varieties which, although low yielding, were general less susceptible to insect attack. They
also observe that the introduction of high yield varieties has resulted in high storage losses
since these varieties are prone to insect attack, hence the need for remedies such as
indigenous knowledge methods that are considered low cost, avoid chemicals and use
resources which are readily available.

2.3.5.1 Seed preservation

For some communities, Shoko (2012) affirms that seed for planting during the following
season is usually selected from the current harvest. Additionally, Olatokun and Ayanbode
(2010) observe that the most common characteristics that indigenous farmers take into
account when selecting seed are ear size, health uniformity of grain colour and grain size,
which are considered indicators of germination reliability. Furthermore, Notsi (2012) says
that farmers select seed that are healthy and of a good size. Mapara (2009) notes that in
addition to granaries, some farmers use various containers to store their seed, placing them in
different locations and storing maize seed ears in the rafters of a household’s kitchen. Most
seed or seedlings, if cleaned and stored properly, remain viable for many years. Fenta (2009)
notes that vegetable growers store seed indigenously for use during the next seasons through
methods like pressing the seed with the thumb, biting or smelling the seeds, and storing them
in cow dung. Other methods include dusting seed with lime and mixing seed with ash or salt
which is considered to have an abrasive action on the insect skin, preventing it from moving
inside storage containers such as mud pots.

21
2.3.6 Indigenous knowledge on animal health and diseases

Shoko (2012) argues that various indigenous knowledge disease control mechanisms for
chickens include small ants, tiny fish and cannabis leaves pounded and added to water, to
treat the new- castle disease, while diarrhoea is treated using a mixture of cowpea leaves and
salt. Typically, more drought-resistant crops and livestock breeds have been identified
through indigenous forms of knowledge and in most parts of Zimbabwe indigenous breed
have proved to be more sustainable leading into more research into indigenous breeds of
cattle, sheep, goats, and chicken. In addition, UNEP (2008) observes that being mainly
livestock keepers, the Maasai in Tanzania have a rich heritage of herbal cures for livestock.
For example, they use osendu (Combretum mucronatum) to treat olchotai (guinea worm that
attack throats of cows which they catch while drinking water), armme (Euphonobia cuneata)
to treat abortion (brucellosis) in cattle and olorien (Olea africana) to sterilize milk gourds and
treat East Coast fever in cattle. According to Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010), the leaves of
the umsilinga (Melia azedarach) are used by the Swazis to prepare medicine for vomiting,
running stomach, ulcers, high blood pressure, de-worming dogs and treating wounds in
livestock. Ihenacho, Orusha and Onogu (2019) claim that frequently practiced indigenous
control methods of pests and diseases by herdsmen include; hygiene, self-diagnosis, use of
herbs, movement from place to place, bush burning, spiritual incantation, magic and religious
healing. Practical treatment includes herbalism, for example feeding animals with plants
containing a high level of salt, results in ticks falling off. Emeagwali (2014) also notes that
herdsman’s ages, marital status, and contact with extension agents and years of experience
influence their decision in practicing indigenous control methods.

2.3.7 Indigenous knowledge and weather forecast

Knapp (2014) observes that there is a wealth of local knowledge on predicting the
weather/climate and farmers have developed intricate systems for gathering, predicting,
interpreting and decision making in relation to weather. According to Shoko (2012), the clan
of Karanga in Masvingo is known for their powers in predicting rain for more than 100 years.
People believe that the clan can make or stop rains, lightning and hailstorms; hence, they take
their weather advisories seriously and pay fees in the form of a share of their harvest to the
family at the end of each season. The clan perfected their rain- prediction art through
observing vegetation, trees, reptiles, birds and insects in the shrines. However, UNEP (2008)
is of the opinion that the art of traditional rainfall prediction is shrouded in mystery and is

22
considered as the gift of a few. The potential person who is to inherit the art is identified in
good time and is taken through the process of learning the art. Mutasa (2011) indicates that
most local farmers rely on indigenous knowledge to determine weather patterns in the
absence of conventional weather reports from the Agritex Department, while UNEP (2008)
cites a case of peasant farmers who listened on the radio to weather forecasts by the
meteorological department but still preferred to rely on their own traditional knowledge on
when to start planting. The more the ‘scientific’ forecasting deviates from traditional
knowledge, the less it is used for planning purposes by the indigenous communities.

Egeru (2012) observes that the traditional rain prediction practices of using events, moon
characteristics, tree phenology, diviners and particular animal behaviour patterns are still
used. In the same view, Mutasa (2011) agrees that one of these prediction indicators is that a
high density of spider webs in the locality is a sign of a very wet season. Furthermore, UNEP
(2008) reasons that the wind direction prior to the rainy season also gives an indication of the
season ahead. The indigenous methods to predict drought and famine include an abundance
of butterflies during the farming season, the presence of armyworms, animal and plant
behaviour, and the availability of wild fruits.

In Kenya, Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010) argue that the Maasai elders frequently use the
behaviour of animals and their health to foretell the weather. For example, UNEP (2008)
coincides that the goat guts are examined by a specialised Maasai elder and if they have
watery cysts on them during August, it is taken to predict that the forthcoming season will
have a lot of rains; if the small intestine is found to be empty, drought, famine, hostility and
war are to be expected in the chiefdom. Indigenous people who live close to natural resources
often observe activities around them and are the first to notice, identify and adapt to any
changes. These changes may include the appearance of certain birds (seasonal migration), the
mating of certain animals and the flowering of certain plants.

2.3.8 Sources and methods used in disseminating indigenous agricultural knowledge

Singh and Sureja (2008) claim that people learn local practices of managing indigenous
agriculture and natural resources through various localised sources where parents, nature,
rural schools and social institutions, family ties, friends, neighbours and village wise men act
as sources of knowledge providers. Egeru (2012) asserts that the transfer of this knowledge
and associated practices is embedded in the culture through various rites of passage such as
birth, initiation into adulthood, marriage, death, twin dancing and social gatherings (which

23
include beer parties). These views are shared by Mishra and Rai (2013), who note that
traditional or indigenous technologies evolved because of a gradual learning process, and
emerge from a knowledge base accumulated by rural people through observation,
experimentation and a process of handing down peoples’ experiences and wisdom across
generations. Hence, indigenous communication take many different forms, including folk
media, indigenous organisations and social gatherings, deliberate instruction through schools
where cultural practices are imparted, records (which may be written, carved or painted;
African storytellers narrate memorised historical epics and genealogies at length),
unstructured channels and direct observation.

2.3.9 Indigenous knowledge manpower practices

Shoko (2012) argues that indigenous cultivation is labour intensive. The scarcity of livestock
and financial resources meant that local farmers did not have access to mechanised or animal
traction implements. In addition, Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010) argue that a gender-based
division of labour based on the amount of physical strength required to perform a particular
task was evident. Men did those activities that required greater physical prowess, such as
clearing of new land prior to the first planting. Women were expected to carry out the
seasonal preparation of land and to do regular weeding. They were also expected to collect
water and ensure that the livestock, such as sheep, rabbits and pigs, were fed. Even if such
implements were provided, the lack of resources to operate and maintain them would make
their use unsustainable.

2.4 The relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in

secondary schools

According to Emeagwali (2014), an analysis of the current situation and identification of

learners’ and communities’ needs is essential for developing a learner and community-
centred pedagogy, situated in the overall context of learners’ daily lives and wellbeing.
Gwademba and Masinde (2019) claim that quality indigenous education entails developing
curricula that place emphasis on and are connected to indigenous culture, knowledge and
language. Such curricula are place and culture-based and are designed with the active
involvement of indigenous communities. Msila (2016) avers that schools will never be truly
Africanised unless teacher education curriculum is embedded in an indigenous knowledge
systems biased institutional culture and faculty become open to new ways and new
philosophies. As far back as the late 1960s, Julius Nyerere (1968) cited in Mapara (2009)

24
strongly states that an effective educational curriculum should not divorce its participants
from the society in which they live. Shizha, (2006) emphasised by stating that voices of the
stakeholders interested in the education of their children are projected through indigenous
knowledge. Therefore, agriculture teachers should not ignore the role that place/context plays
in how teaching and learning is interpreted, implemented and experienced that articulating to
a critical pedagogy of place is therefore a possible response to educational reform policies
and practices. Hunter (2002) avers that the battle by indigenous communities to achieve
empowerment and self-determination through the preservation, protection, and revitalisation
of their cultures eroded by colonisation, Western culture, and more recently by globalisation
has experienced a renaissance as indigenous communities have recognised the importance of
documenting and sharing their cultural heritage. Therefore, the above scholarly work
indicated that indigenous knowledge has been recognised as a valuable science that deserves
recognition in the school agricultural curriculum. Shoko (2012) concurs that some indigenous
writers have argued the importance and relevance of connecting school agriculture to the
students’ cultural background in order to improve indigenous students’ learning through
appropriate culturally based pedagogical approaches and models. Furthermore, Senanayake
(2006) and Hoppers (2004) agree that globally there is an increasing interest in revisiting
indigenous knowledge where traditional western knowledge has failed to solve problems
such as hunger, poverty, sustainable development and certain illnesses. Indigenous
knowledge is currently taking a centre stage and there is a significant paradigm shift
underway in which indigenous knowledge and its ways of knowing are recognised as
constituting complex knowledge systems with an adoptive integrity of their own.

In support, Mapara (2009) avers that calls for inclusion of indigenous knowledge in the
school agriculture curriculum has necessitated the need to review indigenous knowledge
content included in the general school curriculum. Awour (2007) contends that it is all about
what it is taught, at what level or grade it should be taught, in which environmental context
and how it is taught in order to bring developments in the livelihoods of those who practice it.
According to Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010), the central questions that need to be explored
when integrating indigenous knowledge in agriculture curriculum reforms are: what aspects
of indigenous knowledge need to be incorporated in the integration process, what other ways
of knowing and methods of learning are common across the diverse indigenous cultures, and
which ones are unique to particular ethnic groups? Despite current acculturation of and
development of cosmopolitan communities, and the fact that individual member’s

25
perceptions may differ significantly on specific ways of doing things, there are common
values and practices valued by the community. Ankiewicz (2013) explains that the
philosophical framework of the nature of indigenous knowledge includes aspects such as the
ontology, the epistemology, the methodology and the volition the will to ‘link to values
beliefs and attitudes of indigenous knowledge. He argues that educators’ understanding and
knowledge of these intertwined philosophical underpinnings can assist them with the choice
of teaching strategies as well as the procedural and conceptual knowledge to teach.

In support, Emeagwali (2014) avers that one way of increasing the relevance of education is
through an environmentally related curriculum based on community needs and conditions.
According to Shava (2016), indigenous knowledge can play an important role in bringing
local relevance to education process by bridging the gap between formal education systems
and the lived experience within local community contexts. The authority further asserts that
its place in educational settings is attainable if efforts are made to identify areas of its
possible integration into the existing education curriculum. The strategy of integrating
indigenous knowledge into the formal education system requires the adoption of an
endogenous approach to education that involves the contextualisation of the school
agriculture curriculum by integrating indigenous knowledge with other relevant and useful
knowledge.

Furthermore, De Beer and Whitelock (2009) state that by including indigenous knowledge in
the agriculture classroom, the social identities of learners can be acknowledged, learning
might be turned into a positive experience and the attitude of learners towards agriculture
might change. In a cultural sense, Letsekha (2013) says that African renaissance is closely
connected with the re-validation of indigenous knowledge. In whatever form the indigenous
knowledge may exist, for Owour (2007), it has the potential of impacting on the teaching
learning situation in significant ways and since this knowledge arises directly out of the
children’s real life experiences, its incorporation into school-work can serve to motivate
students as they begin to see that recognition is given to what they do and say in their
communities.

In the same view, Shava (2016) recommends that educational approaches should be
contextual and should encourage the learners to bring in and share their experiences in the
learning situation. This agrees with Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010) who state that
Africanisation embraces the understanding that the African experience is not only the

26
foundation of all forms but also the source for the construction of that knowledge. According
to Louw (2009), it is clear the time has come to rethink the local content of agriculture
subject areas, and by changing the curriculum in accordance with societal needs, we will
change the way in which teaching and learning are constructed. In addition, Shizha (2013)
maintains that pedagogy should be approached from diverse perspectives that allow
pedagogical process to be culturally sensitive, accepting cultural variations that may exist
within the classroom. Africanisation according to Letsekha (2013), is often described as a
renewed focus on Africa and entails salvaging what has been stripped from the continent that
is a call to adopt curriculum and syllabuses to ensure that teaching and learning are adapted to
African cosmic realities and conditions. Therefore, Shizha (2013) agrees that the task for
indigenous academics has been to affirm and activate the holistic paradigm of indigenous
knowledge to reveal the wealth and richness of indigenous languages, world views,
teachings, and experiences, all of which have been systematically excluded from
contemporary educational institutions and from Eurocentric knowledge systems. Thus, the
question on defining and validating agriculture curriculum knowledge for African schools is
pertinent.

Owour (2007) asserts that while the African experience is non-transferable, it is indeed
communicable, but only by the African. In addition, Abioye, Zaid and Egberongbe (2011)
emphasise that by acknowledging students as knowers and by letting students bring to school
their indigenous literacy skills which they already know, the agriculture classroom becomes
an interactive environment of knowledge production which engages both the student and the
teacher. Integrating African indigenous knowledge and ways of teaching and learning of
agriculture in schools has been perceived as necessary in de-emphasising the current
curriculum that has been viewed to be too abstract, not relevant, and more examination
oriented.

Changach and Muricho (2013) argue that there is need to reform the education agriculture
curriculum, to make it relevant and suit the needs of the Zimbabwean society. Shoko (2012)
appeals for an inclusive Zimbabwean agriculture curriculum that realises the suppressed
creativity of African people. For many Zimbabweans, education has to serve the purpose of
social justice as it addresses social issues. Mapara (2009) concludes that Western science
dominates the National Curricula and that the world views of indigenous people of
Zimbabwe in education continues to be relegated to the margins and calls for an agriculture
curriculum that is inclusive of and responsive to African traditions and culture where

27
indigenous knowledge and western science are combined. Community values, culture and
other society factors should however also be considered in shaping the agriculture curriculum
and building the knowledge base at higher education institution.

In addition, Shoko (2012) concurs that the curriculum reconstruction process in Zimbabwe,
involved the inclusion of Zimbabwean diverse cultures, histories, geography, oral literature in
high schools and innovation in teaching that would incorporate indigenous knowledge and
methods into the agriculture curriculum. Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010) have expressed the
value of indigenous knowledge, and the need for educational processes to be properly
contextualised within the local knowledge and language. Such a status quo would lead to
linkages between the school or education system, the home, and the wider community of
schools. Shizha (2013) argues for the revival of indigenous knowledge and maintain that the
reversal of academic dependency can be achieved through an inscription of indigenous
African epistemology. They also agree that there is a need to place indigenous knowledge on
the same level of parity with other epistemological systems in an effort to achieve formal and
substantive equality.

Furthermore, Ihenacho, Orusha and Onogu (2019) argue that the contact between western and
indigenous people is increasing in our contemporary world for developing countries as well
as for developed countries. In such heterogeneous situations, Hewson (2015) concurs that the
‘intercultural rub’ can be felt in school agriculture classrooms with growing recognition of
the value of indigenous knowledge for sustainable development. Msila, (2016) argues that
teacher education which embraces African philosophy will reflect hope in the future of the
African child. Owour (2007) argues that diversity of knowledge should be valued and need
not be reduced to the standards and the epistemology of Western perspective of knowledge
base and much could be gained by enhancing a balanced approach that would enable pupils
to appreciate the connections between what they learn in school and at home. Agriculture
classroom experiences should reflect the social and cultural contexts and should also focus on
the need to meet the current societal needs. In addition, Shava (2016) says that positively
integrated education reforms in sub-Saharan Africa should entail a reflection in the school
Agriculture curriculum that includes the history, principles, and concepts of practices, tools,
and technology of communities from within the country and from other African countries.

Although there is much common ground between cultures, not only in terms of factual
knowledge but also in terms of values, a rapprochement between so-called indigenous and

28
non-indigenous insights are not only possible but also desirable on educational, ethical and
political grounds. A redefined and transformed education system to should aim at reclaiming
and commemorating the African cultural histories; schools should be cultural spaces and
centres that provide strategies to reclaim African cultural identities to counteract threats of
cultural identity loss.

2.5 Challenges/constraints that are faced in incorporating indigenous knowledge in

teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools

Shava (2016) notes that indigenous education approaches can augment learning processes in
the formal education contexts and contribute to the transformation of our educational
curricula to make them relevant to the African context. While the value of indigenous
knowledge in education has been recognised, this recognition is yet to translate into practical
curriculum processes. According to Shizha (2013), who argues that because world views are
dynamic due to globalisation and the translocation of knowledge requires acknowledgement
of differences and diversity, indigenising sub-Saharan African school curricula should be
approached pragmatically. Mudaly and Ismail (2013) point out that an important pedagogical
implication is that teachers need to have a conceptual knowledge of indigenous knowledge
which is germane to the area in which they operate in order to effectively teach. Therefore,
agriculture teachers should view indigenous knowledge as enhancing learning and situates
teaching and learning in a viable, relevant and dynamic context.

According to Mapara (2009), there is a great a concern that the teaching resources provided
by the current curriculum to teachers are not relevant to integration of most African
languages in the school curriculum claiming that apart from the national curriculum statement
document written in Ndebele and Shona, all other supporting documents are written in
English. For that reason, Knapp (2014) asserts that even the children’s books need to be
Africanised, suggesting that one of the reasons for poor implementation of an indigenous
knowledge integrated agriculture curriculum could be inappropriate and irrelevant teaching
materials. This view is consistent with Van Niekerk (2004) who claims that there is no
commitment to embed indigenous knowledge systems at curriculum implementation level.

In addition, Ihenacho, Orusha and Onogu (2019) concur that, as indigenous knowledge is by
definition ‘place-bound’, be considered within the notion of ‘place, ‘place based education’
and consider issues around ‘place-based pedagogy’. Therefore, at school, Thaman (2009)
argue that teachers often de-emphasise the values of the students’ home cultures, especially if

29
they conflict with the values that the school is trying to promote. Consequently, the learners’
prior knowledge becomes detached from the idea being promoted by the agriculture school
curriculum. Therefore, in order to progress with the school system, most children tend to
memorise the theory but lack the application expected to differentiate the educated and non-
educated citizens in a society. So, it is important that African education developers evolve
strategies such as integrating the indigenous knowledge system in teaching in order to make
our agriculture teaching and learning culturally-inclusive and make the teaching and learning
an interesting experience for both teachers and the learners.

According to Mudaly and Ismail (2013), teachers indicate that there is minimal support in
terms of the actual content and pedagogic content knowledge of indigenous knowledge
systems integration in the agriculture curriculum. Knapp (2014) asserts that place-based
education promotes learning that is rooted in what is local the unique history, environment,
culture, economy, literature, and art of a particular place. Thus, place-based education seeks
to help communities through employing students and school staff in solving community
problems. Place-based education through indigenous knowledge understands students’ local
community as one of the primary resources for learning. It calls for students to first have
grounding in the history, culture and ecology of their surrounding environment before
moving on to broader subjects. It also encourages agriculture teachers to develop inquiry
based lessons around common core standards so that students not only meet the standards,
but also grow as contributing members of a sustainable community.

Concurringly, Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010) argue that there has been a great deal of
indigenous knowledge that has not found its way into the agriculture curriculum although it is
important and practical knowledge for society. Shava (2016) points out that the current
agriculture curriculum is mostly examination oriented and thus teaching theoretical
knowledge and ignoring the initial indigenous knowledge the learner brings to school. This
inference is supported by Ihenacho, Orusha and Onogu (2019) who state that the dominant
teacher-centred teaching methods used in the present formal education systems negates the
constructivist theory which believes that children actively construct their own knowledge,
rather than simply absorb and memorise ideas spoken to them by teachers.

Furthermore, Mapara (2009) argues that at school set up education and exposure especially of
the young generation to modern training have biased people’s attitudes towards using
indigenous technology knowledge. Some learners feel it is time consuming, exhausting and

30
sometimes dangerous to hunt for herbs in the forests and bushes. Hart (2017) concurs that
indigenous technology knowledge was reported as not effective in large scale production.
Furthermore, Muthee, Gwademba and Masinde (2019) argue that some religious beliefs do
not encourage traditional beliefs and technologies regarding them as demonic and
superstitious.

In addition, Shava (2016) concurs that the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in the
implementation of agriculture in schools have been challenged by some regressive
government laws prohibiting some practices like growing cannabis, unauthorised tree cutting
and rudimentary castration of livestock. This has led to the depletion of most trees and herbs
that are sources of local medicine.

Accordingly, Shoko (2012) avers that lack of standardisation and documentation of

indigenous technologies and practices have been other impediments to the use of indigenous
knowledge in implementing agriculture in schools. Variation in prescription such as quantity
to administer at a time and for how long has been cited among other standardisation
challenges. In support, Hart (2017) concurs that the educated people despise some indigenous
methods referring to it as ineffective and dirty. This has led to tendencies of selfishness that
inhibits people from passing on knowledge to others.

2.6 Intervention strategies that could be employed to mitigate the challenges/constrains

faced in incorporating indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in
secondary schools

According to Muthee, Gwademba and Masinde (2019), one of the principles that could be
used to guide the integration of indigenous knowledge into the school agricultural curriculum
is political influence. In agreement, Shoko (2012) says politics has the greatest influence on
what content goes into school curriculum in Zimbabwean. Shizha (2013) concurs that the
political elites decide on what constitute valid school knowledge, often takes for granted the
collective knowledge on indigenous perspectives of African people. Therefore, integration of
this indigenous knowledge in agriculture curriculum is a matter of political realm, anything
that needs to happen can happen here and there is no barrier as long as it is a political will.
This is in agreement with Maulers’ (2001) observation from the policy documents that since
independence, education reform has been political rather than professional in developing
countries, Kenya, South Africa and Zimbabwe included.

31
Furthermore, Ihenacho, Orusha and Onogu (2019) argue that the best principle is to give
learners an opportunity to democratically contribute to what it should be learnt in school
agriculture curriculum. Hence, Shava (2016) avers that this view support problem based
learning where learners are free to discuss and present their ideas seen to be a fundamental
guideline for successful integration of indigenous knowledge in an African contextual
curriculum. This is in consistent with the view of Shizha (2013) who posits that inclusive
perspectives in knowledge production and mediation should be the aim of curriculum
transformation.

Abioye, Zaid and Egberongbe (2011) argue that knowledge relevance is one of the key
principle to help the use of indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in schools. For
education to be liberating, Msila (2016) concurs that it should focus on relevant contexts and
local African knowledge(s) that can help African society to withstand the challenges of a
rapidly changing global economy. This position therefore affirms the expression that
although society is fast changing, the role that indigenous knowledge systems play in
moulding children cannot be ignored, nor the fact that knowledge is socially constructed even
before young children join school. This is similar to Okoths’ (2016) and Odora Hoppers
(2001) position where they emphasise that learners do not come into formal education
contexts as empty vessels. Instead learners already have some knowledge acquired from
home through observation of traditional practices and beliefs, stories, riddles and proverbs,
games and play and daily interactions with adults and the environment.

This is in agreement with Webb (2016) who suggests that in order to answer the questions of
what and why each indigenous knowledge should be included in the curriculum, one needs to
establish its importance, legitimate academic discipline, and how the knowledge can be used
to strengthen the understanding of the subject into which it is integrated to allow for more
effective learning. According to Mapara (2009), developmental appropriateness is another
principle of building knowledge and knowledge delivery from the known to the unknown
basing on the learner developmental stages. Knapp (2014) concurs that learner friendly
agriculture curriculum content and pedagogy are crucial elements in the process of
developing an all-inclusive curriculum based on efforts to reconnect the process of education,
enculturation and human development to the well-being of community life. Therefore,
African indigenous knowledge comprises skills and knowledge which can be learnt using
participatory pedagogies in stages based on age, gender, and even area of specialisation.
Hewson (2015) avers that citing the integration of simple traditional folk tales stories at

32
childhood education as an example and complex indigenous technologies of cultivation and
mineral extraction at higher levels.

Potokri (2016) also believes that indigenous education approaches can augment learning
processes in formal education contexts, contribute to the transformation of African
educational curriculum, and make them more relevant to their context. Knowledge should be
built from known to unknown with the majority of the teachers proposing the introduction of
indigenous knowledge items in grades based on the level of difficulty of the concept and
relationship of the indigenous knowledge concept with the subject of inclusion. However,
Mudaly and Ismail (2013) point out that an important pedagogical implication is that teachers
need to have a conceptual knowledge of indigenous knowledge which is germane to the area
in which they operate if they are to teach it effectively. Therefore, indigenous knowledge
should be integrated in the agriculture curriculum and it must be compulsory and
disseminated at all levels of learning by ensuring that is developmentally appropriate.
Furthermore, Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010) concur that some of the indigenous knowledge
items have already been integrated and what needs to be done is realignment of that
knowledge and appropriation in the current school agriculture curriculum to suit the needs of
current society. Therefore, there should be considerations on incorporating indigenous
knowledge during school agriculture curriculum development process in order to provide a
blended knowledge that reconciles the indigenous knowledge of the learners with modern
knowledge that enables effective agriculture teaching and learning (Hewson, 2015).

According to Mapara (2009), knowledge ‘demarginalisation’ represent the act of

reconsideration of knowledge that had initially been marginalised and the all-inclusive
processes that take into account the relationship between community projects and learning
objectives. For Msila (2009), representation of indigenous knowledge systems in formal
agriculture education contexts provides an opportunity for an inclusive approach to
education. Hence, the view that indigenous knowledge should be integrated with other
knowledge rather than isolated as a parallel form of knowledge. The above inference is also
purported in Sefa Deis’ (2000) literature argument that integration of indigenous knowledge
into academies is to recognise that different knowledge can co-exist, different knowledge can
complement one another, and also that knowledge can complement and conflict at the same
time. Shava (2016) highlights that African indigenous knowledge, including culture and local
languages have been marginalised in the school agriculture curriculum for a very long time,
and that today there is a need for its appropriation and integration in order to solve local

33
problems. This has led to various calls for Africanisation that involves the adaptation of the
subject matter and the teaching methods geared to the physical and cultural realities of the
African environment.

Shoko (2012) argues for the need to develop agriculture curriculum with indigenous
knowledge to foster socially oriented learning to develop the mind for rigorous community
activities. In support, Emeagwali (2003) argues that indigenous knowledge has a positive
impact on the lives of human beings. This opinion concurs with Gumbo’s (2016) proposed
idea that infusion of indigenous technologies in the curriculum has the potential to make
teaching and learning relevant for learners, especially indigenous learners. More so, the must
be a shared perception that indigenous knowledge systems and culture have been
marginalised for a long time in school agriculture curricula and it is a fundamental barrier to
the process of integration of indigenous knowledge. Knapp (2014) argues that education of
whatever form becomes successful when it is user friendly and underpinned by the peoples’
culture. Hence, the call for diverse forms of knowledge and multiculturalism to consider the
African multiple cultures as a basis for integration of indigenous knowledge in the agriculture
school curriculum.

2.7 Related studies

Another related study was done by Wutete Obert (2014) on; ‘The role of indigenous
knowledge in agriculture and environmental conservation: The case of Gutu district,
Zimbabwe.’ This study observed that indigenous knowledge was an emerging area of study
that focused on a community’s ways of knowing, seeing and thinking, developed over a long
period of time. Therefore, this study underlined a number of significant factors that were
connected with the use of indigenous knowledge in rural communities such as Gutu district.
It alluded that indigenous knowledge was relevant reducing costs through the use of locally
available resources, acted as the basis of local-level decision making, was familiar and
acceptable to the communities in which the knowledge exists and also that it helped
communities to develop their own sources of livelihoods.

In addition, the study aimed to identify the types of indigenous knowledge peculiar to
agriculture practices and the conservation of the environment within Gutu district. It further
established the challenges threatening indigenous knowledge utilisation in communities;
identified the constraints affecting the sharing, transfer and preservation of indigenous
knowledge; investigated the measures which should be adopted in order to promote the

34
appreciation and value placed on indigenous knowledge in agriculture practices and the
conservation of the environment; and to proposed recommendations on how indigenous
knowledge should be utilised for sustainable livelihoods in agriculture and environmental
conservation in Gutu district and other rural communities.

This study found out that indigenous knowledge which was the basis of traditional lifestyles
was no longer a major practice by Gutu residents. Furthermore, people have overlooked the
sacredness associated with certain areas and the use of taboos to conserve the environment. It
was further established that while residents have knowledge of sacred places and prohibitive
taboos which were meant to safeguard the environment, residents no longer respected the
prohibitions due to the influence of modernity and Christianity which regard some of the
practices as backward or wayward beliefs.

The study established that the influence of colonial policies influenced a number of changes
to the continued utilisation of indigenous knowledge in agriculture and the management of
the environment. It revealed that there were no tangible strategies for the preservation of
indigenous for generations to come. While general information on traditional indigenous
knowledge could be shared by residents, there were individuals who possessed rare
knowledge but made it their preserve after they realised that the knowledge offered them
competitive advantages and benefits.

The researcher noted that the study by Wutete (2014) shared some similar propositions with
this study. The researches being carried out in the same province but different districts, both
aimed to find out how relevance was indigenous knowledge as applied to agriculture
activities. They sought to expose the challenges and intervention strategies involved when
incorporating indigenous knowledge systems in agriculture. However, Wutete’s research
differed in that its focus was centered on community indigenous knowledge in agriculture
and environmental conservation, peculiar to the Gutu community whereas this study focused
on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in the teaching and learning of Agriculture in
secondary schools in Chivi district.

In addition, Mashoko Dominic (2018) carried out a study on; ‘Integrating indigenous
knowledge of food preservation with school science teaching in Chivi remote dry rural areas
of Zimbabwe.’ This research work was premised on the need to analyse relevant science
curricula and policy documents in Zimbabwe for their guidance on the teaching of indigenous
knowledge and the promotion of cultural values. It further explored and documented

35
indigenous methods of food preservation and developed a teaching model for science
education in Zimbabwe.

The study revealed that indigenous forms of knowledge were not being utilised in the
teaching of science in schools and could be lost if they were not integrated with school
science. The study alluded to a number of indigenous knowledge methods of food
preservation for the science curriculum. This study provided numerous examples that may
help teachers to incorporate local indigenous knowledge content into their science teaching in
schools. For example, granary with plastered roof to dry and store their grain crops and clay
pots to ferment and thicken their milk. The study concludes that indigenous knowledge of
food preservation could be integrated into the teaching of school science in schools.

The study by Mashoko (2018) shared a lot of similarities with this research. Both were
carried out in Masvingo province and in the same district of Chivi. They all focused on the
relevance of indigenous knowledge in the instructional process. The study by Mashoko
(2018) examined how indigenous knowledge could be integrated in science teaching.
However particular focus was on indigenous knowledge of food preservation. It aimed to
come up with the best pedagogical practices through investigating various forms of
indigenous knowledge of food preservation as well as challenges that might be faced and
mitigation strategies. On the other hand, this current study dealt with the relevance of
indigenous knowledge in general, in the pedagogical process (teaching and learning) of
Agriculture in secondary schools. Challenges of incorporating it and possible solutions were
discussed.

Therefore, these two studies provided feasibility of the current study and helped the
researcher to come up with realistic and authentic findings.

2.8 Summary of the chapter

This chapter focused on the related literature on the research problem. The chapter looked
into what authorities say about indigenous knowledge systems and the relevance of
indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in schools. The researcher examined
literature related to research questions mentioned in chapter one. In the next chapter, the
researcher is going to focus on the research methodology.

36
 CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter gives the research methodology used for the study. Neuman (2009) avers that a
research methodology is a systematic theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of
study. Green (2007) postulates that a research methodology is an operational framework
within which factors are placed together to, more clearly, derive meaning of the study. In
order to come up with valid results, the researcher had to come up with a research design,
population, sample and sampling procedures, data collection instruments, data collection
procedures, data presentation procedures, and data analysis procedures. Pilot study and
ethical considerations were dealt with.

3.2 Research design

A research design is a plan for undertaking an investigation. Oppenheim (2009) asserts that
research design is the basic plan or strategy of the research and the logic behind it, which
makes it possible and valid to draw more general conclusions there-from. The same is also
echoed by John (2013) who defines research design as a plan that enables the investigation to
come up with solutions to problems. In this research study both qualitative and quantitative
designs are used to gather data on an exploration on the relevance of indigenous knowledge
in implementing agriculture in schools. The researcher used a mixed approach. According to
Creswell (2009), mixed approach is an approach to professional research that combines the
collection and analysis of quantitative and qualitative data. Oppenheim (2009) argues that the
researcher chooses a mixed approach because it enhances validity and reliability.

This study took the mixed method research approach, with more bias towards qualitative
design. According to Creswell (2009), mixed approach may not entirely be quantitative or
qualitative research approach independently, but a study tends to be more qualitative than
quantitative or vice versa, with mixed methods research oscillating in the middle of this
continuum. In support, Chiromo (2010) a research design helps the researcher to
simultaneously obtain empirical evidence about isolated variables of interest. It incorporates
elements of both quantitative and qualitative designs Qualitative data cannot be graphed and
it is exploratory in nature. Among several characteristics of qualitative research design,
Creswell (2009) further points that one key one is that, in the entire qualitative research

37
process, the researcher keeps focussing on learning the meanings that the participants hold
about the problem or issue, not the meaning that the researchers bring to the research or to the
respondents.

3.2.1 Qualitative research approach

According to John (2013), a qualitative research is an enquiry into the prevailing

phenomenon to elicit data that aims at revealing certain characteristics such as people’s
experiences. Furthermore, Haralambos and Holborn (2013) define qualitative research as an
enquiry into the aspects of life and its methods to generate words, rather than numbers as data
analysis. The method uses words and not figures. Qualitative methods aim at understanding
the experiences, perspectives and attitudes as it aims at answering the questions like what,
how and why.

It is a very flexible. Flick (2013) argues that the research frame work and directions can be
quickly revised as new information emerges. The use of words is most of the times more
appealing and easy to comprehend. Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) assert that the data based
on human experiences that is obtained in qualitative research is powerful and sometime more
compelling than quantitative data.

Qualitative research needs a more skilled and a more experienced researcher. Morgan (2010)
points out that the quality is heavily dependent on the individual skills of the researcher and
more easily influenced by the researcher’s personal biases.

3.2.2 Quantitative research approach

It is a way of eliciting data that can be presented using figures. Cohen and Manion (2011)
define quantitative researcher as a process of obtaining quantifiable information. Quantitative
research seeks to answer the questions like how many and how much. Basias and Pollalis
(2018) concur with the above definition that quantitative research emphasises on
measurements in the statistical, mathematical or numerical analysis of data collected though
questionnaires, surveys and so on.

According to Haralambos and Holborn (2013), quantitative research enables the researcher to
state the problem in a very specific way. Therefore, the problem become easy to manage if it
started in a specific way. It has got a high degree of objectivity. Chiromo (2010) states that
quantitative research eliminates or minimises subjectivity of judgment. It scores high on
reliability. Morgan (2010) states that quantitative research achieves high levels of reliability

38
of gathered data due to control observations, questionnaires and other forms of research
manipulations.

However, Neuman, (2009) claims that it makes use of figures and most people find it more
difficult to understand the data that is presented numerically, for example some people may
find it difficult to interpret information that is presented on a pie chart.

3.3 Research Design: Case Study

Morgan (2010) asserts that the research design can be defined as the basic tool the
investigator will use in order to conduct a research. It is a pattern of interrelated ideas which
provide a model framework or approach which a researcher might adopt. It is a tool that
involves developing a plan for investigations and a way of executing the study that reduces
bias and distortions. Haralambos and Holborn (2013) cite that a research design is a plan of
investigation used to obtain evidence to answer research questions.

In this research study a case study design was utilised. The case study was to explore on the
relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of agriculture in schools.
Morgan (2010) postulates that a case study is useful in problematising a single case or event
allowing the researcher to formulate explanations or solutions in better understanding of the
case under interrogation. According to John (2013), the main advantage of using a case study
design is that it is capable of assessing a sample in detail and depth.

Like any other research design, the case study has its own positive aspects. In addition, Flick
(2013) argues that the researcher chooses a case study because it gives detailed information
about the relevance of indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in schools. In the
same view, Neuman (2009) concurs that it also examines a wide variety of aspects of one or
few cases. The case study design would help other researchers to adopt ways that could be
intervention strategies to mitigate challenges/constraints for incorporating indigenous
knowledge in teaching and learning of agriculture in schools and produce a book which could
be utilised for later testing.

On contrary, Haralambos and Holborn (2013) argue that case studies are generally on one
person, and this can lead to bias in data collection, which can influence results more than in
different designs. Morgan (2010) avers that case studies are highly labour intensive and it
requires highly developed language skills in order to produce a report. Although it was noted

39
that case studies have some drawbacks and challenges, many researchers opt for them mainly
because they bring rapid results instantly.

3.4 Population

Denscombe (2010) deduces that population is the total number of members of a group from
which a particular information is to be gathered. In addition, Cohen and Manion (2011)
define a population as a group of individuals with the same characteristics in common that
are of interest to the investigator. Furthermore, Morgan (2010) postulates that a population is
any group of individuals that have one or more characteristics in common that are of interests
to the researcher. Furthermore, Punch (2009) defines a population as a target group usually
large about whom we want to develop knowledge, but which we cannot study directly. The
population for this action research study consisted of students, teachers, school administrators
from five secondary schools in Chivi cluster 30 Chivi district Masvingo province. The
approximate population included about two thousand five hundred (2500) students, fifteen
(15) Agriculture teachers, and five (5) school administrators from the five (5) secondary
schools in Chivi cluster 30. It was from this population a sample for this study was selected.

3.5 Sample and Sampling procedures

Basias and Pollalis (2018) define a sample as a portion of the overall population that one
wishes to study. Cohen and Manion (2011) concur and believe a sample to be an item chosen
to represent a large population which involve taking a portion of the population. The sample
of this study comprised of: three participating secondary schools from Chivi cluster 30; three
(3) school heads from three participating secondary schools; thirty (30) students taking
agriculture, ten (10) from each of the three participating secondary schools; and nine (9)
agriculture teachers three (3) from each of the participating schools. Therefore, the whole
sample for this study included; three secondary schools, three school heads, thirty students
taking Agriculture, and nine Agriculture teachers.

According to Basias and Pollalis (2018), sampling is the process of selecting part of
population for observation and analysis. Participants for this research were purposefully and
conveniently sampled. Sturt (2014) concurs that purposive sampling, also known as
judgmental sampling, claims that members are selected based on their knowledge,
relationships and expertise regarding a research subject. Agriculture teacher participants and
students were purposively selected because of enough knowledge and working experience
they have on indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary

40
schools. Convenience sampling was utilised to select the school head participants. Atkinson
and Flint (2012) call this convenience sampling, which they say is used to select items which
are available now. It is quick, inexpensive, and convenient, hence convenient sampling
technique. Participants in this study comprised of school heads, teachers, and learners.

3.6 Data generation instruments

Creswell (2009) asserts that research instruments are measurement tools designed to obtain
data on a topic of interests from research subjects. Morgan (2010) concurs that research
instruments refer to tools a researcher uses to collect data from research respondents. There
were a number of data collecting tools a researcher could utilised depending on the nature of
the research. They were determined by the nature of the research design. Most importantly,
Flick (2013) claims that the researcher ensures that the instrument chosen are valid and
reliable since validity and reliability of any study depends mostly on the appropriateness of
the instruments. For the purpose of this study questionnaires and interviews were utilised to
collect research information. The researcher used multiple research tools or the triangulation
principle to ensure validity and reliability of research data.

The study employed the questionnaire and interview method which were premised on the use
of multiple data gathering tools, also referred to as triangulation. A total of three (3) school
heads interviewees were sampled from five (5) Chivi cluster 30 secondary schools for face-
to-face interviews. The researcher collected data using a set of interview guide questions for
individual participants. In order to be comprehensive in data collection, the researcher also
utilised questionnaires administered to nine (9) Agriculture teachers [three (3) from each of
the three (3) participating schools] and thirty (30) students of Agriculture [ten (10) from each
of the three (3) participating schools].

The triangulation of data gathering tools assisted with diverse information on the relevance of
indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools. In
addition, the researcher gathered information on the challenges faced in incorporating
indigenous knowledge as well as on possible intervention strategies to mitigate these
challenges in the teaching and learning of agriculture in secondary schools.

3.6.1 Questionnaires

Oppenheim (2009) asserts that a questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series

of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.

41
Flick (2013) purports that a questionnaire is used when factual information is required or
when opinions rather than facts are desired like in this study. Cohen and Manion (2011)
define a questionnaire as a useful instrument for collecting survey information, providing
structured, often numerical data being able to be administered without the presence of the
researcher and often being comparatively straight forward to analyse. Morgan (2010) on the
other hand describes a questionnaire as a document containing questions designed to solicit
information appropriate for analysis. In addition, John (2013) postulates that quantitative data
obtained could be utilised to create new theories and test existing hypotheses. Therefore, a
questionnaire is a set of written down questions prepared for research purposes. A
questionnaire will always be an intrusion into the life of the respondents, be it in terms of
time taken to complete it, the level of threat or sensitivity of the questions or the invasion of
privacy. This means that a questionnaire is a form that contains a set of questions on a topic
or group of topics designed to be answered by the respondents. Respondents record a written
response to each questionnaire item.

The researcher utilised questionnaires to thirty (30) selected students and nine (9) selected
Agriculture teachers on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning
Agriculture in schools. Important information on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in
teaching and learning Agriculture in schools was solicited from Ordinary Level students of
Agriculture and teachers of Agriculture. They were expected to read the questions, interpret
what was expected and then write down the responses themselves. The researcher utilised
both closed and open ended questionnaires. Closed ended questions utilised included all
possible answers/pre-written response categories and respondents were asked to choose
among them. Open-ended questions allowed respondents to answer in their own words. All
the questions were kept short and simple to avoid asking two questions in one. Questionnaire
was appropriate for use because it enabled the researcher to reach a large group of
participants within a short time. It was also convenient for use because they were not
compelled in any way to state anything contrary to their conviction. Furthermore, all
participants completed all sections of the questionnaires and there was hundred percent
response rate. According to Rahman (2016), the questionnaire had limited effects on the
validity and reliability of data. Quantified data was utilised to compare and contrast other
researches and to measure change.

However, Oppenheim (2009) argues that the use of questionnaires does not show some forms
of information, like the change of respondents’ emotions, behaviour and feelings. What is

42
good to someone may be poor to someone else; therefore there could be a level of
subjectivity that cannot be acknowledged. Neuman (2009) postulates that there is no way of
telling how truthful a respondent is being and how much thought a respondent has put in
when answering a questionnaire. A questionnaire could be completed on behalf of the
targeted respondent. People could have read differently into each question and replied basing
on their own interpretations. Due to the noted disadvantages, the researcher further utilised
the structured interview.

3.6.2 Structured interviews

Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2011) assert that interviews consist of oral questions by the
interviewer and oral responses by research participants. It is an interaction in which oral
questions are passed by the interviewer to elicit oral response from an interviewee. The
interviewer follows a set of questions in a formal manner (Denniscombe, 2010). John (2013)
defines an interview as an exchange of views between two or more people on a topic of
mutual interest. Flick (2013) sees the centrality of human interaction for knowledge
production and emphasised the social situatedness for research data. Aldridge and Levine
(2001) define an interview as a social, interpersonal encounter, not merely a data collection
exercise.

The researcher utilised structured interviews with three selected school administrators from
three secondary schools in Chivi cluster 30 Chivi district Masvingo province. The structured
interview guide for heads helped to find out the relevance of indigenous knowledge in
teaching and learning agriculture in schools. The tool was found to be useful because the
researcher was able to probe for answers and elicit relevant information that was required.

According to Haralambos and Holborn (2013), accurate data would be collected since the
researcher clarifies the questions whenever the interviewee seemed not to understand the
question. Descombe (2010) concurs that interviews also allowed greater flexibility in
wording, sequence and direction hence, the researcher was be able to clarify and paraphrase
questions. It was also easier for the respondent to explore highly complex and abstract topics.
Furthermore, structured interviews allowed the researcher to monitor and evaluate
interpersonal skills, nonverbal and paralinguistic behaviour and emotional tone of the
respondents’ answers.

However, Haralambos and Holborn (2013) suggest that structured interviews may allow bias
as respondents may answer questions to impress the interviewer. Personal interviews usually

43
cost more per interview than other research methods. Structured interviews may hinder
flexibility since questions are pre-set (Neuman, 2009). The age, sex, ethnic background,
speech patterns and dress may influence the respondent in giving out accurate data.

3.7 Pilot study

Cohen and Manion (2011) define a pilot study as small-scale study conducted before an
actual study in order to reveal defects in the research plan. In pilot study or pre-test, the data
collection instruments are tested before the actual study is done to correct any mistakes on the
tools. For example, Sturt (2014) argues that ambiguous questions may be removed or made
clear on the questionnaire. In this study the data collection instruments were pretested to
ensure dependability, confirmability, transferability, reliability and validity among other
issues.

A pilot study was conducted at Chamanhanzva secondary school Chivi district Masvingo
province. The researcher utilised participants who were Agriculture teachers and learners. A
pilot study was conducted on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning
of Agriculture in schools. The purpose for piloting was to check for clarity and relevance of
the research tools so that any necessary amendments could be done if necessary in
preparation of the main study. After carrying out the pilot test, necessary corrections were
made before the actual data collecting exercise commenced.

3.8 Data Collection procedures

The researcher obtained a confirmation letter from the Great Zimbabwe for carrying out this
study. Furthermore, permission was granted by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary
Education, through the office of the District Schools Inspector, Provincial Educational
Director and Permanent Secretary of the ministry, to carry out the research in Chivi cluster 30
selected secondary schools. Permission was granted by the school administrations for the
researcher to conduct interviews and distribute questionnaires. The researcher visited the
schools during the teaching and learning sessions in order to establish the relevance of
indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in schools. Interview guides were also
conducted with school heads. Questionnaires were delivered to the students and teachers
respondents within a time limit of one week. After this period the questionnaires were
collected and kept safely to await analysis.

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3.9 Data presentation procedures

Data collected from respondents were recorded, interpreted, organised and summarised. This
was done in order to communicate the value of the findings from each research instrument as
well as making decisions. Descriptive statistics were utilised to analyse and present data. The
researcher utilised questionnaires and interviews in this research. The views of each subject
or respondent to each item were discussed with respect to literature. Quantitative data were
presented in rows and columns as numbers, frequency and percentage. The format enabled
the researcher to readily access the data in comparison format.

3.10 Data analysis procedures

The information given by each respondent was put together and recorded down for
interpretation and analysis. They involved both qualitative and quantitative aspects.
According to Flick (2013), quantitative and qualitative data analysis involved going through
the content of the interviews and questionnaires first in order to identify the main things that
emerged from the responses given by the respondents. Data from respondents were presented
as research questions guided by the research instruments as administered on particular
respondents. Discussions and interpretations of data were made in relation to literature
reviewed. Quantitative data obtained was analysed utilising frequencies and percentages.
Tables helped in summarising and describing variable states relating to the relevance of
indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in schools.

3.11 Ethical considerations

Chiromo (2010) maintains that research ethics are principles that guide researchers when
conducting their researches. The same was echoed by Cohen and Manion (2011) who
correspond that these are behaviours and understandings expected as per group of people,
animals, plants or professional code. These are principles that guide the researcher to
determine what is right and what is wrong when carrying a study, to protect the participants
or subjects of the study from harm. Ethics pertaining to participants’ right to privacy and
confidentiality were also ensured. Confidentiality was guaranteed to the respondents as no
names required on questionnaires. In addition, their consent to participate in the research was
also sought prior to the study. Permission to conduct the research was obtained from the
relevant authority. The participants were informed that they were free to withdraw from the
research at any time without penalty. Last and not least, the researcher avoided unethical
questions such as family income or marital status.

45
3.12 Summary of the chapter

This chapter covered research design, defined population and sampling procedure.
Instruments utilised included self-administered questionnaires and interviews. The
advantages and disadvantages of each of the instrument were outlined. The next chapter will
focus on data presentation, interpretation and analysis.

46
 CHAPTER 4

DATA PRESENTATION, INTERPRETATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter focused on data presentation, interpretation and analysis for the study. The data
were collected from the teachers, school heads as well as learners. Tables were utilised in
presenting, analysing and interpreting data. Conclusion on the responses were made in
reference to the literature review in chapter 2, to support the researcher’s point of view.

4.2 Questionnaires for teachers on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching

and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools

The researcher wanted to investigate the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and
learning of agriculture in secondary schools. Questionnaires were administered to teachers to
establish the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of agriculture in
secondary schools. Nine Agriculture teachers from three selected secondary schools were
given questionnaires to complete. There was 100% return and response rate and all the
teachers filled the questionnaires. The findings were recorded and analysed as shown in the
following discussion.

Question 1. What do you think forms indigenous knowledge when it comes to

Agriculture teaching and learning?

The researcher aimed to find out from agriculture teachers what they understood by
indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of agriculture at secondary level. The study
established that teachers were quite familiar with different forms of indigenous knowledge in
Agriculture education. Respondents were quite clear in explaining this topical issue of
indigenous knowledge in agriculture teaching and learning.

Agriculture teachers asked were able to define indigenous knowledge. One participant argued
that;

“The term indigenous knowledge means knowledge and know-how that is

accumulated over generations and guides human societies in their innumerable
interactions with their surrounding environment.”

Another concurred;

47
 “It is the information that local people have established over time, and continues to
improve for use which include ideas, beliefs, values, norms, and rituals, which are
native and embedded in the minds of people.”

The research study established that Agriculture teachers asked defined indigenous knowledge
as local knowledge which was unique to a given culture or society which was founded on the
practice and understanding, often tried over times of use; it entailed adaptation to native
values and environmental issues. The respondents’ arguments were in strong support with
Muthee, Gwademba and Masinde (2019) who argue that indigenous indicates a level of
locality, a pattern of fixed whereabouts of a certain people comprising a community,
distinguishable by their sharing of cultural attributes. In addition, Masoga (2007) regards
indigenous knowledge as the totality of all knowledge and practice explicit or implicit, used
in the management of socio-economic, spiritual and ecological facets of life. Emeagwali
(2014) defines indigenous knowledge as cumulative strategies, techniques, practices,
intellectual resources, tools, explanations, cultural beliefs and values of a group of people
accumulated over time in a particular locality with less interference and impositions from
external forces. Therefore, Indigenous knowledge has been described as a fountain of
knowledge which could be taped to enhance the implementation of Agriculture curriculum in
secondary schools hence, the feasibility of this research study.

Question 2. Do Agriculture teachers use indigenous knowledge when teaching

Agriculture in secondary school?

The researcher aimed to find out from Agriculture teachers if they utilised indigenous
knowledge when teaching agriculture in secondary school. Teachers were asked and results
were recorded and tabulated as shown below.

Table. 4.1 Do Agriculture teachers use indigenous knowledge when teaching Agriculture
in school?

Do Agriculture teachers use indigenous knowledge when Frequenc Percentag

teaching Agriculture in school? y e
YES 9 100%
NO 0 0%
TOTAL 9 100%

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The results revealed that all the teachers agreed to the utilised of indigenous forms of
knowledge in teaching and learning of the Agriculture curriculum in secondary school level.
100% YES suggested that indigenous knowledge was significant in the teaching and learning
of agriculture.

Question 3. As an Agriculture teacher in the school, how do you rate the relevance of
indigenous knowledge, community’s beliefs and practices on teaching and learning of
Agriculture in school?

The aim was to find out from the Agriculture teachers who were the curriculum implementers
the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture curriculum in
secondary schools. Teachers discussed an array of significance of different forms of
indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools.

The research established the all the teachers agreed that embracing indigenous knowledge in
Agriculture in secondary schools helped in making the curriculum reflective and relational to
the learners’ everyday lives and culture. Indigenous knowledge was said to bring essence and
value in Agriculture curriculum. This was echoed by one senior teacher;

“Indigenous knowledge in Agriculture curriculum brings learners’ school

experiences closer to their home lives and gives them the opportunity to develop their
talents and abilities to full potential, gain confidence and self-esteem. Learners are
able to utilise their traditional knowledge from elders like weather prediction, pest
control and soil fertility to enhance their Agriculture learning at school.”

The findings revealed that utilising indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning
agriculture made learners realised the importance of their culture and traditional ideas in
learning. In support of this finding, quality indigenous knowledge involved developing
curricula that placed emphasis on and were connected to indigenous culture, knowledge and
language. According to King and Schielmann (2004), such curricula are place and culture-
based and are designed with the active involvement of indigenous communities. Msila (2016)
avers that schools will never be truly Africanised unless teacher education curriculum is
embedded in an indigenous knowledge systems biased institutional culture and faculty
become open to new ways and new philosophies. Shizha, (2006) contends that as far back as
the late 1960s, Julius Nyerere (1968) strongly stated that an effective educational curriculum
should not divorce its participants from the society in which they live. Nyerere, 1968)

49
emphasises by stating that voices of the stakeholders interested in the education of their
children are projected through indigenous knowledge.

Furthermore, agriculture teachers asked argued that indigenous knowledge has helped the
teaching and learning of Agriculture curriculum in secondary school through fulfilling the
Ubuntu/Unhu philosophy. Indigenous knowledge has been said to help to Africanised the
Agriculture curriculum, producing products with African values and ideas for sustainable
learning and food security. In support, one teacher said;

“When Agriculture teachers develop an understanding and knowledge of these

intertwined indigenous knowledge philosophical underpinnings teachers can be
assisted with the choice of teaching strategies as well as the procedural and
conceptual knowledge to teach for effective teaching of Agriculture curriculum in
secondary schools.”

This revealed that African knowledge in form of indigenous knowledge systems provided a
philosophical paradigm to enhance curriculum relevance and success in an African society.
This was in agreement with literature where, Mapara (2009) avers that calls for inclusion of
indigenous knowledge in the school agriculture curriculum has necessitated the need to
review indigenous knowledge content included in the general school curriculum. Ankiewicz
(2013) explains that the philosophical framework of the nature of indigenous knowledge
includes aspects such as the ontology, the epistemology, the methodology and the volition the
will to ‘link to values beliefs and attitudes of indigenous knowledge. In the same view,
Senanayake (2006) and Hoppers (2004) agree that globally there is an increasing interest in
revisiting indigenous knowledge where traditional western knowledge has failed to solve
problems such as hunger, poverty, sustainable development and certain illnesses. Barnhardt
and Kawagley (2004) assert that indigenous knowledge is currently taking a centre stage and
there is a significant paradigm shift underway in which indigenous knowledge and its ways of
knowing are recognised as constituting complex knowledge systems with an adoptive
integrity of their own. Therefore, the research established that embracing indigenous
knowledge in Agriculture curriculum was a well calculated move to restore African
knowledge to build a society with history and future.

In addition, Agriculture teachers responded that indigenous knowledge has been significant in
harmonising the formal classroom Agriculture teaching and learning with traditional and
community environmental issues. One teacher claimed that;

50
 “The inclusion of indigenous knowledge into the formal education system requires
the approval of an endogenous attitude to education that involves the
contextualisation of the school Agriculture curriculum by incorporating indigenous
knowledge with other relevant and useful knowledge. Agriculture curriculum should
embrace other traditional and community perspectives on the environment.”

This is argued by Emeagwali (2014) who avers that one way of increasing the relevance of
education is through an environmentally related curriculum based on community needs and
conditions. Furthermore, Shava (2016) corresponds that indigenous knowledge can play an
important role in bringing local relevance to education process by bridging the gap between
formal education systems and the lived experience within local community contexts. The
authority further asserts that its place in educational settings is attainable if efforts are made
to identify areas of its possible integration into the existing education curriculum. This
implies that indigenous knowledge was quite relevant in teaching and learning of Agriculture
in secondary schools as it was seen in providing greater understanding of environmental
issues from the community and traditional perspectives.

The research revealed that the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in the teaching and
learning of Agriculture in secondary schools has made the instructional process more lively,
exciting and motivating for both the practitioners and learners. Including already known, tried
and tested facts from home, culture and community in formal agriculture lessons has led to
increased participation and interest in the subject. In addition, one participant averred;

“Utilising indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture has made

agriculture teaching and learning reflective and relational to everyday life. Learners
have been excited and motivated when issues related to indigenous knowledge form
their community reservoirs are included in classroom discourses.”

This argument was in line with, De Beer and Whitelock (2009) who state that by including
indigenous knowledge in the agriculture classroom, the social identities of learners can be
acknowledged, learning might be turned into a positive experience and the attitude of learners
towards agriculture might change. In a cultural sense, Letsekha (2013) assert that African
renaissance is closely connected with the re-validation of indigenous knowledg. In whatever
form the indigenous knowledge may exist, for Owour (2007), it has the potential of impacting
on the teaching learning situation in significant ways and since this knowledge arises directly
out of the children’s real life experiences, its incorporation into school-work can serve to

51
motivate students as they begin to see that recognition is given to what they do and say in
their communities.

Question 4. Can you describe some of the different forms of indigenous knowledge
which you commonly refer in your teaching and learning of Agriculture in class?

The researcher aimed to find out different forms of indigenous knowledge which were
normally used by practitioners in teaching Agriculture in secondary schools. All the teacher
respondents showed great understanding of distinct forms of indigenous knowledge. They
argued that indigenous knowledge has provided a fountain of knowledge not only to improve
their pedagogical skills but for imparting and improving knowledge on the general
agricultural practice both in school and community. This was echoed by one senior lady who
claimed that;

“Indigenous knowledge can be viewed as different valuable local knowledge of

relevance to climate change assessment and adaptation held by rural societies.”

Additionally, Ihenacho, Orusha and Onogu (2019) support that indigenous knowledge
systems are a body of knowledge, or bodies of knowledge of the indigenous people of
particular geographical areas that they have survived on for a very long time. Shoko (2012)
concurs that indigenous knowledge is considered as social capital for the poor and is relied
upon for food production and to ensure survival.

The findings also revealed that schools were embracing techniques from indigenous
knowledge on soil fertility. Evidence revealed that traditionally, farmers had ways of
maintaining soil fertility in order to boost their yields and ensured food security. Agriculture
teachers asked agreed to the use of these cost effective traditional methods of preserving soil
fertility in their instructional processes as another distinct form of indigenous knowledge. On
teacher concurred that;

“As Agriculture teachers in schools with stringent budgets we sometimes resort to

indigenous forms of knowledge of fertilisation, including slash and burn agriculture.
We also plough organic material into the plant beds before planting and after
harvest, composting, and the rotation of crops.”

This indigenous knowledge of improving soil fertility was supported by Mishra and Rai
(2013) who assert that there are several indigenous knowledge methods of maintaining soil
fertility and these include shifting cultivation, mixed cropping, inter-cropping, mulching,

52
compost (dead leaves), animal manure (cow dung and goat droppings), chicken waste, and
planting local legumes (green manure, and charcoal ashes). In addition, Shava (2016) the
potential advantage of the traditional African vegetables has been identified in improving soil
fertility and weeds and pests suppression.

In the same view, one teacher agreed that;

“Schools have borrowed the indigenous farmers’ knowledge of seasonally rotating

crops in order to restore nutrients into the soil. Hence, in our school farms and
gardens where most of our Agriculture practicals take place, crop rotation to
maintain fertility has been prevalent.”

In support, Hart (2017) posits that local farmers perceive soil moisture and fertility in terms
of soil appearance, colour (black), and its capacity for long-term productivity, water holding
capacity, drainage, tillage, manure requirement and abundance of earthworms. Furthermore,
Tikai and Karma (2004) claim that non-tillage farming techniques, which involve clearing
land by hand or burning, help to maintain fertility and result in minimum disturbance to the
soil as only holes to accommodate the plant are dug using sticks.

Another participant argue that;

“Besides varsity knowledge on maintaining soil fertility, indigenous knowledge has

provided teachers and learners with various ways of studying and care for arable
land. There are many ways of taking care of soil and classifying it for particular
agriculture activities from the indigenous knowledge systems which can help in
implementing Agriculture in secondary schools.”

The findings revealed that through indigenous knowledge systems agriculture in schools had
improved in areas of soil care, fertility and use. This was supported by Singh and Sureja
(2008) who observe that indigenous farmers are able to classify soils, broadly as agricultural
and non-agricultural soils that are used for farming and domestic purposes. Similarly, Hart
(2017) posits that local farmers perceive soil moisture and fertility in terms of soil
appearance, colour (black), and its capacity for long-term productivity, water holding
capacity, drainage, tillage, manure requirement and abundance of earthworms. According to
Shoko (2012), other methods of soil and water conservation include planting shrubs and
perennial grass on edges to prevent runoffs, mulching seeds to avoid wind erosion, earth
contour ridges, and ploughing and sowing across slopes. Based on their experience, local

53
farmers are also able to classify soils according to topography, texture and colour, stickiness,
depth and crop comparability.

Furthermore, teachers participated agreed that indigenous knowledge came in form pest
control methods. Participants argued that there were distinct ways local farmers utilised to
control pests. Agriculture teachers agreed that they were imparting this knowledge in
delivering the goals of the Agriculture curriculum in secondary school. These were cost
effective ways which schools could utilised to control pest and integrate the indigenous
knowledge systems in Agriculture curriculum. One senior teacher claimed that;

“Good and cost effective ways of controlling pests are typical of indigenous
knowledge systems which can be utilised in schools to boost yields and ensure sound
agricultural skills and knowledge to learners.”

Another teacher said;

“Most of the indigenous insect pest control methods include measures to disrupt the
life cycle of pests by periodically denying them food and to achieve maximum control
where the manipulation of ordinary agricultural practices will follow.”

Findings showed that pest control methods were other forms of indigenous knowledge. To
ensure good harvest and food security indigenous farmers had ways to protect their crops and
harvests. Abate, Van Huis and Ampofo (2000) assert that traditional control practices are still
the major means of pest management for small-scale farmers in most parts of Africa and
these control practices are based on the built-in features of cropping systems (such as
farm/plot location, crop rotation and intercropping) or on specific responsive actions to
reduce pest attacks (such as the timing of weeding and the use of plants with repellent. In
support, Tikai and Karma (2004) and Singh and Sureja (2008) aver that some of the methods
of controlling pests and diseases among crops include sanitation, burning and smoking,
dusted plant materials (ashes and sand), and hand picking, fallowing and shifting cultivation,
hand picking and squashing of beetles, slashing and burning.

In addition, participants concurred that indigenous knowledge in agriculture included

knowledge on animal health and diseases. They claimed that local farmers have distinct ways
of treating animal diseases and keeping their stocks healthy. One teachers concurred that;

54
 “There is evidence of large and healthy stocks among indigenous farmers suggesting
that they employ various ways of looking their herds. Local farmers have been good
in keeping animals like cattle, sheep, and goats, chicken among other livestock.”

This was supported in literature where, Shoko (2012) argues that various indigenous
knowledge disease control mechanisms for chickens include small ants, tiny fish and
cannabis leaves pounded and added to water, to treat the new- castle disease, while diarrhoea
is treated using a mixture of cowpea leaves and salt. Furthermore, UNEP (2008) observes that
being mainly livestock keepers, the Maasai in Tanzania have a rich heritage of herbal cures
for livestock. For example, they use osendu (Combretum mucronatum) to treat olchotai
(guinea worm that attack throats of cows which they catch while drinking water), armme
(Euphonobia cuneata) to treat abortion (brucellosis) in cattle and olorien (Olea africana) to
sterilize milk gourds and treat East Coast fever in cattle. Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010)
further argue that the leaves of the umsilinga (Melia azedarach) are used by the Swazis to
prepare medicine for vomiting, running stomach, ulcers, high blood pressure, de-worming
dogs and treating wounds in livestock.

The findings also revealed that another form of indigenous knowledge has been seen in
weather forecast/predictions. Respondents averred that local farmers have knowledge of
climate and weather patterns surrounding their environment. This valuable knowledge has
made them successful in most of their agricultural activities. Teachers asserted that they have
incorporated this weather information patterns in order to plan their school agricultural
programmes. This was echoed by one participant who aver that;

“Today we have indigenous knowledge on disaster prediction and early warning is

based on keen observation of the behaviour of animals, birds, insects, vegetation,
trees, winds, air and water temperatures, clouds, earth movements and celestial
bodies.”

This showed that indigenous people have been able to study their surroundings, other
creatures and the atmosphere to devise ways to describe weather and climate of their
respective areas. This form of knowledge was/is vital for crop and animal production where
local farmers were able to rear and grow suitable animals and crops for their areas. This is
supported by Knapp (2014) who observes that there is a wealth of local knowledge on
predicting the weather/climate and farmers have developed intricate systems for gathering,
predicting, interpreting and decision making in relation to weather. Egeru (2012) observes

55
that the traditional rain prediction practices of using events, moon characteristics, tree
phenology, diviners and particular animal behaviour patterns are still used. In addition,
Mutasa (2011) concurs that one of these prediction indicators is that a high density of spider
webs in the locality is a sign of a very wet season. In Kenya, Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010)
argue that the Maasai elders frequently use the behaviour of animals and their health to
foretell the weather. For example, UNEP (2008) asserts that goat guts are examined by a
specialised Maasai elder and if they have watery cysts on them during August, it is taken to
predict that the forthcoming season will have a lot of rains; if the small intestine is found to
be empty, drought, famine, hostility and war are to be expected in the chiefdom.

Furthermore, teachers asked agreed that indigenous farmers devised methods of seed
preservation. Participants argued that local farmers have their traditional ways of preserving
seeds for the next season. One teacher claimed that;

“Local farmers have been registering good harvests from their traditionally
preserved seed. Crops look healthy and disease resistance showing the effectiveness
of these indigenous preservation methods.”

For some communities, Shoko (2012) agrees that seed for planting during the following
season is usually selected from the current harvest. Additionally, Olatokun and Ayanbode
(2010) observe that the most common characteristics that indigenous farmers take into
account when selecting seed are ear size, health uniformity of grain colour and grain size,
which are considered indicators of germination reliability. Furthermore, Notsi (2012) says
that farmers select seed that are healthy and of a good size. These are placed in baskets and
hung from kitchen ceilings so that the smoke and heat can dry and preserve them. Ash and
other concoctions are sprinkled over the seed to prevent the grain from being attacked by
rodents, insects and other potentially harmful pests.

The research revealed that there are different forms of indigenous knowledge, local people
have been and are intelligent in how they interact with their environment for sustainable lives
and ensuring food security.

Question 5. Are there challenges faced in incorporating indigenous knowledge in

teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools?

56
The researcher’s goal was to find out from participants if they were challenges Agriculture
teachers face in incorporating indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of agriculture
in secondary schools. The results were shown in the table below.

Table. 4.2 Are there challenges faced in incorporating indigenous knowledge in teaching
and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools?

Are there challenges faced in incorporating indigenous Frequenc Percentag

knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary y e
schools?
YES 9 100%
NO 0 0%
TOTAL 9 100%

All the teacher participants agreed that challenges were prevalent in schools as they try to
incorporate indigenous knowledge in the instructional processes. 100% YES showed that
problems were associated with the used of indigenous knowledge in agriculture teaching and
learning.

Question 6. If ‘YES’ from the above, what challenges/constraints are faced in

incorporating indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in
secondary schools?

The study aimed to find from agriculture teachers the challenges/constrains they were facing
in incorporating indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in schools. All
teachers participated concurred that they were facing challenges in using indigenous
knowledge in teaching and learning processes.

Teachers argued that despite its relevance in Agriculture teaching and learning, there were a
number of impediments practitioners faced which have limited the effective application of
indigenous knowledge systems in teaching and learning. Among other challenges, all
participants agreed that not all teachers were familiar with different forms of indigenous
knowledge as applied to teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools. One
respondent said;

“Many Agriculture teachers lack this vital fountain of indigenous knowledge systems
and cannot meaningfully use it to contribute to effective teaching and learning of
Agriculture at secondary school.”

57
This implied that teachers lacked the basic knowledge of indigenous knowledge systems
hence, they were facing difficulties in using this concept in teaching and learning of
agriculture. In support, Mudaly and Ismail (2013) point out that an important pedagogical
implication is that teachers need to have a conceptual knowledge of indigenous knowledge
which is germane to the area in which they operate in order to effectively teach. According to
Letsekha, Wiebesiek-Pienaar, and Meyiwa (2013), while the value of indigenous knowledge
in education has been recognised, this recognition is yet to translate into practical curriculum
processes. Therefore, lacking fundamental understanding of the various aspects of indigenous
knowledge systems proved to be a stumbling block for most teachers to effectively
incorporate indigenous knowledge in agriculture education.

In addition, the study found out that participants argued that the fact that indigenous
knowledge systems were not universal across the society but were rather unique to particular
groups or places have made them difficulty to employ in Agriculture classes which were
culturally diversified. Furthermore, teachers concurred that some of these practices may not
conform to the ideally accepted scientific methods perpetuated by school curricula, hence,
teachers may be forced to ignore them. This was echoed by one participant who claimed that;

“Some of these indigenous ideas are place specific such that they are not common for
all people and cultures. Some seemed unbecoming in other traditions hence, renders
them difficult to use in our multicultural classrooms. They have failed to take learners
from the same level of understanding for effective teaching and learning.”

Literature supported the idea that indigenous knowledge were culture specific and differed
with people and societies. According to Ihenacho, Orusha and Onogu (2019), indigenous
knowledge is by definition ‘place-bound’, be considered within the notion of ‘place, ‘place
based education’ and consider issues around ‘place-based pedagogy’. Therefore, Thaman,
(2009) asserts at school, teachers often de-emphasise the values of the students’ home
cultures, especially if they conflict with the values that the school is trying to promote.
Consequently, the learners’ prior knowledge becomes detached from the idea being promoted
by the agriculture school curriculum.

Respondents also agreed that the other challenge they faced with indigenous knowledge was
that it is not greatly emphasised in the Agriculture curriculum. Though it was appreciated,
teachers asked said the current Agriculture curriculum was more inclined to scientific

58
knowledge systems which also tended to direct and influence their practice. One participant
averred that;

“No much is said on how indigenous knowledge systems can be integrated in

teaching and learning. They are greatly appreciated in the curriculum by the
curriculum places more emphasis on more scientific trends in teaching and learning
of Agriculture.”

This was supported by Mapara (2009) who says there is a great a concern that the teaching
resources provided by the current curriculum to teachers are not relevant to integration of
most African languages in the school curriculum claiming that apart from the national
curriculum statement document written in Ndebele and Shona, all other supporting
documents are written in English. For that reason, Knapp (2014) asserts that even the
children’s books need to be Africanised, suggesting that one of the reasons for poor
implementation of an indigenous knowledge integrated agriculture curriculum could be
inappropriate and irrelevant teaching materials. This view is consistent with Van Niekerk
(2004) who claims that there is no commitment to embed indigenous knowledge systems at
curriculum implementation level.

Furthermore, participants lamented that the current Agriculture curriculum was still more
scientific and examination oriented thereby neglecting some of the valuable knowledge
learners could get from indigenous knowledge systems. Therefore, participants coincided that
in order to progress with the school system, most children have a tendency to to memorise the
theory but lacked the application expected to differentiate the educated and non-educated
citizens in a society. One teachers contended that;

“We teach for examinations and students learn for examination, thus, to get good
grades not for conceptualising these less emphasised concept in curriculum. This has
made indigenous knowledge to receive low profile in the teaching and learning of
Agriculture as much prominence is given to scientific and modern trends of
discovery.”

In support, Mudaly and Ismail (2013) correspond that teachers indicate that there is minimal
support in terms of the actual content and pedagogic content knowledge of indigenous
knowledge systems integration in the agriculture curriculum. Thus, Knapp (2014) argues that
place-based education (indigenous knowledge) promotes learning that is rooted in what is
local the unique history, environment, culture, economy, literature, and art of a particular

59
place. Concurringly, Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010) argue that there has been a great deal of
indigenous knowledge that has not found its way into the agriculture curriculum although it is
important and practical knowledge for society. This general view pointed out that the current
Agriculture curriculum was mostly examination oriented and thus teaching theoretical
knowledge and ignoring the initial indigenous knowledge the learner brought to school.

Teachers also said they faced challenges with some sectors of the society which looked down
upon indigenous knowledge as ancient, primitive and outdated. It was regarded as failing to
provide answers to current problems and practice in Agriculture. Participant agreed that some
learners developed pessimistic views on indigenous knowledge such that incorporating it in
the teaching and learning of agriculture has been hitting brick walls. One respondent argued
that;

“Today globalisation has brought with it new technologies and scientific ways in
agriculture. The use of indigenous ways of agriculture have been relegated and
deemed out of date. Even learners are made more scientists themselves as they learn
to discover new and current knowledge to replace the old ways of doing agriculture.”

In addition, a senior lady teacher commented;

“Some learners feel it is time consuming, exhausting and sometimes dangerous to

hunt for herbs in the forests and bushes.”

Hart (2017) concurs that indigenous technology knowledge was reported as not effective in
large scale production. Furthermore, Muthee, Gwademba and Masinde (2019) argue that
some religious beliefs do not encourage traditional beliefs and technologies regarding them as
demonic and superstitious. Furthermore, Mapara (2009) argue that at school set up education
and exposure especially of the young generation to modern training have biased people’s
attitudes towards using indigenous technology knowledge.

Question 7. What intervention strategies that can be employed to mitigate the

challenges/constrains faced in incorporating indigenous knowledge in the teaching and
learning of Agriculture in secondary schools?

The researcher proposed to find out from participants the possible intervention strategies that
could be working to mitigate the challenges/constrains faced in incorporating indigenous
knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools. Participants
suggested a number of possible solutions to many of the challenges teachers faced.

60
Teachers responded saying that the problems of incorporation of indigenous knowledge
systems in teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools could be through a
curriculum review biased towards the relevance of it. Curriculum design should consider
indigenous knowledge giving it equal importance in contributing to the current teaching and
learning of Agriculture.

In support, one respondent argue that;

“Indigenous knowledge should be given prominence like any other source of

knowledge. The curriculum should be explicit in explaining how indigenous
knowledge direct and influence the instructional process.”

In addition, Muthee, Gwademba and Masinde (2019) argue that one of the principles that
could be used to guide the integration of indigenous knowledge into the school agricultural
curriculum is political influence. In agreement, Shoko (2012) says politics has the greatest
influence on what content goes into school curriculum in Zimbabwean. This is in agreement
with Maulers’ (2001) observation from the policy documents that since independence,
education reform has been political rather than professional in developing countries, Kenya,
South Africa and Zimbabwe included.

In the same view, participants agreed that to make ease the incorporation of indigenous
knowledge systems there was need to uphold the African values in education. They further
argued, Africanising the curriculum would make teaching and learning reflective and
relational to the children’s culture and tradition. They all agreed when indigenous knowledge
was taken serious both practitioners and students would consider it and incorporating it in
curriculum implementation would not be so challenging. One teacher contended that;

“The relevance of each indigenous knowledge item should be considered before it is

infused into the school curriculum.”

This was in agreement with Webb (2016) who suggests that in order to answer the questions
of what and why each indigenous knowledge should be included in the curriculum, one needs
to establish its importance, legitimate academic discipline, and how the knowledge can be
used to strengthen the understanding of the subject into which it is integrated to allow for
more effective learning. Abioye, Zaid and Egberongbe (2011) argue that knowledge
relevance is one of the key principle to help the use of indigenous knowledge in
implementing agriculture in schools. For education to be liberating, Msila (2016) claims that

61
it should focus on relevant contexts and local African knowledge(s) that can help African
society to withstand the challenges of a rapidly changing global economy.

Therefore, the researcher noted that if indigenous knowledge systems were given much
attention and considered in all aspects of the instructional process, incorporating it would not
be a challenge. The Agriculture curriculum should be designed incorporating indigenous
knowledge as a philosophical principle.

Furthermore, participants concurred that ease incorporation of indigenous knowledge in

teaching and learning of Agriculture curriculum in school could be through establishment of
pedagogical skills and methods that could be more learner centered which would encourage
learners to participate as they link knowledge from their tradition with classroom discourses.
Including the learners’ culture in learning would help to make it relevant and realistic. One
participant said;

“Learners are motivated when teaching and learning considers their culture and
knowledge of their societies.”

This was supported by, Knapp (2014) who concurs that learner friendly agriculture
curriculum content and pedagogy are crucial elements in the process of developing an all-
inclusive curriculum based on efforts to reconnect the process of education, enculturation and
human development to the well-being of community life. In addition, Potokri (2016) also
believes that indigenous education approaches can augment learning processes in formal
education contexts, contribute to the transformation of African educational curriculum, and
make them more relevant to their context. The study found out the participants proposed a
careful selection of viable indigenous knowledge content to be integrated at every stage and
age of Agriculture learning as well as appropriate learner friendly pedagogies to be used to
implement them. Hence, a focus on the approach, level/grade of learner and relevance should
be considered in Agriculture curriculum delivery.

62
4.3 Questionnaire for learners on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in the teaching
and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools

The study aimed to find out the perceptions of learners on the relevance of indigenous
knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools. Questionnaires were
delivered to fifteen learners who take agriculture at secondary school level. All the
questionnaires were answered and collected. Below was a discussion of results from
questionnaires from learners.

Question 1. What is indigenous knowledge in Agriculture teaching and learning?

First, the researcher wanted to find out if learners have knowledge of indigenous knowledge.
They were asked what they understood with indigenous knowledge. Though with scanty
understanding of the concept, findings revealed that learners were able to describe what they
view as indigenous knowledge in agriculture.

All the learners described indigenous knowledge as knowledge from the past and which
ancestors used in agriculture. They described traditional farming methods like zero tillage,
crop rotation and hand weeding as examples of indigenous forms of knowledge. However, all
of them were silent on viewing indigenous knowledge as still living in the contemporary
society. To them indigenous was something from the past generation and it was out lived.
One learner participant noted that;

“I think indigenous knowledge is knowledge used by our fore fathers to grow crops
and keep animals for survival.”

In addition, another one concurred;

“Indigenous means local. Therefore, indigenous knowledge are the ideas of farming
which local people of long ago used to farm their land. They have no machines but
used simple tools to till the land and studied the environment to predict weather and
climate.”

The findings showed that learners have insights on what indigenous knowledge systems are.
Their arguments are supported in literature. Muthee, Gwademba and Masinde (2019) argue
that indigenous knowledge is ideas, beliefs, values, norms, and rituals, which are native and
embedded in the minds of people. Ihenacho, Orusha and Onogu (2019) argue that it is local
knowledge which is unique to a given culture or society. In addition, Emeagwali (2014)

63
defines indigenous knowledge as cumulative strategies, techniques, practices, intellectual
resources, tools, explanations, cultural beliefs and values of a group of people accumulated
over time in a particular locality with less interference and impositions from external forces.

Question 2. Can you describe some forms of indigenous knowledge you know?

In order to discover the forms of indigenous knowledge, the researcher asked learners to
describe the forms indigenous knowledge they know. Learners participated argued that
indigenous knowledge comes in form of knowledge people of long ago have about growing
crops, looking after their livestock, caring their environment and studies of weather and
climate. One learners argued that;

“Examples of indigenous knowledge included how our ancestors grow crops. The
used home preserved seeds which they selected from their harvest. Cow dung and
organic matter were utilised as fertilisers. They also use simple tools and at times
they removed weeds using hands. Harvested grains were dried and kept in granaries
or underground pits”

In support; another learner echoed that;

“People of long ago used herbs to treat cattle diseases. They were no dip tanks so
they could remove ticks using hands or letting birds like chicken eat these from their
cattle whilst resting. The also grow different crops under the same piece of land.”

The study found out that learners referred to various ways and activities of growing and
keeping of animals. They alluded to crop rotations, weed control method, knowledge on seed
preservation, simple tools and animal health, diseases and care as among the different forms
of indigenous knowledge. In support, Abioye, Zaid and Egberongbe (2011) observe that the
application of indigenous agricultural farming has been reflected in the following: methods of
maintaining soil fertility, methods of controlling pests and diseases, soil preparation and
planting materials, methods of controlling weeds, and methods of harvesting and storage. For
some communities, Shoko (2012) asserts that seed for planting during the following season is
usually selected from the current harvest. Singh and Sureja (2008) concur that other methods
of fertilisation include the practice of slash and burn and the ploughing of organic material
into the plant beds before planting and after harvest, and manure is often used to fertilise the
soil. Notsi (2012) observes that indigenous methods of controlling weeds include hand
weeding, shifting cultivation and fallowing, slashing and burning, intercropping and shallow

64
cultivation. Also, Shoko (2012) argues that various indigenous knowledge disease control
mechanisms for chickens include small ants, tiny fish and cannabis leaves pounded and added
to water, to treat the new- castle disease, while diarrhoea is treated using a mixture of cowpea
leaves and salt.

In addition, learners agreed that local farmers have distinctive ways of studying and
predicting weather within their locality. Weather forecast were said to ensure that they grow
the right type of crop, keep the right type of livestock in line with their prevailing weather
conditions. As argued by one participant who concurred that;

“People of long ago studied things like trees, animals and different weather patterns
to predict and described climate of their localities. This would help them to grow and
keep the correct crop or animal. They used to have good harvests and this ensured
food security.”

The studies of weather and climate were concurred by Knapp (2014) who observes that there
is a wealth of local knowledge on predicting the weather/climate and farmers have developed
intricate systems for gathering, predicting, interpreting and decision making in relation to
weather. Egeru (2012) observes that the traditional rain prediction practices of using events,
moon characteristics, tree phenology, diviners and particular animal behaviour patterns are
still used. In addition, Mutasa (2011) claims that one of these prediction indicators is that a
high density of spider webs in the locality is a sign of a very wet season.

The researcher discovered that participants were quite familiar with some of the practices by
local farmers in agricultural activities. This showed that indigenous knowledge in secondary
school agriculture could be implemented from this prior knowledge learners possessed.

Question 3. Do you learn about indigenous knowledge in Agriculture lessons in school?

The researcher wanted to find out if indigenous knowledge was learnt in agriculture
curriculum. Findings revealed that all participants agreed to learn various aspects of
indigenous knowledge across their Agriculture curriculum. The results were recorded and
tabled as below.

Table. 4.3 Do you learn about indigenous knowledge in Agriculture in school?

Do you learn about indigenous knowledge in Agriculture in Frequenc Percentag

school? y e
YES 15 100%

65
 NO 0 0%
TOTAL 15 100%

100% ‘YES’, indicated that the concept of indigenous knowledge was not a new phenomenon
in Agriculture teaching and learning in secondary schools. Learners agreed to learning of
some of these indigenous knowledge systems to find out how indigenous farmers have been
coping with growing of crops and keeping of animals.

Question 4. In which subject(s) do you learn about indigenous knowledge?

Participants were asked about the learning areas in which they learnt of the indigenous
knowledge systems. Learners alluded to a number of subjects in which they learn about
indigenous knowledge. One learner argued that;

“Knowledge of our ancestors is learnt in subjects like History, heritage studies,

biology, agriculture, and in languages.”

In addition, another participant concurred that;

“In Agriculture, we learn this when we look at traditional farming methods.

Indigenous knowledge is found in almost all topics in our agriculture syllabus.”

Findings indicated that indigenous knowledge was prevalent in most curriculum learning
areas including agricultural studies. Learners have a rich source were they could get various
aspects on indigenous knowledge systems including those aspects related to crop and animal
production. Therefore, teaching and learning of this concept in agricultural studies may be
possible given this prior knowledge.

Question 5. Do your Agriculture teachers make you practice some indigenous forms of
knowledge when teaching and learning Agriculture?

The researcher wanted to find out if teaching and learning of agriculture at secondary school
involves practicing some of these indigenous knowledge systems. Learners asked agreed to
the practices of most of these practices. Responses were recoded and tabled as shown below.

Table. 4.4 Do your Agriculture teachers make you practice some indigenous forms of
knowledge when teaching and learning Agriculture?

Do your Agriculture teachers make you practice some Frequenc Percentag

indigenous forms of knowledge when teaching and learning y e

66
 Agriculture?
YES 15 100%
NO 0 0%
TOTAL 15 100%

All the learners concurred that they put in practice some of these indigenous knowledge
systems in class. This suggested that indigenous knowledge education was relevant, utilising
it led to the realisation of the ultimate goals of education and Agriculture in particular.

Question 6 If YES, form the above, what examples of indigenous practices in use and
how relevant is indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in
secondary school?

The study aimed at finding examples of indigenous knowledge practices used in schools for
aiding teaching and learning of Agriculture. Furthermore, participants were to explain how
this has proved worthy in their learning of Agriculture. Findings revealed that all the learners
asked agreed that they were practicing a lot of these indigenous ways of Agriculture
particularly during practical lessons.

Learners argued that due to economic constraints their school garden and farms have resorted
to some of these cost effective measures of growing of crops and keeping of animals in
schools. Some learners concurred that practices like intercropping, rotation, hand weeding,
fertilising using cow dung and organic matter have formed the basis of their success in school
gardening. One learner argued that;

“These practices from indigenous knowledge have been helpful in our gardening and
broiler projects at school. During practical lessons, our teacher insist on crop
rotation, and intercropping as measures to guarantee soil fertility. We do hand
weeding on our vegetable beds.”

Furthermore, another participant avowed that;

“We normally put manure of cow dung and dropping from our broiler project to
ensure our crops and vegetables in the garden are healthy. Our school garden
normally lacks financial support for buying inputs like fertilisers hence, these
indigenous knowledge systems of enriching soil fertility have complimented our
efforts for successful projects.”

67
The findings revealed that indigenous knowledge has been a force to reckon for school
Agriculture success. The applied practices have been in support form literature suggesting
their relevance even in current practice. According to Singh and Sureja (2008), other methods
of fertilisation include the practice of slash and burn and the ploughing of organic material
into the plant beds before planting and after harvest, and manure is often used to fertilise the
soil. Furthermore, Emeagwali (2014) argues that indigenous farmers practise various methods
of fertilisation, including slash and burn agriculture, the ploughing of organic material into
the plant beds before planting and after harvest, composting, and the rotation of crops.

In addition, learners argued that they do some of the indigenous ways of animal health and
care with their piggery, broiler and indigenous chicken (road runner) projects at school. They
used herbs they have learnt from their elders to treat some minor diseases on their stock. One
participant said that; “We have been mixing alovera (gavakava) with drinking water for our
broilers and road runners at school.” This indicated that school Agriculture teaching and
learning was embracing the valuable knowledge form the indigenous way of agriculture. In
support, Ihenacho, Orusha and Onogu (2019) claim that frequently practiced indigenous
control methods of pests and diseases by herdsmen include; hygiene, self-diagnosis, use of
herbs, movement from place to place, bush burning, spiritual incantation, magic and religious
healing.

In the same view, participants agreed that they relied on some of the traditional forms of
weather and climate forecast to prepare, plan and undertake most of their agriculture
activities at school. They said their timing of gardening, crop and animal production was also
dependent on knowledge of weather and climate from indigenous knowledge systems. Local
farmers have knowledge of winter and summer crops, rain season and hot season among
others. Participants argued that such knowledge have been the cause for success as young
farmers in secondary schools. Another participant argued that;

“We have been studying weather and climate in Agriculture and this knowledge has
been attributed to most of our ancestors’ discoveries and observations. We have put
this in good use to plan our activities for practicals. For example, we grow maize in
our garden when rain season begun since we do not have enough water at school.”

In support, Mutasa (2011) indicates that most local farmers rely on indigenous knowledge to
determine weather patterns in the absence of conventional weather reports from the Agritex
Department, while UNEP (2008) cites a case of peasant farmers who listened on the radio to

68
weather forecasts by the meteorological department but still preferred to rely on their own
traditional knowledge on when to start planting. UNEP (2008) argues that the more the
‘scientific’ forecasting deviates from traditional knowledge, the less it is used for planning
purposes by the indigenous communities. Egeru (2012) observes that the traditional rain
prediction practices of using events, moon characteristics, tree phenology, diviners and
particular animal behaviour patterns are still used.

Findings revealed that indigenous forms of knowledge are in use in teaching and learning of
Agriculture in secondary schools. It was assumed that most of the successes in Agriculture
school projects could be attributed to these forms of indigenous knowledge systems as
complimented by modern scientific inquiries.

Question 7. Are there problems you encounter as learners when using indigenous
knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture at school?

The researcher aimed to find out from learners their challenges in using indigenous
knowledge when learning Agriculture in school. Results were collected and recorded as
shown below.

Table. 4.5 Are there problems you encounter as learners when using indigenous
knowledge in teaching and learning of agriculture at school?

Are there problems you encounter as learners when using Frequenc Percentag
indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture y e
at school?
YES 15 100%
NO 0 0%
TOTAL 15 100%

Findings indicated that all participants agreed that there were challenges in using indigenous
knowledge in their classes. 100% ‘YES’ supported this. This also suggested that indigenous
knowledge in Agriculture had challenges which impedes its successful implementation.

Question 8. If ‘YES’, from the above, describe some of the challenges you faced as
learners when using indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture at
school?

The researcher intended to find out challenges learners faced when utilising indigenous
knowledge in learning Agriculture in school. Participants raised various challenges which

69
they argued impede their understanding of indigenous knowledge as they integrate it in
Agriculture learning.

Most learners agreed that their greatest challenge was lack of literature like textbooks to read
from about this indigenous knowledge. They argued that they rely on their parents’
knowledge whom they have considered as fountain of this indispensable knowledge. Lack of
enough literature and texts but just hearing from elders has been hindering success in using
indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in secondary school. This was argued by
one learner who said;

“We do not have textbooks much of the knowledge about indigenous ways of farming
are just passed to us by word of mouth by our elders. We do not have written sources
to refer to. Even where we have access to the internet data bundles still becomes a
challenge.”

This was supported by Mapara (2009) who says that there is a great a concern that the
teaching resources provided by the current curriculum to teachers are not relevant to
integration of most African languages in the school curriculum claiming that apart from the
national curriculum statement document written in Ndebele and Shona, all other supporting
documents are written in English. According to Mudaly and Ismail (2013), teachers indicate
that there is minimal support in terms of the actual content and pedagogic content knowledge
of indigenous knowledge systems integration in the agriculture curriculum.

In addition, participant averred that indigenous knowledge was so distinct such that they fail
to understand some of the knowledge especially when knowledge is out of context within
their community. They lamented non-uniformity of this indigenous knowledge which made it
challenging to standardise some of this indigenous knowledge for effective utilisation in
Agriculture learning. One participant concurred that;

“This knowledge is so distinct with communities making it difficult to understand if it

is not from your community context. Therefore, as learners we are likely to miss some
of the valuable knowledge. I think there is need to document it so that standardisation
can be possible”

This was in line with Shoko (2012) avers that lack of standardisation and documentation of
indigenous technologies and practices have been other impediments to the use of indigenous
knowledge in implementing agriculture in schools. In addition, Ihenacho, Orusha and Onogu

70
(2019) concur that, as indigenous knowledge is by definition ‘place-bound’, be considered
within the notion of ‘place, ‘place based education’ and consider issues around ‘place-based
pedagogy’. Therefore, Thaman (2009) avers that at school, teachers often de-emphasise the
values of the students’ home cultures, especially if they conflict with the values that the
school is trying to promote.

Furthermore, learners complained about the curriculum congestion which was leaving them
with very limited time to practise and implement some of the indigenous knowledge systems
particularly during their practical lessons. They concurred that they were forced to
concentrate much on examination performance. Participants lamented that the Updated
Competency Based Curriculum has brought more work which was difficult to do given a lot
of tasks before them. They said some of the indigenous knowledge needed more time to
research and execute which they do not have. Concurringly, one learners said;

“We are pressured the work before us is unbearable such that we cannot meet some
of requirements to fully embrace indigenous knowledge during our Agriculture
lessons.”

This was supported by Shava (2016) who points out that the current agriculture curriculum is
mostly examination oriented and thus teaching theoretical knowledge and ignoring the initial
indigenous knowledge the learner brings to school. This inference is supported by Ihenacho,
Orusha and Onogu (2019) who state that the dominant teacher-centred teaching methods used
in the present formal education systems negates the constructivist theory which believes that
children actively construct their own knowledge, rather than simply absorb and memorise
ideas spoken to them by teachers. The study revealed that learners have so many challenges
in trying to utilise indigenous knowledge in learning Agriculture in secondary school.

Question 9. Briefly explain how you think these problems can be solved?

The study intended to find out from participants what they thought as measures to mitigate
some of the challenges they faced when using indigenous knowledge in Agriculture learning
in school. Participants introduced a number of possible measures that could be used to some
of the challenges raised.

Participants agreed that one way to some of the challenges could be solved when curriculum
includes and value indigenous knowledge systems. They said if indigenous knowledge

71
receive its rightful relevance utilising it in teaching and learning of Agriculture would not be
challenging. One participant argued;

“There is need to include indigenous knowledge as equal to scientific knowledge so

that using it in Agriculture and other learning areas would not be challenging.”

This was supported by Abioye, Zaid and Egberongbe (2011) argue that knowledge relevance
is one of the key principle to help the use of indigenous knowledge in implementing
agriculture in schools. For education to be liberating, Msila (2016) argues that it should focus
on relevant contexts and local African knowledge(s) that can help African society to
withstand the challenges of a rapidly changing global economy.

Furthermore, learners argued that the availability of written texts in form of textbooks and
other related teaching and learning materials could go a long way in providing sources of
reference for the instructional process. Learners agreed that with enough reading texts and
sources their learning would improve significantly. One learner said;

“There is need for adequate learning materials in schools for indigenous knowledge
so that improvements in its utilisation can be realised.”

In support, Knapp (2014) concurs that learner friendly agriculture curriculum content and
pedagogy are crucial elements in the process of developing an all-inclusive curriculum based
on efforts to reconnect the process of education, enculturation and human development to the
well-being of community life. For that reason, Knapp (2014) asserts that even the children’s
books need to be Africanised, suggesting that one of the reasons for poor implementation of
an indigenous knowledge integrated Agriculture curriculum could be inappropriate and
irrelevant teaching materials. The study revealed that in the face of multiculturalism and
internationalisation of knowledge, the relevance of indigenous knowledge to the majority of
stakeholders should be considered before its integration to the Agriculture curriculum in
schools.

72
4.4 Interviews for school heads on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching
and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools

In order to investigate the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of

Agriculture in secondary school the researcher interviewed three school heads from three
different schools in cluster 30 Chivi district. The findings were recoded and analysed as
discussed in subsequent sections.

Question 1. What is your general understanding of indigenous knowledge?

The researcher aimed to find out how school heads understood the concept of indigenous
knowledge. School heads where asked about their understanding of indigenous knowledge.
Results of interviews revealed that all the three school heads were familiar with indigenous
knowledge systems as applied in education in general.

School heads echoed indigenous knowledge as systematic body of knowledge acquired by

local people through the accumulation of experiences, informal experiments and intimate
understanding of the environment in a given culture. With reference to the topic under study,
school heads asserted that several forms of indigenous knowledge were applicable to
enhancing agriculture implementation and production in schools. Furthermore, school heads
claimed that indigenous knowledge include local ideas, practices and visions that hold direct
benefit for local people and broader impacts for all people. The also asserted that it
encompasses historical continuity in societies, languages, cultural practices and political
systems and resolve to maintain and reproduce their ancestral environments and systems as
distinctive people and communities. One school head maintained that;

“Indigenous knowledge can be viewed as valuable local knowledge of relevance to

climate change assessment and adaptation held by rural societies.”

This view was shared by Mafongoya and Ajayi (2017) who define such traditional, ecological
knowledge as a cumulative body of knowledge, practice and belief, evolving by adaptation
processes and handed down through generations by cultural transmission, about the
relationship of living beings (including humans) with their environment. In addition, Muthee,
Gwademba and Masinde (2019) argue that indigenous knowledge is ideas, beliefs, values,
norms, and rituals, which are native and embedded in the minds of people. Ihenacho, Orusha
and Onogu (2019) argue that it is local knowledge which is unique to a given culture or
society.

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The above suggests that indigenous knowledge was an indispensable repository of such
traditional knowledge and ecological knowledge as a cumulative body of knowledge, practice
and belief, evolving by adaptation processes and handed down through generations by
cultural transmission, about the relationship of living beings (including humans) with their
environment.

Question 2. What are some of the knowledge that you consider as examples of
indigenous knowledge in your community and what is your perception on the
knowledge?

The study intended to find out examples or forms of indigenous knowledge from the
community commonly applied in teaching and learning as well as school heads’ perceptions
on indigenous knowledge systems. School heads were asked to give examples of knowledge
they consider as indigenous knowledge and their view of such knowledge. Responses were
recorded and analysed as discussed below.

The three school heads described a number of forms of knowledge which they classified as
indigenous knowledge. School heads agreed that indigenous knowledge systems were
significant bodies of knowledge quite relevant in Agriculture education. School heads further
concurred that teaching and learning biased towards indigenous knowledge would help to
infuse Agriculture teaching and learning with the principles of Ubuntu/Unhu.

All the school heads agreed that local people have knowledge of improving soil fertility as
one way in which they ensured success of crop production and food security. Participants
averred that a number of activities were/are prevalent among indigenous farmers with the
aims to preserve soil fertility. One school head contended that;

“As ways of improving soil fertility local farmers do various techniques among them
intercropping, putting cow dung, crop rotation, applying ashes, and practicing
shifting cultivation.”

This argument was in line with Emeagwali (2014) who argues that indigenous farmers
practise various methods of fertilisation, including slash and burn agriculture, the ploughing
of organic material into the plant beds before planting and after harvest, composting, and the
rotation of crops. Furthermore, Singh and Sureja (2008) argue that manure is often used to
fertilise the soil.

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In the same view, school heads argued that indigenous knowledge implied the techniques in
water and moisture conservation. They avowed that local farmers use different methods of
keeping soil moisture for crops and conserve water. One participant agreed that;

“The practice of mulching, growing perennial grass, composite making, and

construction of handmade reservoirs have been ways of conserving moisture and
water.”

This was also supported in literature by Hart (2017) who posits that local farmers perceive
soil moisture and fertility in terms of soil appearance, colour (black), and its capacity for
long-term productivity, water holding capacity, drainage, tillage, manure requirement and
abundance of earthworms. According to Shoko (2012), other methods of soil and water
conservation include planting shrubs and perennial grass on edges to prevent runoffs,
mulching seeds to avoid wind erosion, earth contour ridges, and ploughing and sowing across
slopes.

In addition, school heads concurred that indigenous knowledge comprise of the knowledge of
animal health and production. Participants agreed that by virtue of existence of large stocks,
indigenous people showed their knowledge in keeping livestock. The devised techniques of
treating animal diseases and breeding practices. As concurred by a school head who said;

“Indigenous knowledge practices in animal husbandry involve both reproductive

health and the treatment of diseases. Indigenous farmers used herbs to treat animal
diseases as well as studying weather and climate to choose the right breed for their
particular areas.”

The findings concurred with literature. Shoko (2012) argues that various indigenous
knowledge disease control mechanisms for chickens include small ants, tiny fish and
cannabis leaves pounded and added to water, to treat the new- castle disease, while diarrhoea
is treated using a mixture of cowpea leaves and salt. In addition, UNEP (2008) observes that
being mainly livestock keepers, the Maasai in Tanzania have a rich heritage of herbal cures
for livestock. For example, they use osendu (Combretum mucronatum) to treat olchotai
(guinea worm that attack throats of cows which they catch while drinking water), armme
(Euphonobia cuneata) to treat abortion (brucellosis) in cattle and olorien (Olea africana) to
sterilize milk gourds and treat East Coast fever in cattle. The findings revealed that
indigenous knowledge included such vital knowledge on animal health and reproduction.

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Participants also agreed that local farmers have knowledge on weather and climate. They
argues that success in agriculture was/is based on indigenous farmers’ ability in predicting
and forecasting weather and climate variations within their locality. These studies which have
been done over a period have made local farmers’ to choose varieties of crops and animals to
grow and rear respectively. On the weather and climate as a form of indigenous knowledge,
one participate claimed;

“The indigenous people have a successful history of crop and animal production
based on their skilful and careful study of weather and climate patterns. They can
predict years of good harvest, famine and even natural disasters within their
locality.”

This argument was concurred by Shoko (2012) who assert that the clan of Karanga in
Masvingo is known for their powers in predicting rain for more than 100 years. In addition,
Mutasa (2011) indicates that most local farmers rely on indigenous knowledge to determine
weather patterns in the absence of conventional weather reports from the Agritex
Department, while UNEP (2008) cites a case of peasant farmers who listened on the radio to
weather forecasts by the meteorological department but still preferred to rely on their own
traditional knowledge on when to start planting. In Kenya, Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010)
argue that the Maasai elders frequently use the behaviour of animals and their health to
foretell the weather. The study revealed that across Africa indigenous knowledge on weather
and climate proved to be of greater importance for the sustenance of crop and animal
production. A thriving agriculture system was/is a result of this shared, culturally and
abounded indigenous knowledge systems.

Another findings showed indigenous knowledge on how farmers prepared seed for the next
season. School heads interviewed argued that farmers have their traditional methods of
preserving seed. One heads concurred;

“Indigenous farmers make sure they have prepare enough seed for the next season
from their current harvest. They selected healthy grains and these were/are placed in
baskets and hung from kitchen ceilings so that the smoke and heat can dry and
preserve them. Ash and other concoctions are sprinkled over the seed to prevent the
grain from being attacked by rodents, insects and other potentially harmful pests.”

In support of the findings, Mapara (2009) note that in addition to granaries, some farmers use
various containers to store their seed, placing them in different locations and storing maize

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seed ears in the rafters of a household’s kitchen. For example, Olatokun and Ayanbode
(2010) assert that women shake or thresh dried indigenous vegetables to extract the seeds,
which are protected from over drying by covering them with leaves or other specially
prepared mixture bags; clay pots are also used to minimise the risk of over drying. Fenta
(2009) notes that vegetable growers store seed indigenously for use during the next seasons
through methods like pressing the seed with the thumb, biting or smelling the seeds, and
storing them in cow dung.

The study revealed that school heads agreed that indigenous knowledge was/is also including
knowledge on weed control methods. Through the interviews school heads concurred that
indigenous farmers develop ways of protecting their crops from weeds such as hand weeding,
shifting cultivation, intercropping and slashing. One school head argued; “farmers make sure
fields are free form weeds. They could either hand weed, burn, or intercrop.” This suggested
that indigenous people pose techniques to ensure that they realised good harvest. Weeding is
generally done to eliminate plants that grow where they are not wanted as they may cause
harm to legitimate crops.

In support, Notsi (2012) observes that indigenous methods of controlling weeds include hand
weeding, shifting cultivation and fallowing, slashing and burning, intercropping and shallow
cultivation. Furthermore, Shoko (2012) argues that ploughing helps by exposing the egg
masses of insects and dormant spores of pathogenic organisms to the hot sun, killing embryos
of weed seeds, while enhancing the water holding capacity of soil through reduced runoff
losses.

Additionally, the findings discovered that local farmers have varsity knowledge on how to
prepare their harvest for future use. Participants established that farmers because of seasonal
nature of agricultural harvest farmers developed ways of keeping safe their grains for future
consumption. One participant concurred that;

“Indigenous people have ways to keep grain up to the next season. These
preservation methods included drying in the sun, use of underground pits, boiling,
smoking and use of granaries.”

Findings exposed that knowledge of preserving harvest were crucial to ensure long grain life
and food security. This is supported in literature as UNEP (2008) observes that in western
Kenya, beanstalks were burnt and the ashes used as a preservative for grain and cereals. In
the same view, Emeagwali (2014) concurs that grain is harvested and dried in the sun, after

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which it is sprinkled with ashes as long-term preservation against pests and impending
attacks. Ali, Yadav, Stobdan, and Singh (2012) identify three methods of storing vegetables
including the use underground pit, vegetable cellar and hanging. Shoko (2012) observes that
when farmers harvest cassava, for example, the tubers are buried in moist soil measuring one
foot deep; another method involves peeling, slicing, drying and storing them in baskets.

The researcher found out that the harvested crops were/are dried and stored in various ways,
including granaries for crops such as maize and other cereals. The granaries need to be well
ventilated as moisture may cause the grain to rot.

Question 3. In your opinion, do you think the indigenous knowledge items mentioned
above is of value and worthy to be included in the teaching and learning of school
Agriculture curriculum?

The researcher aimed to find out from school heads about their views on the inclusion of
indigenous knowledge in the implementation of school agriculture curriculum. The
participants had varied views on the inclusion of indigenous knowledge items in the
secondary school agriculture curriculum. All respondents agreed that there was a great deal of
African history appropriate for learning, and that effort to lay a foundation of integration and
implementation was important. One participant said;

“We have to move back and say, we do have a rich history of agriculture. All we need
to do today is to pull in and make it part of the curriculum. We must as a people to
infuse indigenous knowledge systems in teaching and learning Agriculture to relate
learning and culture of learners.”

This was supported by King and Schielmann (2004) who concur that quality indigenous
education entails developing curricula that place emphasis on and are connected to
indigenous culture, knowledge and language. Such curricula are place and culture-based and
are designed with the active involvement of indigenous communities. As far back as the late
1960s, Julius Nyerere (1968) cited in Mapara (2009) strongly stated that an effective
educational curriculum should not divorce its participants from the society in which they live.

In addition, some participants proposed that the current curriculum should integrate
indigenous knowledge in order to impart cultural heritage among learners. Participants
argued that fusing indigenous knowledge in agriculture makes learners get a rich knowledge
of their cultural heritage. Findings revealed that students’ participation on a special

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dimension in the area of education when indigenous knowledge was made visible in
Agriculture education. It brought students’ school experiences closer to their home lives and
gives them the opportunity to develop their talents and abilities to full potential as they
embrace their cultural heritage. One school head concurred that;

“Using indigenous knowledge learners gain confidence and self-esteem, use their
initiative and creativity, gain life skills and make informed decisions, and to
understand and experience pluralism and democratic coexistence. Indigenous
knowledge will make learners develop a sense of belonging and existence as they
learn how indigenous life in Agriculture is all about.”

These findings were in consistent with Senanayake (2006) and Hoppers (2004) who agree
that globally there is an increasing interest in revisiting indigenous knowledge where
traditional western knowledge has failed to solve problems such as hunger, poverty,
sustainable development and certain illnesses. In addition, Shoko (2012) concurs that some
indigenous writers have argued the importance and relevance of connecting school
agriculture to the students’ cultural background in order to improve indigenous students’
learning through appropriate culturally based pedagogical approaches and models.

All the participants concurred that indigenous knowledge helped to integrate classroom
discourses with community perceptions and needs. Furthermore participants agreed that
indigenous knowledge in Agriculture would make teaching and learning of the subject more
relevant to both the learners and the community. As argued by a school head who averred
that;

“We have seen that teaching and learning of Agriculture have become more relevant
and acceptable by learners and parents when knowledge of their lives is put in
curriculum. Learners are more excited to learn about issues in their community, they
have shown great participation and motivation.”

In support, Emeagwali (2014) avers that one way of increasing the relevance of education is
through an environmentally related curriculum based on community needs and conditions.
According to Shava (2016), indigenous knowledge can play an important role in bringing
local relevance to education process by bridging the gap between formal education systems
and the lived experience within local community contexts. This agrees with Olatokun and
Ayanbode (2010) who state that Africanisation embraces the understanding that the African
experience is not only the foundation of all forms but also the source for the construction of

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that knowledge. According to Louw (2009), it is clear the time has come to rethink the local
content of agriculture subject areas, and by changing the curriculum in accordance with
societal needs, we will change the way in which teaching and learning are constructed.

Hence, the researcher found out that school agricultural knowledge had to express the social
desires, anxieties and socio-cultural needs for socio-economic development. It should align
itself with learners’ experiences that were characterised by their socio-cultural worldviews.

On the same note, participants concurred that utilising indigenous forms of knowledge in
implementing agriculture in secondary schools would help to increase learner interaction in
classrooms which was a vital move towards cooperative teaching and learning. School heads
asserted that when students have prior knowledge especially knowledge form their everyday
social life and tradition they were more likely to get interested and excited to share and
participate in class. One school head supported this and said;

“The use of indigenous knowledge systems in agricultural lessons have made these
lessons become livelier and debate platforms where learners share their knowledge
and experience form their societies. Teachers tend to become more of facilitators as
learners interact to construct own knowledge.”

This was quite true as argued by Horsthemke (2004) who asserts that while the African
experience is non-transferable, it is indeed communicable, but only by the African.
Furthermore, Abioye, Zaid and Egberongbe (2011) emphasise that by acknowledging
students as knowers and by letting students bring to school their indigenous literacy skills
which they already know, the agriculture classroom becomes an interactive environment of
knowledge production which engages both the student and the teacher. Owour (2007)
concurs that integrating African indigenous knowledge and ways of teaching and learning of
agriculture in schools has been perceived as necessary in de-emphasising the current
curriculum that has been viewed to be too abstract, not relevant, and more examination
oriented.

The study found out that participants claimed that using indigenous knowledge in teaching
and learning of agriculture was another way towards embracing the philosophy of
Ubuntu/Unhu which has been the goal for the current Competency Based Curriculum for
Zimbabwe. Participants said students would have a chance to share various culturally
acceptable ways of farming and looking after the environment. By so doing learners were

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said to learn cost effective methods of practice both in agriculture and environmental issues.
This was echoed by one participant who shared that;

“The current Updated Competency Based Curriculum places indigenous knowledge

among its founding principles. Therefore, when learners are learning so many of
these indigenous ways of doing agriculture the realisation of Ubuntu/Unhu becomes
a panacea to many of the challenges bewildering African people. This is because
indigenous knowledge systems have been providing answers to such problems of
environmental care, drought and crop and animal health.”

This argument was in line with Mapara (2009) who concludes that Western science
dominates the National Curricula and that the world views of indigenous people of
Zimbabwe in education continues to be relegated to the margins and calls for an agriculture
curriculum that is inclusive of and responsive to African traditions and culture where
indigenous knowledge and western science are combined. In addition, Shoko (2012) concurs
that the curriculum reconstruction process in Zimbabwe, involved the inclusion of
Zimbabwean diverse cultures, histories, geography, oral literature in high schools and
innovation in teaching that would incorporate indigenous knowledge and methods into the
agriculture curriculum. Olatokun and Ayanbode (2010) have expressed the value of
indigenous knowledge, and the need for educational processes to be properly contextualised
within the local knowledge and language. Furthermore, Lebakeng, Manthiba and Dalindjebo
(2006) also argue for the revival of indigenous knowledge and maintain that the reversal of
academic dependency can be achieved through an inscription of indigenous African
epistemology.

In the same vein, the researcher noted that appreciating learners’ indigenous knowledge
systems and integrating indigenous knowledge into the school agriculture curriculum, where
culturally and educationally appropriate, should provide multiple avenues for incorporation
of locally recognised expertise in all actions related to the use and interpretation of local
cultural knowledge and practises as the basis for learning about the larger world.

Question 4. What challenges/constraints that are faced in incorporating indigenous

knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools?

The researcher intended to find out from school heads the challenges/constraints that were
faced in incorporating indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in

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secondary schools. Findings revealed that school heads were in agreement in most of the
challenges they raised.

One such constraint which all school heads lamented was the lack of knowledge of these
indigenous knowledge systems by most educators in general. School heads agreed that no
much of these knowledge systems was included in teacher education programmes and this
has compounded with lack of literature as teaching and learning materials for both educators
and learners. In support, one head averred that;

“It has been challenging to fully utilise indigenous knowledge systems in agriculture
teaching and learning in schools. This is a result of a number of issues among them
teachers lacking knowledge of it, no textbooks or related literature explicit for this
knowledge and after all the knowledge is not that uniform as it is always society
specific.”

Such challenges were also in support by Mapara (2009) who concurs that there is a great a
concern that the teaching resources provided by the current curriculum to teachers are not
relevant to integration of most African languages in the school curriculum claiming that apart
from the national curriculum statement document written in Ndebele and Shona, all other
supporting documents are written in English. Mudaly and Ismail (2013) point out that an
important pedagogical implication is that teachers need to have a conceptual knowledge of
indigenous knowledge which is germane to the area in which they operate in order to
effectively teach. For that reason, Knapp (2014) asserts that even the children’s books need to
be Africanised, suggesting that one of the reasons for poor implementation of an indigenous
knowledge integrated agriculture curriculum could be inappropriate and irrelevant teaching
materials. Therefore, the study noted the challenge of this indigenous knowledge being on
lack of literature and know-how.

Furthermore, participants concurred that the issue of assessment of the subject in secondary
school has been of great concern. School heads bemoaned that the curriculum was still more
of examination oriented that development of skills and knowledge for survival. They argued
that it has led the instructional process heading towards learners pass examinations hence no
time was left for teachers and learners to dwell much in these indigenous knowledge systems
in detail to enhance success in agriculture. Commenting on this one school head complained
that;

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 “Our assessment put much emphasis on pass rate, not on life skills as ultimate goals.
This makes it challenging for practitioners who then resort to rote learning and
memorisation for students to pass. They tend to teach answers for examinations
hence, teaching and learning have become coaching where teachers view indigenous
knowledge systems as wasting time for learners.”

Shava (2016) points out that the current agriculture curriculum is mostly examination
oriented and thus teaching theoretical knowledge and ignoring the initial indigenous
knowledge the learner brings to school. This inference is supported by Ihenacho, Orusha and
Onogu (2019) who state that the dominant teacher-centred teaching methods used in the
present formal education systems negates the constructivist theory which believes that
children actively construct their own knowledge, rather than simply absorb and memorise
ideas spoken to them by teachers.

Furthermore, the findings revealed that another challenge raised involved indigenous
knowledge systems as undocumented and unstandardised form of knowledge worthy utilising
in formal systems of teaching and learning. School heads interviewed agreed that indigenous
knowledge was not that uniform but if place-bound. They argued that this rendered it
inapplicable in most of our culturally diversified classes where this knowledge might be
unheard of in some sectors of the community. In addition, they asserted that by virtue of
lacking literature teachers and students have nowhere to refer for further studies. It has only
been passed through generations by word of mouth. One school head concurred that;

“This knowledge is just by word of mouth passed through generations by elders. It

has no documentation in form of textbooks and it is distinct with particular people
and places hence, this makes it difficult to teach learners from different background.
It is not a commonly shared knowledge system across cultures.”

Accordingly, Shoko (2012) avers that lack of standardisation and documentation of

indigenous technologies and practices have been other impediments to the use of indigenous
knowledge in implementing agriculture in schools. In support, Hart (2017) concurs that the
educated people despise some indigenous methods referring to it as ineffective and dirty. This
has led to tendencies of selfishness that inhibits people from passing on knowledge to others.

Therefore, it was apparent that despite its many benefits to teaching and learning it has shown
that challenges were impeding the successful incorporation of this indigenous knowledge
systems in school.

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Question 5. What principles/intervention strategies do you believe should be used to
mitigate the challenges/constrains to appropriately introduce indigenous knowledge in
teaching and learning of the secondary school Agriculture curriculum?

The study aimed to find out from respondents interventional strategies that could be put in
place to mitigate some of the challenges raised for incorporating indigenous knowledge in
Agriculture in secondary schools. School heads interviewed explained various ways that
could be employed to deal with these challenges so that indigenous knowledge could be fused
in Agriculture curriculum for enhancing success.

All the Heads interviewed concurred that there was need for serious consideration of
indigenous knowledge not only its narration in the Agriculture curriculum but with
accompanying policies for its implementation. They argued that the most important thing was
to find and create provisions for inclusion such as through pedagogical methods and as
distinct topic with cross cutting themes across the agriculture curriculum. One school head
agreed that;

“For these challenges to be eased it must not only a narration of indigenous

knowledge in the curriculum but there must be paradigm shift towards an
establishment policies that legitimate this in the curriculum. Teachers must make sure
indigenous knowledge fits in various aspects of the instructional process including as
teaching methods.”

Abioye, Zaid and Egberongbe (2011) argue that knowledge relevance is one of the key
principle to help the use of indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in schools.
This is in agreement with Webb (2016) who suggests that in order to answer the questions of
what and why each indigenous knowledge should be included in the curriculum, one needs to
establish its importance, legitimate academic discipline, and how the knowledge can be used
to strengthen the understanding of the subject into which it is integrated to allow for more
effective learning.

In addition, participants maintained that students must be given room and opportunities to
explore on the indigenous knowledge systems as they try to answer as many aspects of their
agriculture learning as possible. This would help indigenous knowledge finding its way in
curriculum making both teachers and learners accepting it as a reliable source. One school
head argued that;

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 “Teachers should allow and legitimise indigenous knowledge in teaching and
learning giving learners chances to discuss and explore how such knowledge is
deemed relevant in their respective communities.”

In support, Ihenacho, Orusha and Onogu (2019) argue that the best principle is to give
learners an opportunity to democratically contribute to what it should be learnt in school
agriculture curriculum. Hence, Shava (2016) avers that this view support problem based
learning where learners are free to discuss and present their ideas seen to be a fundamental
guideline for successful integration of indigenous knowledge in an African contextual
curriculum. This is in consistent with the view of Shizha (2013) who posits that inclusive
perspectives in knowledge production and mediation should be the aim of curriculum
transformation. The researcher noted that with more opportunities for indigenous knowledge
to permeate in teaching and learning it will become more acceptable and relevant.

The findings revealed that challenges faced in incorporating indigenous knowledge can be
solved when all stakeholders place great value to this knowledge system as equalling to the
modern scientific inquiry. Participants averred that when educators and other stakeholders
consider indigenous knowledge worthy teaching and learning in schools its marginalisation
will be dealt with. One participant argued that;

“There is need for everyone to see indigenous knowledge as significant and providing
insights on various aspects of agricultural skills and knowledge. Valuing these
systems from our ancestors which have made commendable success in their
traditional agriculture life will help to do away with its downgrading and move
towards accepting it for sustainable lives.”

This was supported by Mapara (2009) concurring that knowledge demarginalisation represent
the act of reconsideration of knowledge that had initially been marginalised and the all-
inclusive processes that take into account the relationship between community projects and
learning objectives. For Msila (2009), representation of indigenous knowledge systems in
formal agriculture education contexts provides an opportunity for an inclusive approach to
education. The above inference is also purported in Sefa Deis’ (2000) literature argument that
integration of indigenous knowledge into academies is to recognise that different knowledge
can co-exist, different knowledge can complement one another, and also that knowledge can
complement and conflict at the same time. Shava (2016) highlights that African indigenous
knowledge, including culture and local languages have been marginalised in the school

85
agriculture curriculum for a very long time, and that today there is a need for its appropriation
and integration in order to solve local problems.

The researcher noted that there was need for great efforts to realise that all the stakeholders
equally have the responsibility in ensuring that indigenous knowledge was integrated in
appropriate grades and subjects in school agriculture curriculum and effectively implemented
if Agriculture learning was to yield African sustainable development. Therefore, indigenous
knowledge content in school Agriculture curriculum should be strategically positioned to
improve the quality of teaching and learning of other knowledge.

4.5 Summary of the chapter

This chapter presented the collective quantitative and qualitative data obtained from two
methods of data generation that including semi-structured questionnaires, and interviews
which were all utilised to investigation on the relevance indigenous knowledge in teaching
and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools. The results were presented and analysed as
individual questions from the two methods of data generation. The next chapter 5 discusses
the summary of the findings, conclusion and recommendations.

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 CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the summary of the findings. It also presents the conclusions of the
findings and recommendations. The objective of the study was to investigate the relevance of
indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in secondary school. This was the case of
three secondary schools in Chivi cluster 30 Masvingo province.

5.2 Summary of the chapters

This section presented the summary of the findings of the study. It centered on the research
objectives which were to; identify different forms of indigenous knowledge, explore the
relevance of indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in secondary schools,
challenges/constraints faced on incorporating indigenous knowledge in implementing
agriculture in secondary schools, and suggest interventional strategies to mitigate
challenges/constraints for incorporating indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in
secondary schools.

The first objective of the study was to identify different forms of indigenous knowledge.
Results revealed that participants in this research study were quite familiar with indigenous
knowledge systems. Participants alluded to a number of distinct indigenous knowledge
systems including; methods of maintaining soil fertility and water conservation, methods of
controlling pests and cropping practices, methods of controlling weeds, methods of post-
harvesting preservation and storage, seed preservation, indigenous knowledge on animal
health and diseases, and weather and climate forecast. Furthermore, the study revealed that
indigenous knowledge point to a level of an area, an outline of stable locations of a certain
people encompassing a community, unique by their sharing of cultural characteristics. It has
been discovered as collective schemes, techniques, practices, intellectual resources, tools,
explanations, cultural beliefs and values of a group of people accumulated over time in a
particular locality with less interference and impositions from external forces.

In second objective, the researcher aimed to explore the relevance of indigenous knowledge
in implementing agriculture in secondary schools. Respondents were asked to explain the
relevance of indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in secondary schools.
Results indicated there are various ways in which indigenous knowledge is relevance in

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agriculture curriculum implementation. Respondents concurred on the following relevance of
indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in schools: it connects the learners’ needs
and community values, helps in legitimising the agriculture curriculum to the learners and
community, provides cost effective measures and practices in crop and animal production
(like soil fertility, seed preservation, post-harvest storage, animal health and care, and water
conservation techniques among others.), helps in weather and climate studies, improve
environmental care practices, infuse Ubuntu/Unhu philosophical principles in agriculture
teaching and learning, motivates learners in teaching and learning processes, and has become
a panacea to some of the challenges facing people in everyday life including, hunger,
poverty, drought, and natural disasters. The study exposed that quality indigenous knowledge
education entails developing an agriculture curriculum that place emphasis on and is
connected to indigenous culture, knowledge and language.

The third objective of the study seeks to investigate on the challenges/constraints for
incorporating indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in secondary schools.
Participants were asked to give the challenges/constrains for incorporating indigenous
knowledge in implementing agriculture in secondary schools. Findings revealed that there are
many challenges/constrains faced on incorporating indigenous knowledge in implementing
agriculture in secondary schools. Some of these challenges included the following; lack of
knowledge of indigenous knowledge by educators, lack of literature or written textbooks and
other requisite teaching and learning materials on indigenous knowledge systems,
examination oriented curriculum, lacks clear pedagogical approaches, distinctive nature of
indigenous knowledge which is always community specific thus non standardised form of
knowledge, congested timetables leaving limited time for agricultural learning,
marginalisation of indigenous knowledge as outdated, and inadequately included in the
curriculum as equals to other forms of knowledge. Hence, the research exposed that despite
the fact that the value of indigenous knowledge in agriculture education has been recognised,
this recognition is yet to translate into practical curriculum processes. Indigenous knowledge
in agriculture has been facing constrains.

The last objective of study also aimed to suggest interventional strategies to mitigate
challenges/constraints for incorporating indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in
secondary schools. Questionnaires were administered to teachers and students whilst school
heads were interviewed to gather data on the possible interventional strategies to mitigate
challenges/constraints for incorporating indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in

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secondary schools. The conclusions revealed that there are a number of strategies to mitigate
challenges/constraints for incorporating indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in
secondary schools. Among the strategies included; serious consideration of indigenous
knowledge from the curriculum planning and implementation processes, legitimising its
presence in agriculture curriculum, availing literature and other supporting teaching and
learning materials as resources for teachers and learners, providing adequate time for
teaching and learning of agriculture, standardising this indigenous knowledge and document
it, and demarginalisation of indigenous knowledge to represent the act of reconsideration of it
as equal to other scientific forms of knowledge.

The researcher noted that indigenous knowledge is a relevant form of knowledge which
greatly amplifies the implementation of agriculture in secondary schools. However, like any
other form of knowledge it is prone to some challenges for its incorporation. Serous
considerations of these challenges by all stakeholders in agriculture teaching and learning
would result in realistic strategies which can mitigate the challenges faced on incorporating
indigenous knowledge in implementing agriculture in school. This will eventually leads to
indigenous knowledge supporting agriculture implementation in secondary schools.

5.3 Conclusion

In light of these findings, this study concludes that:

 Indigenous agricultural and ecological knowledge has gained global recognition and
currently forms a very valuable resource that provides humanity with understandings
on how groups of people can interact sustainably with their changing environment.
 However, while this indigenous form of knowledge was important for the well-being
of humanity and agriculture success in schools, it has remained tacit as very little
effort has been made to express it explicitly owing to it remaining unrecorded in any
written form and therefore not readily accessible to agricultural stakeholders
(teachers, schools, farmers and students).
 The researcher noted that though the challenges of incorporating indigenous
knowledge in implementing agriculture in secondary schools may seem
overwhelming, there are many things that can be done by teachers, learners and other
stakeholders to help making agriculture education a success.

89
  Thus, it is imperative that the teaching of agriculture through indigenous knowledge
should begin with young children and teachers to understand the role of indigenous in
appreciating agriculture development and variability.

5.4. Recommendations

The recommendations made in this section were derived from the conclusions about the
findings of the study:

 While the role of indigenous knowledge in conserving biodiversity has been

recognised as essential to human development, its application into modern farming
has remained limited due to inadequate research and development. It is therefore
important that both farmers and pastoralists be encouraged to preserve a wide variety
of indigenous farming systems because they are greatly adaptable to specific agro-
ecological conditions and, at the same time, meet needs for food, fodder, firewood,
and timber. In addition, there is need for documenting this knowledge and
incorporating it within the conventional farming methods and educational curricula as
it is based on generations of experience, informal experiments, an intimate
understanding of the biophysical and sociocultural environments

 In principle, indigenous knowledge systems contribute significantly to enhancing

agricultural productivity in both schools and communities as well as guaranteeing
food security and therefore the national and county governments should emphasise
the need to incorporate the Knowledge into agricultural research and community
development programmes for the conservation of the environment, promotion of
sustainable learning in agriculture and the general natural resource management
systems.

 Furthermore, agricultural stakeholders (teachers, students, schools and communities)

should change the perceptions and attitudes they hold towards various indigenous
knowledge systems through the promotion of awareness creation on the importance
of this knowledge through policy formulation and implementation in order to foster
consciousness among learners (young farmers) in schools and the starting point
should be the formulation of a policy on the retrieval, collection development,
preservation and dissemination of this knowledge and to be able to initiate this
process.

90
 It is of utmost importance that all actors, government, national, provincial, district,
ward, and local-level structures should work jointly toward this goal (co- creation of
knowledge). In this respect, there is need for in-service for practicing agriculture
teachers so that they catch up with the latest development in indigenous knowledge
systems as it relates to agriculture and education. Zimbabwean agriculture teachers
should immediately incorporate the findings of the Nziramasanga Commission so that
education becomes more learner-centered. The case of bringing the school to the
community and vice versa is critical in the teaching of indigenous knowledge systems
in implementing agriculture in schools. Generally, lack of knowledge is present on
how the indigenous knowledge systems has generally caused limited understanding of
many traditional agriculture studies in secondary schools in Chivi in particular and
Zimbabwe in general.

 There is need for community-based organisations to spearhead the development of

knowledge that could increase community-based agricultural knowledge. Agriculture
teachers should teach from a cultural context and ought to identify where learners
originate from. Formal and informal curriculum influence the teaching/learning of
agriculture concepts. Research, development, dissemination, and adoption approach is
important in the use of indigenous knowledge systems as it gives feedback on
learning that takes place within an agriculture classroom and in the countryside as
espoused by the socio-cultural constructivist epistemology.

91
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Appendix 1.
Questionnaires for teachers on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and
learning of Agriculture in secondary schools

Question 1. What do you think forms indigenous knowledge when it comes to Agriculture
teaching and learning?
Question 2. Do agriculture teachers use indigenous knowledge when teaching and learning of
Agriculture in secondary school?

YES NO

Question 3. As an agriculture teacher in the school, how do you rate the relevance of
indigenous knowledge, community’s beliefs and practices on teaching and learning of
Agriculture in school?

Question 4. Can you describe some of the different forms of indigenous knowledge which
you commonly refer in your teaching and learning of Agriculture in class?

Question 5. Are there challenges faced in incorporating indigenous knowledge in teaching

and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools?

YES NO

Question 6. If ‘YES’ from the above, what challenges/constraints that are faced in
incorporating indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary
schools?

Question 7. What intervention strategies that could be employed to mitigate the

challenges/constrains faced in incorporating indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning
of Agriculture in secondary schools?

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Appendix 2.

Questionnaire for learners on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and

learning of Agriculture in secondary schools

Question 1. What is indigenous knowledge in Agriculture teaching and learning?

Question 2. Can you describe some forms of indigenous knowledge you know?

Question 3. Do you learn about indigenous knowledge in school?

YES NO

Question 4. In which subject(s) do you learn about indigenous knowledge?

Question 5. Do your agriculture teacher make you practice some indigenous forms of
knowledge when teaching and learning Agriculture?

YES NO

Question 6 If YES, form the above, what examples of indigenous practices in use and how
relevant is indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary
school?

Question 7. Are there problems you encounter as learners when using indigenous knowledge
in teaching and learning of Agriculture at school?

YES NO

Question 8. If ‘YES’, from the above, describe some of the challenges you face as learners
when using indigenous knowledge in teaching and learning of Agriculture at school?

Question 9. Briefly explain how you think these problems can be solved?

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Appendix 3.

Interviews for school heads on the relevance of indigenous knowledge in teaching and
learning of Agriculture in secondary schools

Question 1. What is your general understanding of indigenous knowledge?

Question 2. What are some of the knowledge that you consider as examples of indigenous
knowledge in your community and what is your perception on the knowledge?

Question 3. In your opinion, do you think the Indigenous Knowledge items mentioned above
is of value and worthy to be included in the teaching and learning of school Agriculture
curriculum?

Question 4. What challenges/constraints are faced in incorporating indigenous knowledge in

teaching and learning of Agriculture in secondary schools?

Question 5. What intervention strategies do you believe should be used to mitigate the
challenges/constrains to appropriately introduce indigenous knowledge in teaching and
learning of the secondary school Agriculture curriculum?

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