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Event Image Perceptions among Active and Passive Sport Tourists at Marathon
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Article  in  International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship · October 2010

DOI: 10.1108/IJSMS-12-01-2010-B005

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SMS12.1 Paper 3 Events pp37-52 KT 7/10/10 06:38
Event image perceptions among active and
passive sports tourists at marathon races
Keywords
image research
sports events
sports tourism
correspondence analysis
marathon
Kirstin Hallmann
Research Assistant, German Sport University Cologne,
Institute of Sport Economics and Sport Management,
Am Sportpark Müngersdorf 6, 50933 Cologne, Germany
Email: k.hallmann@dshs-koeln.de
Tel: + 49 221 4982 6097
Fax: +49 221 4982 8144
Kyriaki Kaplanidou
Assistant Professor, University of Florida, Gainesville, US
Christoph Breuer
Professor, German Sport University Cologne, Germany
Peer reviewed
Executive summary
Sports events can be used as tourist attractions by
destinations and develop their own event image. Weed
and Bull (2004) conceptualised sports tourism as a
phenomenon arising from the spectrum of unique
interactions between people, place and activities.
Event images (i.e. the perceptions of an event held by
tourists) may vary among active (participants) and
passive (spectators) sports tourists given the nature of
the activity, place and people involved (Shamir &
● OCTOBER 2010 ● International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
Page 37
Abstract
Sports events are tourist attractions and their image
components can relate to the destination image
concept and structure. This study examined sport event
images held by active and passive sports tourists at
four marathon races in Germany. Some differences in
the perception of event images were found for active
and passive sport tourists as well as for different types
of destinations. For active sport tourists, emotional,
physical and organisational image associations were
clustered closer. For passive sport tourists, social and
historical image associations were clustered closer. The
type of destination elicited different event images
among active and passive sport tourists.
Ruskin, 1984), as discussed by Kaplanidou and Vogt
(2007; 2010) and Kaplanidou and Gibson (2010).
Given the interaction of sports events with
destinations, sports event images can bear similarities
to the concept of destination image, which has been
defined to include cognitive (beliefs), affective
(emotions), conative (behavioural) and holistic
components (e.g. Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Li &
Vogelsong, 2006). The purpose of the study was to
examine whether the sports tourist type and the type
37
SMS12.1 Paper 3 Events pp37-52 KT 7/10/10 06:38 Page 38
Marathon event images
of destination can create differences in the perception
of sports event images. A survey was conducted at
four different marathon races in Germany in 2008.
The sample consisted of a total of N =1,191
respondents, which included both active and passive
sports tourists. In order to elicit the event image
perceptions, the respondents were asked to name
three words that came to mind concerning the event.
The word sample consisted of a total of 3,253 words.
The data for all events was coded using content
analyses. Seven encompassing themes were identified
including organisational, environmental (with two
dimensions), physical, social, emotional, and
historical/political attributes. The themes found within
the data can be categorised into affective (emotional
and social) and cognitive (environmental 1 and 2,
historical organisational, political, physical)
components, which are congruent with research on
the meaning of destination image (e.g. Baloglu &
McCleary, 1999; Beerli & Martin, 2004).
Correspondence analyses were employed to
understand the relative distance of the event and the
image components. Different analyses were conducted
for active and passive sports tourists. The emotional
theme was perceived differently for active and passive
sport tourists. Active sport tourists linked emotions
more closely with physical and organisational aspects
while passive sports tourists see more similarities with
social and historical aspects of the host location.
Moreover, the results showed that sports event images
are perceived differently in diverse destinations.
For marketers, it is recommended that the unique
aspects of sports event image are used in marketing
communications based on the seven identified
themes. These can be used to attract more active and
passive sports tourists and to create a distinct
positioning of the event in the mind of sports tourists.
Event organisers can also customise their programmes
for active and passive sports tourists based on the
different perceptions of the sports event image.
38 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
Introduction
Sports tourism is a phenomenon that arises from the
unique interaction of people, places and activities
(Weed & Bull, 2004). It has attracted a lot of
attention among scholars and practitioners such as
destination and event marketers. More and more
destinations bid for sports events to stimulate tourism
in their respective communities (Schneider, 2009).
The hosting of sports events can encompass
marketing benefits related to awareness, image
improvement and future inbound travel (Dimanche,
2003). First time and repeat sports tourists can be
drawn to a destination that hosts sports events
(Dimanche, 2003), which can help destination
marketers to enhance and differentiate the
destination’s image and its tourism products
(Chalip & Green, 2001; Chalip, Green & Hill, 2003;
Chalip & McGuitry, 2004; Dimanche, 2003;
Jago, Chalip, Brown, Mules & Ali, 2003; Kaplanidou
& Vogt, 2007; Xing & Chalip, 2006).
Non-elite sporting competitions, such as running
events, have been used successfully in place
marketing (Scheerder & Lagae, 2009). The notion of
'place marketing' encompasses efforts on behalf of the
destination marketers to create a positive destination
image and improve the positioning of the place
(Gibson & Davidson, 2004; Madsen, 1992; Smith,
2005) and also to find events that fit with the
destination branding efforts (Jago, et al., 2003).
Promotional efforts are thus directly related to the
image of the tourism products (e.g. sports events) that
are offered in the destination. Thus, destination
images can interact with the images of the tourism
products (in this case sports events) to influence the
behaviour of tourists (Kaplanidou & Vogt, 2007)
suggesting the need for a rigorous understanding of
sports event images.
Preliminary research proposed that the active sports
tourists’ images of a sports event include mental
representations about the organisational,
environmental, physical, social and emotional aspects
of the event (Kaplanidou, in press; Kaplanidou, Funk,
● OCTOBER 2010 ●
SMS12.1 Paper 3 Events pp37-52 KT 7/10/10 06:38 Page 39
Buta & Goutzioupas, 2009). Such aspects can
influence their behavioural intentions to return to the
destination as well as their destination image
perceptions (Kaplanidou & Vogt, 2007). Thus, the
importance of the event image concept is twofold: it
has a significant influence on destination image and
behavioural intentions to revisit the host destination
(Kaplanidou & Vogt, 2007).
The size of sports events (e.g. small, mega), the
type of sports tourist they attract (e.g. active, passive)
and the type of the destination (e.g. urban, rural)
where the sports event is held can be important
factors in understanding how sports tourists perceive
the event image (Hallmann & Breuer, 2010). Sports
events have been researched in terms of image fit with
sponsors and destinations (Ferrand & Pages, 1996;
Hallmann, 2009; Hallmann & Breuer, 2010; Xing &
Chalip, 2006), but not much research is available
regarding the conceptualisation of event image as
perceived by sports event consumers. Those
consumers include people who travel to actively
participate in sports events (active sports tourists) and
people who travel to attend the events as spectators
(passive sports tourists) (Gibson, 1998). For regular
events, the image a sports tourist has of both the
sports event and the destination might influence the
likelihood of their re-visiting the host destination,
which can stimulate economic impact for the host
community (Gratton, Shilbi & Coleman, 2005).
An understanding of sports event images held by
different types of sports tourists might help
destinations to create a sports tourism image that
attracts more desirable visitors and increased numbers
(i.e. event participants and spectators) to their area
(Chalip, 2001). Although spectators have been a
focus in the sports and tourism literature (Lee, Lee &
Lee, 2005), participants have not been examined
extensively. This study will focus on the active and
passive sports tourists (participants and spectators)
with the aim of understanding the type of sports event
images held by representatives of these markets.
Therefore, the purpose of the study is to examine
whether the sports tourist type and the nature of the
● OCTOBER 2010 ● International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
Marathon event images
destination can influence the perceptions of sports
event images. The research questions of the study are:
a) what are the image perceptions active and passive
sports tourists have of sports events? and b) do event
image perceptions differ among active and passive
sports tourists when held at different destinations? The
following section will discuss the importance of sports
events as tourism products and the link between the
concept of sports event image and destination image.
Literature review: sports event and
destination images
In sports marketing and tourism literature, emphasis
has been placed mainly on 'mega events' that generate
worldwide destination awareness (Gibson, Qi &
Zhang, 2008; Lee, et al., 2005; Ritchie & Smith,
1991) and large infrastructure projects in local
communities (Preuß, 2007; Ritchie, 1984). Mega
scale sports events such as the Olympic Games, the
Super Bowl and the Fifa World Cup can elicit specific
images associated with each event by sports
consumers (Chalip & Costa, 2005). While these mega
sports events contribute to a local community’s
economy and marketing appeal, smaller recurring
sports events such as local marathons and bicycle
tours need relatively low organising investment and
attract significant (for the area) numbers of
participants and spectators on a regular basis
(Crompton, 1999). Such small events can generate
more sustainable image benefits for the destination
because they allow the utilisation of existing
infrastructure (Ritchie, 2004) and can encourage co-
branding with tourism services in the area in which
they occur. Despite the importance of small scale
sports events as tourism products, their image has not
been extensively examined in the literature and
consequently there is a dearth of information on the
basic conceptualisation of sports event image for
small-scale events. This conceptualisation and its
interaction with destination images will be the focus
of this study.
39
SMS12.1 Paper 3 Events pp37-52 KT 7/10/10 06:38 Page 40
Marathon event images
A definition of event image was offered by Gwinner
(1997) who proposed that an event’s image is a
function of the type of event (e.g. sports, festival,
arts), event characteristics (e.g. size, professional
status, history, venue, promotional appearance) and
individual factors (e.g. meanings associated with the
event, strength of meanings, past history of the event).
While Gwinner’s (1997) approach provides a
foundation for image research, it is neither customised
for sports events featuring elements such as
competition, socialisation and skill / knowledge, nor
does it distinguish participants from spectators.
As sports events can be used as tourist attractions
by destinations (Higham, 2005; Hinch & Higham,
2001, 2004), their images can bear similarities to the
concept of destination image. Many studies on tourism
have focused on the destination image formation
process and a number of definitions about the term
are available (e.g. Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Beerli &
Martín, 2004; Echtner & Ritchie, 1991, 1993;
Fakeye & Crompton, 1991; Gartner, 1993; Govers, Go
& Kumar, 2007; Li & Vogelsong, 2006; Tasci &
Gartner, 2007). Within the latter studies the
destination image concept is considered to include
cognitive (beliefs), affective (feelings), conative
(behavioural) as well as overall or global/holistic
components. Functional and psychological aspects are
also identified as part of the destination image
concept, which can have tangible or intangible
(holistic) attributes. Destination image can also have
common or unique aspects (Echtner & Ritchie, 1993;
Stepchenkova & Morrison, 2008). All the destination
image aspects can be classified in two larger
categories: tangible and intangible. The
conceptualisation of destination image can assist the
conceptualisation of sports event image because the
characteristics can be similar to sports event image
components.
In marketing, the brand image concept has been
proposed to include associations related to attributes,
benefits and attitudes (Keller, 1993). These three
categories bear similarities with the destination image
concept structure, which as previously noted, features
40 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
tangible and intangible aspects. These attributes are
associated with the characteristics and the benefits the
destination offers to a tourist (Echtner & Ritchie,
1991), as well as, overall/holistic evaluations of the
destination (Echtner & Ritchie, 1991). Active sports
tourists in the post event phase, for example, tend to
make attributions of the sports event experience in
terms of organisational, social, environmental,
emotional and physical aspects and evaluate that
experience holistically (Kaplanidou & Vogt, in press).
Hankinson (2005) suggested that destination brand
image has three distinct dimensions: overall
attractiveness, functionality and ambience. The latter
finding suggests that the functional and emotional
dimensions of a destination brand (Sirgy & Su, 2000)
as well as the presence of individual and holistic
attributes along with personality characteristics (Ekinci
& Hosany, 2006; Morgan & Pritchard, 2002) all play
an important part in overall brand image.
The type of sports tourist can be another factor in
the formation of sports event images. These sports
event images may vary depending on whether the
consumers attended, participated or watched the
sports event on television or other electronic media.
Based on Weed and Bull’s (2004) conceptualisation
of sports tourism as a phenomenon arising from the
spectrum of unique interactions between people, place
and activities, sports event images might vary among
active and passive sports tourists given the different
nature of the activity, place and people involved
(Shamir & Ruskin, 1984).
In summary, while research has focused on the
outcomes of having a positive image of a destination
and on the factors that influence that image, few
empirical efforts have been made to understand the
sports event image concept and whether the type of
destination can influence or interact with event image
perceptions.
● OCTOBER 2010 ●
SMS12.1 Paper 3 Events pp37-52 KT 7/10/10 06:38 Page 41
Method
Measurement
Images can be measured using either structured and
unstructured methods. Echtner and Ritchie (1993)
and Vos (1992) pointed out that both attributes
(structured method) and holistic impressions
(unstructured method) need to be measured to
analyse destination image. Hence, a combination of
structured and unstructured methods is suggested.
However, in practice, destination images are measured
primarily using attributes (structured) (Bigné Alcañiz,
Sánchez García & Sanz Blas, 2009; Kaplanidou &
Vogt, 2007; Lee, et al., 2005). The advantage of the
structured methods is the relative ease of operation by
using various attributes that can be coded and
analysed by employing different statistical analyses.
The respondents rate the attributes and statements on
a scale. However, these may not represent the total
range of attributes and impressions of the image under
investigation. Hence, unstructured methods aiming to
detect holistic impressions similar to those suggested
by Echtner and Ritchie (1993) should be used.
Unique features and auras which represent intangible
or unique aspects can be detected using measures
that capture qualitative data as evident in the work by
Echtner and Ritchie (1993). Bigné Alcañiz et al
(2009, p.717) pointed out that many researchers
have used the work of Echtner and Ritchie (1993) to
assess images because of its conceptual and
methodological rigour. Consequently, structured and
unstructured methods can be used to capture the
sports event image of marathon events. The structured
methods refer to the use of existing measurement
scales that reflect a quantitative approach, while the
unstructured methods allow for qualitative data
capture and analysis. The results from the two
methods might not, therefore, compare easily, which
represents a weakness of this approach.
A survey was conducted using open-ended and
closed-ended questions. A self-administered
questionnaire was developed based on previous work
in the field of destination, sports event and sports
● OCTOBER 2010 ● International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
Marathon event images
images (e.g. Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Ferrand &
Pages, 1996; San Martín & Rodríguez del Bosque,
2008; Schlattmann, Matz & Schwegler, 1996). The
questionnaire was tested for clarity of questions and
length using 68 sports tourists (recruited at the Bob
and Skeleton World Cup 2008 in Winterberg,
Germany1). Minor changes relating to the wording of
the questions were made based on the suggestions of
the pilot test respondents. In total, 23 questions were
asked. They included 12 for sports event image, 14
for destination image, 3 for behavioural intentions and
5 each for sports event and destination information
sources and socio-demographic factors (age, gender,
education, origin). An open-ended (unstructured)
question relating to sports event image was also
included to understand the types of images sports
tourists hold and thus address the first research
question of the study. The respondents were asked to
indicate three words that sprang to mind when they
thought of the sports event. This question has been
asked in tourism studies (Echtner & Ritchie, 1993;
Jenkins, 1999; Stepchenkova & Morrison, 2008) that
were trying to understand the components of the
destination image construct and it was thus deemed
appropriate to be included in this study, given the
consideration of sports events as tourism attractions.
The strength of this approach lies in its ability to
reveal unique image components which the fixed
attribute questions might not capture. The potential
weaknesses of this approach could be that the coding
of the words into themes is based on the coder’s
interpretation of words. Such weakness though can be
overcome by defining each code. This study focused
on unstructured questions to provide in-depth
understanding of the event image perceptions of active
and passive sports tourists.
Sample
The event sample consisted of four different marathon
events that took place in 2008 in Germany. These
four events were: the Hamburg Marathon,
41
SMS12.1 Paper 3 Events pp37-52 KT 7/10/10 06:38 Page 42
Marathon event images
Rennsteiglauf (a marathon held in the federal state of
Thuringia), the Panoramic Run in Willingen (a
marathon held in the federal state of Hesse) and the
Frankfurt Marathon. The Hamburg Marathon had
approximately 20,000 participants and 800,000
spectators, the Rennsteiglauf had 15,000 participants
(in various events; approx. 3,000 in the marathon)
and 200,000 spectators, the Panoramic Run had
1,200 participants (in various events; approx. 100 in
the marathon) and 10,000 spectators and the
Frankfurt Marathon had 20,000 participants (in
various events; approx. 11,000 in the marathon) and
250,000 spectators.
These four events were selected for two main
reasons: events in urban and rural destinations were
included to detect whether there are differences in the
image perception due to the type of hosting
destination; and to check for validity, two events for
each natural setting (i.e. urban, rural) were included.
A filter question (asking whether the sports tourist
participated in the event or watched the event as
spectator) was used to identify active and passive
sports tourists. Active sports tourists were asked to fill
in the questionnaire prior to the event, which would
capture the event images in the pre-participation
phase. Passive tourists were questioned during the
event because this was a period when they were
available for questioning. A random sample was
drawn and the sports tourists were intercepted at the
location where race numbers were picked up (active
sports tourists). Passive sports tourists were
questioned while watching the race and at the finish.
Every tenth person at the race number pick-up and at
key (according to the organisers) spectator locations
was intercepted. There were two to four student
interviewers at each event. All students received the
same training prior to the survey. The sample
consisted in total of N=1,191 respondents (Hamburg
Marathon N=293; Rennsteiglauf N=311; Panoramic
Run in Willingen N=275; Frankfurt Marathon
N=312). For the purpose of this paper the answers
for the unstructured (qualitative) question were
translated from German into English.
42 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
Data analysis
The data was analysed using SPSS. A check for
content validity across all responses was employed for
the qualitative data (i.e. word elicitation). Some of the
words provided by the respondents were deemed
invalid primarily due to the use of comic language and
as such were included in the analysis as missing data.
The data for all events were coded using content
analysis procedures. The three words provided by the
respondents were categorised into different themes.
The word sample consisted of a total of 3,253 words.
In the initial analysis, the students who collected the
data evaluated the data and found 51 different
themes.. In the second stage of analysis, evaluation
involved a faculty member and two experts (event
organisers) in the field of sports events. These were
re-evaluated by one of the principal investigators of the
project and seven encompassing themes were
identified. These themes included organisational,
environmental (with two dimensions), physical, social,
emotional and historical/political associations. The first
five themes were suggested in a previous study
involving a cycling event (Kaplanidou & Vogt, 2007).
In this study, however, the environmental theme was
broken down into two sub-dimensions: destination
sights and infrastructure formed one dimension. The
nature of the destination (urban and rural) formed the
other. Table 1 represents an overview of examples
about the word classification for each theme.
Correspondence analyses were undertaken to
evaluate the qualitative data collected in themes – or
statistically speaking in categories – with the aim of
showing relationships between the different responses
(Hoffman & Franke, 1986). Correspondence analysis
is a multivariate statistical technique with an
exploratory nature similar to factor analysis
procedures, although it is designed for categorical data
(Hoffman & Franke, 1986). This technique allows the
exploration of the structure of categorical variables in
terms of how the data in rows and columns
corresponds and thus reveals structures within the
categorical data (Greenacre, 1992; Hoffman & Franke,
● OCTOBER 2010 ●
SMS12.1 Paper 3 Events pp37-52 KT 7/10/10 06:38 Page 43

Marathon event images

TABLE 1 Overview of examples of the word classification per theme

THEME EXAMPLES*
ORGANISATIONAL LOGISTICS, SECURITY, HUGE EVENT, BIG MARATHON, BIB, BAGGAGE PICK UP, MARATHON EXPO, TIMING, SPONSORING
HISTORICAL MYTHS, TRADITIONAL, CLASSIC RACE
PHYSICAL ENDURANCE, MOTIVATION, ENERGY, ATHLETES, COMPETITOR, FITNESS, DISCIPLINE, PAIN, TORMENT, PERFORMANCE
SOCIAL FRIENDS, FAMILY, HAVING A DRINK, INTERNATIONAL, TOO FEW SPECTATORS, NOT MANY PEOPLE, FRIENDLY PEOPLE, SENIOR CITIZENS
EMOTIONAL PASSION, UNIQUE, ATMOSPHERE, EMOTION, CHEERFUL, FLAIR, AWAKENING MUSIC, EXCITING, STIMULATING, INSPIRING
POLITICAL CLUBS, ASSOCIATIONS, MAYOR, HIGH PERFORMANCE CENTRE, PROMOTING YOUTH SPORT
ENVIRONMENTAL 1 ACCOMMODATION, HOTEL, CENTRAL STATION, AIRPORT, MAJOR CITY, RIVER, VENUE, TRADE FAIR
(DESTINATION SIGHTS
AND INFRASTRUCTURE)
ENVIRONMENTAL 2 GREEN, FRESH AIR, TREES, HILLY COUNTRYSIDE, FOREST, SPRING, SUNNY, WIND, SCENERY
(NATURE)

* The examples are translated from German to English.

1986). The results are displayed in contingency
tables. Using correspondence analysis, each theme
will be displayed graphically as a point in a scatter
plot with the relative points in the plot indicating
certain levels of similarity or associations between the
themes (Greenacre, 1992). The themes were,
therefore, analysed simultaneously with the type of
destination using the four events (Hamburg and
Frankfurt=urban; Rennsteig and Willingen=rural). For
the different types of sports tourists, the file was split
in two and then analysed, again using the four events.
The total inertia is indicated along with a p-value for
the correspondence analysis, although it has to be
noted that the p-value is not a distinct criterion for
significance as the correspondence analysis can also
describe non-significant relationships (Blasius, 2000).
The total inertia describes the overall differences
among the points in the scatter plot (Greenacre,
1992, p. 101), i.e. the graphical solution of the
themes. The total inertia is segmented into
components for each axis; i.e. each dimension. The
cumulative proportion of total inertia for the different
dimensions has a critical value of 80% (Drengner,
Gaus & Zanger, 2004). In other words, the accuracy
of the display is quantified by summing up the
principal inertia for each dimension (Greenacre,
1992). However, Blasius (1994) pointed out that all
criteria used to assess the number of dimensions are
arbitrary and that decisions on dimensions should be
taken with regard to content. A general criterion to
determine the number of dimensions could be the
average variance explained (Blasius, 1994). This
would require exclusion of dimensions which have a
lower than average amount of explained inertia
(average=100/number of dimensions) (Blasius, 1994,
p. 29). Another general criterion could be to keep as
many dimensions as can be interpreted (Blasius,
1994, p.29). Nonetheless, it has to be emphasised
that the multivariate nature of correspondence analysis
detects data patterns that a series of pairwise
comparisons would not reveal (Hoffman & Franke,
1986). It is a powerful technique and provides precise
results allowing detailed interpretation of categorical
data (Blasius, 1994).

● OCTOBER 2010 ● International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship 43

SMS12.1 Paper 3 Events pp37-52 KT 7/10/10 06:38 Page 44

Marathon event images

TABLE 2 Frequency results for the overall sample and active and passive sport tourists

THEME OVERALL ACTIVE SPORT TOURISTS PASSIVE SPORT TOURISTS

ORGANISATIONAL 7.6% (N=246) 6.3% (N=129) 9.6% (N=117)
HISTORICAL/POLITICAL 1.0% (N=34) 1.2% (N=25) 0.7% (N=9)
PHYSICAL 19.0% (N=619) 17.6% (N= 356) 21.4% (N=263)
SOCIAL 14.0% (N=457) 14.8% (N=300) 12.8% (N=157)
EMOTIONAL 16.1% (N=523) 14.7% (N=298) 18.4% (N=225)
ENVIRONMENTAL 1 24.8% (N=806) 25.6% (N=520) 23.4% (N=287)
(DESTINATION SIGHTS
AND INFRASTRUCTURE)
ENVIRONMENTAL 2 17.5% (N=569) 19.8% (N=401) 13.7% (N=168)
(NATURE)
TOTAL n*=3,253 N=2,028 N=1,225

* N=the number of words generated by the sample of active and passive sport tourists

Results infrastructure (environmental 1), 19.0% about

First, an overview of the socio-demographic results for
the complete sample is presented. Second, a
quantitative analysis of the different themes is
provided for all events. Results are discussed with
regards to: a) image perceptions of active and passive
sports tourists and b) image perceptions about events
in rural and urban settings.
The sample at the marathon events consisted
primarily of males (62.6% (N=749)) while females
represented 37.4% (N=447). The age varied between
122 and 75 years with an average of 40.76 years.
The respondents were well educated with 55.7%
(N=666) holding a university entrance diploma or a
university degree. The sample comprised 61.4%
(N=735) active sports tourists (71.8% were male,
mean age of 42.12 and 55.0% held at least a
university entrance diploma) and 38.6% (N=461)
passive sports tourists (48.0% were male, mean age
of 38.63 and 56.7% held at least a university
entrance diploma).
In total, a sample of 3,253 words was collected
from 1,191 respondents. Almost a quarter of the word
sample (24.8%) was about destination sights and
physical attributes, 17.5% about nature
(environmental 2), 16.1% about emotional
associations, 14.0% about social themes, 7.6% about
organisational issues and 1.0% about historical and
political images. The latter theme received very little
recognition by the respondents. Table 2 provides the
frequencies related to the theme classification.
With regards to the first research question, a
distinction was drawn between active and passive
sports tourists. It was evident that there were some
quantitative differences (see Table 2) between these
two groups, although these were not extreme. Themes
rated highest by each group were as follows: passive
sports tourists tended to associate more physical
(21.4%), emotional (18.4%) and organisational
(9.6%) themes with the sports event while active
sports tourists associated predominantly environmental
destination and sights (25.6%) and nature (19.8%)
and social (14.8%) themes with the event.
Correspondence analyses were estimated separately
for active and passive sports tourists. The total inertia
for active sports tourists was 35.1% (with
¯Ç=246.989, df=18; p <.001). The first dimension
had an eigenvalue of .530 with a principal inertia of

44 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship ● OCTOBER 2010 ●

SMS12.1 Paper 3 Events pp37-52 KT 7/10/10 06:38 Page 45
FIGURE 1 Correspondence analysis for active sport tourists
and four marathon events.
ZEILEN-UND SPALTENPUNKTE
SYMMETRISCH-NORMALISIERUNG
DIMENSION 1
LEGEND
marathon
themes
.281 explaining 79.8% of variance of the total inertia.
The second dimension explained 15.7% of the
variance whilst the third dimension explained 4.5% of
the variance of the total inertia. Hence, a graphical
solution with two dimensions seemed appropriate,
because the two dimensions were above the 80%
threshold of the cumulative proportion of total inertia
(Drengner, et al., 2004). The graphical solution of the
correspondence analysis is presented in Figure 1. The
historical, social and environmental 2 (nature) themes
could be attributed to dimension 1 as well as the
events hosted in rural destinations, namely Rennsteig
and Willingen.
The correspondence analysis for passive sports
tourists revealed a total inertia of 23.7% (with
¯Ç=100.647, df=18; p < .001). The eigenvalue of
the first dimension was .444 with a principal inertia
● OCTOBER 2010 ● International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
Marathon event images
FIGURE 2 Correspondence analysis for passive sport
tourists and four marathon events.
ZEILEN-UND SPALTENPUNKTE
SYMMETRISCH-NORMALISIERUNG
DIMENSION 1
of .197 which explained 83.2% of variance of the
total inertia. The variance of the total inertia for the
second dimension was 9.2% and for the third
dimension 7.8%. A two dimensional graphical
framework could be supported (see Figure 2) as
92.4% of the total variation can be explained, which
is above the 80% threshold (Drengner, et al., 2004).
Three themes (organisational, physical and
environmental 1 (destination sights and
infrastructure)) were categorised into the first
dimension using the correspondence analysis. This
also applied to the two urban destinations (Hamburg
and Frankfurt).
The graphical solutions for the two analyses
emphasised the tendencies found in the frequencies
count (see Table 2). The data suggested that for active
sports tourists the emotional theme was prominent for
45
SMS12.1 Paper 3 Events pp37-52 KT 7/10/10 06:38 Page 46

Marathon event images

TABLE 3 Frequency results for events in rural and urban destinations for overall sample and for active and passive sport tourists

THEME OVERALL SAMPLE ACTIVE SPORT TOURISTS PASSIVE SPORT TOURISTS

RURAL DESTINATIONS
ORGANISATIONAL 2.2% (N=35) 1.8% (N=20) 3.0% (N=15)
HISTORICAL/POLITICAL 1.4% (N=22) 1.6% (N=17) 0.9% (N=5)
PHYSICAL 17.6% (N=287) 16.5% (N=183) 20.1% (N=104)
SOCIAL 18.3% (N=298) 18.4% (N=205) 18.0% (N=93)
EMOTIONAL 14.5% (N=237) 13.1% (N=145) 17.6% (N=91)
ENVIRONMENTAL 1 17.0% (N=277) 18.0% (N=200) 14.8% (N=77)
(DESTINATION SIGHTS AND
INFRASTRUCTURE)
ENVIRONMENTAL 2 (NATURE) 29.0% (N=473) 30.6% (N=340) 25.6% (N=133)
TOTAL N=1,630 N=520 N=1,110
URBAN DESTINATIONS
ORGANISATIONAL 13.0% (N=210) 11.9% (N=109) 14.4% (N=101)
HISTORICAL/POLITICAL 0.7% (N=12) 0.8% (N=8) 0.6% (N=4)
PHYSICAL 20.4% (N=332) 18.9% (N=173) 22.4% (N=158)
SOCIAL 9.8% (N=159) 10.4% (N=95) 9.0% (N=64)
EMOTIONAL 17.6% (N=286) 16.6% (N=152) 19.0% (N=134)
ENVIRONMENTAL 1 32.6% (N=529) 34.8% (N=319) 29.7% (N=209)
(DESTINATION SIGHTS AND
INFRASTRUCTURE)
ENVIRONMENTAL 2 (NATURE) 5.9% (N=96) 6.6% (N=62) 4.9% (N=35)
TOTAL N=1,623 N=918 N=705

* N=the number of words generated by the sample of active and passive sport tourists

the marathons hosted in urban destinations. This
applied also to the physical, organisational and
environmental 1 (destination sights and infrastructure)
themes. For passive sports tourists, the emotional
theme was prominent for the marathons hosted in
rural destinations. This applied also to the
historical/political, social and environmental 2 (nature)
themes. Consequently, there are differences in the
perceptions of sports event images between active and
passive sports tourists. Another difference was the
relative distance of the themes for each group, which
was smaller for passive sports tourists than for active
sports tourists as Figures 1 and 2 indicate.
Regarding the second research question, separate
frequency estimations were undertaken for rural and
urban settings of the sports event to detect possible
differences in the image perception of events. The
frequency results suggested that there were indeed
some dissimilarities between events taking place in
urban and rural destinations. For events in rural
destinations, image perceptions for the overall sample
of sports tourists focused on environmental aspects
related to nature (29.0%) and social (18.3%) aspects.
In contrast, image perceptions for events in urban
destinations were associated more with the
environmental theme focusing on destination sights
and infrastructure (32.6%) and organisational
(13.0%) aspects. The physical (rural destinations:
17.6%; urban destinations: 20.4%) and emotional
(rural destinations: 14.5%; urban destinations:

46 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship ● OCTOBER 2010 ●

SMS12.1 Paper 3 Events pp37-52 KT 7/10/10 06:38 Page 47
17.6%) themes were rated high in both destinations,
while the historical/political theme, as previously
noted, received little recognition by the respondents
(rural destinations: 1.4%; urban destinations: 0.7%).
Table 3 presents these results and breaks them down
for active and passive sports tourists.
The column points for the marathon events indicate
that there was a difference between the urban and
rural hosts (see Figures 1 and 2). The row points for
the themes emphasise this aspect further: the social,
historical and environmental 2 (nature) image themes
surrounded the two marathon events taking place in
rural settings (based on dimension 1). In contrast, the
political, organisational, environmental 1 (sights and
infrastructure) and physical themes can be attributed
to the urban nature of the destination. The emotional
theme seemed to be somewhere between the two
destination settings (see Figure 3) as it can be found
in the middle of the horizontal axis (dimension 1).
Discussion
The purpose of the study was to understand the sports
event images of various marathon events among active
and passive sports tourists participating in marathon
races and whether the type of destination interacts
with the sports event image perceptions. Marathon
running has already been analysed within a sports
tourism framework focusing on the integration of
sports events and destinations (e.g. Chalip &
McGuitry, 2004) or leisure behaviour (e.g. Funk,
Toohey & Bruun, 2007). This study contributes to the
knowledge and structure of sports event images that
can assist in the creation of a theoretical framework of
sports event image formation.
The themes found using the unstructured method
could be further classified into affective (emotional and
social) and cognitive (environmental 1 and 2,
historical organisational, political, physical)
components, which are congruent with research on
the meaning of destination and event image (Baloglu
& McCleary, 1999; Beerli & Martín, 2004;
● OCTOBER 2010 ● International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
Marathon event images
Kaplanidou, in press). The affective component, which
is eminent in destination image research (Baloglu &
McCleary, 1999) and in studies relating to the
meaning of the sports event experience (Kaplanidou &
Vogt, in press) was not the dominating component for
the four marathon events investigated. On the
contrary, cognitive themes emerged more often than
affective aspects. There could be several reasons for
this result. First, the events may not have been so
emotionally stimulating and arousing due to e.g. a
mediocre atmosphere. However, given the experience
of the interviewers on-site this might not be the case.
Second, cognitive aspects might have been valued
higher by the sports tourists. Yet, the number of
themes (more themes fall into the cognitive
component category) does not imply a high level of
importance for sports event image. The literature
relating to destination image found that cognitive
evaluations influence the affective perceptions of
image (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999). This might also
be the case for the marathon events investigated.
However, because only qualitative data was used,
such a relationship could not been tested with this
study. Thus, future research should examine the
structural relationship of event image components.
The first research question inquired about the event
image perceptions that active and passive sports
tourists hold. The findings suggest that there are no
extreme differences. A distinction that could be drawn
between active and passive sports tourists concerns
the emotional theme. Active sports tourists (see Figure
1) placed emotions in the same dimension as
physical, environmental (destination sights and
infrastructure) and organisational associations. Passive
sports tourists on the other hand (see Figure 2), rated
emotions in the same dimension as historical and
social associations. They were also linked with
environmental associations towards nature. This might
be due to the different level of involvement in the
event and the sport, which is very high for marathon
runners (Funk, et al., 2007) and the different nature
of the activity, place and people involved (Shamir &
Ruskin, 1984). For active sports tourists emotions
47
SMS12.1 Paper 3 Events pp37-52 KT 7/10/10 06:38 Page 48
Marathon event images
were strongly linked with the direct physical and
organisational experience.
In general, the themes were more closely linked
among passive sports tourists (see Figure 2) indicating
that they had a less distinct picture of the sports
event. In contrast, the distances between the themes
for active sports tourists (see Figure 1) were slightly
wider, showing that the themes were experienced in a
more distinct way. Active sports tourists seemed to be
more selective in terms of how they think about the
event image, which may be due to their high
involvement (Funk, et al., 2007) and the different
nature of activity (Shamir & Ruskin, 1984). Active
sports tourists showed a more precise distinction
between the different event image themes than
passive sports tourists. This distinction may have
arisen because of the processing of the event
experience in phases (pre-race, during-race, finish
line, post). For example, the registration phase is
related to the organisational theme. The running phase
conversely could be related to the environmental (i.e.
interaction with nature), physical (i.e. endurance) and
social themes (i.e. interaction with fellow runners).
Finally, the event phase related to the completion of
the event and has links with the emotional theme
(i.e. emotions generated by crossing the finish line)
and post-event emotional perceptions. In contrast,
passive sports tourists tended to weigh the various
event images differently, having only the experience of
watching the event. A theoretical implication is that
the type of sports tourist plays a role in the formation
of sports event images, which is rooted in the
involvement and type of activity. In practice, marketers
should customise their messages precisely towards the
two target groups as will be explained later.
With reference to the second research question, the
results suggest that there are differences in the
perception of sports event image for different types of
destinations. This result supports an event and
destination image interaction with the destination
influencing the event image although past research
48 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
has shown evidence of the event impacting the
destination image (Kaplanidou & Vogt, 2007). It was
evident that the events in urban destinations
(Hamburg and Frankfurt) and the two events in rural
destinations (Rennsteiglauf and Willingen) were
attributed to different dimensions as the
correspondence analysis suggested. These findings are
not surprising given the nature of the destinations.
Furthermore, the two aspects of the environmental
theme strengthened the distinction between the
different types of destinations. First, the environmental
theme focusing on destination sights and infrastructure
could be attributed to the same dimension as the
urban destinations. Second, the environmental theme
associated with nature belongs to the same dimension
as the rural destinations. These results were supported
for both, active and passive sports tourists. Thus, the
type of destination can impact the perception sports
tourists have of the event, which enhances the
understanding of event and destination image
interaction and fit (Jago et al., 2003). A similar result
was found with regards to future behaviour towards
the sports event since the type of destination
influences repeat visits significantly (Hallmann &
Breuer, 2010). The results suggested that sports event
images are perceived differently depending on the type
of destination and the type of sports tourist. A fit of
themes emerging around the natural, historical and
social aspects and a more rural surrounding appears
to exist as well as a congruence of environmental
(sights and infrastructure), organisational and physical
themes with urban surroundings. Thus, the type of
destination can interact with the sports event image,
which is congruent with previous research indicating
links between destination image and sports event
image (Brown, Chalip, Jago & Mules, 2002;
Kaplanidou & Vogt, 2007).
The practical implications suggest that marketers
could utilise the unique aspects of the seven sports
event image themes identified in their marketing
communication. Such marketing communications
● OCTOBER 2010 ●
SMS12.1 Paper 3 Events pp37-52 KT 7/10/10 06:38 Page 49
could be customised in a way that targets active and
passive sports tourists separately with the aim of
creating a distinct positioning of the event in their
minds. Based on the results of the study, passive
sports tourists could be targeted with messages related
to emotional associations, which can be based on
social and historical aspects as well as environmental
associations regarding destination sights and
infrastructure. In contrast, for messages targeting
active sports tourists, the emotional theme should be
used with physical and organisational attributes (e.g.
crowds cheering for the runners) as well as
environmental associations about nature. The themes
encompass tangible and intangible features which
relate back to the concept of destination image with
common and unique aspects (Echtner & Ritchie,
1991). Event organisers should understand that active
and passive sports tourists process the sports event
image differently and thus accommodate such
differentiation in their event product and service
'packaging'. As active sports tourists view the
emotional and physical theme in the same dimension,
event organisers could strengthen the emotional
perceptions by, for example,offering special side events
which the runners experience during the race (e.g.
music bands along the course or running through/past
a building for which the destination is renowned). The
linkage of emotional and physical themes might help
to emphasise unique features of the event. Among
active sports tourists, the research shows that the
emotional theme is linked with social aspects of the
race. Therefore, offerings emphasising social
interaction (e.g. kids' run or family competitions)
should be integrated into the event to strengthen the
link focusing on unique features.
Conclusion
This study aimed to understand the type of sports
event images held by active and passive sports
tourists and possible differences concerning the type of
destination with regards to the sports event image.
● OCTOBER 2010 ● International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
Marathon event images
The findings imply that there are differences in the
perception of sports event images held by active and
passive sports tourists. These differences apply
particularly to the emotional themes analysed.
Moreover, the findings suggest that the destination
type also interacts with the sports event image
perceptions. This research was exploratory in nature
and suggested that sports event image consists of
cognitive and affective aspects. Seven themes that
relate to cognitive and affective aspects emerged from
the data explaining the sports event image construct.
Affective components encompass emotional and social
themes while cognitive components include
environmental (e.g. sights/infrastructure and nature),
historical/political, organisational and physical themes.
The themes for sports event image included common
features and unique aspects such as the destination
image concept (Echtner & Ritchie, 1991). Active and
passive sports tourists perceive sports event images
differently with active sports tourists having a more
distinct perception of the sports event image. Several
issues need to betaken into consideration when
defining sports event image. They include the themes
that emerged, the different perception of sports event
image depending on the host destination and the type
of sports tourist.
The research findings have limitations because only
one sport (marathon running) was investigated. As a
result, caution should be exercised in attempts to
generalise the results across all active and passive
sports tourist types. However, the research included
four different events in four different destinations with
a reasonable sample size in a cross-sectional design.
The results can therefore be used for future research
and can be elaborated by undertaking research in
different sports. The study was exploratory in nature
and future studies can be developed with a
confirmatory focus using multivariate statistics to test
such an approach. Future research could also
concentrate on possible similarities between sports
event image and destination image using qualitative
data. Also, the motivation of the sports tourist to
participate in events could help to explain the different
49
SMS12.1 Paper 3 Events pp37-52 KT 7/10/10 06:38
Marathon event images
event image perceptions by active and passive sports
tourists and the possible patterns between motives
and sports event image.
© 2010 International Marketing Reports
Biographies
Kirstin Hallmann is a research assistant at the
German Sport University Cologne, Institute of Sport
Economics and Sport Management. She is planning to
terminate her PhD studies to focus on event
management and the inter-dependence of sport event
images and destination images. Further research
interests are sports tourism and sports participation.
Before working for the German Sport University,
Kirstin Hallmann gained professional experience as a
sport event manager. She is a member of the
European Association for Sport Management and has
presented at international conferences in sport
management, sport economics and tourism. Kirstin
Hallmann has been published in various books and in
the journal, Tourism Review.
Kiki Kaplanidou is an assistant professor at the
University of Florida, Department of Tourism,
Recreation and Sport Management. She holds a PhD
from Michigan State University and her main research
interests are sports tourist behaviour, event image and
the role of sport events as community development
tools. Dr Kaplanidou has professional experience
working with the Athens 2004 Olympic Games and
has been a member of the North America Society of
Sport Management, European Association for Sport
Management and the Travel and Tourism Research
Association. Her work is published in such journals as
Event Management, the Journal of Travel Research
and the Journal of Sport & Tourism.
50 International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship
Page 50
Christoph Breuer is professor for sport management
at the Institute of Sport Economics and Sport
Management at the German Sport University in
Cologne. He obtained his habilitation and doctorate
from the German Sport University. He was a research
fellow at the Catholic University of Leuven (Belgium)
and research professor at the German Institute for
Economic Research. Before becoming chair for sport
management at the German Sport University, he was
professor and chair for sport sociology/sport economics
at the University of Chemnitz. Prof. Breuer is a
member of the European Association for Sport
Management and the German Association for Sport
Economics. He has been published in numerous
journals including European Sport Management
Quarterly, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport,
the Journal of Public Health, the Journal of Sport
Economics and Sport Management Review.
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