All the theories we have discussed in the last three lessons are speculative

in nature. They are an inference of what a society is based on the

philosophers’ concepts of human nature. In this lesson, we will discuss a
view that interprets society from the historical perspective. To help us
understand what a society is, as it actually exists, let us explore Karl Marx’s
theory of the transformation of the society.

           

According to Marx, societies all over the world have undergone evolution
and this evolution has four major stages: the pre-historic, pre-capitalist,
capitalist, and the communist. Underlying this evolution of the societies,
according to Marx, has been the constant struggle between two
antagonistic social classes: the master and the slaves during the ancient
period, the lords and the serfs during the medieval period, and the
bourgeois and the proletarians beginning the period of industrialization. As
one class tried to overcome the other, new mode of production changed
and new economic relations and systems emerged, which in turn, produced
new political systems and institutions. Let us now discuss the stages of the
evolution of societies according to Marx.

Prehistoric Stage

      

Prehistoric society is similar to the state of nature of Hobbes, Locke, and

Rousseau. It is a society before the existence of the state. But unlike
Hobbes Locke, and Rousseau who characterize humans as asocial beings,
Marx conceives humans in the prehistoric society as selfless and
cooperative beings, who went along very well with each other. In the same
society, according to Marx, there was no private property (everything was
owned in common). People lived by hunting and gathering. There was no
need for the people to cultivate the land, as there was an abundant supply
of foods. There was also no division of labor and, hence, no social classes
and no war too. People lived in peace and contentment. The prehistoric
society was paradise-like.

Pre-capitalist Society

           

The pre-capitalist society was an agricultural society. It had two stages: the
period of slavery and the period of serfdom. The first occurred in the
ancient period and the second happened in the medieval period. The
period of slavery was ushered by the development of agriculture. People
started to cultivate the lands. The powerful amassed lands and possessed
the powerless as their slaves. This gave birth to private property and
division of labor, which in turn, gave birth to social classes and the
establishment of political institutions.  Those who owned the lands, the
chiefs, the warriors, and the politicians were the masters and those who
had no lands served as slaves. To protect their property and maintain their
social status, the masters created the government and other political
institutions. Laws were enacted purposely to legitimate the economic and
political relations between the two social classes. Laws also paved the way
to the various forms of injustices committed against the slaves by their
masters.

           

But such social relation would not also last. Due to some changes in the
modes of productions (such as the invention of better tools), the second
stage of the pre-capitalist society was born, the feudal society. The lords
replaced the masters, and the serfs replaced the slaves. If the masters
owned their slaves, the lords only held the serfs legally bound through
contracts. Compared to the masters, the lords had lesser powers and, in
parallel, the serfs enjoyed some freedom not enjoyed by the slaves. But
similar to the master-slave society, the government and all its institutions
were established and maintained during the feudal period to protect the
interests of the lords. Also similar to the master-slave society, the feudal
society was still characterized by various kinds of injustices. But the society
continued to evolve as the economic relations between the people had
changed. Such evolution brought about another economic relations among
the people, capitalism.

Capitalist Society

           

The capitalist society started to develop during the industrial revolution. The
economic relations brought about by industrial revolution had given rise to
the emergence of the middle class (capitalists) in the society. As the mode
of production (industrialization) required it, those who owned capital (the
capitalists) became economically and politically powerful. Their capitals
sustained the needs of industrialization, enabling them to buy the lands of
the lords and control political processes. Because of this economic change,
the powers of the lords had faded paving the way to the emergence of the
new ruling class, the capitalists. As a result of which, a new social relation
emerged between two antagonistic classes: the bourgeoisie and the
proletariat. The bourgeoisie was the class of the capitalists (owners of the
means of production) and the proletariat was the class of the laborers.

           

In the capitalist society, the lord-serf relation vanished at it became

obsolete. No one now was a slave or a serf to anybody. Everyone was
equal before the law. No one could be forced to work. Economic relations
existed between individuals who freely contracted with one another. The
capitalists and the laborers mutually agree on the terms and conditions of
employment, which they may alter or annul at their discretion. This was a
welcome development in the economic relations between free individuals.
But just like the two other previous relations, the capitalist society has
brought more serious social problems such as exploitation,
dehumanization, alienation and other forms of injustices committed by the
capitalists against the laborers. How did it happen in what seem to be a
perfect economic system? Let us analyze capitalism as an economic
system to help us understand Marx’s critique of capitalism.

           

“Capitalism is an economic and political system in which a country’s trade

and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the
state.” The idea of capitalism is that, by allowing private individuals to
engage in business without interference from the state, the invisible hand of
competition will promote the goods of the people. In order to encourage
private individuals to engage in business, they must be allowed to
maximize profit. To maximize profit, the state should not interfere on how
private enterprises conduct their businesses. Private enterprises will
determine the quality of their services and products, the costs of producing
the same (including the wages of the laborers), and the profit they want to
derive from it. This system enables the capitalists to creatively plan their
businesses in order to maximize profit. But, if the purpose is to maximize
profit, how will this system promote the goods of the people?

           

This is the function of the invisible hand of free competition according to

Adam Smith, major proponent of capitalism. Supposed there are three
bakeries in a community. The owners of these three bakeries will engage in
free a competition. In order survive the competition each bakery has to
employ effective strategies to maximize profit. Bakery A may capitalize on
cheap labor as its competitive advantage. Bakery B may use low quality
ingredients and sell its products in low prices. Bakery C may employ
trained labor, use highly quality ingredients, and sell its products in
reasonable prices. As self-interested individuals maximizing the value of
their money, the consumers will patronize the products of the bakery that
offers the best value. Each bakery, therefore, has to make necessary
efforts in order to win the consumers. They may lower the prices and
improve the quality of their services and products. Hence, without being
directed by the state to promote the goods of the consumers, private
enterprises, motivated by their desires to maximize profit, indirectly
promote the goods of the consumers by offering quality but affordable
products and services. It is not from the goodwill of the capitalists that
consumers benefit, but rather, from their selfish interest to gain profits. It is
the invisible hand of competition that promotes both the good of the
capitalists and the consumers. This is capitalism as an economic
philosophy. However, as an economic system that thrived during the
industrial revolution, capitalism, according to Marx served only the interest
of the capitalists and inflicted various forms of injustices such as
exploitation, dehumanization, and alienation to the wageworkers.

      

However, just like the three previous societies, according to Marx, the
capitalist society is doomed to collapse, according to Marx, because it has
sown its own seeds of destruction, namely, overproduction and oppression.
Overproduction and oppression are inherent to capitalism as an economic
system. This is the reason why capitalism is said to self-destruct. But
should capitalism necessarily result to overproduction and oppression?

           

The capitalists are driven only by one thing, that is, to maximize profit
(Everything else is in service to this aim). In order to gain profits, the
capitalists have to produce goods satisfying the demands of the society. To
maximize profits, however, they have to produce more and more goods.
They cannot stop or slow down in their production as it would affect their
competitive advantage and it would mean loss of profits that may lead to
the closure of their businesses. Having no choice but to produce more and
more, there will come a time that the market will be saturated. (No real
capitalists will be concerned about saturation of the market for it is
supposed to be the task of the government. But in a free market system the
government has no right to interfere with the free flow of the market.) When
the market is saturated, it can no longer consume what the capitalists
produce. And since the capitalists have no choice but to produce more and
more even if the market is saturated, there will be overproduction. As a
result of overproduction,
            …markets become glutted with products that cannot be sold, profits
drop, unsold goods rot in storage, prices and production are cut to get
rid of the surplus, firms fail, and laborers are thrown out of work until
the excess can be disposed of. Thus the crisis of overproduction
gives way to one of underproduction, depression, and famine.”
(Tannenbaum & Schultz 2004)
 
 

Now what is to be expected from people who suffer from artificial famine
and oppression? A hungry and angry people (the proletarians), by
necessity, will resort to a bloody revolution in order to overthrow the very
system that causes their suffering. This revolution, according to Marx, is
necessary for it will give birth to the destined communist society.
 
 
Communist Society
            

Why should the revolution necessarily lead to a communist society? Before

we answer this, let us analyze communism as a political theory.

           
Communism is a political theory that advocates the abolition of private
property. But why should private property be abolished according to Marx?
It should be abolished, according to him, because it is the root cause of all
social evils. It is the root cause of the never-ending struggle between
antagonistic social classes: the masters and the slaves in the ancient
period, the lords and the serfs in the medieval period, and the bourgeois
and the proletarians in the modern period. It is the root cause of the
exploitation, dehumanization and alienation of the oppressed. It is the root
cause of the destruction of the families. It is the reason why the state and
its institutions have been established and created (to protect the interests
of the oppressors). It is the reason why there has been poverty and famine
amidst abundance. All of these problems will recur unless its root cause is
abolished. The abolition demands no less than a bloody revolution staged
by the proletarians who, according to Marx, “have nothing to lose except
their chains.”

But what does it mean to abolish private property and everything

accompanying it?           

The success of the revolution, according to Marx, is destined. Once the

capitalist society is overthrown, a communist society will be established. All
private properties will be confiscated. No one will own anything; everyone
will own everything in common. Each will work according to his or her
ability but will receive according to his or her needs. As there is no more
private property, there will be no more classes in the society. The society
will be classless. There will be no more struggles (for struggles happen
only when there is class antagonism). Instead of competition, there will be
cooperation. As there are no more properties and interests to be protected,
the state will eventually become obsolete and it will naturally wither away.
This is the idealism of communism, which is but a revolution, that is, a
return to the paradise-like prehistoric society with all the benefits of
progress and civilization.