Ancient Civilization

The earliest roots if the “science” that we have now were founded in the ancient “river valley”
civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia. These civilizations made important contributions in
several areas that in time would become the foundation of the scientific traditions of the Greek
and Romans. These areas are writing, astronomy, medicine and mathematics. 
Early Writings
The Egyptian hieroglyphs (see Figure 5) became the inspiration for the original alphabet that
was like most alphabets including the Latin alphabet.
Astronomy
Egyptians have excellent calendars, they tried to reconcile the solar and lunar cycles, and
established 365-day year and 24 hours a day. Egyptian astrologers became interested in
celestial phenomena because of their apparent regularity and their celestial motion.
Babylonians identify the planets with their gods; this was later adopted and further developed in
Greek astrology. Babylonians created non-mathematical diaries, almanacs and numerical
planetary tables. They are particularly fascinated with moon thus studied extensively lunar
eclipses. Figure 6 show a tablet from Babylon with a list of eclipses between 518 and 465,
mentioning the death of king Xerxes.
Medicine and Surgery
Egyptians believed that diseases were mainly due to an invasion of body by evil spirits.
Babylonian’s medicine has a touch of astrology. The use of pharmacological remedies (drugs)
was widespread, but its effectiveness was believed to be dependent on ritual conditions. 
The Ebers Papyrus in Figure 7 is an Egyptian medical document containing remedies for
several diseases and wounds including tumors, headaches, burn, abscess, and bad breath.
There were also records of practical knowledge of many herbal remedies, as well as some
surgical knowledge existed in the ancient civilizations such as in Figures 8a and 8b which
shows some ancient Babylonian surgical instruments.  However, the causes of diseases were
not entirely understood since they associate the diseases as their Gods works.
Mathematics
Egyptians are excelled in geometry and had developed a number system that was decimal in
character, employing different symbols for each power of 10 such as the one shown in Figure 9.
Meanwhile, the Babylonians developed the sexagesimal (base60) system.  
Although they did not study genuine algebra because they lack knowledge of algebraic rules,
they used arithmetic operations to solve problems for which we today can solve using quadratic
equations.
Greek and Roman Civilization
Greek science covers a wide array of practices and theories that do not resemble to modern
science. The boundaries between disciplines were fluid during this ancient period and the
definition of subjects and methodologies were discussed vigorously. Hence, it is often futile to
try to draw firm boundaries between subjects such as philosophy, medical theory, mathematics,
technology, astrology, and astronomy. 
Early Cosmology
Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes (sixth century B.C.E) are the earliest Greek
philosophers and cosmologists. They all dealt with natural phenomena, such as earthquakes
and lightning and the structure of the earth. Since they often rely on reasoning, to explain
nature, rather than observation, their arguments variably weak and cannot be proven.
Astronomy
The Greek developed conceptual models of the universe during the Pre-Socratic era. The basic
assumption is that the universe is geocentric and geostatic, and the cosmos are finite. They
thought that planets are moving in a perfect circular motion around our planet. Greek philosophy
during the pre-Socratic era is characterized by mixed metaphysical and physical speculations.
            - Metaphysics – search for general, eternal principles.
            - Physical – logical, causal explanation of phenomena
Democracy
The Golden Age of Athens was also highlighted by their form of governance. There was rapid
development in science and technology that time, and it may be accounted to democratization.
Philosophers openly forced politicians and the elites to question their truths, and more than
once openly embarrass them.
Romans are known for their forum (as shown in Figure 11), hence the beginnings of senate/
congress in a democratic form of government.
Socrates (469 BCE Athens, Greece) is the most influential philosopher. He is a lover of wisdom
and laid the groundwork for western philosophy. He was known for a process of gradual
questioning, coined as the “Socratic Method”, it may now be known as deductive questioning.
Aristotle (384 - 322 BCE Athens, Greece) accepted reality as it appeared, accepted the idea of
change
He emphasized natural philosophy based on observation and systemic logic. Being Socrates’
pupil, he continued deductive questioning and introduced the scientific method. He disproved
the idea that the earth is flat. He founded the Lyceum, hence the early beginnings of formal
school.
Ptolemy (90 -168 BCE Alexandria, Egypt) is a Greek-Roman astronomer, mathematician,
geographer, astrologer and poet. He created a geocentric model
Medieval and the Middle Ages
The Early part of the Middle Age was characterized by the fall of the Roman Empire, invasions
and mass migrations, thus decline in the population and counter urbanization.
During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased
greatly as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish.
The late of the Middle age was marked by difficulties and calamities including famine, plague,
and war, which significantly diminished the population of Europe.
Black Death (1347) ended massive scientific change in Europe. During the first wave of this
plague, it was estimated that one third of the European population died.
The era was sometimes called as the “Dark Age of Science” because the scientific and
philosophical thoughts collapsed.  However, there were still philosophers who became “beacons
of light” during the Dark Age of Science.
 
Nicolas Copernicus (1473 – 1543) was a mathematician who could read Greek and used
Ptolemy’s data to plot the orbits of the planets (see Figure 15). He wrote the De revolutionibus
orbium (1543) coelestium and claimed “In the center of it all rests the Sun” – this overthrew the
hierarchy of the ancient and medieval cosmos.
Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626) is the Father of Scientific Revolution. He wrote the Novum
organon (1620) to describe Baconian method of science (see Figure 16). He developed the
scientific method using induction of data from experiments. He put emphasis on practical and
useful knowledge, thus he encouraged the discovery of laws of science rather than using logic
based deductive arguments.
Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) during his time is the “game changer” of Astronomy. He invented
the telescope, saw sunspots, phases of Venus, Lunar craters, Moons of Jupiter, and saw that
Milky Way is made of stars (see Figure 17a and 17b). He wrote the Dialogo (1632) in Italian for
the public, compared the Ptolemaic system unfavorably over the Copernican Model, and for
that, he was tried by inquisition in 1633. He also studied the Math of Motion, Pendulum, falling
objects and projectiles.
Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) is a French Mathematician and Philosopher (see Figure 18). He
is the Father of modern western philosophy; much philosophy is based on his writings. He
abandoned scholastic Aristotelianism and became the first modern version of mind-body
dualism. He promoted science grounded in observation and experiment, created Cartesian view
of the Universe – a mechanistic view of nature, and coined term “molecule”.
Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727) wrote the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathe-matica in 1667
(see Figure 19). He studied terrestrial and celestial mechanics using Euclidean theorems and
his calculus. His work in dynamics, alchemy and theology are well-known.
In module 1, we sited how he utilized his quarantine time by formulating the Theory of Light, the
Theory of Motion and the Theory of Gravity.
The Age of Enlightenment and Modern Science
The 17th century brought decisive steps towards modern science, which accelerated during the
18th century.  New generation of scientists based their works on the works of Newton,
Descartes, Pascal and Leibniz, and lead the way to the development of modern science
and technology. Figure 20 summarizes the timeline of Scientific Advancement through history
from the ancient civilizations to our modern era.
Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882) was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist. He is best
known for his contributions to the science of evolution (See Figures 21a and 21b). He wrote
the Theory of the Origin of Species (1844). He proposed that all species of life have evolved
over time from a single simple organism; He also introduced the theory of natural
selection, whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce
more offspring. 
Edwin Hubble (1889 – 1953) in an American astronomer who discovered other galaxies
profoundly changing the way we look at the Universe (see Figures 22a and 22b). He proposed
Hubble’s Law and explained that the universe was expanding and that galaxies move away
from the Milky Way at a speed directly proportionate to the distance from it. He is one of the
most influential astronomers since the times of Galileo, Kepler and Newton.
Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955) is a German theoretical physicist (see Figure 23). He developed
the theory of relativity whereby proposing the famous equation in the conversion of mass to
energy.
Stephen Hawking (1942 – 2018) English theoretical physicist and cosmologist. He is a world
famous author and Director of Research at the Centre for Theoretical Cosmology within the
University of Cambridge (see Figure 24). He is well-known for his written works about Black
hole, The Big Bang Theory, and Artificial Intelligences.
Intellectual Revolution is a movement about enlightenment, and it was initiated during the 17th
century where people are more driven by the new discoveries in science and technology and
cultural relativism resulting from the explorations.
Copernican Revolution caused the paradigm shift of how the earth and sun were placed in the
heavens/universe. It is the idea that rejected the Ptolemaic model (earth is the center of the
solar system) and proved the heliocentric model (the sun is the center of the solar system
having the earth revolving around it.
Darwinian Revolution has brought a great impact on how people approach biology forever.
This revolution provided a different than the "theory of creation".  The Darwinian revolution
started when Charles Darwin published his book "the origin of species" that emphasizes that
humans are the result of evolution.
Freudian Revolution has changed Psychology and Psychiatry with the "Freudian Theory of
Personality". It states that human development contributes to his/her personality. His
"psychoanalysis” is the process for achieving proper functioning if a human does not complete
his/her developmental stage.
Information Revolution has been the era in which technology has been prevalent. It is also
known as the computer age that has brought so much change to how we are living today.
Meso-American Revolution has contributed a lot of ideas or discoveries for archaeology. The
temples and pyramids left a lot about architecture that leads us to study more of it.
Asian Revolution itself taught us about freedom and independent nationhood along the
improvement brought by it internally.
Middle East Revolutions were a product of the development and growth of individual
nationalism, imperialism, for the efforts to westernize and modernize Middle Eastern societies,
and to push the declining power of the Ottoman Empire in the Arab region
African Revolution the fight against colonialism and imperialism in Africa.
WAVE OF TECHNOLOGY
A wave of technology is the common term for describing the wide-scale dispersal of the new
automation, mechanics, or Applied Science. Figure 26 shows the successive waves of
technology through human history.
Technological waves are hard to predict yet often leave an indelible impact on a particular
aspect of culture, industry, and medicine, and a truly profound wave of technology impacts
humans on a global scale. 
Pre-Agriculture Before agriculture, mankind obtained food for survival through hunting for
animals, fishing, or gathering. Hunters and gatherers lived in small groups. Men usually hunt for
food while women collect berries, nuts, and roots. Groups traveled frequently following the
migration of animals, and frequently establish new homes or bases.
The First Wave: Agricultural Revolution
The agricultural revolution started when mankind stopped moving around began building
permanent structures, houses, barns, etc. As a result, tribes, that had been primarily nomadic in
nature, started becoming more and more sedentary.
Instead of following herds’ migration patterns, mankind domesticated animals for their purpose.
Man discovered irrigation techniques, selective breeding, and proved that agriculture is more
productive than hunting.
The new knowledge, techniques, and practices of agriculture provided them with larger and
steadier supplies of food. An increase in agricultural production means wealth to the landlords.
Wealth became synonymous with power, hence the feudal system of the society.
The Second Wave: The Industrial Revolution
The Industrial revolution started when mankind started using machines to do their work. From
hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing, and iron production
processes, the increasing use of steam power and waterpower, the development of machine
tools, and the rise of the mechanized factory system. The Industrial Revolution also led to an
unprecedented rise in the rate of population growth.
The industrial revolution can be divided into three surges. The first surge happened when man
started to mass-produce using machines, then second when men invented the steam engine
whereby hasten the mass-production, improved the mode of transportation of people and farm-
produce, and thirdly when electricity was discovered that dramatically “light up” the world.
The Third Wave: The Age of Information
The Age of Information is also known as the Computer Age because it primarily began when the
computer was invented. It can also be divided into surges. The first surge may be the
development of computers which can store digital information whereby saving time and office
space. The second surge, the invention of transistors changes the way mankind gets
information. The third surge, the development of the Internet where access to information
became quicker and easier. Travel and manufacturing change with the computerization of the
production line.
Telecommunication improved production, and knowledge sharing.