mu PROBLEMS mmm 144 Problems of the Austrian-Polish Mathematics Competition 1978 - 1993 Compiled and with solutions by MARCIN E. KUCZMA University of Warsaw Published by... The Academic Distribution CenterPROBLEMS 144 PROBLEMS of the AUST RIAN-POLISH MATHEMATICS COMPETITION (1978-1993) Compiled and with solutions by MARCIN E. KUCZMA University of Warsaw FOREWORD by WALTER E. MIENTKA University of Nebraska at Lincoln The ACADEMIC DISTRIBUTION CENTER Freeland, MarylandPublished by The Academic Distribution Center 1216 Walker Rd. Freeland, MD 21053 USA Manuscript received November, 1993 and revised May, 1994 Text typeset by Marcin B. Kuczma Diagrams typeset by Rafal Sztencel Solutions Copyright © 1994 by Marcin Emil Kuczma. All rights reserved. No part of the Solutions in this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without the written permission of the Academic Distribution Center, except where permitted by law. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 94-71511 ISBN 0-9640959-0-4 Printed in the United States of AmericaFOREWORD There are many paths to the acquisition of mathematical knowledge and applying it to the achievement of new knowledge. There is no magic wand which will guarantee success to all who have the will, desire and time to reach that goal. ‘There is one indisputable common thread which is woven throughout the development of students of mathematics, and that is the challenge of solv- ing problems. The history of mathematics has recorded the contributions by many great mathematicians who have solved or proposed challenging problems. This has led to results which in many cases were the catalyst to the formation of new branches of Mathematics. One must include the contributions of Archimedes, Descartes, Fermat, Newton, Euler, Gauss and Hilbert, among those recognized for their achievements. In this manuscript, Dr. Marcin E. Kuczma’s solutions to the problems posed at the Austrian-Polish Mathematics Competitions are presented with elegant style and clarity, reflecting the long standing tradition associated with Polish mathematicians. He is identified throughout the world of math- ematics as a research mathematician, creator of intriguing problems and as one who possesses unusual mathematical ability. In fact, he has con- tributed to the problems sections of The American Mathematical Monthly, Crux Mathematicorum, Journal of Recreational Mathematics, Elemente der Mathematik and Delta. Dr. Kuczma has received many honors and awards for his research and teaching, and for his work associated with the Polish and Interna- tional Mathematical Olympiad (IMO). Especially significant is the fact that among the proposed problems he submitted for the IMO, two were selected by the Jury for the competition. A testimony of the significance of his work was recently acknowledged by the World Federation of National Mathematics Competitions which awarded him the prestigious David Hilbert International Award. This award was established “to recognize contributions of mathematicians which have played a significant role in the development of mathematical challenges at the international level and which have been a stimulus for the enrichment of mathematics learning”. It is a privilege for me to have this opportunity to introduce you to Dr. Kuczma and this elegant set of problems and solutions. Walter E. Mientka Executive Director American Mathematics Competitions Professor of Mathematics University of Nebraska at Lincoln U.S.A. iiiACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ‘There are many interesting problems in this book. They have been devised by numerous mathematicians from both countries competing in the APMC. The habit is that the problem proposals are supplied just by Austria or Poland; the actual proposers are anonymous... Let them re- main so. Although, in many cases, I know exactly who the proposer was, there are far more cases where I do not know that, and it would be unfair to give the names in some instances and not to give them in the others. But it must be remembered that those mathematicians are, in fact, the true Authors of this book. My hat is off to them arid my gratitude is most sincere. I have learned a lot by studying those problems and I have had a good deal of true pleasure; it was a fascinating adventure forme. > ‘As pointed out in The APMC section, the solutions presented here have had several sources of inspiration. I am grateful to Professor Andrzej Schinzel (Polish Academy of Sciences) for his kind permission to reproduce his solution to one of the problems. The problems of the early competitions, with solution sketches, had been reported in the yearly Polish Mathemati- cal Olympiad brochures by Dr. Maciej Bryriski, a colleague of mine; I have taken over several of his ideas. ‘The manuscript has been reviewed by Professors Titu Andreescu (Illi- nois Mathematics and Science Academy) and Svetoslav Savchev (the editor of Matematika, Sofia, Bulgaria). Many improvements in the text are owed to their friendly criticism. If the result is not perfect, it is only because I was not always obedient enough in following their suggestions. Professor Walter E. Mientka (University of Nebraska, Lincoln), the vice- President of the World Federation of National Mathematics Competitions, is the man who encouraged me to write this compilation and whose warm words of encouragement assisted me all the time during the preparation of this book; he equipped it with a Foreword, full of words of enthusiasm, undeserved by the author. His wife Gretel and his daughter Rebecca under- took the task of proofreading the manuscript and correcting the language. That this book appears, is due to the efforts of Rebecca A. Whitaker, the Director of the Academic Distribution Center. Her patience in an end- less exchange of fax letters, always optimistic and polite, her readiness to respect the author’s most capricious wishes, and her advice on dozens of editorial details, were to me of value that cannot be over-appreciated To all those persons I am directing my warmest thanks for their help, their efforts, their never-ceasing cordiality! ‘The last word of thanks goes to my wife, Malgosia. The final weeks of my work on getting the book ready for print were, without doubt, not the easiest ones in her life; and yet she was patient, understanding, smiling. ‘Thank you, dear Marcin E. KuczmaCONTENTS FOREWORD ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The APMC - To the Reader PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS iii aviThe APMC To the Reader ‘We are presenting you with a collection of 144 rather challenging problems in high school “olympiad-style” mathematics. The problems come from the Austrian-Polish Mathematics Competition (the APMC). A few words of information about the APMC are in order. ‘The Competition arose from a bilateral agreement on cultural exchange between the Polish and the Austrian Ministers of Education. The event takes place annually in July, or late June, in Austria or in Poland (alter- nately), the host country being Poland in even-numbered years and Austria in odd-numbered years. APMC-1 was organized in 1978 in Poland; accord- ingly, APMC-16 took place in 1993 in Austria. ‘The contestants are high-school students (or those who just left school), not participating in the International Mathematical Olympiad (IMO) the same year. Normally, the top six students at the national math olympiad of each country go to the IMO and the next-to-top six form the APMC team. ‘The Competition consists of two parts, the individual contest and the team contest. The style and format of the Austrian and the Polish Mathe- matical Olympiads (their final rounds) are very similar to those of the IMO; so the APMC individual contest follows the same pattern: a two day exam, 3 problems to be solved in 4} hours (each day). On the third day, the team contest takes place, with 3 problems to be solved in 4 hours. The teams occupy two separate rooms; the students of each team work jointly and organize their work in an unrestricted manner, without being supervised. Problems of the individual contest are numbered 1 through 6, while those of the team contest are numbered 7 through 9. The three days of contests are then followed by a recreational program of sight-seeing and excursions. Also, a football match between the teams is often organized (but the results of those matches are not recorded). On the day preceding the departure of the guest team the Competition is concluded with an award ceremony. The delegation of each country at the APMC is headed by two team leaders. The leaders of both delegations constitute the four-person Jury of the Competition. Their task is to select nine problems (from a pool of proposals supplied by both sides), to elaborate the phrasing, translate the problems into the native languages, to read the papers and coordinate the marking, and eventually, to decide on prizes. A prominent mathematician from the host country is invited to chair the final session of the Jury as Honorary Chairman. 12 ‘The APMC The scoring is independent in the two contests (team and individual). In the individual contest, the top scorers receive prizes. The number of prize winners varies from year to year, depending on the level and the exact distribution of marks; this number has so far reached its extreme values: five and eight. If two (or more) students score an equal number of points, they occupy the corresponding ranking position ex aequo; so there need not be asingle winner. In the team contest, however, one of the teams has to win. Often it is really difficult to compare their achievements. In such cases it is the role of the Honorary Chairman to make the final decision. Sixteen rounds of the APMC have been “played” already. And since sixteen is a nice round number, I made up my mind to write a compilation of all the problems posed so far. Some of them are very nice and some aré. not; some questions are quite simple, and some are true challenges. I have been proposing problems for olympiads, competitions, contests and problem columns of several journals, for a long time. With each year, Iam more and more convinced about two things. First, it is seldom possible to predict whether a problem will turn out to be easy or difficult to the con- testants. The jumps and meanders of the proposer’s thought process of de- vising a problem lead to a totally wrong image of how difficult the problem is likely to appear to a fresh-minded person who sees it for the first time. Also, the proposer’s “professionalism” can be an additional burden in this respect. The Jury of the APMC has made many serious mistakes in estimating the difficulty of particular problems; the students were the ultimate judges. .. The second point I wish to mention is that it is not at all easy to invent something really new. I have experienced that feeling many times: having composed a problem (which seemed nice and interesting), only to discover, later on, that it had already appeared, many years ago, at some other great competition or in the problem section of some journal. Such was the case with at least one of the APMC problems I am “responsible” for. If the Reader finds more than just one example of that kind in this book, I will not be surprised. Since in the APMC there are only two countries (hence two languages) involved, the Jury attempts to formulate the problems in such a way that the Polish version should be the literal translation of the German version, and vice versa. (A similar endeavour at a competition as large as the IMO would be quite hopeless! Even in the case of these two languages, it often happens that the resulting formulation does not sound very good, either in German or in Polish.) In presenting the APMC problems in this book, I did not feel obliged to produce a third “literal” translation into English; deviations from the original wording do occur without, however, affecting the exact mathematical contents of a problem.‘The APMC 3 There are given solutions to all the problems. In many cases they are patterned on the proposers’ solution sketches. Many other ones have been inspired by the contestants’ papers; it is not at all rare at olympiads and contests to find that credit for the trickiest and smartest methods has to be given to the students. The presented solution to Problem 10.2 (the true difficulty of which was apparently underestimated by the Jury) is essentially due to Professor A. Schinzel. In several problems, I owe the ideas to people whose names are given in the Acknowledgements. Other solutions are my own contribution. Some solutions are elaborated in full detail; but in most cases routine details are omitted or just briefly outlined. Needless to say, I would never dare claim to have devised the nicest or shortest solutions available. To the contrary, I am quite sure that in many cases you, dear Reader, will find a much more elegant approach. The pleasure and satisfaction will be yours. (The errors you will come across while reading the printed solutions are all mine, of course.) Every (or almost every) problem is given only one solution. Obviously, in most cases there exists a diversity of methods, of which there is no mention here. Try your forces; choose the method of attack you like best. Occasionally a solution is accompanied by a Remark, in which an al- ternative method or a generalization is mentioned. Sometimes the remark is intended as a “box from the tool-chest”: a brief exposition of a solving method that goes slightly beyond the usual school curriculum. ‘The numbering of problems in this book is done according to the follow- ing rule: problem n.k deciphers as the k-th question at the n-th Competi- tion. And thus e.g. problems 13.7, 13.8, 13.9 come from the team contest of APMC-13 (1990, Poland). To end this somewhat lengthy Introduction, I wish all the Readers joy, fun and pleasure in tackling the problems. And, if sometimes you feel angry with either the problem or the presented solution, or your own solution — well, take it easy, that’s mathematics! Marcin BE. Kuczma Institute of Mathematics University of Warsaw PolandPROBLEMS 3PROBLEMS 1.1. Determine all functions f: Rt —+ R which satisfy f(et+y)=f(e?+y*) forall eye Rt. (R+ denotes the set of all positive real numbers.) 1.2. A parallelogram is inscribed into a regular hexagon so that the centers of symmetry of both figures coincide. Prove that the area of the parallelogram does not exceed 2/3 the area of the hexagon. 1.3. Prove that ‘Vien tan tan < v3 1 < SEE ttn tnt 1.4, Let c # 1 be a positive rational number. Show that it is possible to partition N, the set of positive integers, into two disjoint nonempty subsets A, B so that 2/y # ¢ holds whenever and y lie both in A or both in B. 1.5. There are given 1978 sets, each containing 40 elements. Every two sets have exactly one element in common. Prove that all 1978 sets have a common element. 1.6. We are given a family of discs in the plane, with pairwise disjoint interiors. Each disc is tangent to at least six other discs of the family. Show that the family is infinite. 1.7. Let M be the set of all lattice points in the plane (i.e. points with integer coordinates, in a fixed Cartesian coordinate system). For any point P =(z,y) € M we call the points (x —1,y), (7 +1,y), (2, y—1), (y+) neighbors of P. Let S be a finite subset of M. A one-to-one mapping f of S onto S is called perfect if f(P) is a neighbor of P, for any P € S. Prove that if such a mapping exists, then there exists also a perfect mapping g: S —+ § with the additional property: g(9(P)) = P for P€ S. 1.8. For any positive integer k consider the sequence an = kt Vk Vk (n square-root signs). (a) Show that the sequence converges, for every fixed integer k > 1. (b) Find & such that the limit is an integer. Furthermore, prove that if k is odd then the limit is irrational. 1.9. In a convex polygon P some diagonals have been drawn, without intersections inside P. Show that there exist at least two vertices of P, neither one of them being an endpoint of any one of those diagonals. 78 PROBLEMS 2.1 ~ 2.9 2.1. On sides AB and BC of a square ABCD the respective points E and F have been chosen so that BE = BF. Let BN be the altitude in triangle BCB. Prove that DNF is a right angle. 2.2. Determine all polynomials of the form Pp(a) = nla” + dq_ya"-! + -----aye + (-1)"(n+1)n with integer coefficients, having n real roots 71,...,2n which satisfy the inequalities k < ze 3). Each cell can be occupied by one of the two symbols 0,1. The following operation is admissible. Choose any cell C’ occupied by a 1, change it into a 0 and simultaneously change the symbols z,y in the two cells adjacent to C to their complements 1 — 2, 1 —y. In the initial configuration there is a 1 in one cell and Os elsewhere. For what values of n is it possible to obtain Os in all cells, in a finite number of admissible steps? 4.5. Let P(x) = 24+ az + agx? + asx + a4 be a polynomial with rational coefficients. Show that if P(z) has exactly one real root €, then € is a rational number. 4.6. The sequences of real numbers (tn), (Yn), (zn) are given by 1 1 1 Tat =Ynt—, Ynti=%nt+—, 2nd =ln+— for n>0; tn Ln Yn Zo, yo, Zo are given positive numbers. Prove that (zn), (Yn), (zn) are unbounded sequences. 4.7. Let a > 3 be an odd integer. Prove that for every positive integer n the number a” — 1 has at least n +1 distinct prime divisors.PROBLEMS 4.8 - 5.6 11 4.8. The plane has been partitioned into N regions by three bunches of parallel lines. What is the least number of lines needed in order that N > 1981? 4.9. For a function f:[0,1] —+ [0, 1] define the sequence of its iterates by P=fe), PM@)=F(F(@)) for 2€[0,1], n=1,2,3,.... Given that |f"(z) — f*(y)| < |e — yl for a certain n and all z,y € [0,1], x # y, prove that there is a unique zo € [0,1] such that f(xo) = zo. 5.1. Find all pairs of positive integers n,m with ged ((n +1)" —n, (n+ 1)™#3—n) > 1. 5.2. Let C be a circle with center O and radius 1, and let F be a closed convex region inside C. (This means: if P,@ are points of F then the segment PQ is contained in F; all boundary points of F belong to F; all points of F belong to the open disc limited by C.) Furthermore, assume that from each point of C we can draw two rays tangent to F and making an angle of 60°. Prove that F is the disc centered at O, with radius 1/2. 5.3. Let n > 2 be an integer. Prove the equality Ten(5(0+ =5)) . Teo($(1- #4): = 5.4. For a positive integer z let P(z) denote the product of all digits of (in decimal system). Let 2 be any positive integer. Consider the sequence (tq) defined recursively by tn41 = 2n+ P(2q). Prove or disprove that (tq) is necessarily a bounded sequence. 5.5. Suppose that the closed interval [0,1] has been partitioned into two disjoint subsets A, B: AUB=[0,1], ANB=0. Show that there exists no real number a such that B = A +a, where by definition A+a={y: y=2+a, 2€ A}. 5.6. Let a be a given integer. Find all real-valued functions f(z) defined on integers x > a, satisfying the functional equation S(e +) = f(2)f(u) for all z,y such that c>a,y>a,2+y>a.12 PROBLEMS 5.7 - 6.5 5.7. Find the triple of positive integers (x,y,z), with z least possible, for which there exist positive integers a, b, c, d with the following properties: (i) a aabact ce, g@>a>c; (ti) z=ab=cd; (it) r+ y=atb. 5.8. Let ABCD be the regular tetrahedron with edge length 1 and let P be a point inside ABCD. Show that d(P, AB) +d(P, AC)+4(P, AD)+d(P, BC) +d(P, BD) +d(P,CD) > 3V2, with equality only for P being the centroid of ABCD ; the symbol d(P, AB) denotes the distance from P to line AB. 5.9. Let Sa => a . Find a positive constant C such that = + jae the inequality n 3. Note. The smaller C, the better the solution. 6.1. Nonnegative real numbers a, 6, 2, y satisfy a® +55 <1, 25+y> <1. Show that a223 + b?y3 < 1. 6.2. Find all triples (p,9,n) with p,q prime integers, n > 1 an integer, satisfying P(p +1) +9(9 +1) =n(n+1). 6.3. A bounded planar region of area S is covered by a finite family F of closed discs. Prove that F contains a subfamily consisting of pairwise disjoint discs, of joint area not less than $/9. 6.4. The set N of positive integers has been partitioned into two disjoint sets A, B, their union exhausting all of N. Show that for every n € N there exist distinct integers a,b > n such that the three-element set {a,b,a +b} is contained either in A or in B. 6.5. Let a; < a2 < ag < ay be given positive numbers. Find all real values of parameter c for which the system of equations 2 +29 +2g+24=1 Qy2, + agt +agt3+ayz,=c ajay +032, + a3z5 + a3r4 = c? has a solution (21, 22,73, 24) in nonnegative real numbers.PROBLEMS 6.6 ~ 7.3 13 6.6. There are given six straight lines in the space. In every triple of those lines, two lines are perpendicular. Show that the given lines can be labeled /,...,/s in such a way that 11, lp, ls are pairwise perpendicular, and so are [4, 15,16. 6.7. Let P,, Po, Ps, Ps be four distinct points in the plane. Suppose Ii, Iz, Is, I4, Is, Ig are segments in the same plane, with the following property: every straight line passing through at least one of the points P; meets the union J; UJ2UJ3UJ4U Js UJ in exactly two points (we agree that the endpoints of each J; belong to Ij). Prove or disprove that the segments J necessarily form a hexagon. 6.8. (a) Prove that (2"#! — 1)! is divisible by [[(2"#!~ — 1), for every natural number n. i=0 (b) Define the sequence (¢n) by c1 = 1, cn = ((4n—6)/n) cps for n > 2. Show that each cn is an integer. 6.9. To each side of the regular p-gon of side length 1 there is attached a 1x k rectangle, partitioned into k unit cells; & and p are given positive integers, p and odd prime. Let P be the resulting nonconvex star-like polygonal figure, divided into kp + 1 regions (kp unit cells and the p-gon). Each region has to be colored in one of three colors, adjacent regions having different colors. Furthermore, it is required that the colored figure should not have a symmetry axis. In how many ways can that be done? 7.1, In tetrahedron ABCD, the foot of the altitude dropped from each vertex coincides with the incenter of the opposite face. Show that the tetrahedron is regular. 7.2. Let A be the set of all four-digit natural numbers (in decimal system), written with use of exactly two distinct digits, neither one of them being zero. Interchanging the digits of a number n € A we obtain another number from A, which we denote by f(n). (E.g., f(3111) = 1333.) Determine the number n € A with n > f(n) such that the greatest common divisor of n and f(n) is a maximum. 7.3. Let n > 2 be an integer and let a, 71,...,_ be positive real numbers. Prove that ati-t2—gta—z3 ata— n? ——Ur—t—s—NSOOSsSesSsS and find conditions for equality.14 PROBLEMS 7.4 ~ 7.9 7.4. AyAzAaAqAsAoAr is the regular heptagon and P is a point of its circumcircle, lying on the minor are A7A;. Show that PA, + PA3 + PAs + PAz = PAz + PAg + PAs. . Let n > 3 be an integer and let ay,...,a, be given nonnegative integers, pairwise distinct. Find all (n +1)-tuples of nonnegative integers (21,...,2n,y), with the greatest common divisor of 21,...,2, equal to 1, such that 2, +42t2+---+ Gnt_ = yt 92, +a3tg+---+ G12, = yr2 ant, + ato + tanith = YEn- 7.6. In a folk dance, the dancers are standing in two rows, n boys facing n girls. Each dancer gives her/his left hand to the person opposite or to her/his left neighbor or to the person opposite the left neighbor. The analogous rule applies to right hands. Nobody gives both hands to the same person. Find the number of possible configurations. 7.7. We are given a rectangular array ay An Gmi ++ Oma of real numbers with |a;;| < 1, such that each column sum ay; + +--+ Gms equals 0. Prove that by rearranging the elements in each column one can obtain an array bu bin bmi v6. Benn such that each row sum satisfies |bi +--+ + bin] < 2 7.8. Consider the functions fole) =22, fi(v) = so for z>l1. Prove that for every real numbers a, b with 1 < a < b there exist an integer k>1 and a k-tuple of indices i1,i2,...,i% € {0,1} such that a< fi, (Fy_y(--- (fn ())--)) 8 for which this is possible. (It is understood that “to know” is a symmetric nonreflexive relation: if P; knows P; then P; knows P;; to say that P; knows p persons means: knows p persons other than himself/herself.) b 8.3. In a convex quadrilateral of area_1, the sum of the lengths of all sides and diagonals is not less than 4 + V8. Prove this. 8.4. Find all pairs of real numbers 2, y satisfying the system of equa- tions ri+y?- ay - 32=0, yf +2? — oy — gy =0. 8.5. We are given a certain number of identical sets of weights; each set consists of four different weights expressed by natural numbers (of weight units). Using these weights we are able to weigh out every integer mass up to 1985 (inclusive). How many ways are there to compose such a set of weight sets given that the joint mass of all weights is the least possible? 8.6. Let P be a point inside a tetrahedron ABCD and let Sa, Sp, Sc, Sp be the centroids (i.e. centers of gravity) of the tetrahedra PBCD, PCDA, PDAB, PABC. Show that the volume of tetrahedron S4SpScSp equals 1/64 the volume of ABCD. 8.7. Find an upper bound for the ratio @122 + Weg + gr4 ap+2}+23+23 over all quadruples of real numbers (21,22, 23,4) # (0; 0, 0,0). Note. The smaller bound, the better the solution. 8.8. A convex n-gon ApAi...An-1 has been partitioned into n — 2 triangles by certain diagonals not intersecting inside the n-gon. Prove that these triangles can be labeled Aj, A2,...,An—2 in such a way that Aj is a vertex of Aj, for i= 1,...,n —2. Find the number of all such labelings.16 PROBLEMS 8.9 - 9.9 8.9. We are given a convex polygon. Show that one can find a point Q inside the polygon and three vertices Ai, Az, Ag (not necessarily consecu- tive) such that each ray A;Q (i = 1,2,3) makes acute angles with the two sides emanating from Aj. 9.1. We are given a non-right-angled triangle AyAzAs. Points Oi, Oo, Og are the centers of circles I, I, Is, pairwise tangent (internally or externally), circle [, passing through Az and Ag, circle I passing through Ag, A1, circle I's passing through Ay, Az. Given that the triangles A, A243 and 010203 are similar, determine their angles. 9.2. The monic polynomial P(z) = 2" + a,—12"-! + +--+ aye + a9 of degree n > 1 has n distinct real negative roots. Prove that a, P(1) > 2n?ap. 9.3. Each point in space is colored either blue or red. Show that there exists a square with edge length 1, having exactly 0, 1 or 4 blue vertices. 9.4. Find all triples of positive integers (z, y, 2) such that gtth = ytHt = 9100, 9.5. Find all quadruples of real numbers (2, y, u, v) satisfying the system of equations e+pPtu¢vr=4 cutyo+evut+yu=0 cyutyuv+uve+ury = —-2 zyuv =—1. 9.6. Let M be the set of all tetrahedra whose inscribed sphere and circumscribed sphere are concentric. Denoting the radii of these spheres by r and R respectively, determine the range of possible values of the ratio R/r, over all tetrahedra of class M. 9.7. Let k and n be integers with 0 < k < n?/4. Assume that k has no prime divisor greater than n. Prove that n! is divisible by k. 9.8. Pairwise distinct real numbers are arranged into a rectangular array with m rows and n columns. In each row the entries are arranged increasingly (from left to right). Each column is then rearranged in de- creasing order (from top to bottom). Prove that in the reorganized array, all rows are again arranged increasingly. 9.9. Determine all continuous monotonic functions f: R —+ R which satisfy f(1)=1and f(f(z)) = (f(z)? forall ze R.PROBLEMS 10.1 - 10.7 17 10.1. Three pairwise perpendicular chords of a sphere S are drawn through a given point P inside S. Show that the sum of the squares of their lengths does not depend on their directions. 10.2. Let n be the square of an integer, whose every prime divisor has an even number of digits in its decimal representation. Let P(z) = 2” —1987z. Prove that, for rational numbers z,y, the equality P(z) = P(y) implies gay. 10.3. Let f: R —+ R be a function satisfying f(r +1) = f(z) +1 for z € R and let a € R be a fixed number. Define the sequence (zn) recursively by to = a, Zny1 = f(2n) for n > 0. Suppose there exists a positive integer m such that the difference zm — zo equals k, also an integer. Show that the limit lim(z,,/n) exists; express its value in terms of the given data. 10.4, Does the set {1,2,...,3000} contain a subset A consisting of 2000 numbers such that z € A implies 22 ¢ A? 10.5. The Euclidean three-dimensional space has been partitioned into three nonempty sets Ai, 42, Aa. Show that one of these sets contains, for every positive number d, a pair of points at mutual distance d. 10.6. Let C be the circle with radius 1 and let n > 1 be a fixed integer. For any set A of n points P1,..., Pn on C define D(A) = max(mind(P:,d)) where 6(P, 1) denotes the distance from point P to line | and the maxi- mum is taken over all diameters d of circle C. Let F,, be the family of all n-element subsets A C C and let Dn = min D(A). AEF y Calculate D, and describe all sets A € F, with D(A) = Dn. £ 10.7. For any natural number n= }_a;10' (where a; € {0,1,...,9}, a, # 0) write i=0 . . POM gr) ee Bier ee ac) I = #50 Consider the set P={n: n=n", p(n)/3= s(n) —1} and let Q be the set of all numbers in P with all digits greater than 1. (a) Show that P is infinite. (b) Show that Q is finite. (c) Write down all the elements of Q.18 PROBLEMS 10.8 ~ 11.5 10.8. The circle of length 1 has been dissected into four arcs By, Ba, Bs, Bg, each of length 1/4. A closed non-selfintersecting contour C’ has been composed of (translates of) these arcs (each B; possibly occurring several times). The curve C is smooth; this means that every two adjacent arcs are joined in one of two ways, either to form a semicircle or a wave-like line (a tilde); the arcs have common tangents at junctions and make no cusps. Prove that the length of C is an integer. 10.9. Let M be the set of all points (x,y) in the plane, with integer coordinates satisfying 1 < 2 < 12, 1 < y < 13 (in a fixed orthogonal coordinate system). (a) Prove that every 49-element subset of M contains four vertices of a rectangle with sides parallel to the coordinate axes. (b) Give an example of a 48-clement subset of M without this property. 11.1. Let P(z) be a polynomial with integer coefficients. Show that if Q(z) = P(z) +12 has at least six distinct integer roots, then P(x) has no integer roots. 11.2. Let a1, that the inequality yay, (n > 2) be integers with 1 0 ra = holds for every n-tuple of real numbers (21,...,2n) # (0,...,0) if and only if az > 2. 11.3. Let ABCD be a convex quadrilateral (with all interior angles less that 180°), having no pair of sides parallel. Consider the two angles formed by two pairs of opposite sides, Their (internal) angle bisectors intersect, the four sides of ABCD in points P, Q, R, S, so that PQRS is a convex quadrilateral. Show that ABCD has a circumcircle if and only if PQRS is a rhombus. 11.4. Determine all strictly increasing functions f: R — R satisfying the functional equation f(F(z) +) =F(e+y)+F(0) forall 2,yeR. 11.5. Two infinite sequences of integers, (az) and (bg), are related by be=leag+9, pyr =8-be+8 for k>D0. Suppose that the number 1988 appears either in the sequence (az) or in (bx). Show that the sequence (ay) does not contain a perfect square.PROBLEMS 11.6 ~ 12.4 19 11.6. Given are a point O and three non-coplanar rays hi, ho, hs emanating from O, such that for every triple of points A, € hi, Az € ha, ‘As € ha (A: # O, # = 1,2,8) the triangle A, A2As is acute-angled. Show that hi, ho, hg are pairwise perpendicular 11.7. In a regular octagon each side is colored blue or yellow. From such a coloring a new coloring is obtained in one step (“move”) as follows: if the two neighbors of a side have different colors, the new color of that side will be blue, otherwise it will be yellow (the colors are modified simultaneously). Show that after finitely many moves all sides will be colored yellow. What is the maximum number of moves that may be needed to achieve this state? 11.8. We are given 1988 congruent cubes (of edge length 1). Using some or all of these cubes we form (“glue”) three quadratic boards A, B, C of side lengths a, 6, c with a 1) of squares of positive integers such that for each n the difference a,41— dn is a prime or the square of a prime. Show that all such sequences are finite and determine the longest, one. 12.7. Functions fo, fi, fo... are defined recursively by folz)= 2 for ER, forss(z)=37*™) for ER, k=0,1,2,..., fox(z)= V2 for 2ER, k=1,2,3,.... Determine, with proof, which one of the two numbers fio(1) and fo(2) is greater. 12.8. We are given an acute triangle ABC. For each point P of the interior or boundary of ABC let Pa, Ps, Pz be the feet of the perpendiculars dropped from P to sides BC, CA, AB, respectively. Define _ AP. + BPa+CP, MP) = BPt PP + PP Prove that f(P) is constant as P varies if and only if the triangle ABC is equilateral. 12.9. Determine the smallest odd N such that N? is the sum of an odd number (greater than 1) of squares of successive positive integers. 13.1. Let A, B, Pi, Po, ..., Ps be eight distinct points in the plane, the Pjs all lying on the same side of line AB. Suppose the six triangles ABP, (1 1 consider the system of equations af +422 +1= yf 4+ l42.23+1= yf ait Monti +1= yf. Find all solutions (21,...,2n, Y1s---,Ya) with 2; and y; (for 1 < i < n) being positive integers. 13.5. Let n > 1 be an integer and let 5, be the set of all permutations (one-to-one maps) 7:{1,...,n} —> {1,...,n}. For every permutation 7 € Spy define F(n)= ye nk) and My = a yo Fr) 7ESn (summation ranging over all permutations € Sy). Compute Mn. 18.6. Let P(z) be a polynomial with integer coefficients. Suppose that the integers 21, 22, ..., Zn (n > 3) satisfy the conditions P(z;) = 2:41 for nee ey Show that 21 = 23. 13.7. Given is a set S, of domino pieces {Ojo}, [012], ---, [OlnJ, (22), [212], --. 5 (for each pair a,b with 0 < a < b < n there is exactly one piece [ald], denoted also by the symbol [b|a]). By a chain we mean any sequence of pieces in succession (a1 |a2][a2|a3} .. .[ax—2lax—1][axe-s|ax] (e.g. {015)(5|5]{5|2]{1|2] ). The chain is closed when ay = ay. (a) If n is even, prove that there exists a closed chain composed of all pieces. (b) If n is odd, prove that every closed chain leaves at least (n + 1)/2 pieces unused. (c) Assume n is odd. How many sets A are there, each consisting of exactly (n + 1)/2 pieces, such that all pieces that do not belong to A can be arranged into a closed chain?22 PROBLEMS 13.8 - 14.4 13.8. Let R be a 28 x 48 rectangle. We are concerned with dissections of R into congruent a x b rectangles (a # 6, a,b € N) with sides parallel to the sides of R. For some pairs (a,b) there exist several such dissections, for some (a, 6) just one. (a) Determine the sides a, b of the rectangle with the smallest area for which the dissection of R into a x 6 rectangles is unique. (b) Determine the sides a, 6 of the rectangle with the largest area for which the dissection of R into a x 6 rectangles is not unique. (Dissections which are not identical are considered to be different, also in the case when one of them results from the other one by rotation or symmetry.) 13.9. Let ai,a2,...,a, be integers such that every “partial” sum aj, + a;, +-+--+ aj, is different from zero (1 < i: < ip < +++ < ie 2 such that the equality m n (2) =*(@) holds for some integer n = n(m) > 4. Give the general form of all such m. 14.2. Find all triples of real numbers (2, y, z) satisfying the system of equations (y? — 6y +:13)z (x? — 6x + 13)y= 20 (2? 62+ 13)2 14.3. Given are two distinct points Ay, Az in the plane. Determine all possible positions of a point As with the following property: There exist an integer n > 3.and n points P,, P2, ..., Pa (not necessarily distinct) such that the segments P;P2, P:P3,..., Pn—1Pn, PnP; have equal lengths and their midpoints are A1, Az, As, A1, A2, As, -.., in this order. 14.4. Let P(2) be a real polynomial with P(x) > 0 for 2 € [0,1]. Prove that there exist polynomials P;(z) (i = 0,1,2) with P;(2) > 0 for all real and such that P(x) = Po(x) + eP,(x) + (1 — 2) P2(z).PROBLEMS 14.5 ~ 15.3 23 14.5. Prove the inequality ayer taytys te > 2UJSet Vyt Vz) for every positive numbers z, y, z with eyz = 1. 14.6. Inside a convex quadrilateral ABCD (with all internal angles less than 180°) there is a point P such that the triangles PAB, PBC, PCD, PDA have equal areas. Prove that the area of ABCD is bisected by one of the diagonals. 14.7. For a given integer n > 1 determine the maximum value of the function cterge pamet f(@) = ——Gyaay over z € (0,00) and find all 2 > 0 for which the maximum is attained. 14.8. Consider the system of simultaneous congruences zy=-1 (mod z) 1 (mod z) z= 1 (mody). Find the number of triples (2, y, z) of distinct positive integers satisfying this system and such that one of the numbers z, y, z equals 19 14.9. Let A = {1,2,...,n} with n a positive even integer. Suppose that g: A—> A is a function with g(k)#k and —g(g(k)) =k for KEA. How many functions f: A —> A are there such that S(k) #a(k) and —f(F(F())) = 9k) for KE A? 15.1. Let o(n) denote the sum of all positive divisors of a natural number n > 1. Prove that for every natural number n > 1 the product a(n — 1)o(n)o(n + 1) is even. 15.2. Each point on the boundary of a square has to be colored in one color. Consider all right-angled triangles with three vertices on the boundary of the square. Determine the least number of colors for which there exists a coloring such that no triangle (considered) has all its vertices of equal color. 15.3, Prove the inequality 2Vocteatab< V3 Y(b+ej(et aj(ato) for positive real numbers a, b, ¢.