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Research article ISSN 2277 – 9442

A review on thermocouple for power generation

R K Aggarwal, Sangeet Markanda
Department of Environmental Science , Dr Y S Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry
Nauni (Solan) 173 230 India
doi: 10.6088/ijaser.0020101010

Abstract: The factor that has slowed the emergence of thermoelectric generators as a viable alternative for
the production of electricity is the relatively low energy conversion efficiency, which is only about 5% to 7%
whereas photovoltaic (solar panels) are now in excess of 20%. Unfortunately this low efficiency rating also
had a negative impact on further research and development of thermoelectric generators. However,
comparing TEGs to PV panels by the watt rating is a grossly inaccurate comparison and makes it appear that
TEGs are simply too expensive of an option. In this review article the development and drawbacks of
thermocouple at each stage has revealed that greenhouse gases produced by solar radiation can be used as
heat source in a thermocouple.

Key words: Thermocouple, greenhouse gases, solar radiation.

1. Introduction
Thermoelectric technology has been in wide spread commercial and industrial use for over 50 years
yet the true value of thermoelectric has been seriously underestimated resulting in almost no advancements
in the technology. Although this state of affairs is not all that surprising if you consider that energy costs
have been very low over the same time frame. Cheap energy means there is no incentive to use, improve or
develop alternative methods of using or producing energy. However as we all know circumstances have
changed and the days of cheap and abundant energy are over and the race to invest in the development of
new alternative energy sources and improving energy efficiency of the devices we use is on. A
thermocouple is a device consisting of two different conductors (usually metal alloys) that produce a
voltage proportional to a temperature difference between their ends of the pair of conductors.
In 1821, the German–Estonian physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when any conductor
is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will generate a voltage. This is now known as the thermoelectric effect
or Seebeck effect. Any attempt to measure this voltage necessarily involves connecting another conductor
to the "hot" end. This additional conductor will then also experience the temperature gradient, and develop
a voltage of its own which will oppose the original. Fortunately, the magnitude of the effect depends on the
metal in use. Using a dissimilar metal to complete the circuit creates a circuit in which the two legs
generate different voltages, leaving a small difference in voltage available for measurement. That
difference increases with temperature, and is between 1 and 70 microvolts per degree Celsius (µV/°C) for
standard metal combinations.

1.1 Thermocouple
The conductors are dissimilar in order to gain a net current flow (net current = primary conductor
current – secondary conductor current) when in the presence of a temperature differential. This net
current causes a voltage to be present across the hot side to the cold side connections. The voltage
potential depends on the thermal potential and the conductors used to form the thermocouple and can be
found by
98
*Corresponding author (e-mail: rajeev1792@rediffmail.com)
Received on Jan., 2012; Accepted on Feb. 16, 2012; Published on Feb. 26, 2012
 A review on thermocouple for power generation

V = ∫(SS(T) – SP(T))dT

Where SP and SS are the Seebeck coefficients of the primary and secondary conductors, respectively. If
the coefficients are fairly constant over the temperature range, the equation can be simplified to

V = (SS – SP) (T2 – T1)

Semiconductors, designed for utilizing the Seebeck effect, are usually implemented for power generation
modules [2]. The arrangement of connecting several thermocouples in series such that the alternate
junctions are at two different temperatures amplifies the thermoelectric voltage of a single thermocouple
by the number of thermocouples, N, connected in series

Vthermopile = N Vthermocuple

This arrangement of connecting several thermocouples in series is called Thermopile. The ability of a
thermocouple to generate a voltage when there is a temperature difference across it suggests its use as a
heat engine capable of producing electricity directly. As a heat engine, its efficiency is limited by the
Carnot efficiency, and therefore it must be of the form

where η* depends on the geometry of the device, on the properties of the materials used, generator load.

2. Power Generation
When a temperature gradient is created across the thermoelectric device, a DC voltage develops
across the terminals. When a load is properly connected, electrical current flows. Typical applications for
this technology include providing power for remote telecommunication, navigation, petroleum, and
military installations. A typical thermoelectric module consists of an array of Bismuth Telluride
semiconductor pellets that have been “doped” so that one type of charge carrier—either positive or
negative— carries the majority of current. The pairs of P/N pellets are configured so that they are
connected electrically in series, but thermally in parallel. Metalized ceramic substrates provide the
platform for the pellets and the small conductive tabs that connect them. The pellets, tabs and substrates
thus form a layered configuration.
Module size varies from less than 0.25” by 0.25” to approximately 2.0” by 2.0”. Thermoelectric
modules can function singularly or in groups with either series, parallel, or series/parallel electrical
connections. Table 1 shows prices and other data for the thermoelectric generators manufactured by Hi-z
and Tellurex Corporations. Both models have similar dimensions, masses, and efficiencies. The Hi-z
modules are much more expensive, but they are capable of functioning in high heat environments
continuously at around 250 °C or with peak temperatures around 400 °C. The Tellurex devices are made
to operate in lower temperatures, around 200 °C maximum, but they tend to generate a little more power
than the Hi-z generators at the same temperatures.

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Table 1: Costs and other data on Hi-z and Tellurex thermoelectric modules (Hi-z & Tellurex)[2]

Hi-z Mass (kg) Efficiency(%) Power(W)∆T=30°C Power(W)∆T=100°C Dimensions(l,w,t)

HZ-2 ($59.00) 0.0135 4.5 0.2 0.8 29x29x5 mm
HZ-14 ($124.00) 0.082 4.5 1 4 63x63x5 mm
HZ-9 ($145.00) 0.105 4.5 0.5 2.5 63x63x6.5 mm
HZ-20 ($189.00) 0.115 4.5 1 5 75x75x5 mm
*Power assuming matched load conditions

*Mass assumed to be similar to Hi-z modules

Tellurex Mass (kg) Efficiency(%) Power(W)∆T=30°C Power(W)∆T=100°C Dimensions(l,w,t)
G1-1.0-127-1.27 ($22.95) 0.0135 NA 0.5 1.5 34x31x3.2 mm
G1-1.4-127-1.65 ($24.95) 0.082 NA 0.8 2.3 40x40x3.7 mm
G1-1.4-127-1.14 ($28.95) 0.105 NA 1.1 3.3 44x40x3.2 mm
G1-1.4-219-1.14 ($43.95) 0.115 NA 1.9 5.7 54x54x3.2 mm
*Power for ∆T=30°C assumes a near linear relationship to temperature
*Power assuming matched load conditions

Thermoelectric generators are advantageous in that they are compact, durable, long lasting, versatile,
convert heat flow directly to electrical energy, nonmoving, and silent. Sizes are small and range from about
30x30 mm to about 75x75 mm with thicknesses of only several millimeters. The devices are designed to
work in high heat environments, and they have long life spans similar to most semiconductor devices.
They have a wide variety of applications due to their ability to provide electricity in the presence of a
thermal differential without any moving parts or making any sound. TE coolers have no moving parts and,
therefore, need substantially less maintenance. Life-testing has shown the capability of TE devices to
exceed 100,000 hours of steady state operation.

2.1 Areas of power generation

Up to date power generation from thermocouple has been done through indirect methods, whereas for
the direct methods traditional ways are used from a study source 50 watt TEG operating on a wood stove is
330 watt. More recently the possibility of using thermocouple arrays in automotive applications to recover
waste heat from engine exhaust gases is being investigated. With an exhaust gas temperature of 250°C and
a coolant temperature of 50°C, power outputs of over 300 Watts have been achieved but this drops to 150
Watts when the coolant temperature increases to 90° C[7]. This generator can be operated with fuels such as
kerosene, gasoline, Jet-A, and diesel [8]. All the approaches are discussed above are not eco-friendly.

2.1.1 Disadvantages of Conventional Thermocouple

The conventional thermocouple has a low conversion efficiency, tend to be expensive, and the output
power depends on a temperature difference as well as the load. The efficiency of these devices is low,
usually around 5%, due to limitations of the semiconductor materials. Prices range from about $20 to
$200 dollars for individual modules. Many applications may call for multiple units which makes the cost
an important factor. Heat flow is necessary for the operation of the devices. Without an available

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temperature difference, electricity will not be generated. It is important that the load connected to the
generator nearly matches the resistance of the device for maximum power transfer. Another factor that has
slowed the emergence of thermoelectric generators as a viable alternative for the production of electricity
is the relatively low energy conversion efficiency which is only about 5% to 7%.
Solar photovoltaic (solar panels) are now in excess of 20%. Unfortunately this low efficiency rating
also had a negative impact on further research and development of thermoelectric generators. However,
comparing TEGs to PV panels by the watt rating is a grossly inaccurate comparison and makes it appear
that TEGs are simply too expensive of an option. To be accurate and fair in the comparison one should
look at the kWh produced per day by each of the two technologies. When we compare the costs of solar
and thermoelectric generators based on the amount of electricity they actually produce per day, it is find
that TEGs cost far less per kWh than solar. The PV (photovoltaic) is equivalent to 50 watt TEG. This
means using just 3 of 50 watt TEGs can produce the same amount of electricity in a day as 990 watts of
solar PV panels. If comparing costs, the price range for 990 watts of solar would be $2,500 to $5,000
depending on the particular brand. Whereas the cost for 3 of 50 watt TEGs can range from $750 to about
$1100 depending on the volume purchased.

2.2 Thermocouple based on Solar Radiation

Another heat source of thermocouple is SUN. In solar Thermoelectric Generator upper heating
surface is made of an insulating material such as fired clay, stone, or porcelain. During the day, sunlight
heats the surface and provides energy to charge a small battery pack. At night, a charcoal cooker set on
top of the heating surface provides energy to operate a small appliance such as a radio. In this case, the
generator is capturing energy from the cooker that would normally be dissipated into the floor and wasted .
Thermocouple of 5lb that produce 5 watt of electric energy uses the radioactive isotope polonium-210 as a
heat source. This isotope emit alpha particles readily slow down in a matter giving up their energy as heat.
As polonium-210 is an expensive material to produce, it is hoped later to use cerium-124 a waste product
from nuclear reactor.
Solar Thermoelectric generators have many advantages. It is compact, durable, long lasting, versatile,
convert heat flow directly to electrical energy, nonmoving, and silent. Sizes are small and range from
about 30x30 mm to about 75x75 mm with thicknesses of only several millimeters. The devices are
designed to work in high heat environments, and they have long life spans similar to most semiconductor
devices. They have a wide variety of applications due to their ability to provide electricity in the presence
of a thermal differential without any moving parts or making any sound.

2.3 Energy from sun trapping using GHG

Energy reaches on the surface of earth in the form of radiation containing two parts one is heat energy
and light, the multiple reflections from the different surfaces it also converted into the heat energy. Various
chemical compounds present in Earth’s atmosphere allow direct sunlight (relative short wave energy) to
reach the earth unimpeded. As the shortwave energy heats the surface, longer wave (infrared) energy (heat)
is reradiated to the atmosphere. Green house gaseous absorb this energy, thereby allowing less heat to
escape back to space, and trapping it in the lower atmosphere, this process is known as GREENHOUSE
EFFECT. The mechanism is named after the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a
greenhouse. Same phenomena can be applied with bounding the GHG in a closed container, with one end
covered with transparent glass sheet. That will absorb solar energy and can maintain high temperature for

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long time. That energy can be utilized as hot junction of thermocouple for electricity production.
In Common thinking we assume that GHGs especially CO2 traps the direct sun heat however solar
rays contain very small component of IR , it just stop the reflected IR from the surface of earth back to
space. Alone CO2 is not enough effective for the green house effect. That was observed by the detailed
study of the simple laboratory experiment, where some bottles filled with CO2 and some filled with the
simple atmospheric combination of the gaseous and then placed in front of a electric bulb (we know that it
contain a huge part of the IR as compare to direct sun ray), then following set of reading was observed
Table 2
Table 2: Various runs of experiments

Thermometers run showed the expected enhanced ∆T of the CO2- filled bottle. First run with
thermocouples, though, showed no average difference, but was fraught with co- founding influences.
Temperatures were displayed at the whole number resolution because of the digital readout. Run
3 thermocouples read with a digital display having 0.1◦C resolution and showed the largest effect in bottle

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with no CO2. Thermopiles were read with a bench DMM having 10 µV resolutions
When this experiment is set-up according to the prescription on the NOAA webpage it is quite
possible to get a difference of temperature of 1 ◦C between or among thermometers even if none of them
contain any CO2. Properly randomized experiment will likely results in no discernible difference among
thermometer readings irrespective of CO2 in bottle or not. The issue is one of not enough magnitude of
effect to resolve on typical lab thermometers. An instrument as sensitive as a Moll-type thermopile can
detect a small difference in radiation passing through bottles filled with CO2 as compared to an identical
bottle not filled. The amount of IR power re- directed by a two-litre, CO2-filled bottle appears to be about
100µW/m2]. In 1970, NASA launched the IRIS satellite that measured infrared spectra between 400 cm-1
to 1600 cm-1. In 1996, the Japanese Space Agency launched the IMG satellite which recorded similar
observations. Harries 2001 compared both sets of data to discern any changes in outgoing radiation over
the 26 year period. The resultant change in outgoing radiation was as follows:

Figure 2: Change in spectrum from 1970 to 1996 due to trace gases. 'Brightness temperature' indicates
equivalent blackbody temperature (Harries 2001).

What they found was a drop in outgoing radiation at the wavelength bands that greenhouse gases such
as CO2 and methane (CH4) absorb energy. The change in outgoing radiation over CO2 bands was consistent
with theoretical expectations. Thus the paper found "direct experimental evidence for a significant increase
in the Earth's greenhouse effect]. It also show that only CO2 is not responsible for Earth’s greenhouse effect,
graph shows the greater contribution of methane

3. State of Development
Thermoelectric modules are widely available products offered by a variety of manufacturers. Hi-z
Technology, Tellurex Corporation, D.T.S., and WATRONIX Inc. are a few of the companies that produce
thermoelectric generators, and they continue to research and develop this technology. The applications
include waste heat energy recovery, and power generation for remote installations and portable electronics.
The main focus for research is to put it into a combined approach so that above discussed problems can be
resolved together on a single stage. Hence ultimately using solar energy a power production method can be
proposed on the basis of the eco-friendly approach. Which will at least provide a better side back up for the
need of daily life energy requirement along with other methods (like solar energy) it open a new field for
the power production and development

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3.1 Field for research

As per in the above passage we discussed that solar energy is a better option for the thermocouple.
Some difficulties are discussed here which provide a collective approach to open a way for new research
area is discussed here.
- In full sunny day we observe that after the continues heating of the surface of earth cause the
warm up of the bottom air and that further cause fall of the temperature and that will cause a long
in the way of power production
- During evening time (even in morning time also) sun rays came horizontally to the surface on that
direct solar heat intake will not be sufficient to produce electricity from the thermocouple. Here
we have to amplification approach that can maintain a better heat inlet for the hot junction of
thermocouple
- To keep the value of temperature of hot junction to certain minimum value so that a better output
can be taken from the thermocouple in the form of electricity. If we consider the simple day
approach in open temperature lies from 40-60 degree centigrade maximum, however for at least
0.5-1.0 W output we have to keep the temperature of the hot junction near about 100 degree
centigrade
- To keep the temperature of heat sinks in the thermocouple as low as possible, some collective
approaches and solutions are proposed but all on compromise basis with the output power cut-off.
With any heat sink, proper air movement will dramatically enhance the performance. Thus, if we
can provide active ventilation to our cold-side sink, we should be able to improve our ∆T. The big
question is whether the improvement in performance will be more than enough to offset the power
demands of the fan. Sometimes it will be feasible, sometimes not [10]. These all problems can be
removed by considering a collective approach of some of the phenomena in preview of research is
discussed here.
4. Conclusion
It is recommended that the thermoelectric generation modules be implemented in the design of a
micro electric energy generator utilizing thermal energy from sun. To maintain a high value of the hot
junction of thermocouple, greenhouse effect applied to it that is considered the main part of the
research. For maintaining the long run high temperature, greenhouse gas can be filled in the green
house built up as a heat source.

5. References
1 Thermocouple and its information, 2012. available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermocouple,
accessed during January, 2012.
2 Micro electricity and thermal Energy Generation and its related information, 2012. available at
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/20679383/Micro-Electric-Generation-from-Thermal-Energy,
accessed during January, 2012.
3 Stephen A. Dyer, 2001. Survey of instrumentation and measurement, Willy IEEE, pp. 138
4 Aldo Vieira Da Rosa (2009), Fundamentals of renewable energy processes, Academic Press,
pp.162
5 Introduction to Thermo Electrics and their usage, available at http://www.tellurex.com/pdf/
introduction-to-thermoelectrics.pdf, accessed during January, 2012.
6 Thermo Electric Generators and their different product range, available at
http://www.tegpower.com/products.html, , accessed during January, 2012.
7 Thermo Electricity, available at http://www.mpoweruk.com/thermoelectricity.htm, accessed during
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January, 2012.
8 5 kw thermoelectric generator for real?,International Thermo Electric Society, (2012), available at
http://www.its.org/node/1119, accessed during January, 2012.
9 Solar Thermo Electric Generator , Conceptual design, construction and Implementation, Craig
Hyatt, 2012. available at https://sites.google.com/site/edwardcraighyatt/thermoelectricgenerator,
accessed during December 2012.
10 Thermo Electric Power generation, How the technology works, Tellurex, 2012. available at
http://www.tellurex.com/technology/seebeck-faq.php, accessed during January 2012.
11 Jana P.K and Saha I, 2011. Correlation of greenhouse molecules with global and surface
temperature and its effect on environment, Indian Journal of Physics, 85(5), 667.

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