The War of Independence

Introduction
The revolt of 1857 was an important land mark in the history of the sub-continent. It marked the
beginning of the country’s struggle for independence after a century of foreign domination. The
country witnessed a popular upsurge of deep-seated and widespread discontent against the alien
rulers. The revolt of the Sepoys accompanied by the civil population was so ferment that the very
foundation of the British rule in Indo-Pakistan was shaken. It appeared for some time that the
Company’s Raj had disappeared from the land.
Causes of the Revolt
It will be discussed under different heads—political, economic, religious, social and military.
1. Political
 British policy of expansion and annexation
The territorial power of the Company had been growing very fast and the Indian
States began to feel weigh of it. By 1818, practically all the Indian States had
either been annexed or had entered into treaty with the Company on humiliating
conditions.
 Doctrine of lapse

The doctrine of lapse was an annexation policy applied by the British East India
Company in India until 1859. According to the doctrine, any Indian princely state
would have its princely status abolished (and therefore be annexed into British
India) if the ruler was either “manifestly incompetent or died without a male
heir”. Lord Dalhousie annexed states after states often in disregard of Indian
feelings.


Exclusion of the Indians from high posts
As time went on, the Company also became cautious and cruel in dealing with the
Indians. The administrative reforms of Cornwallis, introduced at the close of the
18th century, meant the virtual exclusion of Indians, specially the Muslims from
high posts. The English believed that the Muslims were sorely aggrieved at the
loss of their empire and so they were not put in any important post of the state.
2. Economic
 Agrarian policy of the company
The land-holding classes became much aggrieved at the agrarian policy of the
Company. Many landowners were deprived of their lands as they failed to
establish their proprietary rights by documentary proof.
 Land-lords & peasants aggrieved as a result of the new system
The grievances of the land-holding classes were further aggravated by the
working of the sale law and excessive taxation which ruined the land-lord and
peasant alike. Unlike in the old systems land was inalienable but now it could be
sold in default of payment of rent. In the auctions the states of lenders, whose
power was growing under the new system but who were total strangers to the
 rural population. As a result of this agrarian revolution, village communities were
broken up. When the revolt broke out, the rural population naturally swelled the
ranks of rebels.
3. Religious and Social
 Change of British policy in the sphere of religion
In the 18th century the British showed a friendly attitude towards Indian society
and religions. In the 19th century this attitude underwent a radical change and the
British began to interfere with the social and religious usages of the people.
 Missionary activity marked everywhere
In the 19th century missionary activity increased and missionaries were to be seen
everywhere in bazars, hospitals, schools and even prisons. The teaching of the
Bible was introduced in some government schools and orphans and victims of
calamities were often converted to Christianity. The missionaries received support
and patronage from government officials, and the people naturally believed that
the government was in league with them to eradicate their caste and covert them
to Christianity.
 Introduction of western education, railway, telegraph, etc
The introduction of the railway and telegraph and the English system of education
also roused deep suspicion in the minds of the Indians.
 Difference of salary between the Indian Sepoy & British soldiers
The sepoys of the Bengal army fought with unflinching devotion in the most
difficult circumstances and won many wars for the Company. In spite of this, they
did not get a fair deal. Their salaries were very low in comparison with those of
the British soldiers and chances of their promotion negligible. Their bitterness
against the Company was intensified by the arrogant attitude of the European
officers.
4. Military
 Military reforms outraged the religious feelings of the Sepoys
The loyalty of the sepoys was further undermined by certain military reforms
which outraged their religious feelings. They had an aversion to overseas service,
as travel across the seas meant loss of caste or them. Their feelings had previously
been respected in this matter. But in the year 1856, an order was passed by Lord
Canning that all new recruits for the Bengal Army should be obliged to swear,
like Madras sepoys, to serve wherever required. The sepoys constructed this order
as another attack on their caste and religion.
 The greased catridge was the immediate cause
Loading the Enfield often required tearing open the greased cartridge with one’s
teeth, and many sepoys believed that cartridges were greased cartridge with one’s
teeth, and many sepoys believed that the cartridges were greased with cow and
pig fat.
Spread of the revolt and its suppression
On the 29th March, 1857 the revolt started first at Barrackpore in Bengal and it soon spread to the
north. At the Meerut the rebellion took a serious turn. Some of the British officers were killed.
Delhi was captured by rebels. Delhi, Lucknow, Kanpur, and Jhansi were the main centers of the
rebellion. Punjab, Hyderabad, Gowalior, Nepal and other places did not on the War of
Independence.
The rebellion spread very and and its suppression proved to be a difficult problem. The British
took steps to suppress the rebellion. Delhi was recovered by Sir Joh Shore. Bahadur Shah was
taken prisoner and was transported to Rangoon where he died. The two sons of the last Mughal
Emperor were shot dead. At Lucknow the British General, Sir Colin Campbell rought the
situation under control with much difficulty. On the recovery of Kanpur the British soldiers
massacred many people there. Nana Saheb was the leader of rebels at Kanpur. He was driven
into the jungle off Nepal and nothing was known about him afterwards.
Tatya Topi and the Rani of Jhansi carried on a desperate fight against eh British in Central India.
Tatya Topi was hanged on charges of rebellion and murder. The Rani of Jhansi fell fighting after
a heroic defence. In this war the British forces suppressed the rebellion and restored order in the
country.
Causes of the failure of the movement
1. Absence of unity and purpose among the rebels
The rebels had no common object. With a few honorable exceptions like Ahmadullah and
Tatya Topi, most off the leaders took part in the struggle for personal interest.
2. Superior war equipment of the English
The English had better armed troops. They utilized various scientific improvements while
the rebels fought out of sheer religious fanaticism.
3. Lack of popular support
The Gurkhas and the Sikhs proved to be disloyal to the cause of national independence
by helping the British at that period
4. Conciliatory policy of Lord Canning
Lord Canning adopted a conciliatory policy towards the mutineers. He did much to allay
the feelings of the rebels and his policy contributed to the success of the British.
5. Want of capable leaders
Most of the leaders of the movement showed indecision and shortsightedness. On the
other hand, the British cause was served by a galaxy of outstanding generals who fought
with devotion and loyalty to the Queen.
Nature of the Revolt
Most of the historians have described it as a ‘mutiny’. According to their opinions, it was never
all-Indian in character and was localized and poorly organized. Most of the Indian princes did
not support it. But historians like J.B. Norton, Dr. Sen and others entertain a different view
According to them, the revolt started as a military rising, but soon it turned into a national
movement. Everywhere in the world it is seen that a great cause was initiated by a small section
of the people. The French Revolution was started by a small section of the people of Paris. In this
connection the remark of Dr. S.N. Sen may be quoted, “in no country, in no age, did any political
or religious movement enlist the support of the entire people.” So long as substantial majority
sympathizes with the main object of a movement it can claim a national status and the Mutiny of
1857 can be called the War of Independence.