NAME: Hafiz Naveed Shahzad ROLLNO: cb661612

PROGRAM: Bed (1.5year) COURSE CODE: 8601

ASSIGNMENT NO: 1
Question No. 1
Give answer to the following short questions.
(1) Define teaching in more effective terms.
Answer.
"Teachers like leaves everywhere abound; effective teachers, like fruits are rarely found."

The concept of “Effective Teaching” is considered as a range of factors that collectively work
together and result in effective learning. Most of the people agree that the basic purpose of
teaching is to enable learning. An elaboration to this concept is required to fulfill the needs of
today’s youth in a knowledge-driven society where information rapidly increases at great scale.
Therefore the concept of teaching should move beyond the lower order skills of acquisition and
reproduction of knowledge and facts.

There are various aspects of effective teaching, such as;

i. Effectively managing a classroom,
ii. Starting each class with a clear objective,
iii. Engaging students with questioning strategies,
iv. Consolidating the lesson at the end of a period, and
v. Diagnosing common student errors and correcting them that can be systematically
measured by observing classrooms and by asking students.

(ii) What is conducive learning environment?

Answer.

Conducive Classroom Environment

A conducive learning environment is a platform devoid of both physical intimidation and
emotional frustration, which allows for a free exchange of ideas. ... The classroom should be safe
to both the teacher and the learners.
The key proponents of the learning process are teachers and learners, as such their freedom of
interaction, safety and respect should be equally guaranteed within the physical and emotive
environment they find themselves in.

The Teacher Quality Standards outlines two areas that must be followed in order to be conducive
to students learning:

1) Teachers establish learning environments wherein students feel physically, psychologically,

socially, and culturally secure.

2) Teachers work independently and cooperatively, to make their classrooms and schools
stimulating learning environments. They maintain acceptable levels of student conduct, and use
discipline strategies that result in a positive environment conducive to student learning.

(iii) Write down the five merits of lesson Planning.

Answer.

Merits of lesson Planning

1. Inspiration

A thorough lesson plan inspired the teacher to improve the lesson plan further. You can make it
better for the purpose of achieving the lessonplan in a better way.

2. Evaluation

A lesson plan helps the teacher to evaluate his teaching and to compare it with set objectives.
This evaluation will help you in achieving the set targets in a better way.

3. Self-confidence

These lesson plans develops self-confidence in the teacher and make them to work towards
definite goal.

4. Previous Knowledge of the Students

A teacher can take a proper care by considering the level and previous knowledge of the students
in your class.

5. Organized Matter

A teacher will be able to finish a particular lesson in a limited time frame. This will help him or
her to make the students learn a better and precise manner.
(iv) Differentiate between inductive and deductive reasoning.

Answer.
The process of thinking about something, in a rational manner, so as to draw valid conclusions,
is known as Reasoning. It is a daily activity that we use to make decisions, which involves the
construction of thoughts and converting them into a proposition to give reasons on why we have
opted for a particular alternative over the other.

Reasoning (logic) can take two forms – inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning. Following is
a list for comparison between inductive and deductive reasoning:

• Deductive reasoning uses available facts, information, or knowledge to deduce a valid

conclusion, whereas inductive reasoning involves making a generalization from specific
facts, and observations.
• Deductive reasoning uses a top-down approach, whereas inductive reasoning uses a
bottom-up approach.
• Deductive reasoning moves from generalized statement to a valid conclusion, whereas
Inductive reasoning moves from specific observation to a generalization.
• Deductive arguments can be valid or invalid, which means if premises are true, the
conclusion must be true, whereas inductive argument can be strong or weak, which
means conclusion may be false even if premises are true.

(v) Enlist the limitations of activity method.

Answer.
1) The activity based instruction method requires long-term planning with minute details of the
whole process because before engaging the learners, the teacher has to make sure that all
students have sufficient knowledge and skills regarding the task they are going to perform. So
this method cannot be used on a regular and daily basis as it involves a lengthy procedure.

2) The objectives of the method can only be fulfilled if the planning of the lesson is flawless. If
there is slightest flaw in the planning, this method would do more harm than good.

3) Learners have varied levels of merit and understanding. So less meritorious students might not
prepare for a task as other which might lead to failure of objectives of the whole process.

4) Many renowned educationists also are of the opinion that the activity based method is more
suitable for branches of experimental sciences and less useful for subjects of social sciences.

Question No. 2

What is lesson planning? Describe the classical models of lesson planning.

Answer.

Lesson planning
A lesson plan is a teacher’s guide for facilitating a lesson. It typically includes the goal (what
students need to learn), how the goal will be achieved (the method of delivery and procedure)
and a way to measure how well the goal was reached (usually via homework assignments or
testing). This plan is a teacher’s objectives for what students should accomplish and how they
will learn the material.

A lesson plan refers to a teacher’s plan for a particular lesson. Here, a teacher must plan what
they want to teach students, why a topic is being covered and decide how to deliver a lecture.
Learning objectives, learning activities and assessments are all included in a lesson plan.

Model a Lesson Plan

There are three main elements to a lesson plan that most of the teachers use. There is variation
among these components. All of these may not be used in every class, because some plans may
spread out over two or more classes. The elements are as following:

i) Introduction

The introduction 1s a way to warm up students, to ease them into the class and to give them a
context for what they are about to learn. Any of the following will be helpful to take a good start:

• Provide an outline of what will be done in the class. Giving a structure helps the students
to organize their thoughts and integrate new ideas.
• Summarize the previous lesson if the ideas are similar to this class. Recall of previous
knowledge helps the students to relate new ideas too.
• Present an issue related to the topic and ask students to generate a list of questions.
Connecting the lesson with these questions will give a picture of students’ experiences;
they are familiar with and are able to relates the topic to their lives. This shows that what
you are teaching is relevant and draws their attention.

ii) Development

Development is an important part as it describes about teaching, or “instructional methods” such

as, lectures, discussions, labs, collaborative learning, etc.

• Try to engage students as much as possible in the learning process.Active learning are
one of the ways to engage students. It not only retains students’ attention but also helps
them to develop higher-level thinking skills.
• Attempt to use a variety of teaching methods. in a class. Any single method may not
work for all students. A variety of methods keeps their attention and enhances learning.
 • Give students the chance to apply the taught skills by using the concepts. This will help
them learn and give a chance to the teacher to assess informally. This assessment will
provide clarification of learning and need for further practice.

iii) Conclusion

Planning of how to tie it all together for the students is also important. Tell them once again what
they would learn and why it is important to them. Consider the following activities in conclusion:

iv) Ask for questions:

The last few minutes of class are an excellent time to have students raise questions and explore
the ideas on their own.

v) Summarize the main points and explain

Summarize the main points and explain how they relate to the course: Students do not always see
how everything fits together. The teacher makes the link between the activities of one class to the
larger course. In this way a teacher best helps the students develop a conceptual understanding.

vi) Next lesson:

Again, this shows relevance to the lessons linked to one another and helps students develop a
conceptual understanding.

vii) Recapitalize or one-minute writing about the taught lesson:

With one or two minutes remaining in class, ask students to take out a sheet of paper and,
without putting their name on it, write what they believe was the main idea of the class and one
question they have about the lesson content.

Question No. 3

Define and clarify the concept of motivation. Describe difference between

intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Answer.

Motivation
Motivation can be defined as a planned managerial process, which stimulates people to work to
the best of their capabilities, by providing them with motives, which are based on their
unfulfilled needs.
The word motivation is derived from a Latin word ‘movers’ which means to move. Thus;
motivation is an external force which accelerates a response or behavior. Motivation is a cause of
an organism’s behavior, or the reason that an organism carries out some activity. In a human
being, motivation involves both conscious and unconscious drives. Psychological theories must
account for a “primary level of motivation to satisfy basic needs, such as those for food, oxygen,
and water, and for a “secondary” level of motivation to fulfill social needs such as
companionship and achievement. The primary needs must be satisfied before an organism can
attend to secondary drives.

Motivation is the driving force which help causes us to achieve goals. Motivation is said to be
intrinsic or extrinsic.

The term is generally used for humans but, theoretically, it can also be used to describe the
causes for animal behavior as well.According to various theories, motivation may be rooted in a
basic need to minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs
such as eating and resting, or a desired object, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed
to less-apparent reasons such as altruism, selfishness, morality, or avoiding mortality.

❖ Motivation concepts

➢ Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the

task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on any external pressure. Intrinsic
motivation has been studied by social and educational psychologists since the early 1970s.
Research has found that it is usually associated with high educational achievement and
enjoyment by students. Explanations of intrinsic motivation have been given in the context of
Fritz Heider's attribution theory, Bandura's work on self-efficacy, and Deci and Ryan's cognitive
evaluation theory (see self-determination theory). Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated
if they:

• Attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e.g. the amount
of effort they put in),
• Believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are not
determined by luck),are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to
achieve good grades.

Advantages: Intrinsic motivation can be long-lasting and self-sustaining. Efforts to build this
kind of motivation are also typically efforts at promoting student learning. Such efforts often
focus on the subject rather than rewards or punishments.
Disadvantages: Efforts at fostering intrinsic motivation can be slow to affect behavior and can
require special and lengthy preparation. Students are individuals, so a variety of approaches may
be needed to motivate different students. It is often helpful to know what interests one's students
in order to connect these interests with the subject matter. This requires getting to know one's
students. Also, it helps if the instructor is interested in the subject.

Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations
are rewards like money and grades, coercion and threat of punishment. Competition is in general
extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic
rewards of the activity. A crowd cheering on the individual and trophies are also extrinsic
incentives.

Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to overjustification
and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect,
children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing
pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations than
children who were assigned to an unexpected reward condition and to children who received no
extrinsic reward.

Self-determination theory proposes that extrinsic motivation can be internalised by the individual
if the task fits with their values and beliefs and therefore helps to fulfill their basic psychological
needs.

Advantages: Allows individuals to become easily motivated and work towards a goal.

Disadvantages: Motivation will only last as long as the external rewards are satisfying.

Question No. 4

Define the term inquiry approach. What is meant by inductive reasoning?

Answer.

Inquiry approach
“Inquiry-based learning is an umbrella term, encompassing a range of teaching approaches
which involve stimulating learning with a question or issue and thereby engaging learners in
constructing new knowledge and understandings.

Inquiry-based learning is learning and teaching approach that emphasizes students’ questions,
ideas and observations. Instructors actively encourage students to share their thoughts and to
respectfully challenge, test and redefine ideas. With inquiry-based learning, instructors and
students share responsibility for learning.

Inquiry-based learning refers to a transformation of the traditional classroom. Students are

encouraged to take part in group work to learn from their peers and participate in forms of
guided learning, which is delivered by an instructor. This form of learning enhances
comprehension rather than memorizing facts and taking notes, students are now encouraged to
discuss ideas among their peers. This form of learning also allows students to take ownership of
their learning and increases their engagement with the content.

In any class students come from different backgrounds and contexts, they have different
capabilities and different styles of learning. This situation demands different teaching techniques,
strategies and methodologies, which teacher adjusts according to the situation and requirement.
There are variety of techniques and methods which teachers use under the umbrella term inquiry
approach. Inquiry is an approach that roots inthe Socrates logical thinking. Teachers often use
logic to foster the thinking of their students. During this process the teachers impose questions to
their students after judging the level and ability. If the student answers the question correctly the
question of higher order is asked.

On the other hand if he/she could not the follow up questions are imposed to create the link
between the known and the unknown. There is variety of techniques but many teachers prefer
inductive method according to Prince and Felder (2006) in inductive teaching learning process
the instruction begins with specifics for example. a set of observations or experimental data to
interpret, a case study to analyze, or a complex real-world problem to solve. As the students
attempt to analyze the data or scenario or solve the problem, they generate a need for facts, rules,
procedures, and guiding principles, at which point they are either presented with the needed
information or helped to discover it for themselves.

The inductive reasoning method moves from specific to general.

These examples will help us to understand the concept of inductive reasoning. Consider this
“Previous car accidents of this sort werecaused by brakes failure, and therefore, this accident was
also caused by brakes failure.” Similarly while doing exercises of mathematics children use
induction method “as previous question was solved by adding the numbers, therefore, this
question may also be solved by same method”, and most of the time it comes true. Some
important aspects of the inductive teaching method are given as below.

1. It gives new knowledge as student are supposed to involve in the process of knowledge
construction.

2. It is a method of discovery, where students discover the fact bytheir own involvement.
3. It is a method of teaching; teachers used this by starting from theknown facts and using
different inquiry techniques to discover the hidden ones.

4. Child acquires firsthand knowledge and information by actual observation.

5. It is a slow process, as all the steps are interlinked and the students cannot move forward
without the mastery of the previous one.

6. It trains the mind and gives self confidence and initiative to the students after being exposed to
inductive method the students has more positive attitude towards taking initiatives in their
studies.

7. It is full of activity, many activities lead towards the generation of new knowledge.

8. It is an upward process of thought and leads to principles, the students understand the
philosophy behind that principle.

Question No. 5

What is problem solving approach? Specify the role of teacher in problem

solving learning.

Answer.

Problem solving approach

Basically, Problem Based Learning (PBL) is a comprehensive approach where students are kept
in a challenging situation, whereby they are put to some simple and unstructured problem, and
they are required to find the solution of that problem by working in groups(normally of 5 each).
The role of teacher is minimized as a guide and facilitator only. It is both a curriculum and a
process which increases students’ acquisition of critical knowledge, problem solving proficiency,
self directed learning strategies and team participation skill (Rattanavich, 2008). Due to its nature
this approach is addressed by many educators under the heading of inquiry methods.

The history of this concept goes back to 1950s and 1960, when it was originated in Canada in
response to dissatisfaction with common practices in medical education there (Barrows, 1996 as
cited in Gijbels, Dochy, Segers, & Bossche, 2005). It was conceived andadapted at Canada’s
medical schools in 1970s for teaching subjects in Medicine and Natural Science (Rhem, 1998;
Ross & Hurlbert, 2004).The case study teaching technique was adopted at Hamilton, Ontario,
McMaster University Medical School in Canada. The experiment was a great success and other
medical schools in USA and in many other countries also followed this example. They were
encouraged and inspired to take this technique to apply by modifying their syllabuses that should
include real problems faced by the patients (Herreid,2003). Gijbels et al (2005) present a brief
list of disciplines where PBL has been applied by various researchers as; it has been applied
tothe study of architecture, business administration, economics, engineering studies, geology,
law, nursing, social work, psychology and other domains of post-secondary education.

But the concept has intellectual roots back in far history, like question-and-answer dialectical
approach associated with Socrates as well as the Hegelian thesis-antithesis -synthesis dialectic.
Janet, and Chery! (2002) mention Plato (360 B.C.E./1960) that Socrates guided his students
through inquiry to answer their own questions, search out answers to problems, and relate their
knowledge to life applications. He also applied apprenticeship training method where the
students worked as apprentices under the guidance of experts through hands-on problem solving
in which knowledge and skills were taught and practiced as needed. PBL 1s also similar to John
Dewey’s concept of learning by doing or discovery based of learning with the difference that he
talked about ‘engagement’ on abstract level whereas in problem based learning the details can be
carried out easily because of advances in cognitive science and in technology.

Role of Teachers in Problem solving learning

The role of the teacher in a PBL classroom is as a coach or guide. ... Since learning to solve
problems is one of the main goals of PBL, students will need to be guided during the searching
and solving process. By asking questions along with the students, a teacher can serve as a model
problem solver.

The success of any PBL program depends on teacher’s role and its effectiveness. It requires
changes in the way teachers plan instruction direct learning, transmit knowledge, oversee
instruction, and assess student achievements (Gordon et al., 2001).

The teachers facilitate the development of projects and act. as expert consultants. They ensure
that projects create a need for seeking disciplinary knowledge and skill. The disciplines are
taught as a response to a need created by ill-structured problems.

Successful implementation is not easy. It calls for a major change that must occur in the teacher's
perspective. Teachers will need self-knowledge, commitment, determination, teamwork skills,
and considerable understanding of the learning process to make PBL successful. The lack of
training programs, curriculum materials, and rigid scheduling in the high school environment can
create hurdles in successful implementation of PBL.

Using effective problem solving techniques will help children avoid conflict with others in a
school setting and in their everyday lives. It will also strengthen children's beginning empathy
skills and help them learn more positive attributions about another person's intentions.