Electric Power Systems Research 156 (2018) 24–34

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Electric Power Systems Research

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Fault identification based on artificial immunological systems

Dabit Sonoda a,b , A.C. Zambroni de Souza a,∗ , Paulo Márcio da Silveira a
a
Federal University of Itajubá, CP 50, Itajubá, MG 37500-903, Brazil
b
Parque Tecnológico Itaipu—Brasil, Av. Tancredo Neves 6731, Foz do Iguaçu, PR 85867-900, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The growing tendency in the number of distributed generation units, directly connected at the distribu-
Received 20 August 2017 tion level, inevitably brings a number of new challenges. One of the effects is that this new topology may
Received in revised form 18 October 2017 influence the performance of analysis methods and techniques that were based on traditional systems.
Accepted 18 November 2017
Fault location methods in distribution systems are examples of how inserting of new generation sources
Available online 25 November 2017
can change the efficiency of these tools. Considering that fault location is a fundamental step to help
distribution companies to maintain reliability indices within acceptable margins, this work presents a
Keywords:
method applicable to both traditional systems and systems with the presence of distributed generators.
Fault identification
Artificial immunological system
In order to achieve this goal, a methodology was developed based on artificial immunological systems
Distribution systems technique, which is generally used to complex problems-solving. The methodology evaluated consider-
ing several scenarios in the test system and presented a satisfactory performance, being able to estimate
characteristics such as location, fault type and fault resistance in an efficient way.
© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In the traditional model of the electrical system, the power flows
radially, being transmitted unidirectionally from large generation
plants to final consumers. Therefore, the insertion of distributed
generators in the system, connected at the distribution level,
imposed a new paradigm in the generation-load relationship. The
change in the levels and direction of the currents caused by these
new sources brings new challenges to the engineers, mainly related
to the distribution system [1,2]. Besides, systems and equipment
designed based on traditional philosophy, as well as control and
analysis techniques can also be drastically affected by the insertion
of these generators [3].
An example of the influence that distributed generation can
cause is related to fault location and classification techniques in
distribution systems. These methodologies, which were devel-
oped considering the traditional unidirectional current model, may
have their efficiency reduced when non-conventional sources are
inserted directly into the distribution system [4,5].
Power distribution networks are generally formed by overhead
feeders, i.e., non-insulated cables, installed on posts, alongside
streets, avenues, vegetation and residencies. According to this
topology, the number of events that result in faults in the system is
greater than in transmission systems [6]. When these faults occur,
the protection system acts to eliminate them, seeking to interrupt
the smallest part of the network, switching off the feeder or, where
possible, only a part of it. After that, the maintenance teams of the
distribution companies move out to locate and repair the fault, and
only after this procedure, the reestablishment of the energy supply
can be restored.
Due to the predominantly radial characteristic of the distri-
bution systems, a permanent single-phase fault may result in a
supply interruption of a large number of consumers after the actu-
ation of protection system. Considering that the interruption time
is directly proportional to fault location, the insertion of genera-
tion units directly at the distribution level could indirectly affect
the indices of availability of the distribution companies, This may
result in additional costs (penalties by the regulatory agency).
In this context, this work proposes a methodology for the
location and classification of faults in distribution systems. Such
a methodology renders satisfactory results considering different
conditions of the distribution system and scenarios in which dis-
tributed generation is present.
2. Fault location in distribution systems
2.1. Fault location methodologies in distribution systems

∗ Corresponding author. Due to the large size of the distribution systems, the use of tech-
E-mail addresses: dabit.gs@hotmail.com (D. Sonoda), zambroni@unifei.edu.br, niques for estimating the fault location before the maintenance
zambroni@pq.cnpq.br (A.C.Z. de Souza), pmsilveira@unifei.edu.br (P.M. da Silveira). teams perform is essential to minimize the interruption time. When

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2017.11.012
0378-7796/© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 D. Sonoda et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 156 (2018) 24–34
the fault location is previously known, the unavailability of the sys-
tem will only depend on the team’s agility to reestablish the system,
eliminating the need to check the feeder searching the fault [7,8].
Currently, several techniques are used to estimate the fault loca-
tion and can be classified into five major categories: (i) fundamental
frequency (impedance); (ii) high frequency (traveling waves); (iii)
artificial intelligence (neural networks, hybrid systems, etc.); (iv)
direct analysis; and (v) superimposed component [9]. Because of
the simplicity and applicability, the most frequently used is the
fundamental frequency, based on the calculation of the positive
sequence impedance, from the current and voltage signals, nor-
mally collected at the output bay of the feeder at the distribution
substation.
However, it is important to note that the accuracy of such
methods is directly influenced by three main factors: unbalanced
conditions, fault resistance and the existence of multiple gener-
ation sources in the network. When such methods are applied to
systems with one or more of these characteristics, they may become
inefficient or even disabled, according to the level that it presents
[10].
2.2. Fault location methods for systems with distributed
generation
With the increase of the penetration of distributed generation,
the distribution system increases in complexity, having as effect the
influence in the techniques and methodologies of control, opera-
tion and protection, used in traditional systems. Thus, several works
have been conducted in the themes like protection, control and
planning, aiming to overcome the new challenges coming from
distributed generation [11].
Methods based on fundamental frequency, considering the exis-
tence of feeder sources connected to the feeder were proposed in
Refs. [12,13]. However, such techniques are applicable only when
the generation unit is located at the end of the feeder, making then
quite restrictive.
The use of Perceptron neural networks (MPL) is proposed by
Ref. [14] for fault location in distributed generation systems. Due
to the need of network modification, the method may not be fea-
sible in several situations where reconfiguration of the protections
is not possible. Also, related to artificial intelligence methods, Ref.
[15] proposes a technique applicable to systems with a high pen-
etration of distributed generators. The disadvantage, in this case,
is the dependence of the network training for the execution of the
method, whenever the system topology changes.
The work of Ref. [4] shows how the methods based on analysis
of the voltage profile in the system are seriously affected by the
presence of distributed generation, with the error of then being
related to the level of penetration of these generators.
Following this line of research, this work intends to present a
tool able to locate and classify faults in distribution systems, con-
sidering the presence (but not limited to) of distributed generation.
The final solution is easily applicable in such a way that it requires
a reduced number of system information or additional equipment,
making its use feasible in a large number of real scenarios.
3. Immunological systems
3.1. Natural immunological systems
All living organisms have some form of defense against exter-
nal attacks. The emergence of vertebrates from the evolutionary
process also led to the development of the immunological system
of this subphylum, composed by a variety of molecules, cells and
organs spread throughout the body. In this case, there is no central
body that controls the functioning of this defense system.
25
The main task of the immune system is to examine the body
for defective cells (e.g. cancer and tumor cells) and diseases caused
by external agents (e.g. viruses and bacteria). The defense system
must be able to distinguish these two types of elements (antigens),
by a process called distinction, which basically consists on a form of
pattern recognition [16]. The responsible for the effective combat
of the antigens are called immune cells (defense cells). However,
since there is no presence of immunological cells to all types of anti-
gens, the response characteristics of the system are conditioned
to a selection process, which basically consists in mechanisms of
cloning, maturation and affinity analysis of defense cells, where,
after a number of generations, making the response of the immune
system satisfactory [17]. Through this mechanism, defense cells
begin to become specialized, improving the efficiency of the body’s
defenses.
3.2. Artificial immunological systems
Artificial Immunological Systems (AIS) can be defined as a meta-
morphic or abstract computational system, developed based on
ideas, theories and components extracted from natural immuno-
logical systems. They can be used to obtain solutions of complex
computational or engineering problems, such as pattern recog-
nition, elimination methods and optimization [18]. The use of
AIS-based computational techniques can be found in several works,
such as data mining applications, computer security, optimization,
automation, bioinformatics, word processing, pattern recognition,
clustering and classification problems [19].
A supervisory algorithm, based on AIS is presented by Ref. [20],
showing a tool used for image sensing, in order to classify satellite
images automatically. The result found in this work was better than
the traditional classification methods.
In Ref. [21], it uses an algorithm to solve the short-term
hydrothermal dispatch problem. Even with the nonlinear features
found in this problem, the technique was able to efficiently find a
global solution with a low computational cost.
From a Clonal Selection algorithm, the work developed by Ref.
[22] presents a new approach for the estimation of harmonic com-
ponents in electrical systems. The method was computationally
tested and compared to traditional techniques, based on discrete
Fourier transform, resulting in considerable gains and proving to be
quite robust, since the low error in the process remained constant
for a wide range of conditions.
Although the number of works based on artificial immunolog-
ical systems is considerable, in this research, wasn’t found any
reference of this computational technique in distribution systems,
specifically to be applied in locating and classifying faults consid-
ering the connection of distributed generators.
4. Fault location and classification method based on
artificial immunological systems
4.1. General view
The method proposed in this work consists in the use of artificial
immunological systems to locate and classify faults in distribution
systems, considering the presence of distributed generation units.
The input and output variables are presented in Fig. 1.
In this case, the input variables are the voltage module of the
three phases at the substation and at the connection points of the
distributed generators. Considering the trend of using telemetry in
the distributed generation units, it is reasonable to consider the
availability of this real time information to the control center of the
distribution company.
After processing this information, the algorithm presents as out-
put the information containing the estimate location where the
26 D. Sonoda et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 156 (2018) 24–34
Fig. 1. Inputs and outputs of proposed fault location and classification method.
fault occurred, as well as the classification of the probable type
and its resistance value. A detailed description of the method is
presented below.
4.2. Method description
Fig. 2 shows a flowchart indicating all steps that are performed
in the method. The description of each one is presented in the
sequence.
1) Fault occurrence: in this first stage, the distribution system
is monitored to verify the occurrence of faults and, if it occurs,
the voltages of the three phases at the substation output bay and
connection points of distributed generators are stored;
2) Voltage variation: the actual voltage variations of the sys-
tem are calculated in the points described in the previous step,
comparing the values before and during the fault for each phase;
3) Definition of the initial antibodies: it consists in the choice
of the three initial vectors (determined in a heuristic way), that
characterize the first antibodies, presenting the following format:
 
Antibody1 = bus1 type 1 resistance 1
 
Antibody2 = bus 2 type 2 resistance 2
 
Antibody3 = bus3 type 3 resistance 3
4) Group of best antibodies: the group of best antibodies rep-
resent the three antibodies with the best performance among all
evaluated. Initially, the best antibodies are the initial antibodies
themselves, since the initial population is composed only by three
individuals. This group can be updated after the execution of the
selection stage, where the best three are evaluated in a population
of 18 individuals;
5) Cloning: In this step, five copies of each of the three best anti-
bodies are made. At the end of this step, we have a population of
18 individuals (15 clones + 3 original antibodies);
6) Mutation: each of the previously created clones undergoes
a mutation process which consists in modifying, for each of the
clone antibodies, a single characteristic. Genetic variation is thereby
introduced, while maintaining binding with the original antibody,
since the other two characteristics of the mutated antibody are
maintained. The choice of which characteristic to change and the
value of the new characteristic are random processes;
7) Selection: evaluation of the entire population of antibodies
(18 individuals). The selection process consists in the determina-
tion, for each individual, of the error between the voltage variation
observed in the real system and the voltage variation obtained
through the simulation. The simulation, as a part of the algorithm
implemented, is executed through the Matlab program and consists
of solving a three-phase power flow. Each simulation is a function of
the characteristics of each antibody (n-bus, t-type, r-resist), i.e. fault
in bus n, of type t, with resistance r. The error function is calculated
Table 1
Example fault characteristics.
Line Distance Fault type Fault resistance
828–830 50% from 828 bus A-g 5
as follows:
 3
 
k k
Error = max VSUB,real − VSUB,sim ,
k=1


3
  
3
 
k k k k
VGD1,real − VGD1,sim , VGDn,real − VGDn,sim
k=1 k=1
where k represents the voltage magnitude of the three phases. At
the end of this step, the three individuals with the best performance
(lowest error) will update the group of antibodies that are more
capable, and can replace the previous ones;
8) Number of generations: parameter that represents when the
algorithm stops. We chose to use a maximum number of genera-
tions to determine the convergence of the method. At the end of
the 12th generation, there are, as a result, the three best antibodies
of all process;
9) Final antibody group: the final antibody group consists of
three elements with the best results, regarding to the cloning,
mutation and selection process to which they were submitted. Of
these three antibodies, the first and most evolved (with least error),
will always indicate the bus (or node) that is closest to the fault
location, as well as the classification of the type and fault resistance;
10) Line determination: from the bus determined in step 9, fault
simulations are performed on all lines leaving that point (node),
considering the same electrical distance. Based on the observed
errors between the actual and simulated voltage variations, it is
possible to determine the line where the fault occurred;
11) Distance determination: the line determined in step 10 is
divided into segments with equal distances, where the faults are
then simulated, also generating their respective errors. In this case,
a minimum error value will be used as the stop criterion, from
which the algorithm ends. The accuracy will be greater, the greater
the discretization of the line;
12) End: the whole process ends, presenting as final information
the estimate of (% of the line) where the fault occurred, the type of
fault and also its resistance.
4.3. Application example
As a way to better describe the operation of the proposed
method, an example will be presented, showing a step by step
procedure. The example is presented in two parts. The first one
is related to the application of an arbitrary fault, used to obtain the
input variables. The second is the application of the method itself.
4.3.1. The fault
Consider a fault applied in a line of the IEEE34-bus distribution
system, according to characteristics indicated in Table 1.
The Fig. 3 helps to illustrate the point of fault in the distribution
system. In this case, two distributed generators are already present.
However, the steps for the original system case is identical to what
will be presented.
In this situation, the fault causes a variation of the voltages
throughout the system. It is considered that the meters present in
the substation bus (800 bus) and the generator connection nodes
(854 and 840 buses) provide, in a synchronized way, the values of
the voltages in the three phases. The values of pre and during the
fault, of said voltages, as shown in Table 2.
 D. Sonoda et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 156 (2018) 24–34 27

Fig. 2. Flowchart with execution steps of proposed method.

Fig. 3. Example fault location.

Thus, Va, Vb and Vc are the input variables of the algo- From the identification of a fault in the system, and with the
rithm. input variables available, the AIS algorithm starts.
2) Voltage variation:
4.3.2. The application of the method
1) Fault occurrence:
28 D. Sonoda et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 156 (2018) 24–34

Table 2
Voltages in measurement points.

Pre fault voltages During fault voltages Variation

Va Vb Vc Va Vb Vc Va Vb Vc

SUB 1,052 1,046 1,037 0,324 0,949 0,934 0,728 0,096 0,103
GD1 1,035 1,009 1,015 0,033 0,942 0,928 1,002 0,067 0.086
GD2 0,986 0,975 0,972 0,033 0,912 0,883 0,953 0,063 0,089

Vectors of the voltage variations observed in the three phases at Table 3

First generation antibodies population.
each of the measurement points:
  Best antibodies Clones Mutated clones
VSUB = 0, 728 0, 096 0, 103
[6 9 5] [6 9 5] [6 9 10]
  [6 9 5] [8 9 5]
VGD1 = 1, 002 0, 067 0.086 [6 9 5] [6 2 5]
[6 9 5] [6 9 15]
  [6 9 5] [6 3 5]
VGD2 = 0, 953 0, 063 0, 089
[18 2 10] [18 2 10] [18 2 5]
[18 2 10] [5 2 10]
3) Definition of the initial antibodies:
[18 2 10] [30 2 10]
The algorithm randomly generates the initial group of three [18 2 10] [18 7 10]
antibodies: [18 2 10] [18 4 10]
 
Antibody1 = bus1 type 1 resist 1 = [6 9 5] [9 8 15] [9 8 15] [9 5 15]
[9 8 15] [7 8 15]
  [9 8 15] [15 8 15]
Antibody2 = bus 2 type 2 resist 2 = [ 18 2 10 ] [9 8 15] [31 8 15]
[9 8 15] [9 8 10]
 
Antibody3 = bus3 type 3 resist 3 = [9 8 15 ]
mechanism is responsible for enabling the evolution of individuals,
The first element of each vector corresponds to one bus (node) on
based on the variation of their characteristics.
the IEEE34 bus system. For example, the number 6 is related to bus
The Table 3 presents the entire population of the current gener-
812 in the original notation. The second element is the fault type.
ation, comprising the best antibodies and the clones submitted to
The number 9 in the fault element is related to B-C fault. Finally, the
the mutation process.
third element is the fault resistance and represents the resistance
7) Selection:
value directly. These three characteristics define the antibody.
With the entire population of the first generation already com-
4) Group of best antibodies:
plete, the algorithm begins the evaluation of each antibody. The
The function of this step is to characterize the 3 individuals with
methodology, in this step, consists of executing the simulation of
best performance within the entire generation population, which
the distribution system with the configurations of each element. For
are evaluated in the Selection process (step 7). As in the beginning
example, loading the antibody information [8 9 5] means that the
of the algorithm, the population is only 3 individuals, the group of
simulation will be performed with a fault on bar 8 (850 by IEEE34
the best individuals is precisely the 3 antibodies generated in step3.
format), type 9 (BC-g) and resistance of 5 . The variation caused
  by the simulated fault is compared to the variation caused by the
[6 9 5] real fault (in practice, this variation would be acquired in the real
Group of the best antibodies = [18 2 10] system) and an error value will be assigned to this antibody. In the
[9 8 15] present example of the antibody [8 9 5], the error is:
When the population is full, the Selection process will evaluate Antibody Error[ = [2, 0751] (pu)
the 3 best performing antibodies and the group will be updated. 8 9 5 ]

5) Cloning:
Applying the same procedure to the entire antibody population
In this step, the three best antibodies are used to perform the
results in the error values in Table 4.
cloning process. For each original antibody, five identical copies will
Comparing the errors related to each of the antibodies, we can
be generated. At the end of this stage, the population will have the
finally select the 3 individuals with the best performance, resulting
size of 18 individuals (the 3 initial antibodies added to the 15 new
in a new group of best antibodies. In this way, updating the best
clones). In this example, five copies will be generated from each of
antibodies group:
the following antibodies:
     
Antibody1 = 6 9 5 →5× 6 9 5 [9 5 15]
Group of the best antibodies = [31 8 15]
    [18 4 10]
Antibody2 = 18 2 10 → 5 × 18 2 10
8) Number of generations:
    Steps 3 through 6 correspond to one generation in the devel-
Antibody3 = 9 8 15 →5× 9 8 15
oped method. At the end of step 6, the generation is increased and
6) Mutation: the whole process (3–6) is performed again. The algorithm was
Now, all the clone antibodies are submitted to the Mutation pro- implemented to run up to the number of 12 generations.
cess, which consists in the alteration of one of its characteristics. 9) Final antibodies group:
Both the choice of the characteristic to be modified and its value are At the end of the 12th generation, we have as a result the group
made in a random way. As in Natural Immunological Systems, this of final antibodies, which represent the 3 elements with the best
 D. Sonoda et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 156 (2018) 24–34 29

Table 4 Table 5
First generation antibodies associated error. Error along the faulted line.

Description Antibody Associated error (pu) Distance from bus 828 (% of the line) Error (pu)

Best antibodies [6 9 5] 2,0095 10 0,01171

[18 2 10] 1,6377 20 0,00873
[9 8 15] 1,0618 30 0,00582
40 0,00297
Muted clones [6 9 10] 1,9829
[8 9 5] 2,0751
[6 2 5] 1,7292
Table 6
[6 9 15] 1,9617
Final result of the proposed example.
[6 3 5] 1,6069
[18 2 5] 1,6544 Characteristics Result
[5 2 10] 1,7427
[30 2 10] 1,5894 Line in fault 828–830 (15–16)
[18 7 10] 1,0518 Distance 40% from bus 828
[18 4 10] 0,9384 Type A-g
[9 5 15] 0,8150 Resistance 5
[7 8 15] 1,0658
[15 8 15] 1,0241
[31 8 15] 0,8811 It is known that one end of the line is the bus 15 (828). It is also
[9 8 10] 1,1063
known from the data of the distribution system that two lines are
connected to this bar: 824–828 and 828–830, as shown in Fig. 5.
performance. In the proposed example, such a group of antibodies In this case, two more fault simulations will be performed at two
and their respective error values correspond to: points slightly apart from the bus 828, one in the direction of the
⎧ ⎫ bus 824 and another in the direction of the bus 830. The distance
⎨  15 1 5  ⎬ of application of the new two fault uses as a parameter, 50% of the
Final antibodies group = 16 1 5 impedance of the smaller of the lines under analysis, ensuring that
⎩ ⎭
the two faults will be applied at the same electrical distance from
13 1 5
bus 828. The two simulations result in the following error values:
 
[0, 0159pu] Error 50%824−828 = 0, 01537 [pu]
Final antibodies group error = [0, 0167pu]
[0, 0171pu]
Error 50%828−830 = 0, 01406 [pu]
From this group of three best antibodies the first two best antibod-
ies [15 1 5] and [16 1 5] were selected and their evolutionary path As expected, the information presents a minor error for the fault
analyzed. The result is shown in Fig. 4. applied in the direction of line 828–830.
From the analysis of the antibody that presents the smallest 11) Distance determination
error (final generation), among the three final (Antibody 1, Fig. 4), Finally, as the last step, the location of the fault in the line will be
it can be concluded that: determined. To do this, the last fault simulations will be executed,
in the direction of the bus 828 for the bus 830, discretized in 10%.
• First characteristic: 15 (bar 828). The fault is in a line where one The stop criterion used is an error limit, stipulated in 0.003 pu. The
of its ends is the bar 828; results are presented in Table 5.
• Second characteristic: 1 (fault A-g). The fault type is a single- As can be seen, the last analyzed point (40%) presents an error
phase to ground, phase A; below the specified tolerance and, thus, the algorithm can be ter-
• Third characteristic: 5. The fault resistance has a value equal to minated. Remembering that in the proposed example, the fault
5 . occurred at 50% of the line and in this case, the method does not
indicate exactly the fault point. However, accuracy can be increased
As show, the best antibody (with the lowest error of the final conveniently if necessary. An increase in accuracy may be necessary
group) always provided conclusive information of the type and the in cases of systems with large lines, such as rural feeders.
resistance of fault, also indicating one end of the line that is in fault. Thus, the final result of the applied method is presented in
Note that the second-best antibody (Antibody 2) has the same Table 6.
fault information (1 and 5 ), and indicates bus 16 (bus 830) as the
other end of the line in fault. In this case, we would already have 5. Results
the information of the line where the fault occurred (line 15–16, or
828–830). 5.1. Simulation model and test system characteristics
However, in some situations the second-best (or third-best)
antibody may not display information about other end of the line As a way to evaluate the efficiency of the proposed methodology
in fault. This happens, for example, when the three final antibodies of fault location and classification, considering distributed genera-
indicate the same bus, differing only by the other two parameters tion, the IEEE34 distribution system has been employed. From the
(type and resistance). In this case, it is necessary to perform a func- original topology, two generation units were added, connecting at
tion to indicate, from the extremity informed by the best antibody buses 854 and 840, as shown in Fig. 6.
in the final group, in which direction the other end of the line is. The two generators added to the system are identical and their
This procedure is described in the next step. characteristics are presented in Table 7. Such machines can be
10) Line determination: driven by, as primary sources, a biomass or diesel combustion
Continuing in the example, consider the best antibody in the engines, gas microturbines, water, etc.
final group, being represented by: For the connection of these units, two identical connection
  transformers were used, with the characteristics presented in
Final group best antibody = 15 1 5 Table 8.
30 D. Sonoda et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 156 (2018) 24–34

Fig. 4. Evolutionary path of the two best antibodies of the final group.

Fig. 5. Lines connected to the bus 828.

Fig. 6. IEEE34 system with distributed generators inserted.

 D. Sonoda et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 156 (2018) 24–34 31

Table 7 Table 12
Distributed generation units characteristics connected to IEEE34 system. Faults set 2 simulation parameters.

Type Synchronous machine Line in fault Fault type Fault distance (%) Fault resistance ()

Power 250 kVA 1 830–854 ABC 50 5

Voltage 480 V 2 830–854 A-T 50 10
Frequency 60 Hz 3 830–854 BC 25 15
Number of poles 2 4 830–854 AB-T 5 10
Reactances Xd = 3,23 Xd  = 0,21 Xd  = 0,15 5 830–854 ABC-T 95 5
(pu) Xq = 2,79 Xq  = 0,37 Xl = 0,09
Time constants (s) Tdo  = 1,7 Tdo  = 0,008 Tqo  = 0,004
Inertial constant (s) 1
Stator resistance (pu) 0,017 tem. It is known that fault localization methods may be influenced
by the location where the fault occurred, depending on the topol-
ogy of the distribution system (systems with several laterals, single
Table 8
Transformers used to connect the distributed generators.
or bi-phase loads, etc.). Thus, it is sought at this point, to analyze
the potential of generalization of the method, considering these
Location Power (kVA) Primary (kV) Secondary (kV) R (%) X (%) factors.
DG1-854 300 24,9 – Yg 0,480 – Yg 2,5 3,01
DG2-840 300 24,9 – Yg 0,480 – Yg 2,5 3,01
5.2.1. Robustness assessment
Fig. 7 indicates the points in the system where the set of faults
Table 9 was applied in order to evaluate the response of the proposed
Load-generation characteristics of two used topologies.
method.
IEEE34 (kW) IEEE34 + GD (kW) For each of the presented three sets, faults with different
Substation feeder 2043 1533 characteristics (distance, type and resistance) were applied. The
DG 854 0 250 generators are dashed, since the method was applied with the
DG 840 0 250 system in the original configuration and with the inclusion of dis-
Y Loads 921 921
tributed generators. The results are presented below. The distance
 Loads 848 848
Loss 273 263 is related to the % of the line.
For set 1, five fault conditions were simulated, all referring to
line 812–814, with the characteristics described in Table 10.
Table 10
Based on the voltage variations observed in the above fault sim-
Faults set 1 simulation parameters.
ulations, the metodology was applied. The results are presented in
Line in fault Fault type Fault distance (%) Fault resistance () Table 11.
1 812–814 C-T 50 10 The results of the set 1 presented a satisfactory performance,
2 812–814 AB 95 15 being able to estimate the location and classify the fault for both
3 812–814 ABC-T 75 5 the original system and the system with the presence of distributed
4 812–814 AC-T 5 15
generation. Note that, in this case, the presence of distributed gen-
5 812–814 ABC 25 5
erators in the system has no influence on the method.
The parameters of the simulation of set 2 are presented in
A comparison of the load-generation characteristics of the two Table 12 Similarly to the previous case, Table 13 presents the results
topologies (with and without distributed generation) is presented of the application of the proposed method to set 2.
in Table 9. In this work, a total of 24,6% of penetration of distributed Again, the results show the effectiveness of the tool in locating
generation was considered. and classifying faults, applied to the IEEE34 bus system. It is also
verified that, for the cases analyzed in this set, the two best anti-
5.2. Proposed method application results bodies fit in the final group were able to indicate in a direct way
the line where the fault occurred.
The presentation of the results was organized in two parts. The Table 14 presents the parameters used in set 3.
first one is to evaluate the robustness of the method in relation to its The application of the method resulted in the values indicated
efficiency in the two topologies, i.e., with or without the presence of in Table 15.
distributed generators. In this case a set of different faults applied By the analysis of the results, it is noted that the method was
to three points of the system was evaluated. able to determine the information about the location, type and
In the second part, the behavior of the method was evaluated fault resistance assertively. As a last note, it was observed that,
considering the occurrence of fault at various locations in the sys- even with the presence of the power flow inversion (case with dis-

Table 11
Results of the method applied to faults set 1.

Potential lines Final line Fault distance (%) Type Resistance ()

Without DG 1 812–814, 816–818 812–814 40 C-T 10

2 812–814 812–814 90 AB 15
3 812–814, 814–850 812–814 70 ABC-T 5
4 812–814 812–814 10 AC-T 15
5 808–812, 812–814 812–814 20 ABC 5

With DG 1 812–814, 850–816 812–814 40 C-T 10

2 812–814 812–814 90 AB 15
3 812–814, 814–850 812–814 70 ABC-T 5
4 812–814 812–814 10 AC-T 15
5 808–812, 812–814 812–814 20 ABC 5
32 D. Sonoda et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 156 (2018) 24–34

Fig. 7. Set of faults location used to evaluate the robustness of the method.

Table 13
Results of the method applied to faults set 2.

Potential lines Final line Fault distance (%) Type Resistance ()

Without DG 1 830–854 830–854 40 ABC 5

2 830–854 830–854 40 A-T 10
3 830–854 830–854 20 BC 15
4 830–854 830–854 10 AB-T 10
5 830–854 830–854 90 ABC-T 5

With DG 1 830–854 830–854 40 ABC 5

2 830–854 830–854 40 A-T 10
3 830–854 830–854 20 BC 15
4 830–854 830–854 10 AB-T 10
5 830–854 830–854 90 ABC-T 5

Table 14 Table 16
Faults set 3 simulation parameters. Generality evaluation simulation parameters.

Line in fault Fault type Fault distance (%) Fault resistance () Line in fault Fault type Fault distance (%) Fault resistance ()

1 860–836 ABC-T 50 5 1 806–808 C-T 25 5

2 860–836 A-T 5 10 2 820–822 A-T 50 10
3 860–836 BC 95 15 3 824–828 BC 95 15
4 860–836 AC-T 75 5 4 844–846 AC-T 75 5
5 860–836 ABC 25 10 5 862–838 B-T 25 10
6 832–858 ABC 50 15
7 834–860 AB 5 5
8 854–852 BC-T 75 10
tributed generation) it does not hear influence on the precision of
the proposed method.
performed in the distribution system and the results were analyzed.
5.2.2. Generality evaluation Table 16 shows the characteristics of all 8 fault conditions used.
As a way of evaluating the influence of the fault location on the Applying the method to the presented cases, the results that
response of the proposed methodology, 8 fault simulations were were obtained are detailed in Table 17.

Table 15
Results of the method applied to faults set 3.

Potential lines Final line Fault distance (%) Type Resistance ()

Without DG 1 860–836, 836–840, 836–862 860–836 40 ABC-T 5

2 860–836 860–836 10 A-T 10
3 860–836 860–836 90 BC 15
4 860–836 860–836 70 AC-T 5
5 860–836, 834–860 860–836 20 ABC 10

With DG 1 860–836, 836–840, 836–862 860–836 40 ABC-T 5

2 860–836 860–836 10 A-T 10
3 860–836, 836–862, 836–840 860–836 90 BC 15
4 860–836, 836–862, 836–840 860–836 70 AC-T 5
5 860–836 860–836 20 ABC 10
 D. Sonoda et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 156 (2018) 24–34 33

Table 17
Results to evaluate the method generality.

Potential lines Final line Fault distance (%) Type Resistance ()

Without DG 1 806–808, 802–806 806–808 20 C-T 5

2 820–822 820–822 40 A-T 10
3 824–828, 828–830 824–828 90 BC 15
4 844–846 844–846 70 AC-T 5
5 836–862, 862–838 862–838 20 B-T 10
6 832–858 832–858 40 ABC 15
7 858–834, 834–842, 834–860 834–860 10 AB 5
8 854–852 854–852 70 BC-T 10

With DG 1 806–808, 802–806 806–808 20 C-T 5

2 820–822 820–822 40 A-T 10
3 824–828 824–828 90 BC 15
4 844–846 844–846 70 AC-T 5
5 836–862, 862–838 862–838 20 B-T 10
6 832–858 832–858 40 ABC 15
7 858–834, 834–842, 834–860 834–860 10 AB 5
8 854–852 854–852 70 BC-T 10

Considering the results obtained, it is possible to infer that the
method is relatively immune to the system conditions, consider-
ing the topology used in the present work. It can be seen from the
various fault location that the methodology was able to determine
with relative degree of precision the estimate of where the fault
occurred. In addition, it is important to highlight that in all cases
analyzed, the fault type and resistance was always correct.
Finally, it is interesting to note that the results and conclusions
presented here refer to the IEEE34 system, and an evaluation of the
performance of the proposed method in other systems would be
relevant. However, considering the characteristics of the method
based on artificial immunological systems, it is possible to infer
that, in larger systems, the evolution of the antibodies is not drasti-
cally affected. This expected result is mainly due to the high number
of individuals that are mutated and evaluated in each generation
(18 individuals), allowing a wide possibility of scanning in search
of the region and characteristics of fault. Regarding the number of
variables to be determined, considering that the mutation occurs
in only one of the characteristics of the antibody, it is expected
that, in larger systems, it is necessary to increase the number of
generations, to guarantee the effectiveness of the method.
6. Conclusions
As a way to present solutions to the new challenges found in
distribution systems, the present work proposed a methodology to
locate and classify faults in distribution systems. We sought a tool
capable of presenting satisfactory performance, applicable in both
conventional and system with distributed generation, a character-
istic that is increasingly common.
In order to fulfill the objectives, the tool was based on the
computational concept of Artificial Immunological System. This
approach, which allows the solution of complex problems, was
used in the present work to determine the fault location, in addi-
tion to extracting information about the type and its resistance. The
method has been developed in such a way that a small number of
input variables are required, making their implementation in real
systems possible with a low investment cost.
The distribution system adopted was IEEE34, which is wide-
ranging because it has several characteristics that exist in real
systems, such as unbalanced network, existence of single and
biphasic lines and loads, presence of regulators and transform-
ers, etc. We worked with the original system and also distributed
generation units were inserted into the model.
The methodology was applied to cases contemplating a broad
spectrum of conditions. Thus, the response of the proposed
methodology was analyzed for several fault locations in the system,
in addition to 11 resistance types and different values. In general,
the method proved to be robust, since its performance was sat-
isfactory both when applied to the conventional system and the
system with the presence of distributed generation. Finally, the
simplicity of the method stands out because it uses as input vari-
ables only the voltages in a few points of the distribution system. In
comparison to other existing techniques, the methodology devel-
oped here presents as benefits: (i) the need for a smaller number
of input variables (three-phase voltages only); (ii) it is applicable
to distribution systems with complex characteristics (with three-
phase, two-phase and single-phase feeders and loads) and; (iii) is
robust because it maintains the accuracy of the results considering
both topology with distributed generation and topology without
distributed generation.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank CAPES, CNPQ, FAPEMIG and
INERGE for the financial support.
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