IB Math: Application and Interpretation SL - Internal Assessment

Topic: Mobile phone price VS. battery capacity

Introduction:
Figure 1 LG wing smartphone
In the March of 1876, Alexander Graham Bell found a way to
transmit speech electronically. In 1880 he improved his
innovation, and as a result, Photophone was introduced, which is
essentially the first wireless call in history, and in 1915 he made
a coast-to-coast phone call. The Photophone was the first long-
distance landline phone call made. Bell's inventions made long-
distance a reality. From the U.S to the U.K, the first telephone
service was set up in the January of 1927, in which three minutes of phone call cost nearly $10.

As the days passed, a videophone was found. Then in later days, people started using satellites in
telecommunication. The first picture phone was found, and in 1973 the first cellular phone was found; this
again went through many innovations from 1G to the present 5G where 'G' represents the generation of
the cellular network technology. Nevertheless, the smartphones were technically found only in 1993, and it
continues to develop. The mobile phone in recent days makes communication faster, better, and easier
than any other in the past, it also has many new innovative features. Mobile phones market growth is
increasing day by day; hence the product life span is shorter. Furthermore, Smartphones are also expensive
than ever.

Figure 1, taken from the google search engine, is one of the most sophisticated smartphones in 2020, with
a screen that can rotate 90 degrees called LG wing from the mobile phone brand LG; however,
unfortunately, this heavily modernized mobile phone received a backlash from their targeted costumers
because of its high price but relatively lower performance.

Mobile Phone Price:

Mobile phone price is the amount of money it is sold. Between the year of 1960s’ to 1980s’, Motorola was
the leading in the industry. In 1983, the same company introduced the first-ever cell phone at the price of
$3,995. In the 1990s’, the mobile phone price became more affordable, between $900 -$1000. Then, in
the 2000s’, when the smartphone started to develop.

Furthermore, in 2007, the 1 st generation iPhone made its debut with the selling price at $600. Moreover,
the Samsung galaxy was released at the price of $645. From 2010 till now, the popularity and demand for
the smartphone have been increasing day by day, and in the mobile phone industry, the research and
development process tends to be expensive; hence when the product is introduced in the market, it is sold
at a high price, and the price slowly decreases as time passes, this strategy has been followed by most of
the brands in the industry.

The battery of mobile phone:

The modern smartphone is wireless and is easy to carry around. These mobile phones are innovative with
more new features like three cameras, face id, and many more. They can also stay awake for quite a long
time; the average battery life of a mobile phone is 5 to 7 hours. In general, the battery powers all the
hardware inside a phone, from processor to display and any other features packed into the handset.
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However, the usage of power differs from one hardware to another. Figure 2 Lithium-ion mobile phone battery
There are two types of mobile phone batteries: Lithium-ion (Li-Ion) or
Lithium Polymer (Li-Poly). The chemical properties, weight, and size of
these batteries vary.

Lithium-ion batteries are the oldest battery technology currently in use.

They have a high energy density, but the cost is relatively high. On the
other hand, lithium polymer batteries are the most advanced and light-
weight battery type, which does not heat up like Li-Ion batteries.
Figure 2 is the lithium-ion battery whose commercial version was introduced between the mid-1980 to
mid- 2000 and is currently in use with the title' most preferred battery type used in most of the laptops,
mobile phones, iPads, and other mobile devices because of its higher energy density when compared to
other batteries. The development of the lithium-ion battery has helped researchers to reduce the mobile
phone size

Why did I select this topic?

When I wanted to buy a new mobile phone, I wondered what makes the mobile battery life longer? A
mobile phone's battery capacity is what determines its battery life. Battery capacity is the measure of the
amount of energy that is delivered in a single discharge. The battery capacity is usually measured in Amp-
hour or mAh-hour, where 1 Amp is equal to 1000 mAh. Hence if the battery capacity of a mobile phone is
high, its battery also lasts long; for example, the regular battery capacity of a mobile phone is 2500 mAh
which lasts only for a day, and the recent day phones are producing phones with larger battery capacity
(needs fewer recharge throughout the year) which means its battery has a longer life.

Two months back I bought a new mobile phone, back then it was expensive, but after two months its price
was reduced because a new model have replaced it. Most people choose their mobile phone based on
three things: camera quality, battery capacity, and storage; I mainly use mobile phones the most than any
other electronic device, so I bought a phone with high battery capacity. It made me wonder if battery
capacity is also one of the factors that made the mobile phone expensive. Hence, I will find is there any
association between mobile phone battery capacity and it’s cost.

Aim: I aim to find is there relationship between mobile phone price and mobile phone battery capacity.

Data collection:

To collect my data and control the variables, I collected the data of the mobile phones released between
2019 and 2020 as these are the most recent years, which will make my data up to date and many changes
happened in the technological world. Hence, the data from the year before 2019 is outdated now. I chose
mobile phones with prices higher than $100. 𝑇he price they are released as whole numbers because the
mobile phones with price below $100 are of low quality, there are only a few mobile phones with that
price. I also collected the battery capacity for the same. There are 4.88 billion mobile phones on the planet.
Still, I focused on the battery capacity and price of 60 of them, not the entire population; however, the 60
most popular smartphones (because only smartphones price is over $100) from ten well-known
manufacturers (Google, iPhone, LG, Motorola, Nokia, OnePlus, Oppo, Samsung, Sony, and Vivo).

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For this research, I first planned to collected primary research data from the mobile phone showrooms.
However, due to the pandemic and lockdown I couldn’t reach out to the agents hence I had to drop this
plan. Then I planned to use the secondary research, for which I had spend long time and collect data from
60 different webpages and re-check it twice for more reliablility. I mainly used the official websites and
other trusted websites of the mobile phone brands as the secondary research source. Other than that, I
also used digit and Statista for my analysis.

Data collection evidence:

As I wanted to show that I did this research on my own, I have attached the website evidence below. I used
the google chrome web browser to open the websites and took a screenshot of them. I then pasted them
on the Microsoft office word 2019 and cropped the unwanted information using the cropping tool to focus
on the main content. Although I used many websites, I have only displayed a few web pages to show an
example.
Photo evidence of the webpage of Nokia mobile phone:
Figure 3 Nokia webpage data collection evidence
Figure 3 is the website page of Nokia smartphones, and
the image has information on the phone's battery and
storage, stating that it has a 4000 mAh battery capacity,
is non-removable, charging at 5 volts (2 in amperes), and
has 512 GB of external storage. The site's title bar is at
the top of the image, with the NOKIA logo in blue and a
large text size.

Photo evidence of the webpage of Samsung Galaxy mobile phone:

Figure 4 Samsung Galaxy webpage data collection evidence

Figure 4 depicts the webpage of Samsung smartphones;

the image exhibits photos of the Galaxy Note10+ mobile
phones, with a current price of $949.99 (which is not the
price it was released in). The options for selecting the
mobile phone carrier are located at the bottom of the
image.

Photo evidence of the webpage of Motorola Razr mobile phone:

Figure 5 Motorola Razr webpage data collection evidence

Figure 5 shows the webpage of the Motorola phone,

Razr. The webpage in dark blue background with the
characters in white shows the performance and
battery specifications of the Motorola smartphone,
Razr. Also, the title bar, which is in white with black
characters, shows the current price of the mobile
phone to be $899.99.
Degree of accuracy:

I will be using three significant figures (3s.f) throughout my research for the precision of the results. I will
use the CASIO fx-CG50 graphical display calculator, which I have been using since grade 9 and am familiar
with; hence, I will cross-check my answer. Furthermore, I will use all the digits while doing the calculations
for all the math processes to ensure that I get a similar value to the calculator value.
Units:

Though I do not use dollars being an Indian, I am using US dollars ($) as the currency for mobile phone
price because the US dollars are the world's reserved currency, which is also the most corrigible currency
for assisting world commerce. The researchers also have predicted that the US dollar will remain in the first
place as the world's reserved currency for the foreseeable future.

The unit for battery capacity in mAh (milliampere-hours), which is the rating of the battery's storage
capacity, battery with a higher mAh rating can store more electrical energy. mAh of the battery decides
how long the battery can run.

Investigation Plan:

 Data table: After collecting the data, I will construct a table with 62 rows and four columns to
organize the data in ascending order for further calculations. I will represent my data as 𝑥 variable
and 𝑦 variable where 𝑥 variable represents the battery capacity of mobile phone, and 𝑦 variable
represents price of the mobile phone.
 Bar graph: Bar graphs use vertical bars to visualize the data, where the length of the data is
proportional to the data value. I will plot the battery capacity data on a bar graph to visualize the
trends of the data.
 Pie chart: A graph where a circle is classified into sections to display the data trends. By plotting this
graph, I will be able to analyze the data of the mobile phone price.
 Mean: I will find the mean for the data of battery capacity and the mobile phone price. Mean is
used to identify the center among the data set calculated using the sum of the values divided by the
total number of values. The mean of battery capacity (𝑥 variable) will be represented by the symbol
𝑥̅ and the mean of price (𝑦) of the mobile phone will be represented using 𝑦̅ .
 Standard deviation: I will find standard deviation to find how the data I collected varies and spreads
from the mean value. If the standard deviation has a wide dispersion, then the reliability of the data
is questioned.
 Scatter plot: By representing the battery capacity data on the 𝑥-axis and the mobile phone price on
the 𝑦-axis, I will plot a scatter plot to visually depict the type of relationship between the battery
capacity and the mobile phone price.
 Pearson correlation coefficient: As scatter plot gives me only the visual explanation between the
relationship of battery capacity and price of the mobile phone, which will not give me a clear
picture about their relationship, I will use the Pearson correlation coefficient (𝑟) to find the real
strength of the relationship between both the variables. Moreover, if my 𝑟 is strong, I will construct
the linear regression equation.
  Removal of outliers: An outlier is any data that lies at an extreme distance from other data. I will
remove the outlier if it exists, as it increases the variability of the data that decreases its statistical
power.
 Chi-square independence test: I am planning to do a chi-square independent test to see whether
the price of the mobile phone is dependent or not dependent on the battery capacity of the mobile
phone. However, I plan to create a 2 × 2 matrix contingency table because I never wanted any
element to be less than five in the expected frequency table. After all, if there is any element in the
matrix is less than 5, my chi-square test will become invalid. Hence, I will use Yate's continuity
correction test for the better validity of my research.
 Finally, I will conclude my research with the answer to the question of whether there is any relation
between the battery capacity and price of the mobile phone.

Raw data:

I carefully organized all my data to be able to do my further research without any errors. The data has been
put in four columns. The first column is the serial number, the next column is the mobile phone model
names, and then the battery capacity values, which use the unit mAh and the last column is the price of the
mobile phone, in dollars ($). There is a total of 60 data in the table; at the end of the table, the sum of 𝑥
variable (battery capacity) and 𝑦 variable (price) under each column.

Table 1 Raw data table:

s.no Mobile Phone Model Battery Capacity Price ($) 31. Oppo Ace 2 4000 571
(mAh) (𝒙) (𝒚) 32. Oppo F11 pro 4000 410
1. Google Pixel 3a 3000 399 33. Oppo F17 4015 233
2. Google Pixel 4a 3140 349 34. Oppo Find X2 Pro 4260 1278
3. Google Pixel 5 4080 699 35. Oppo K5 4000 365
4. iPhone 11 (64GB) 3110 699 36. Oppo K7x 5000 227
5. iPhone 11 Pro (64GB) 3046 999
37. Oppo Reno 10x Zoom 4065 890
6. iPhone 12 (64GB) 2815 799
38. Oppo Reno 3 4025 410
7. iPhone 12 pro (128GB) 2815 999
8. iPhone SE 1821 399 39. Samsung Galaxy A21 4000 199
9. LG G8X ThinQ 4000 949 40. Samsung Galaxy A50 4000 349
10. LG Q70649 4000 349 41. Samsung Galaxy A51 4000 164
11. LG Stylo 5 3500 299 42. Samsung Galaxy Note 10 3500 949
12. LG V60 ThinQ 5000 649 43. Samsung Galaxy Note 10+ 4300 1099
13. LG Wing 4000 999 44. Samsung Galaxy Note 20 4300 999
14. Moto E 3550 149 45. Samsung Galaxy Note 20 Ultra 4500 1299
15. Moto G Fast 4000 199
46. Samsung Galaxy S20 4000 999
16. Motorola Edge 4500 699
47. Samsung Galaxy S20 FE 4500 699
17. Motorola Edge+ 5000 999
48. Samsung Galaxy S20 Ultra 5000 1399
18. Motorola One Zoom 4000 449
19. Motorola Razr 2510 999 49. Samsung Galaxy S20+ 4500 1199
20. Nokia 3 V 4000 169 50. Sony Xperia 1 3330 699
21. Nokia 4.2 3000 169 51. Sony Xperia 1 II 4000 1199
22. Nokia 5.3 4000 199 52. Sony Xperia 10 2870 299
23. Nokia 6.2 3500 249 53. Sony Xperia 5 3140 599
24. Nokia 7.2 3500 349 54. Vivo V15 4100 269
25. OnePlus 7 pro 4000 499 55. Vivo V19 Neo 4500 362
26. OnePlus 7T 3800 349 56. Vivo X50 4200 650
27. OnePlus 8 4300 599
57. Vivo Y17 5000 276
28. OnePlus 8 Pro 4510 799
58. Vivo Y51 4500 213
29. Oppo A92 5000 271
59. Vivo Y73s 4100 331
30. Oppo A93 4000 330
60. Vivo Z1 5000 190
∑𝑥 = 236202 ∑𝑦 = 34888
From table 1, I can observe that most mobile phones have a battery capacity that lies between 4000 mAh and
5000 mAh, and not even a single mobile phone has a battery capacity above 5000 mAh. Among the 60 mobile
phones, only a few mobile phones are sold at a low price, and the highest price of the mobile phone is $1399.
∑𝑥 is the sum of 𝑥 data, which is 34888 mAh, and the ∑𝑦 is the sum of 𝑦 data, which is $236202.

Bar graph:

To start with, I will represent the data of battery capacity on a bar graph. It will help me to visualize the
trends of the data. I used google sheets software to produce the graphs.

Bar Graph for battery capacity (mAh):

Figure 6 Bar graph representing battery capacity of mobile phone

𝑦

Figure 6 shows the data of battery capacity (mAh). The horizontal axis is the 𝑥-axis of the graph
representing the battery capacity (mAh); the axis is labeled with grouped data starting at 1500 mAh – 1999
mAh and ending with 4500 mAh 5000 mAh with 500 as the interval. However, the range 2000 mAh – 2499
mAh is missing because there is no value data between those ranges. The vertical axis is 𝑦-axis represents
the number of mobile phones with the scale of 1 unit = 1 mobile phone. According to the graph, the mobile
phones with a battery capacity ranged between 4000 mAh to 4499 mAh is the highest bar with 28 mobile
phones. Furthermore, the least with one mobile phone is the battery capacity ranging between 1500 mAh
and 1999 mAh, which I assume is an outlier (will be checked later). Also, I used blue color for the bars on
the graph because I wanted to use a light but visible color.
According to digits, a mobile phone with 4000 mAh will last nearly one day depending on usage. While
mobile phones with 5000 mAh will surely last for a whole day, not being bothered about the amount of
usage. Mobile phones with a 1500 mAh battery can only last for 15 hours. Most Samsung, Vivo, and Oppo
smartphones have battery capacity ranging between 4000 mAh - 4500 mAh.

Pie chart:

The pie chart will help me discover the data trends of the mobile phone price data. I will use Blue, red,
yellow, and green colors to represent the data in each sector. And on the right side of the graph is the
calculation table which has information about how I obtained the percentage of each sector; for which I
divided the number of values in each price range with the total number of values which is 60.
Pie chart to represent the mobile phone price data:
Figure 7 Pie chart representing price of the mobile phone

28
× 100 = 46.66666667%
60
= 46.7% (3s.f)
14
× 100 = 23.33333333
60
= 23.3% (3s.f)
12
60 × 100 = 20.0%
6
60 × 100 = 10.0%

Figure 7 represents the data on the price of mobile phones. In the chart, each sector represents each range
of values. The least range is $100 - $399, and the highest range is $1000 - $1300. The largest sector has a
price range of $100 − $399, with 46.7%, and the smallest sector ranges from $1000 - $1300 with 10%
of the data. Each sector is given different color for easier identification. The sector with a range between
$100-$399 is colored blue; the red color is given to the sector with the range $400-$699, the sector that
has the range $700-$999 has the color yellow, and the last color green is given to the sector ranged
$1000-
$1399.

A mobile phone above the price of $1000 is often considered luxurious. Out of 6 mobile phones ranging
from $1000-$1300, five mobile phones belonged to Samsung, while the other belonged to Oppo. However,
why is Samsung setting a high price for most of its mobile phones? According to Statista, Samsung has been
leading in the market with a 21% market share, followed by apple with a 17% market share. Thus, making
Samsung the global market leader of the mobile phone industry, hence they can set premium prices for
their products.

Moreover, from the raw data table, I discovered that the lowest price set for the Nokia smartphones is
$169. However, on the other hand, the highest price is $349, which means all their mobile phones are
under the range category of $100-$399 (the least range). This is because their smartphones failed to reach
their customers as much as the other brands, few main reasons include not using the software and
hardware that are in the current trend; the other reason is also that they failed to be innovative whiles
focusing on mass production, which made the company lose its place on the market.

Mean:

With the bar graph above, I found the trends in the battery capacity and price of the mobile phone. Now I
will find the mean battery capacity and price to get a general idea about the data. Where mean is used to
represent the typical value of the data serves as the standard for the data set.
Mean of mobile phone battery capacity:
∑𝑥
Figure 8 GDC evidence 1
𝑥̅ =
∑𝑥 = sum of battery capacity 𝑛
𝑥̅ = mean of battery capacity ∑𝑥 = 236202 𝑛 = 60

𝑛 = total number of battery 236202

𝑥̅ = 60
capacity data

𝑥̅ = 3936.7 mAh

𝑥̅ = 3940 mAh (3s.f)

On the right corner of the page, I have attached the calculator evidence to cross-check my answer. The
mean battery capacity (𝑥 variable) is 3940 mAh. This means the 3940 is the central value or the value that
represents the set of data. Which seems closer to 4000 mAh is the most used battery capacity on the raw
data table; this is because 4000 mAh battery capacity can last at least for a whole when used for
navigation, a fair amount of gaming, and few phone calls. This is considered as the regular usage of mobile
phones. At the same time, a 3000 mAh battery capacity can be used only for basic tasks like browsing and
messaging. A 5000 mAh battery capacity is for users with extensive usage, who are stuck to the mobile
phone screen, like playing games, watching movies, or even shooting videos. A phone with a 5000 mAh
battery capacity makes sure that the phone's battery does not run out for a whole day.

Mean of mobile phone price:

∑y
𝑦̅ = Figure 9 GDC evidence 2
𝑛
∑𝑦 = sum of mobile phone price
∑y = 34888 𝑛 = 60
𝑦̅ = mean of mobile phone price
34888
𝑛 = total number of mobile phone 𝑦̅ =
60
price data

𝑦̅ = $581.466667

𝑦̅ = $581 (3s.f)

The average mobile phone price of my data is $581, which is representative of the data set. Because the
companies in the smartphone industries must keep producing innovative products each time, innovation
does not only mean internally but also externally, which requires the business to invest more money in
research and development and buy the materials. Some hardware requires materials in scant called the
rare earth, which is the set of 17 chemical elements (neodymium, terbium, praseodymium, cerium,
erbium, lanthanum, holmium, gadolinium, promethium, dysprosium, samarium, europium, ytterbium,
scandium, thulium, yttrium, and lutetium) that play a significant role in manufacturing the products. These
factors also influence the pricing of smartphones.

The average battery capacity of my data is 3940 mAh, which is considered as a battery capacity needed for
the regular usage of mobile phones. Moreover, the mean price is $581 because of the increasing demand
for innovation in every product. Looking at this, I wonder if the battery capacity is also a factor considered
while pricing a mobile phone?

Standard deviation:

After finding the mean of the battery capacity and mobile phone price, I am moving on to finding the
standard deviation. The standard deviation allows me to assess how my data is scattered across. It will help
me to measure the dispersion of data in the 𝑥 (battery capacity) and 𝑦 (price) variables from its mean. The
table below with seven columns and 62 rows shows how I obtained the values of (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ ), (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 , (𝑦 −
𝑦̅ ), (𝑦 − 𝑦̅ )2. Where the first column of the table is the serial number, the second column has the data of
battery capacity (𝑥), the third column has the price (𝑦), the fourth column has the (𝑥 − 𝑥̅) data, the fifth
column has the (𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2 data, the sixth column has the (𝑦 − 𝑦̅ ) data and the last column has the (𝑦 − 𝑦̅ )2
data. While the first row has the names of each column, followed by the data of 60 mobile phones, and the
last column has the sum of each column.

Table 2 calculation of standard deviation:

s.no Battery capacity Price ($) (𝒚)

(mAh) (𝒙) (𝒙 − 𝒙̅) (𝒙 − 𝒙̅ )𝟐 (𝒚 − 𝒚̅) (𝒚 − 𝒚̅)𝟐
1. 3550 149 -386.7 149536.9 -432.467 187027.4
2. 4000 164 63.3 4006.89 -417.467 174278.4
3. 3000 169 -936.7 877406.9 -412.467 170128.8
4. 4000 169 63.3 4006.89 -412.467 170128.8
5. 5000 190 1063.3 1130607 -391.467 153246.2
6. 4000 199 63.3 4006.89 -382.467 146280.8
7. 4000 199 63.3 4006.89 -382.467 146280.8
8. 4000 199 63.3 4006.89 -382.467 146280.8
9. 4500 213 563.3 317306.9 -368.467 135767.7
10. 5000 227 1063.3 1130607 -354.467 125646.6
11. 4015 233 78.3 6130.89 -348.467 121429
12. 3500 249 -436.7 190706.9 -332.467 110534.1
13. 4100 269 163.3 26666.89 -312.467 97635.42
14. 5000 271 1063.3 1130607 -310.467 96389.55
15. 5000 276 1063.3 1130607 -305.467 93309.88
16. 2870 299 -1066.7 1137849 -282.467 79787.42
17. 3500 299 -436.7 190706.9 -282.467 79787.42
18. 4000 330 63.3 4006.89 -251.467 63235.48
19. 4100 331 163.3 26666.89 -250.467 62733.55
20. 3140 349 -796.7 634730.9 -232.467 54040.75
21. 3500 349 -436.7 190706.9 -232.467 54040.75
22. 3800 349 -136.7 18686.89 -232.467 54040.75
23. 4000 349 63.3 4006.89 -232.467 54040.75
24. 4000 349 63.3 4006.89 -232.467 54040.75
25. 4500 362 563.3 317306.9 -219.467 48165.62
26. 4000 365 63.3 4006.89 -216.467 46857.82
27. 1821 399 -2115.7 4476186 -182.467 33294.08
28. 3000 399 -936.7 877406.9 -182.467 33294.08
29. 4000 410 63.3 4006.89 -171.467 29400.82
30. 4025 410 88.3 7796.89 -171.467 29400.82
31. 4000 449 63.3 4006.89 -132.467 17547.42
32. 4000 499 63.3 4006.89 -82.4667 6800.751
33. 4000 571 63.3 4006.89 -10.4667 109.5511
34. 3140 599 -796.7 634730.9 17.53333 307.4178
35. 4300 599 363.3 131986.9 17.53333 307.4178
36. 5000 649 1063.3 1130607 67.53333 4560.751
37. 4200 650 263.3 69326.89 68.53333 4696.818
38. 3110 699 -826.7 683432.9 117.5333 13814.08
39. 3330 699 -606.7 368084.9 117.5333 13814.08
40. 4080 699 143.3 20534.89 117.5333 13814.08
41. 4500 699 563.3 317306.9 117.5333 13814.08
 42. 4500 699 563.3 317306.9 117.5333 13814.08
43. 2815 799 -1121.7 1258211 217.5333 47320.75
44. 4510 799 573.3 328672.9 217.5333 47320.75
45. 4065 890 128.3 16460.89 308.5333 95192.82
46. 3500 949 -436.7 190706.9 367.5333 135080.8
47. 4000 949 63.3 4006.89 367.5333 135080.8
48. 2510 999 -1426.7 2035473 417.5333 174334.1
49. 2815 999 -1121.7 1258211 417.5333 174334.1
50. 3046 999 -890.7 793346.5 417.5333 174334.1
51. 4000 999 63.3 4006.89 417.5333 174334.1
52. 4000 999 63.3 4006.89 417.5333 174334.1
53. 4300 999 363.3 131986.9 417.5333 174334.1
54. 5000 999 1063.3 1130607 417.5333 174334.1
55. 4300 1099 363.3 131986.9 517.5333 267840.8
56. 4000 1199 63.3 4006.89 617.5333 381347.4
57. 4500 1199 563.3 317306.9 617.5333 381347.4
58. 4260 1278 323.3 104522.9 696.5333 485158.7
59. 4500 1299 563.3 317306.9 717.5333 514854.1
60. 5000 1399 1063.3 1130607 817.5333 668360.8
∑𝐱 = 236202 ∑𝒚 = 34888 ∑(𝒙 − 𝒙̅)𝟐 = ∑(𝒚 − ̅𝒚)𝟐 =7333168.9
26855068.6

In table 2, the value of ∑𝑥 is 236202, and the value of ∑𝑦 is 3488. The value of ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅)2 are
26855068.6, and the value of ∑(𝑦 − 𝑦̅ )2 is 7333168.9. Although the values are not in 3 significant
figures, I will change the final answer from the calculation into three significant figures. I also reduced the
font size of the data in the table to eight because of page constrain.

The standard deviation of mobile phone battery capacity:

∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅)2
𝑆𝑥 = standard deviation of
𝑆𝑥 = √
battery capacity 𝑛−1 Figure 10 GDC evidence 3

n = total number of ∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅)2 = 26855068.6 𝑛 = 60

battery capacity data.
26855068.6
∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅) = sum of 𝑥 values 𝑆𝑥 = √
minus mean of 𝑥 60 − 1

𝑆𝑥 = √455170.6542
𝑆𝑥 = 674.663363
𝑆𝑥 = 675 (3s.f)

The standard deviation of battery capacity is 675 mAh; this is considered a high standard deviation which
means the data is spread a little wide from the mean. This is because, during the innovation process, some
phones will need more battery capacity. In comparison, others will need lower battery capacity for the
phone to run at least for a day as some systems will need less power to run while others will need more.
That is why the battery capacity is different for every phone.
The standard deviation of mobile phone price:

∑(𝑦 − 𝑦̅ )2 Figure 11 GDC evidence 4

𝑆𝑦 = standard deviation
𝑆𝑦 = √
of mobile phone price 𝑛−1

𝑛 = total number ∑(𝑦 − 𝑦̅ )2 = 7333168.9 𝑛 = 60

of mobile price
data 7333168.9
𝑆𝑦 = √
∑(𝑦 − 𝑦̅ ) = sum of 𝑦 60 − 1
values minus mean of 𝑦
𝑆𝑦 = √124290.9983
𝑆𝑦 = 352.549285

𝑆𝑦 = 353 (3s.f)

The standard deviation of mobile phone price is $353, which means is there is a wide deviation from the
mean. Each mobile phone is sold at a different price, but why is it so? The price of the mobile sure depends
on many different factors and those factors are different for each mobile phone hence, they cannot be sold
at the same price. The sales tax in each country differs, which also impacts the price of the mobile phone.
In the USA, people must pay 12.82% wireless: state and local tax and fee on average and 9.83% wireless:
Federal tax and fees on average, which sums up 22.65% (the data of the percentage of tax are from the
year 2020).

From the above obervation I could understand that the standard deviation of both battery capacity ( 𝑥) and
the price (𝑦) of the mobile phone are spread out wide from the mean, which discloses more variation,
which means that the mean is not the representative of the data. There are likely significant variations
between individual scores. However, I will proceed with my math process to find the more precious result.

I should mention that I took all these data in 2020, and the year has passed, and now in the first half of
2021, many mobile phones have been newly released, which has reduced the price of most mobile phones.
This always happens in the mobile phone industry; generally, the product is released at a high price in the
technological world because of the large sum of money spent on the research and development of the new
product. However, the price of that product reduces when the company releases a new product. Hence,
the older the product is, the lesser it costs. Furthermore, in this rapidly updating technological world, using
older models exposes the user to fewer features, which is why the newly produced products are insanely
famous merely for a brief time.

Scatter plot representing the relationship between battery capacity and price of the mobile phone:

Now, to visualize the relationship between battery capacity (𝑥) and the price (𝑦) of the mobile phone, I will
use the scatter plot (a graphical diagram). Each segment in the data set is depicted by a symbol whose
position is determined by its features and is put on the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axis.
 Figure 12 Scatter plot to represent battery capacity and price of the mobile phone

In figure 12, the scale for 𝑥-axis is 1 unit = 1000 mAh, where it starts with 1500 as there are no numbers
less than 1500, and the scale used in the 𝑦-axis is 1 unit = $200, where the axis starts with 100. In the
graph, there is only one data between 1500 mAh - 2500 mAh, and most of my data lies between 3500
mAh-4500 mAh because a mobile phone needs at least this much mAh rating to withstand the regular
usage of mobile phone with one or two times charging a day. The companies who gave battery capacity
with a lower mAh rating should have considered battery capacity an insignificant mobile phone feature.
The graph above depicts an uphill trend and is clustered; hence, there is a moderate positive relationship
between the 𝑥 coordinate (battery capacity) and the 𝑦 coordinate (mobile phone price). This is because t
battery capacity of the mobile phone is relatively a cheap component when compared to the other
components used, where the 5000 mAh battery capacity (the highest battery capacity used, so far) costs
only $5.87 per unit. This is also why the price is not dependent on the battery capacity of the mobile
phone. The other factors are innovative in every possible way; however, the battery capacity of the mobile
phone is not different every time, sometimes they repeat, and sometimes they do not. However, they are
always within a range.

Moreover, as the points on the graph are so dispersed, I will not be able to draw the best-fit line. However,
I still want to find the real strength of the correlation using Pearson Correlation Coefficient.

Pearson correlation coefficient:

Even though the scatter plot revealed that the two variables battery capacity (𝑥) and price (𝑦) of the mobile
phone has only a moderate relationship. I want to find the real strength of the correlation; hence, I will use
the Pearson correlation coefficient, the test statistics used to determine whether the two variables (𝑥) and
(𝑦) are correlated. The table below with four columns and 62 rows shows the calculations of
𝑥𝑦, 𝑥2 and 𝑦2, where the first column is the serial number, the second column has the data of 𝑥𝑦, the third
column has the data of 𝑥2 and the fourth column, which is the last column, has the data of 𝑦2. As for the
rows, the first row has the name of each column, then the data about the 60 mobile phones, and the last
row has the sum of each column.

Table 3 calculation of Pearson correlation coefficient:

s.no 𝒙𝒚 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 31. 2284000 16000000 326041

32. 1640000 16000000 168100
1. 1197000 9000000 159201 33. 935495 16120225 54289
2. 1095860 9859600 121801 34. 5444280 18147600 1633284
3. 2851920 16646400 488601 35. 1460000 16000000 133225
4. 2173890 9672100 488601 36. 1135000 25000000 51529
5. 3042954 9278116 998001 37. 3617850 16524225 792100
6. 2249185 7924225 638401 38. 1650250 16200625 168100
7. 2812185 7924225 998001 39. 769000 16000000 39601
8. 726579 3316041 159201 40. 1396000 16000000 121801
9. 3796000 16000000 900601 41. 656000 16000000 26896
10. 1396000 16000000 121801 42. 3321500 12250000 900601
11. 1046500 12250000 89401 43. 4725700 18490000 1207801
12. 3245000 25000000 421201 44. 4295700 18490000 998001
13. 3996000 16000000 998001 45. 5845500 20250000 1687401
14. 528950 12602500 22201 46. 3996000 16000000 998001
15. 796000 16000000 39601 47. 3145500 20250000 488601
16. 3145500 20250000 488601 48. 6995000 25000000 1957201
17. 4995000 25000000 998001 49. 5395500 20250000 1437601
18. 1796000 16000000 201601 50. 2327670 11088900 488601
19. 2507490 6300100 998001 51. 4796000 16000000 1437601
20. 676000 16000000 28561 52. 858130 8236900 89401
21. 507000 9000000 28561 53. 1880860 9859600 358801
22. 796000 16000000 39601 54. 1102900 16810000 72361
23. 8715000 12250000 62001 55. 1629000 20250000 131044
24. 12215000 1225000 121801 56. 2730000 17640000 422500
25. 1996000 16000000 249001 57. 1380000 25000000 76176
26. 1326200 14440000 121801 58. 958500 20250000 45369
27. 2572700 18490000 358801 59. 1357100 16810000 109561
28. 3603490 20340100 638401 60 950000 25000000 36100
29. 1355000 25000000 73441 ∑𝑥𝑦 = ∑𝑥2 =
30. 1320000 16000000 108900 138851838 956711482 ∑𝑦2 = 27619378

𝑟 = Pearson Correlation Σ𝑥 = 236202

Coefficient.
Σ𝑦 = 34888
𝑛 = number of samples
(Σ𝑥)2 = 5.57913848
Σ𝑥𝑦 = Total number of
(Σ𝑦)2 = 1217172544
𝑥𝑦 Σ𝑥 = Total number of
Σ𝑥𝑦 = 138851838
𝑛(Σ𝑥𝑦) − (Σ𝑥)(Σ𝑦)
𝑥 Σ𝑦 = Total number of 𝑦 𝑟= Σ𝑥2 = 956711482
Σ𝑥2 = Total number of 𝑥2 √[𝑛Σ𝑥2 − (Σ𝑥)2][𝑛Σ𝑦2 − (Σ𝑦)2]
Σy2 = 27619378
Σy2 = Total number of 𝑦2

60(138851838) − (236202)(34888)
𝑟=
√[(60 × 956711482) − 5.57913848 ][(60 × 27619378) − 1217172544]

8301110280 − 8240615376
𝑟=
√[5.740268892 − 5.57913848][1657162680 − 1217172544]
 60494904
𝑟=
√1611304116 × 439990136

60494904 Figure 13 GDC evidence 5

𝑟=
841996387.8
𝑟 = 0.07184698
𝑟 = 0.0718 (3s.f)

As I assumed before, the relationship between battery capacity and price is positive, and the battery
capacity does not decide the mobile phone price. However, when battery capacity increases, the price also
increases to certain as the 𝑟 value is 0.0718.

Furthermore, It should be mentioned that the modernization of mobile phones also never stopped. This
caused the speed of the mobile phone to become several times faster. Hence the consumption of power
has amplified. However, other features that the customers feel are more important (like; camera, weight,
user- interface) for a mobile phone are never compromised, and people want these features to be
innovative every time, which means lots of money and time is spent on research and development, hence
these factors also affect the pricing of the mobile phones.

Outliers:

Before starting the chi-square test, I will first find any outliers existing in my data set. Where outlier is the
data that lies out of the range of what is expected, unlike the other data. Finding the outlier is essential
because it may affect the accuracy of my data; hence I will find the outlier and eliminate it for more
accurate results. And, as mentioned before, I will use all the digits for calculation and then convert the final
answer to 3 significant figures for better accuracy.

Upper boundary = 𝑸𝟑 + (𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝑰𝑸𝑹) (any value greater than the upper boundary is an outlier)

Lower boundary = 𝑸𝟏 − (𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝑰𝑸𝑹) (any value lesser than the lower boundary is an outlier)
Interquartile range (𝑰𝑸𝑹) = 𝑸𝟑 − 𝑸𝟏 (where 𝑄3 is upper quartile and 𝑄1 is lower quartile)

Outlier of mobile phone Battery capacity:

3500 + 3500
𝑄1 = 2 = 3500
Upper boundary = 4300 + (1.5 × 800) = 5500
4300 + 4300
𝑄3 = 2 = 4300 Lower boundary = 3500 – (1.5 × 800) = 2300
The upper boundary for the outlier of battery capacity is 5500 mAh; Outlier of mobile phone price:
𝐼𝑄𝑅 = 4300 – 3500 = 800
hence, any data greater than 5500 mAh will be eliminated. The lower
boundary for the outlier of battery capacity is 2300 mAh, any lesser than
it will be eliminated.
 Figure 14 GDC evidence 6

276 + 299
𝑄1 = 2 = 287.5 Upper boundary = 919.5 + (1.5 × 632) = 1867.5
890 + 949
𝑄3 = 2 = 919.5 Lower boundary = 287.5 – (1.5 × 632) = −660.5

𝐼𝑄𝑅 = 919.5 – 287.5 = 632 Figure 15 EDC evidence 7

In the price data, any value greater than $1870 (3s.f) will be deleted
from the raw data table as it is the upper boundary of the data set,
while the value lesser than −661 (3s.f) will be deleted be eliminated
as it is the lower boundary.

Eliminating the outlier of the mobile phone battery capacity data:

After comparing the upper and lower boundary with the raw data table, I found one in the data of battery
capacity, which is the value 1821 mAh (which belongs to the data set: iPhone SE;1821 mAh;$399),
because it was lesser than the lower boundary of battery capacity.

Many iPhone SE users have complained that the phone's battery dies very soon and is not even as good as
other smartphones sold at the same price. This reason had a destructive impact on the smartphone model.
When the phone was released, it had a massive sale because of the high-end brand releasing a budget
phone, however, in late 2020, the battery life issue started to blow up, and the sales of this model phone
started to drop. I started my research before this issue arose. Hence, I took this as one of the smartphones
on my data.

Eliminating the outlier of the mobile phone price data:

Although the battery capacity data had an outlier, the data of the mobile phone price did not have an
outlier, which means no data in this data set is at an extreme distance from other data.

Hence, I will now eliminate the outlier in the battery capacity data from my raw data table because outliers
will affect the result of my research as it is an odd number in my data table; hence, I will remove it. The
data removed is the least mAh rating of 1821 mAh on my data table, which belongs to the iPhone SE that
costs
$399.
Table 4 Raw data table after eliminating outliers:

s.no Mobile Phone Model Battery Capacity Price ($) 30. Oppo Ace 2 4000 571
(mAh) (𝒙) (𝒚) 31. Oppo F11 pro 4000 410
1. Google Pixel 3a 3000 399 32. Oppo F17 4015 233
2. Google Pixel 4a 3140 349 33. Oppo Find X2 Pro 4260 1278
3. Google Pixel 5 4080 699 34. Oppo K5 4000 365
4. iPhone 11 (64GB) 3110 699 35. Oppo K7x 5000 227
5. iPhone 11 Pro (64GB) 3046 999
36. Oppo Reno 10x Zoom 4065 890
6. iPhone 12 (64GB) 2815 799
37. Oppo Reno 3 4025 410
7. iPhone 12 pro (128GB) 2815 999
38. Samsung Galaxy A21 4000 199
8. LG G8X ThinQ 4000 949
9. LG Q70649 4000 349 39. Samsung Galaxy A50 4000 349
10. LG Stylo 5 3500 299 40. Samsung Galaxy A51 4000 164
11. LG V60 ThinQ 5000 649 41. Samsung Galaxy Note 10 3500 949
12. LG Wing 4000 999 42. Samsung Galaxy Note 10+ 4300 1099
13. Moto E 3550 149 43. Samsung Galaxy Note 20 4300 999
14. Moto G Fast 4000 199 44. Samsung Galaxy Note 20 Ultra 4500 1299
15. Motorola Edge 4500 699 45. Samsung Galaxy S20 4000 999
16. Motorola Edge+ 5000 999
46. Samsung Galaxy S20 FE 4500 699
17. Motorola One Zoom 4000 449
47. Samsung Galaxy S20 Ultra 5000 1399
18. Motorola Razr 2510 999
48. Samsung Galaxy S20+ 4500 1199
19. Nokia 3 V 4000 169
20. Nokia 4.2 3000 169 49. Sony Xperia 1 3330 699
21. Nokia 5.3 4000 199 50. Sony Xperia 1 II 4000 1199
22. Nokia 6.2 3500 249 51. Sony Xperia 10 2870 299
23. Nokia 7.2 3500 349 52. Sony Xperia 5 3140 599
24. OnePlus 7 pro 4000 499 53. Vivo V15 4100 269
25. OnePlus 7T 3800 349 54. Vivo V19 Neo 4500 362
26. OnePlus 8 4300 599 55. Vivo X50 4200 650
27. OnePlus 8 Pro 4510 799 56. Vivo Y17 5000 276
28. Oppo A92 5000 271
57. Vivo Y51 4500 213
29. Oppo A93 4000 330 58. Vivo Y73s 4100 331
59. Vivo Z1 5000 190
∑𝑥 = 234381 ∑𝑦 = 34489

As I already told you, I had 60 data on my raw data table. However, I had to eliminate one outlier from the
table, so now I have only 59 data, which I will use for the further math processes. The sum of 𝑥 data of the
new table is 234381 mAh, and the sum of 𝑦 data is $34489; I need these values for constructing the
contingency table.

Chi-square test of independence (𝝌𝟐):

I am now proceeding with the chi-square test independence test, a non-parametric statistical hypothesis
testing that helps determine whether the two variables are independent. However, as I already mentioned,
I do not want to use any number below 5 in the expected frequency table. Instead, I will use Yates'
continuity correction. Yates' continuity correction is used when the degree of freedom is one. The
contingency table is a 2×2 table because it helps to recompense for the derivation made by the probability
distribution. This test was introduced by Frank Yates, who suggested adjusting the Pearson's chi-square test
formula by subtracting
0.5 from the difference of expected frequency and observed Frequency, to reduce the approximation
error. I will use this hypothesis test to identify the relationship between battery capacity (𝑥) and the price
(y)of the mobile phone.
I will start by fixing the hypothesis. A hypothesis is a claim made after analyzing the data. During this
process, I will make two predictions named null hypothesis (𝐻0) and alternative hypothesis (𝐻1). The null
hypothesis implies no relationship between the variables, whereas the alternative hypothesis implies that
there is a relationship.

Hypothesis:

Null hypothesis (𝑯𝟎) = Battery capacity and price of a mobile phone are independent

Alternative hypothesis (𝑯𝟏) = Battery capacity and price of a mobile phone are not independent.

𝝌𝟐𝒚𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 = Yates’ continuity correction

The formula I will use to calculate 𝝌𝟐𝒚𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 is:
𝒇𝒐 = observed frequency
𝟐
(|𝒇𝒐 − 𝒇𝒆| − 𝟎. 𝟓)𝟐
𝝌 𝒚𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔
=∑ 𝒇𝒆 = Expected frequency
𝒇𝒆
|𝒇𝒐 − 𝒇𝒆| = absolute value of 𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑒

To proceed with this formula, I will first need to construct the contingency table for observed frequency
(𝑓𝑜). For which I will range into the below-average and above-average.

Grouping the data:

I will find the average of each variable (battery capacity and price) and group them into 'above average' and
'below average.

Grouping the data of battery capacity:

𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒙 𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒂
𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐛𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐲 𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒙 𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒂
234381
𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐁𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐲 𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 = = 3972.559322 mAh
59

= 3970 mAh (3s.f)

The average battery capacity is 3970 mAh (3s.f), with which I will find make the two ranges, where the value
below average is one range, and the value above average is another. Hence, > 3970 (above average) and
< 3970 (below average) are two ranges I am going to use.

Grouping the data of battery capacity:

𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒚 𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒂
𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐞 𝐩𝐡𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐞 =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒚 𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒂
34489
𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐦𝐨𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐞 𝐩𝐡𝐨𝐧𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐞 = = $584.559322
59

= $585 (3s.f)

The average price of the mobile phone is $585 (3s.f). Hence, one of the ranges will be above the average
and the other below average. So, the ranges are > 585 (above average) and < 585 (below average).

Now I will display the data in the observed frequency table, where the rows represent 𝑥 variable (battery
capacity) and the columns represent 𝑦 variable (price). I Finally will compare this table with the expected
frequency table, which consists of the value that I will expect if the null hypothesis were true during the
test process.

Table 5 observed frequency table (𝑓𝑜):

Battery Capacity
> 𝟑𝟗𝟕𝟎 mAh < 𝟑𝟗𝟕𝟎 mAh Total
Mobile phone > $𝟓𝟖𝟓 26
price 19 7
< $𝟓𝟖𝟓 23 10 33
Total 42 17 59

The dominating number is 23, which ranges> 3970 mAh for battery capacity and < $585 for price. The
range < 3970 mAh for battery capacity and < $585 for the price has the least 7. The sum of the first row
is 26 and the second row is 33, the sum of the first column is 42, the second column is 17, and the total for
the sum of rows and the sum of columns is 59. I did not mention the 'equal to' symbol in the data range for
the expected frequency table because there is no data with the values 3970 and 585 on my raw data table.

With the observed frequency table, I will create the expected frequency table, which is the probability
count or the expected values. The formula for the expected frequency table is derived from the
independent probability formula [𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)] = 𝑃(𝐴) × 𝑃(𝐵) where [𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)] is the probability of the
two independent events A and B occurring together. The formula I will use is:
𝑹𝒐𝒘 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 × 𝑪𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒎𝒏 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
Table 6 Expected frequency table:

Battery capacity
> 𝟑𝟗𝟒𝟎 mAh < 𝟑𝟗𝟒𝟎 mAh Total
> $𝟓𝟖𝟐 26 × 42 26 × 17 26.000000004
= 18.50847458 = 7.491525424
59 59
< $𝟓𝟖𝟐 33 × 42 33 × 17 32.999999996
= 23.49152542 = 9.508474576
59 59
Total 42 17 59

The expected frequency table values are just slightly deviation from the Figure 16 Expected frequency table GDC evidence 8

values of the observed frequency table. Since I am using the entire eight
digits shown in calculator whereas the calculator is using the entire digits
for calculation. The column and row totals are also the same. Before going
into the chi-square calculation, I must find the critical value with the
significance level and degree of freedom.

Significance level:

When the null hypothesis is true, the probability of rejecting it is Significance level or alpha, the standard
set for rejecting the null hypothesis. It denotes the cumulative probability of the probability distribution
expressed as an area under the curve at one or both tails. It is essential because the significance value and
the degree of freedom define the critical value of the hypothesis testing. I will use a 5% (0.05) significance
level for my test, which means there is a 95% probability that the null hypothesis is rejected. It is the most
commonly used significance level by the researchers. Also, the lower the significance level, the stronger
the evidence needed. Hence, if I use a 5% significance level, I will need more substantial evidence to reject
the null hypothesis, which means my result will be more accurate.

Degree of freedom:

The degree of freedom is the observations free to vary in the data sample without breaking the constrain.
To find a degree of freedom, I will use the formula is
𝐃𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐞𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐨𝐦 = (𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒐𝒘𝒔 – 𝟏) × (𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒏𝒔 – 𝟏)

= (2 − 1 ) × (2 − 1 )

=1

As my degree of freedom is 1, I could observe that when one value is determined the other values do not
have the liberty to vary as they are controlled by the sum of rows and columns hence only one value in my
table is free to vary.

Critical Value (𝜒2𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡):

Critical value, in general, evaluates how far the observed frequency is from the expected frequency. It is
used to compare with the test statistics to decide whether to accept alternative hypotheses. To find the
critical value, I need significance level value and degree of freedom, which I will use to spot the critical chi-
square value from the chi-square distribution table below; these values will define the rejection region.
Figure 17 Chi-square distribution table

I have decided to use the significance

level of 5% (0.05) and found the
degree of freedom 1. Then, I depicted
the critical value as 3.841, 3.84 to 3
significant figures using the
asymmetrical table below.

Chi-squared probability distribution:

Chi-square distribution is used to identify the region of rejection and region of acceptance, where the
rejection region is the area in which the null hypothesis is rejected when the observing results fall under it.
The null hypothesis is accepted if the observing results fall under the acceptance region. The red-colored
area represents the rejection region in the graph, and the white region inside the graph line is the
acceptance region.
 Figure 18 is a non-symmetrical and right-skewed
graph that interprets that the graph's most extended
tail is on the positive side, representing that the
mean is on the top of the right side. The rejection
region starts from 3.84 as it is the critical value, and
only if my chi-square calculated value is greater than
the chi-square critical value I will be able to reject the
null hypothesis; hence the value greater than 3.84 all
comes under the region of rejection, and if it is less
then I will have to accept the null hypothesis as it
would lie in the acceptance region.

Calculating Yate's continuity correction:

(|𝒇𝒐 − 𝒇𝒆| − 𝟎.
𝝌𝟐𝒚𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 = ∑
𝟓)𝟐
𝒇𝒆

For calculating the 𝜒2𝑦𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 I will form a table in which I will clearly show the calculation process. The table
comprises seven columns; each column shows one step of the calculations, except the first column, the
serial number. Moreover, the five rows contain the four values that I obtained and the one row to label the
processes I have shown distinctly. After which is a single row and two-column table to reveal the final step
of the calculation understandably.
Table 7 calculation of Yate's continuity correction:
s.no 𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑒 |𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑒| |𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑒| − 0.5 (|𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑒| − 0.5)2

1. 19 18.50847458 𝟏𝟗 – 𝟏𝟖. 𝟓𝟎𝟖𝟒𝟕𝟒𝟓𝟖 0.491525424 −0.008474576 0.00007181843838

= 0.491525424

2. 7 7.491525424 𝟕 − 𝟕. 𝟒𝟗𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟓𝟒𝟐𝟒 0.491525424 −0.008474576 0.00007181843838

= −0.491525424

3. 23 23.49152542 𝟐𝟑 – 𝟐𝟑. 𝟒𝟗𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟓𝟒𝟐 0.491525424 −0.008474576 0.00007181843838

= −0.49152542

4. 10 9.508474576 𝟏𝟎 – 𝟗. 𝟓𝟎𝟖𝟒𝟕𝟒𝟓𝟕𝟔 0.491525424 −0.008474576 0.00007181843838

= 0.491525424

(|𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑒| − 0.5)2 0.00007181843838 0.00007181843838 0.00007181843838 0.00007181843838

∑ 18.50847458 + 7.491525424 + 23.49152542 + 9.508474576
𝑓𝑒

= 0.00002407722842

= 0.0000241 (3s.f)
I calculated the 𝜒2 to be 0.0000241. And I have already calculated the 𝜒2 to be 3.841, that is 3.84
𝑦𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡
𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡

𝑦𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡
to 3s.f. As I already know, the 𝜒2𝑦𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 the value should be greater than 𝜒2 for Figure 19 GDC evidence 9

me to accept the alternative hypothesis. Hence, the result of my test is

0.0000241 is lesser than 3.84 (𝜒2 < 𝜒2 ), which means I will reject the
alternative hypothesis 𝐻1 in favor of null hypothesis (𝐻0). The conclusion

for my test is that the battery capacity and price of a mobile phone are independent. This is because the
advancement in other mobile phone features has reduced the dependency of the price of the mobile
phones on battery capacity.

Chi-square test results:

Significance level = 0.05 𝜒2 𝑦𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 =
0.0000241

𝜒2 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = 3.84
The battery capacity and price of the mobile phone are
Degree of freedom = 1
independent.
𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟒𝟏 < 𝟑. 𝟖𝟒

∵ 𝝌𝟐𝒚𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 < 𝝌𝟐𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕 , accept 𝑯𝟎

Conclusion:

After constructing a raw data table, I started by representing the data of battery capacity (mAh) and price
($) on two different bar graphs, which showed the trends of the data, as the highest and lowest battery
capacity ratings of the mobile phone and the price of the mobile phone. So, for example, the Samsung
Galaxy S20 Ultra smartphone was priced the most, and the least was the Moto E smartphone. Then I found
the mean for both 𝑥 and 𝑦 variables, which are the two values used as a standard for all the other
observations. Then I found standard deviation using its formula, which revealed that the battery capacity of
mobile phones was a little wide from its mean, and the data of the mobile phone price deviated wider from
its mean.

After that, to visualize the relationship of both the variables, I used a scatter plot, which revealed that the
relationship between the variables was positively moderate. However, to confirm, I used Pearson's
correlation coefficient calculation. I found the 𝑟 value which depicts that there is a weak relationship
between both the battery capacity and price of the mobile phone since my 𝑟 value is close to 0.

I decided to find if there are any outliers existing in my data to increase the reliablity of the result and I
discovered that there was no outlier in the data of price. However, there was one in the battery capacity
data, which is the battery capacity of the iPhone Sem mobile phone, which I eliminated from my data table.
So then, I created a new raw data table after eliminating the outlier.

Then I proceeded with the non-parametric hypothesis testing, Yates' continuity correction to verify the
results. Where the 𝜒2𝑦𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 It was lesser than the chi-square critical value. Hence, I had to accept the null
hypothesis. This test also said that there is no statistical relationship between the battery capacity and the
price of a mobile phone. Since all the tests proved that there is no relationship between the battery
capacity and the price of a mobile phone, I conclude that the battery capacity of the mobile phone and its
price are independent.
limitations:

here were few difficulties while I was doing the investigation. Initially, I was going to collect a large sample
data to conduct my research, but the controls that I had on the variables made me shorten my data length
to 60. Moreover, the mobile phones released between 2019 to 2020 had two types of SIM options, 4G and
5G, which could have also affected the price of the mobile phones; hence that could have disturbed my
reliability of the data collection. The mobile world is upadating every day, hence the features are innovated
more often, hence the data is getting outdated very frequently. Nevertheless, the features also have
reached another level in the present day. There are many features that a mobile phone has, both internally
and externally. Which altogether affects the price of the mobile phone, and the battery capacity does not
influence the mobile phone price.

I used many tables in my research, which I could not avoid using because all the tables were necessary for
my calculations. Although no table used above is repetitive, I used the tables to show all the calculations
for better understanding. I also had to repreat some mathematics like mean and standard deviation but it
was nessacry.

Scope:

The mobile phones of recent days tend to focus on the camera and its quality, for example, a most mobile
phone released between 2019 to 2020 does not have one camera but 2, 3 or 4 cameras. Hence, in the
future, I would like to do further research and find if camera quality affects the mobile phone price.
Furthermore, I would also like to find any relationship between screen resolution and battery capacity as
people nowadays prefer small and handy mobile phones that fit into their pockets, which has reduced the
average battery capacity to 25%, to increase the space to fit other parts. I would also like to collect primary
data and repeat the same research again.

Extension:

When I collected the data on June 13, 2020, the dollar exchange rate was 1 US dollar was 75.954 Indian
rupees. However, on July 8, 2021, the average exchange rate has reduced to 74.7533 Indian rupees.
Because of this, there could be a deviation in my data. Hence to find the deviation, I will convert the price
of the Samsung Galaxy S20 Ultra, which has the highest price of $ 1399, to Indian rupees using the
exchange of June 13, 2020, and the exchange rate of July 8, 2021, then find the percentage error in the
data.

Exchange rate on: 𝑉𝐴 = actual value (US Dollar to Indian

June 13, 2020 = 1399 × 75.954 = 106259.646
Rupees currency exchange rate on June 13,
2020)
July 8, 2021 = 1399 × 74.7533 = 104579.867
𝑉𝐸 = expected value (US Dollar to Indian
Rupees currency exchange rate on July 8,
𝑽𝑨 − 𝑽𝑬 Figure 20 GDC evidence 9
𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 = | | × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝑬
106259.646 − = 1.606216424%
104579.867
=| = 1.61% (3s.f)
104579.867
| × 100
There is only a 1.61% error in the data; thankfully, there is not much deviation. From my observation,
there is only a 1.2007 Indian rupees difference in the exchange rate of June 13, 2020, and July 8, 2021.

During my research, I also discovered that even when the battery capacity rating is less, I can still make my
mobile phone run for a longer time by following few steps, including turning down the mobile phone
brightness, using fewer apps, turning off Bluetooth, and Wi-Fi, turning off notifications for rarely used apps
are the few basic steps an individual can use to make sure their battery stays alive for a longer time.

Analysis:

Through this research, I was able to find a lot about mobile phones and their history. I was amazed by the
drastic change in the mobile phone industry from 1876 to the present. From the development and
innovation of mobile phones, I saw how the world keeps updating. I also observed that all the mobile
phone brands are using psychological pricing as their pricing strategy, where the price is set less than a
whole number (example, $999). This is just because the companies want their customers to believe that
their product is cheaper. Also, while doing chi-square test, I noticed that all my answers became 0 as I
rounded the value on the expected frequency table to 3 significant figures, so I had to do it again with all
the values shown on the calculator, and I got the 𝜒2𝑦𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 Value to be 0.0000241.

Strength:

I have used the exact three significant figures throughout my research. I also avoided repetitive graphs by
using different graphs such as bar graphs and pie charts to represent the data of battery capacity (𝑥) and
price (𝑦). I used reliable websites, public reviews and blogger’s comments for my research. I also used the
graphical display calculator to cross-check my answers while calculating manually and attached the GDC
picture for evidence and attached the data collection evidnece in the body of the research to prove my
autheticity. As my contingency table is a 2 × 2 matrix the yates’ continuity correction was a valid test.

Recommendations:

From my research I was able to identify few things that a customer must consider before buying a
smartphone. The first and foremost thing the customer should do is to decide the type of operating system
(OS) he/she wants; there two most common OS are ‘IOS’ (iPhone operating system) and ‘Android’. IOS is an
exclusive software found only in the “Apple” products whereas the other brands usually uses android. Then
he/she should choose the storage capacity that they need; the most common storage capacity avaliable in
almost the mobile phones are 32 GB, 64 GB and 128 GB. Only after that they should identify their
preferable battery capacity, camera resolution and screen display. And some other features to consider are
wireless charging, bluetooth version, fingerprint sensor or face unlock and gaming mode.
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