Assignment

Introduction to smart grid

Title:
Latest nuclear reactor technology working in different countries and power plants

Introduction:
Nuclear power plants heat water to produce steam. The steam is used to spin large turbines that
generate electricity. Nuclear power plants use heat produced during nuclear fission to heat water.

In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing energy. Fission takes
place inside the reactor of a nuclear power plant. At the center of the reactor is the core, which
contains uranium fuel.

Methodology:
The uranium fuel is formed into ceramic pellets. Each ceramic pellet produces about the same
amount of energy as 150 gallons of oil. These energy-rich pellets are stacked end-to-end in 12-
foot metal fuel rods. A bundle of fuel rods, some with hundreds of rods, is called a fuel
assembly. A reactor core contains many fuel assemblies.

The heat produced during nuclear fission in the reactor core is used to boil water into steam,
which turns the blades of a steam turbine. As the turbine blades turn, they drive generators that
make electricity. Nuclear plants cool the steam back into water in a separate structure at the
power plant called a cooling tower, or they use water from ponds, rivers, or the ocean. The
cooled water is then reused to produce steam.

Types of reactors:
Nuclear reactors are machines that contain and control nuclear chain reactions while releasing
heat at a controlled rate.

A nuclear power plant uses the heat that a nuclear reactor produces to turn water into steam,
which then drives turbine generators that generate electricity.

 Boiling-water reactor
 Pressurized-water reactor.

Boiling-water nuclear reactors

In a boiling-water reactor, the reactor core heats water, which turns directly into steam in the
reactor vessel. The steam is used to power a turbine generator.
 Diagram of a boiling-water nuclear reactor

Source: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (public domain)

Pressurized-water nuclear reactors

In a pressurized-water reactor, the reactor core heats water and keeps it under pressure to prevent
the water from turning into steam. This hot radioactive water flows through tubes in a steam
generator.

A steam generator is a giant cylinder filled with nonradioactive water (or clean water). Inside the
giant water-filled cylinder are thousands of tubes filled with the hot radioactive water from the
reactor core that eventually bring the clean water to a boil and turn it into steam.

The radioactive water flows back to the reactor core to be reheated, and once reheated, returns to
the steam generator. The clean water may come from one of several sources like oceans, lakes,
or rivers.
 Diagram of a pressurized-water nuclear reactor

Source: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (public domain)

Top 10 countries by cumulative installed nuclear capacity, GW

1. United States - 91.5GW

2. France - 61.3GW
3. China - 50.8GW
4. Japan - 31.7GW
5. Russia - 29.6GW
6. South Korea - 24.5GW
7. Canada - 13.6GW
8. Ukraine - 13.1GW
9. United Kingdom - 8.9GW
10. Spain - 7.1GW

1. United States - 91.5GW of nuclear generation

The United States has a total installed nuclear capacity of 91.5GW, generated by 93 reactors
across 30 states. In 2019, the country used these to generate 843TWh; more than 30% of global
nuclear energy production.

This represents 20% of the country's total electricity consumption, as the US relies more on
natural gas and coal for power generation.

In the state of Georgia, two more reactors are under construction as part of the Vogtle project.
These are expected to come online in 2022, after safety violations in the design of the first
reactor caused delays.
Two old reactors, Indian Point 2 and Duane Arnold with a combined capacity of 1.5GW were
shut down in 2020.

2. France - 61.3GW of nuclear generation

France generates approximately two-thirds of its electricity from nuclear sources, a larger share
than any other country. This centralisation of nuclear expertise has helped lower nuclear costs in
the country, and allowed it to generate approximately 17% of its electricity from recycled
nuclear fuel.

France's connections to the European grid allow it to export more nuclear-generated electricity
than any other country.

The country currently has 56 operational reactors that collectively generated 338.7TWh in 2020.
The French Government has vowed to build more reactors to decarbonise its power generation
by 2050. At the same time, it will shrink the share of nuclear energy in its mix to below 50% by
2035 by increasing its renewable generation.

In 2020, the country's two oldest nuclear units at the Fessenheim Power Station closed due to
environmental concerns. These were originally expected to close with the opening of the new
Flamanville 3 reactor, now due to begin operations in 2023.

3. China - 50.8GW of nuclear generation

A net installed capacity of 50.8GW makes China the third biggest nuclear energy-producing
country in the world. China has 51 nuclear reactors, although nuclear plays a relatively small role
in China's titanic energy system. Nuclear generated only 5% of Chinese electricity in 2019. In
the same year, total nuclear power production reached 330TWh.

China's power system continues to expand rapidly, with 18 reactors currently under construction.
These would add 17.2GW of generation to the country's power systems. Moreover, the
construction of 39 nuclear reactors with a combined gross capacity of 43GW has been planned.

In January 2021, Chinese engineers celebrated the start of operations at the country's first third-
generation pressurised water reactor. The Hualong One is China's first domestically-developed
reactor, designed to be significantly more efficient than existing reactors. Authorities plan to
build more of these in coming years.

4. Japan - 31.7GW of nuclear generation

Japan has 33 nuclear reactors in operation with a net installed capacity of 31.7 GW. while two
reactors (Ohma 1 and Shimane 3) with a net capacity of 2.6GW are under construction.

Before the meltdown of the Fukushima Daiichi plant in March 2011, Japan derived

approximately 30% of its power requirement from nuclear energy. At the time, Japan would have
placed at number three on this list.
Following the incident, the Japanese Government temporarily paused all nuclear generation for
two years. A new national nuclear regulator took over monitoring of plants, and introduced new
checks and practices to prevent any new disasters.

During this time, decreased nuclear generation meant an increase in coal power and coal imports.
The resulting environmental and economic effects proved unpopular, with the Japanese Business
federation saying: "By stopping nuclear power plants, national wealth is flowing overseas."

Since then, generation has slowly resumed. Japan produced 65.7TWh of nuclear electricity in
2019.

5. Russia - 29.6GW of nuclear generation

Russia has 38 operating reactors with a combined net capacity of 29.6GW. At the same time, two
more reactors with a combined net capacity of 2.3GW are under construction as part of the
Kursk II project.

In 2019, Russia produced 195.5TWh of nuclear energy, which accounted for approximately
19.7% of its total electricity generated.

Before the establishment of modern Russia, the USSR was one of the original frontrunners of
nuclear technology. Engineers constructed Soviet-designed reactors throughout much of Eastern
Europe, and today Russia remains a world leader in fast neutron reactor technology

The state-owned nuclear power company, Rosatom, has hopes its Proryv Project will develop a
closed nuclear fuel cycle, based on fast reactors, for industrial implementation on large scale.

6. South Korea - 24.5GW of nuclear generation

South Korea has 24 nuclear reactors in operation, with a combined 24.5GW capacity. Three of
the country's four operational reactors lie in along the country's south-eastern coast, near the
cities of Gyeongju, Ulsan, and Busan. The densely-populated region hosts several heavy
manufacturing plants, causing relatively high electricity demand.

South Korea generated 146TWh of nuclear energy in 2019, while natural gas generated a similar
amount. Each of these fuels generate approximately 25% of the country's total electricity, trailing
behind coal's 42% dominance of the Korean energy market.

The nation has four nuclear reactors (Shin Hanul 1 and 2 and Shin Kori 5 and 6) under
construction, with all four lying along the south-eastern coast. These will add 5.3GW of net
capacity to the Korean grid when finished. Nuclear remains significantly popular in the country,
with an opinion poll in September 2021 showing 72% of the population as supporting nuclear
power generation.
7. Canada - 13.6GW of nuclear generation
Canada has a total of 19 operational nuclear reactors spread across four power plants, most of
them located in the state of Ontario. Collectively, these give the country a net installed capacity
of 13.6GW.

In 2019, Canada generated 94.9TWh of nuclear energy, which accounted for 14.9% of the
country’s total power generation.

All the nuclear power plants in Canada feature Canadian Deuterium-Uranium (CANDU)

reactors, which use pressurised heavy water as a coolant and moderator while using uranium as
fuel.

8. Ukraine - 13.1GW of nuclear generation

Ukraine has 15 operable nuclear reactors with a combined net installed capacity of 13.1GW,
while two reactors (Khmelnitski 3 and 4) are under construction. These pressurised heavy water
reactors will provide a 2GW net capacity when completed.

Ukraine produced 78.1TWh of nuclear energy in 2019, which accounted for 53.9% of the total
electricity produced in the country.

The country is highly dependent on nuclear energy and receives most of its nuclear fuel and
services from Russia. Due to geopolitical disputes, the country proactively purchases fuel from
US company Westinghouse to lessen its dependence on Russia.

9. United Kingdom - 8.9GW of nuclear generation

The UK has a combined net nuclear energy capacity of 8.9GW with 13 operational nuclear
reactors. The country generated 51TWh of nuclear energy in 2019, which represented
approximately 16% of the country’s total electricity output.

Construction has started on two new reactors at the operational Hinkley Point plant, with a
planned combined capacity of 3.3GW. These would generate 7% of the country's current
electricity requirements.

Approximately half of the country’s existing nuclear power reactors will be retired by 2035. The
UK Government intends to support development of at least one new nuclear reactor. The
legislation and funding surrounding this has caused a mixed reaction from nuclear developers,
with several projects proposed and cancelled over the past few years.

10. Spain - 7.1GW of nuclear generation

Until recently, Sweden held the number 10 spot. Following the shutdown of its Ringhals 1 and 2
reactors, the country's installed nuclear capacity fell below that of Spain.

Nuclear currently generates approximately 22% of Spain's electricity. The country has an
installed capacity of 7.1GW, generated by seven reactors. All of these first connected to the grid
between 1983 and 1988, with little consideration to nuclear since.
However, government ministers have called nuclear plants "essential" to the country's energy
grid and lifted limits to their operational lifespans. In 2020 and 2021, six of the country's seven
reactors renewed their licenses for coming years. All of these would expire before 2035, the
deadline for the Spanish Government's planned phaseout of nuclear power.

Announced in 2018, Spain's government said the plan to eliminate nuclear power was a "social
decision", and that it would take decades to complete. Spain currently has three decommissioned
reactors, and the wave of decommissionings would require significant nuclear decommissioning
infrastructure in the country.

Conclusion:

Innovative entrepreneurs and startups are developing new types of reactors to be more efficient
and flexible in operations, reach remote and developing areas, and even turn seawater into
drinking water.

 Advanced reactors include many types of reactors, including small modular reactors

(SMRs), now in development. Several of these new designs do not use water for cooling;
instead they use other materials like liquid metal, molten salt or helium to transfer heat to a
separate supply of water and make steam.

 SMRs are advanced reactors that produce 300 megawatts or less of electricity. They will
be less costly to construct and can be built in factories and shipped to where they are
needed, so they can help power remote areas or developing nations with carbon-free energy.
SMRs also can scale in power output to meet electricity demand, making them ideal
partners to support intermittent renewable energy sources.

 Some advanced reactors will operate at higher temperatures or lower pressures than
traditional nuclear reactors. They also will offer other applications like water desalination
and hydrogen production. Other reactors will be very fuel efficient by producing less waste
or by having extended fuel cycles and not having to stop and refuel for a decade or more.