Lafarge Process Engg Manuals

CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING VADE-MECUM
CHAPTER 4 – PRODUCT QUALITY AND DEVELOPMENT
4. Product Quality &

Development
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. PRODUCT QUALITY & DEVELOPMENT – Page 1/20
INTERNAL USE ONLY Version September 2010
Table of Contents
1. Chemical Characterization ................................................................ 3

1.1. Ignition Loss .................................................................................................... 3
1.2. Silica Ratio ...................................................................................................... 3
1.3. Alumina-Iron Ratio........................................................................................... 3
1.4. Lime Saturation ............................................................................................... 3
1.5. Total Alkalies as Na2O .................................................................................... 3
1.6. Percent Liquid ................................................................................................. 4
1.7. Bogue Formulas .............................................................................................. 4
1.8. K 1450 Burnability Index ................................................................................. 4
1.9. Other Indicators............................................................................................... 6
2. Particle Size Distribution ................................................................... 7
2.1. Rosin-Rammler Number ................................................................................. 7
2.2. Specific Surface Area...................................................................................... 7
2.3. Blaine Surface Area ........................................................................................ 8
3. Sulfate ................................................................................................. 9
3.1. Clinker Sulfates ............................................................................................... 9
3.2. Sulfate Addition ............................................................................................... 9
4. Cement characteristics.................................................................... 11
4.1. Standards requirements................................................................................ 11
4.2. Cement Strength ........................................................................................... 11
4.3. Color.............................................................................................................. 12
5. 10 Basic Facts on Clinker................................................................ 13
6. Advance Indicators .......................................................................... 14
6.1. Raw mix and clinker ...................................................................................... 14
6.2. Finished products .......................................................................................... 15
7. Cement Standards............................................................................ 16
8. References........................................................................................ 19
8.1. Lafarge Quality Technical Standards (LQTS) ............................................... 19
8.2. Knowledge..................................................................................................... 19
8.3. Tools.............................................................................................................. 19
1. Chemical Characterization • KSt I ( Kühl ) =

100C
2.8S + 1.1A + 0.7 F
• In the following formulas:
where:
S = SiO2, M = MgO, A =Al2O3, K = K2O,
A includes ( TiO 2 + P2 O 5 )
F = Fe2O3, N = Na2O3, C = CaO
100 * ( C + 0.75 M )
when not specified: % is in weight in the • KSt III =
raw mix. 2.8 S + 1.18 A + 0.65 F
• Refer to the “LQTS XRF analysis” and It takes MgO into account (when MgO <
“LQTS Free lime by complexometry 2%).
method”.
1.1. Ignition Loss
LSF vs C3S
• Ignition loss = 0.786 * C + 1.092M + 120
combined H2O+ organic matter. y = 0.3367x + 71.6
110
• CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 R2 = 0.9485
100
LSF
44 90
% CO2 = × %CaO
56 80
70
1.2. Silica Ratio
60
• SR =
S
(2.3 to 3.1) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
A+ F C3S
If SR high, hard to burn, thin coating ,
poor clinker reactivity, higher specific
heat consumption. If SR low easy Δbc vs C3S
30
burning but lower clinker reactivity and 25
may cause unstable process conditions 20 y = -0.2734x + 21.552
2
R = 0.9606
1.3. Alumina-Iron Ratio 15
10
(1.3 to 2.0 )
Δbc
A
• AR = 5
Δ
F 0
If AR high with low F then lower liquid -5 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
phase, high viscosity. -10 C3S
-15
1.4. Lime Saturation -20
(On Raw Mix analyses, except C3S)
• C 3 S = 4.07 C − (7.6 Ssol + 6.72 A + 1.43 F )
1.5. Total Alkalies as Na2O
It is the potential C3S content of clinker
when the free lime is zero and • Total as Na 2 O eq = Na 2 O + 0.658 K 2 O
calculation LOI=0.
Rule of thumb
100C •
• LSF = + 0.1% Total Alkali in clinker : -0.5 to -1MPa
2.8 S + 1.18 A + 0.65 F at 28days
100 * ( 2.8 S + 1.65 A + 0.3 F − C )

• Δbc =
S + A+ F +C
It should range between –4 and +4
depending on fuel ash and quality
target.
1.6. Percent Liquid 1.7. Bogue Formulas

(On clinker bases, ref. Les Cahiers Techniques).
a) Calculation (Lea & Parker)
The formulas considered in BRS are:
@ 1338ºC
• A/F<1.38:
a) Formulas
• C 3 S = 4.07 C − (7.6 Ssol + 6.72 A + 1.43 F )
% liquid = 8.2 A − 5.22 F + M + N + K
• A/F>1.38 : • C 2 S = 8.6 Ssol 5.07 A + 1.08 F − 3.07C1
% liquid = 6.1 F + M + N + K • C 3 A = 2.65 A − 1.69 F
• Liquid at 1338C influences the clinker • C 4 AF = 3.04 F
granulation.
with:
@ 1400ºC
C1 = Total CaO for raw mixes,
• % liquid = 2.95 A + 2.25 F + M + N + K
C1 = Total CaO - Free CaO for clinkers
@ 1450ºC C1 = Total CaO - Free CaO - 0.7 SO3
for cements (CEMI)
• % liquid = 3 A + 2.25 F + M + N + K
Ssol= soluble silica (silicate form only)
• 1450 C is most frequently used within
And F may be modified as:
Lafarge.
F = Fe2 O3 − Mn2 O3
• Optimum at 1450C: 25%.
b) SO3 combination
@ 1470 ºC
Step #1:
• % liquid = 1.13 C 3 A + 1.35 C 4 AF + M + N + K
K 2O
• If < 1.176 not all SO3 combined as
SO3
b) Liquid phase impact
K 2 SO4 then SO3 in K 2 SO4 = 0.85 K 2 O
• If liquid phase too high:
Clinker porosity ↓ Step #2:
Grindability ↓ (harder) • Remaining SO3 = SO3 − SO3 in K 2 SO4
1-day strength ↓ Na 2 O
• If < 0.775 not all SO3
• If liquid phase too low: SO3 ( remaining )
C3S formation speed ↓ combined as Na 2 SO4 :
Clinker granulation ↓ SO3 in Na 2 SO4 = 1.292 Na 2 O
Liquid Phase Constituent Impact Step #3:
% free CAO
C3A C4AF K2O • CaO combined with excess SO3
14
18 % 5 % 1% = 0.7 * (SO3 − (SO3 in K 2 SO4 + SO3 in Na 2 SO4 ))
12
18 % 5 % 0%
10
5 % 18 % 1 %
8 1.8. K 1450 Burnability Index
5 % 18 % 0 %
6
a) Calculation
4
This index is representative of the ability of the
2 raw material to combine. The sample is heated
0 (1000ºC/h) in a lab furnace at 1450 ºC for 30
1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 minutes. After burning, the remaining free lime
temperature °C is measured. The ability to combine is
determined by the reaction time of the following
reaction: C 2 S + C → C 3 S
If we accept that this reaction can occur only

after all C 2 S is formed: b) Parameters influencing the Burnability
8 (ref. Cahiers techniques)
6
Heat consumption
K1450 change
difference (%)
4
40
2
0 0
-2
-4 -40
-6
-80
-8 +0.1 % +0.4 % +1 % +1.3 % +0.2 % +3 %
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Lafarge K fluor sol. Na2O Ex.SO3 Fe2O3 P2O5 quartz
equiv. > 63 µ
= k [C 2 S ] • [C ]
d[C ]
•
dt
Rules of thumb
with:
• K 2 SO4 improves the burnability;
[C2S] is the C 2 S concentration at t
[C] is the lime concentration at t • +1% SO3 lowers the combination
k is a constant (function of temp). temperature by 60C;
•
[C o ]− [C ] = [C 2 S o ]− [C 2 S ] • +1% K2O increases the combination
temperature by 35C;
56 172
• increase from 2 to 3% of silica reject at 63
with: microns lowers the K1450 by 30 points (cf
[C°] is the concentration of lime at tº graph);
[C2S°] is the concentration of C2S at tº • + 0.3% CaF2 addition in the raw mix (or
0.23F in the clinker) improves the K1450 by
•
[C ] + Δc = [C2 S ] 10 to 60 points, lowering the burning temp
by 30 to 130C. Unfortunately, it lengthens
56 172 the setting time by 20 - 60min (for +0.1%F in
the clinker in normal burning conditions).
with: Δ
c
is the Δ bc relative at 100%
clinker:
⎛S + A+ F +C ⎞ Impact of fineness
• Δc = Δ bc.⎜ ⎟ • Free Lime = [C ] − 1.89 + 0.48(LSF − 100 ) +
⎝ 100 − LOI ⎠
2.84 (SR − 1.8 ) + 0.27 Q45 + 0.12C125 + 0.12 Aq 45
• K=
1
ln
⎛ [C ] + Δc C o ⎞
⎜ . ⎟
[ ] where:
3.07 Δc ⎜⎝ C o + Δc [C ] ⎟⎠ Q45 = % quartz >45 μm
with: C125 = % calcite >125 μm
o
[C ] = CaO - 1.87 SiO2
Aq45 = % non quartz, acid insoluble
[C] = The remaining free lime in a lab
test in which the raw material is burned >45 μm (excluding dolomite)
for 30 minutes at 1450ºC
Rule of thumb Rules of thumb:
K < 30: Very bad burnability • %(quartz>63μm) < 2%,
30 < K < 45: Bad burnability • %(quartz>45μm) < 2.5%
45 < K < 70: Medium burnability
70 < K < 100: Good burnability
100 < K < 140: Very good burnability
140 < K: Excellent burnability
% free CaO Effects of % 100 µm rejects % free CaO Effects of % 100 µm rejects
6 Quartz type raw mix 6 Marl type raw mix
5 25 % 5
4 4
3 3
2 10 % 2 25 %
1 1
10 %
5%
0 0
1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550
temperature °C temperature °C
1.9. Other Indicators

Burnability Factor
C3 S
• BF =
C 4 AF + C 3 A
Higher BF, harder to burn
Generally BF increases with SR
Burning Factor
• = LSF + 10 SR -3*(MgO + Na2O + K2O)
if >120 ´ harder to burn
Hydraulic Modulus
S + A+ F
• HM =
C+M
Cementation Index
2.8 S + 1.1 A + 0.7 F
• Cl =
C + 1 .4 M
Coating Index
• CT = C3A + C4AF + 0.2 C2S + 2*Fe2O3
Optimum value between 28 to 30,
if <28: light coating,
if >30: heavy unstable coating, rings, snowmen
Alkali saturation
Clinker basis calculation ´ Also refer to the “Volatilisation“ chapter (incrustation limits ´ effect of
sulphur alkali ratio and chlorine upon build up)
2. Particle Size Distribution

2.1. Rosin-Rammler Number
• The Rosin-Rammler curve mathematically approximates most powder particle size distributions:
n
⎡d ⎤
−⎢ ⎥
⎛ ⎛ 100 ⎞ ⎞
R = 100e ⎣ o ⎦ ⎟ ⎟⎟ = n (In( d ) − In( d o ))
d
or ln⎜⎜ ln⎜
⎝ ⎝ R ⎠⎠
d = particle size (μm)
R = % retained at d
do = particle size (μm) @ R = 100/e, approx. 36.8%
n = Rosin-Rammler number
• The formula allows PSD data to be represented as a straight line by plotting:
(In (In 100 )) vs. In (d)

R
n can be calculated by the slope of the least squares line.
The higher the RR number, the steeper the PSD as more particles are found into a narrow size
range.
Rules of thumb
• RR# for high efficiency separator cement: 1.1 - 1.2
RR# for Sturtevant circuit (raw or cement): 0.9 - 1.0
RR# for open circuit cement: 0.8 - 0.9,
• dO = 12-36 μm
• + 0.15 point #RR increases the water demand by 2-3% (ref. Les Cahiers Techniques)
2.2. Specific Surface Area

• The following can be used calculate the Specific Surface Area (SSA), assuming spherical particles:
4
• S i = 4πri2 M i = πri3 p
3
Si = the particle surface area
Mi = the particle weight
ri = the particle radius

ρ = the specific density of particles
• For a size distribution with n particles
4 3
Str = ni * Si = ni * 4πri2 Mtr = ni * πri ρ
3
3 ∗ M tr
Str =
ri ∗ ρ
6f 16 R j − R j +1
•
SSA =
ρ
∑d
j =0 + d j +1
j
F = Form factor (close to 1) do = 0.1 μm d6 = 4 μm d12= 48 μm

ρ = Specific density of cement (g/cm3) d1 = 0.3 μm d7 = 6 μm d13 = 64 μm
Ri = % retained at di d2 = 1 μm d8 = 8 μm d14 = 96 μm
di = Particle size (μm) d3 = 1.5 μm d9 = 12 μm d15 = 128 μm
d4 = 2 μm d10 = 16 μm d16 = 196 μm
d5 = 3 μm d11 = 24 μm
• The 0-3 μm fraction of normal Portland cement accounts for 60% of total surface.
2.3. Blaine Surface Area

• SSB = Blaine Surface Area (in cm2/g). It’s a permeability test. SSB is inversely proportional to the
ability to pass air through a bed of particles. The correlation between calculated SSA and SSB is:
SSA = 807 + 1.2 * SSB
• For cements with n=1 Anselm found:
4 where:
36.8 * 10 - do, n Rosin-Rammler distribution
SSA =
do * n * ρ - ρ = specific density = 3.2 x103 kg/m3
Rules of thumb (Les Cahiers Techniques)

• The Blaine specific surface correlates well (r2 = 0.92) with the % passing 10 µm (same for 8 µm):
+ 1 % passing 10 µm = + 10.8 m2/kg
• + 100 m2/kg SSB Î Range +4 to + 15 MPa , (Averages 2-7 days +8MPa, 1 & 28 days +6 MPa -
pure cements).
Warning:
Cement sulphate addition must be increased with SSB: +100 m2/kg Î + 0.5 to +0.6% SO3.
2% gypsum results in +10m2/kg at 370m2/kg SSB.
Warning:
The use of “weathered clinker” for cement production may significantly impact the measurement of Blaine
Surface Area. In such case the ”Blaine” result looks very fine but 45µ residues are also high. In such
case, when using weathered clinker, double checked with 45µ residue method
Graph 1 Graph 2
15 18
15
12
12
45m R
9 9
6
6
3
3 0
3200 3400 3600 3800 4000 4200 4400 4600 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Blaine Blaine
The graph1 displays an abnormal correlation between Blaine and 45µ residue. After investigation, the cause has
been identified: use of a significant amount of “weathered clinker”. Graph 2 shows a normal correlation.
3. Sulfate
3.1. Clinker Sulfates
• Possible forms of sulfates and alkalies:
as alkali sulfates (small crystals of a few µm) inserted between the clinker phases
as S and alkalies inserted in the crystal structures of silicate and aluminate phases
Clinker rich in alkalies and…
… poor in sulfates … rich in sulfates
• Little alkali sulfate • Much alkali sulfate
• Uncombined alkali: • Little uncombined alkali:
- N and K in orthorhombic C3A - Little K and N in cubic C3A
- K in C2S - Little K in C2S
• Inversed monoclinic C3S • Rhomboedric C3S
• Some sulfur in the uncombined alkali
S in silicates
and
aluminates
alkali sulfates
N and K in Cubic C3A alkali alkali
orthorhombic sulfates sulfates
C3A orthorhombic
Cubic C3A Cubic C3 A
C3A
Clinker sulfate content
Workability
problems, Increase of early-age Clinker harder
plastic strengths to grind
shrinkage
• On the basis of the content of sulfur with respect to alkalies, and the relative proportions of sodium
and potassium, alkali sulfates may be found under different forms:
Thenardite : Na 2 SO4 . This sodium sulfate is rarely seen in clinker.
Aphthitalite : Na 2 SO4 3 K 2 SO4 . Its composition may vary to (3 Na 2 SO4 K 2 SO4 ) .
Arcanite : K 2 SO4 . It is observed when the SO3 / K 2 O molar ratio ranges between 1 and 2.
Calcium langbeinite: 2 CaSO4 K 2 SO4 . This phase is encountered when the SO3 / sodium
equivalent* molar ratio is greater than 2 and the sodium percentage low vis-à-vis potassium.
Anhydrite: CaSO4 . It shows up only when the SO3 / sodium equivalent* molar ratio is greater
than 3.
Note:
Calcium langbeinite form can be also found in sintered clogging/coating after falling from the pre-heater
or kiln wall.
3.2. Sulfate Addition

• Gypsum and/or anhydrite - sulfates are added to control the setting process of the cement, primarily
the rapid setting of the C3A component.
a) False set
• Early development of stiffness without the evolution of much heat. It can be dispelled and plasticity
regained by further mixing without the addition of water [also called "grap set", "premature stiffening",
"hesitation set", "rubber set"].
b) Flash set
• Early development of stiffness usually with considerable evolution of heat. It cannot be dispelled nor
plasticity regained by further mixing without adding water [also called "quick set"]. Reaction is:
C 3 A + nH 2 O + C → C 4 A(H 2 O )n .
c) The Chemistry of False and Flash Set

Components
• Hemihydrate and the anhydrites are the dehydrated forms of gypsum.
Gypsum CaSO4 . 2 H 2 O
β -hemihydrate (plaster of Paris) CaSO4 .0.5 H 2 O
Soluble anhydrite ( CaSO4 .III) CaSO4 .( 0.001 _ 0.5 ) H 2 O
Insoluble (natural) anhydrite CaSO4
• They react differently than gypsum when added to cement.
Reactions
4.5
4
Sulfate solubility
3.5
100
3 Gypsum
Hemihydrate
SO3 solution
2.5 Soluble Anhydrite 80

2 Natural Anhydrite
60
% Dehydr.
(g/l)
1.5
40
1
20
0.
0
0
1 2. 6 1 2 3 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time - Minutes Temp. °C
• Dehydration in the milling process can be thought as beginning at about 80 °C. However, gypsum
dehydration is also a function of the time and % humidity of the surrounding atmosphere.
Hemihydrate reacts differently than gypsum or anhydrite when water is added to cement, due to the
differences in solubility. In the case of too much hemihydrate, which dissolves very quickly and in
substantial quantities in the mix water, false set will occur. While too much hemihydrate will cause
false set, not having enough SO3 available in solution will cause much more serious flash set.
• How to determine the % of gypsum dehydration? Do refer to the National standards.

Example of calculation
% dehydration = 172.17 * LOI 250/ 36.04 (based on the molecular weights)
LOI at 250 degree Celcius
Available Hydration time Type

The following table gives sulphate in of
schematic diagrams of the solution 10 min 1 hour 3 hours set
structure development of cement.
The lattice work represents the Low Low Normal
ettringite crystallization, the set
C3A SO3
platelets - tabular monosulphate
and the rectangles - secondary workable workable set
gypsum.
High High Accelerated
C3A SO3 set
workable set set
High Low Flash

C3A SO3 set
set set set
Low High False

C3A SO3 set
set set set
Optimum sulfate
• S = 1.2(% sol Na 2 O equiv .) + 0.2 (% Al 2 O3 ) + 6.2 10 −3 (BSS ) − 0.7 .
• The sulfate content roughly corresponds to the optimum for 3-day strengths.
• How to conduct “Optimum sulfate trial?”? ´ Refer to the procedure, job aids and experience sharing
Use of grinding aid
• The Technical Agenda on “Grinding aid” provides key solutions / levers for optimizing the setting
process when relevant
4. Cement characteristics
4.1. Standards requirements
• In each country, there are National Standards that shall be strictly applied according to the National
Certification rules. Standards requirements are not negotiable!
• Some Lafarge BUs due to Export markets shall comply with several Certification systems. For
example, Langkawi plant in Malaysia shall comply to Malaysian, Indonesian, Nepalese and European
standards. All those standards requirements are mandatory and not negotiable!
There are at least 2 worldwide “product” standards systems: ASTM and ISO-EN., see extracts - section 8
4.2. Cement Strength

• Theoretical water required to totally hydrate the cement: 35% weight of cement.
• How to perform Compressive strength measurement? Refer to the corresponding LQTS (Lafarge
quality technical standard).
Parameters influencing the cement strength :
A variation of X MPa 1 day 2 days 7 days 28days

StrengthÎ is produced by
(MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa)
an increase of 1 point of:
Sol Na2Eq (%) 10 10 Compressive strength (MPa)

80
Tot Na2Eq (%) -10 C3S
70
C3S (%) 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.6
60 C2S
C2S(%) 0.5
50
C3A (%) 0.5 0.3 0.7
40
Hydration of pure phases
C4AF (%) -0.5 according to Boque and Lerch
30
MgO (%) -1.1 -1.0 -0.8 -0.6
20
C12A7
SO3/totAlk Excess 1.1 1.3 1.5 C3A
10
FCaO (%) 1.1 C4AF
0
7 28 90 180 360 days
D75Belite (μm) -0.2 -0.2 -0.3 -0.3
4.3. Colour
If % Fe 2 O3 is combined with Blaine specific surface (m2/kg), it is possible to explain 97% of the
observed color variations. MgO content will also impact cement color as well as the reducing condition
during the burning will give lighter color of the cement
5. Ten Basic Facts on Clinker
Warning:
Here, MPa is European standard (1.45 EN MPa= 1 US/Can MPa)
1) Raw mix rejects The reduction of raw mix rejects reduces the burning temperature and the cement
grinding energy:
100 µm R in raw mix: 20% Ô 10% ´ - 4 kWh/t on both raw mix & cement grinding.
This is particularly the case for siliceous rejects. This action is also rather favorable to
strengths.
2) Heat profile A short profile helps grindability and strength development. Slow cooling adversely
affects strengths and workability.
Clinkering level: 30 min. Ò 60 min. ´ - 3 to - 10 MPa in the laboratory.
3) Burning atmosphere Production uniformity requires an oxidizing atmosphere because a reducing
atmosphere promotes volatilization ´ "cyclic" operation, sulfate and alkali fluctuations,
thus a non uniform clinker:
SO3 variation in clinker from 1 to 4 % ´ variation in % alkali sulfates ´
possibility of large strength variations at 1 day.
4) Free lime content An increase in clinker free lime content reduces both initial and final setting times
+ 1 % free CaO (up to 1.5%) ´ - 50 min on average (- 10 à - 100 min
depending on clinker).
Similarly, the addition of lime shortens both initial and final setting time.
5) Clinker C 3 S content An increase in clinker C 3 S content (to the detriment of C 2 S ) improves strengths at
1, 2, 3 and 7 days:
+ 10% C 3 S ´ + 2 to + 5 MPa
At 28 days, the increase is less noticeable since there is also a contribution from
C2 S .
6) Clinker C 2 S content At constant Blaine specific surface, grinding energy increases with C 2 S content.
Inversely it reduces with an increase in C 3 S :
+ 10 % C2S ´ + 5 kWh/t for 350 m2/kg SSB

7) Clinker alkali content Alkali always works against 28-day strengths no matter what form they are:
+ 0.1 % Na2O equiv. ´ - 1 MPa
8) Clinker alkali and At optimum sulfate content for early ages, soluble alkalies, in particular in the form of
sulfates sulfates, improve early strengths:
+ 0.1 % Na2O equiv. ´ + 0.5 - 1.5 MPa
Strengths improve with an increase in the C3 A content.

9) Alkali saturation Alkali molar saturation by clinker SO3 facilitates control over workability:
Alkali saturation ´ Ô water demand and Ò fluidity and early-age fc.
10) Excess Sulfate / If clinker SO3 is increased beyond alkali molar saturation, increased clinker fineness
alkali
and higher grinding energy can be observed.
+ 1 % excess SO3 ´ + 4 to 5 kWh/t.
6. Advance Indicators
6.1. Raw Mix and Clinker
ADVANCE E D C B A
N
∑ (C 3 S i − C 3 ST )2
1
KFUI = or
N
i =1
N >30 20-30 14-20 10-14 <10
∑ (LSFi − LSFT )
5
KFUI =
2
N i =1
σ SO3
KSUI = × 100 >30 20-30 12-20 8-12 <8
1 + x SO3
σ fCaO 1.5- 1.2- 1.0-
fCaO.UI = >2 <1.0
0.1 + 0.2 × x fCaO3 2.0 1.5 1.2
Others
N
CUI .(clkC 3S ) = ∑ (C 3 S i − C 3 S average )2
1
< 16
N
i =1
Focusing on Uniformity
Do also study the fluctuation of other key parameters such as Silica modulus, Alkalies, MgO and kiln feed
fineness.
Experience sharing ´ in 2007, a bad performance on kiln reliability was closely related to …K2O
fluctuations! The cause was linked to the use of several clay sources. KFUI was “B/C”!
6.2. Finished products
ADVANCE E D C B A
Strength EN basis 3.0- 2.5- 2.0- <
>3.0
uniformity standard deviation 2.5 2.0 1.6 1.6
28 days ASTM basis and others 2.5- 2.0- 1.7- <
>2.5
Standard deviation 2.0 1.7 1.4 1.4
Calculation Interpretation
Addition For each product: Range of variation is fully independent from
product type and product mix; Variation from
Saturation Addition % Pr oduct − MIN addition %of s tan dard
ASX ( P ) = ×100 0 to100% for any product type.
Index MAX addition % − MIN addition % of s tan dard <0%: not reaching the standard lower limit
requirement
ASX
0%: no benefit is drawn from this product
Products mix of the entity (production site, BU, Region) type
Weighed average with the corresponding volumes for the global portfolio 100%: full benefit is taken from the product
type
>100%: means over passing the standard
limit requirement
Potential For each product:
Free PFK ( P ) = (% Clin ker present − % Clin ker MINimum in the s tan dard ) × Volume of Pr esently produced binder (t / y )
Clinker Add up directly the values of PFK(P) in the entity for all products to get the PFK for a given entity
PFK Results reported in tons/year

Interpret result as the quantity of clinker that can potentially be saved for the same binder volume or used to produce additional
cement
Maximum For each product compute the PFK as

described above but with ASX=100% then
Potential Total present volume of Binder produced (t / y )
MPCK ( E ) = × 100 compute the PFK at entity level then
C/K Total present volume of clin ker used (t / y ) − PFK ( E ) compute MPCK(E) by entity
Result reported without unit
MPCK(E)
COMPARISON OF PORTLAND CEMENT SPECIFICATIONS
ASTM C 150-09, AASHTO M 85-09 & CSA A3001-08
INTERNAL USE ONLY

Updated October, 2009 NORMAL MODERATE HIGH EARLY LOW HEAT SULFATE RESISTANT
CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS ASTM / AASHTO CSA ASTM/AASHTO CSA ASTM / AASHTO CSA ASTM / AASHTO CSA ASTM / AASHTO CSA
I GU GUL II II (MH) MS MH MHL III HE HEL IV LH LHL V HS
Al2O3, max, % 6.0 6.0
2 3
Fe O , max, % 6.0 (k) 6.0 (h,k) 6.5
MgO, max, % 6.0 5.0 6.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 6.0 5.0
7. Cement Standards
SO3, max,%,(j) when C3A < 8% 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.5 3.5 3.0 2.3 2.5 3.0 2.3 2.5
C3A > 8% 3.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 4.5 4.5 3.0 3.0
Loss on Ignition, max, % 3.0 3.0 (e) 10.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 10.0 3.0 3.0 (e) 10.0 2.5 3.0 10.0 3.0 3.0
Insoluble Residue, max, % 0.75 1.5 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 1.5 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
C3S, max, % 35 (h)
C2S, max, % 40 (h)
C3A, max, % 8 8 8 8 15 (c) 7 (h) 6 5 (k) 5
Heat Index, C3S+4.75(C3A) (s) 100
C4AF+2(C3A)) or solid solution
25 (k)
(C4AF+C2F), as applicable, max, %
NaEq(Na2O+0.658K2O), max, % (d) 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved.

Limestone, min-max, % 0.0 - 5.0 (a) 0-5 5 - 15 (b) 0.0 - 5.0 (a) 0.0 - 5.0 (a) 0-5 0-5 5 - 15 (b) 0.0 - 5.0 (a) 0-5 5 - 15 (b) 0.0 - 5.0 (a) 0-5 5 - 15 (b) 0.0 - 5.0 (a) 0-5
Inorganic Processing Addition, max, % 5.0 (v) (g) (g) 5.0 (v) 5.0 (v) (g) (g) (g) 5.0 (v) (g) (g) 5.0 (v) (g) (g) 5.0 (v) (g)
Organic Processing Addition, max, % 1.0 (w) (g) (g) 1.0 (w) 1.0 (w) (g) (g) (g) 1.0 (w) (g) (g) 1.0 (w) (g) (g) 1.0 (w) (g)
PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS
Setting Time, Vicat Test
Minimum, minutes 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45
Maximum, minutes 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 375 250 250 375 375 375 375 375
Setting Time, Gillmore Test (d)
Minimum, minutes 60 60 60 60 60 60
Maximum, minutes 600 600 600 600 600 600
Compressive Strength, MPa (psi) (q)
1-day, min 12.0 (1740) 13.5 13.5
3-day, min 12.0 (1740) 14.5 14.5 10.0 (1450) 10.0 (1450) 14.5 14.5 14.5 24.0 (3480) 24.0 24.0 8.5 8.5 8.0 (1160) 14.5
7-day, min 19.0 (2760) 20.0 20.0 17.0 (2470) 17.0 (2470) 20.0 20.0 20.0 7.0 (1020) 15.0 (2180) 20.0
28-day, min 28.0 (4060) (d) 26.5 26.5 28.0 (4060) (d) 28.0 (4060) (d) 26.5 26.5 26.5 38.0 (d) 17.0 (2470) 25.0 25.0 21.0 (3050) 26.5
current version of the applicable Standards for the full and accurate reference.
91-day, min (d) 33.0 (d)

1-day, max (d) 36.0
3-day, max (d) 32.5 32.5 32.5 43.0 32.5
7-day, max (d) 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0
28-day, max (d) 51.0 51.0 51.0 60.0 51.0
3-day, min (p) 7.0 (1020)
7-day, min (p) 12.0 (1740)
28-day, min (p) 22.0 (3190)
28-day, C.V., max, % (p) 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0
*The data contained in the following tables is intended for information purposes; please consult the
Version September 2010

PRODUCT QUALITY & DEVELOPMENT – Page 16/20
COMPARISON OF BLENDED HYDRAULIC CEMENT SPECIFICATIONS
ASTM C 1157-08a and C 595-09, AASHTO M 240-09, and CSA A3001- 08
Updated December, 2009 ASTM C1157-08a ASTM C 595-09 and AASHTO M 240-09 CSA A3001-08
ASTM /
ASTM / AASHTO ASTM / AASHTO ASTM Ternary
BLENDED CEMENT PROPORTIONS GU HE MS HS MH LH AASHTO Binary
IS (< 70) IP IT Quaternary
IS (≥ 70)
INTERNAL USE ONLY

<70 70-95 <95 max. 70%
Slag content / content variation, % (q) max. 60% *
± 5.0 ± 5.0 ± 5.0 ±5
<40 <40 max. 40%
Pozzolan content / content variation, % (q) max. 60% *
This performance specification covers hydraulic cements for both general and ± 5.0 ± 5.0 ± 2.5
max. 15%
Silica fume content / content variation, % (q) special applications, There are no restrictions on the composition of the cement max. 60% *
± 1.5
or its constituents. max. 50%
Fly ash content / content variation, % (q) max. 60% *
± 2.5
Limestone, max, % 5.0 (w) 5.0 (w) 5.0 (w) 5.0 (w) 5 (w)
ASTM /
ASTM / AASHTO ASTM / AASHTO
AASHTO
IS (< 70)(a) IP (a)
IS (≥ 70) (a)
CHEMICAL REQUIREMENTS GU HE MS HS MH LH N FA (F, CI, CH) S SF (SF, SFI) Ternary
ASTM ASTM ASTM
IT (P<S<70) IT (≥70) IT (P>S)
SiO2, min, % (b) (b) (b)
Al2O3, max, % (b) (b) (b)
CaO, max, % (b) (b) (b)
6.0
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved.

MgO, max, % The chemical composition for the cement is not specified. However, the cement
SO3 (CSA) - Sulfate as SO3 (ASTM), max, % shall be analyzed for informational purposes. 3.0 (c) 4.0 (c) 4.0 (c) 3.0 (n) 3.0 (n) 3.0 (n.o) 3.0 (n) 3.0 (n)
Sulfide S, max, % 2.0 2.0 2.0 (p)
Insoluble Residue, max, % 1.0 1.0 1.0
Loss on Ignition, max, % 3.0 4.0 5.0 10.0 6.0 3.0 3.5 6.0
ASTM / AASHTO ASTM / ASTM / AASHTO
IS (< 70) AASHTO IP
ASTM
IS (≥ 70) ASTM
PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS GU HE MS HS MH LH GUb MSb MHb HEb LHb HSb
IT (P<S<70) IT (P>S)
ASTM
GU MS HS GU MS HS LH (k)
IT (≥70)
Setting time, Vicat test
Minimum, minutes 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 60 60 45 90 60
Maximum, minutes 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 480 480 480 250 480 480
Air content (mortar), volume, max, % (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) 12 (f) 12 (f) 12 (f) 12 (f) 12 (f) 12 (f) 12 (f) 12 (f)
Compressive Strength, MPa (psi) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (f) (l) (l) (l)
1-day, min 10 (1450) 13.5
3-day, min 13 (1890) 17 (2470) 11 (1600) 11 (1600) 5 (725) 13.0 (1890) 11.0 (1600) 11.0 (1600) 13.0 (1890) 11.0 (1600) 11.0 (1600) 14.5 14.5 14.5 24.0 14.5
7-day, min 20 (2900) 18 (2610) 18 (2610) 11 (1600) 11 (1600) 20.0 (2900) 18.0 (2610) 18.0 (2610) 5.0 (720) 20.0 (2900) 18.0 (2610) 18.0 (2610) 11.0 (1600) 20.0 20.0 20.0 8.5 20.0
28-day, min 28 (4060) 28.0 (s) 25 (3620) 22.0 (s) 21 (3050) 25.0 (3620) 25.0 (3620) 25.0 (3620) 11.0 (1600) 25.0 (3620) 25.0 (3620) 25.0 (3620) 21.0 (3050) 26.5 26.5 26.5 38.0 (s) 25.0 26.5
91-days, min 33.0 (s)
28-day, C.V., max, % (m) 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0
Version September 2010

PRODUCT QUALITY & DEVELOPMENT – Page 17/20
EN 197-1 (2000) ´ Tables are extracted from BS EN 197-1
8. References
8.1. Lafarge Quality Technical Standards (LQTS)
• XRF Analysis for In-coming materials, In-process materials and finished products
• Free lime analysis by Complexometry method
• Fineness by Blaine
• Monitoring the quality of laboratory measurements
• Effective quality control plan
• Compressive strength measurement
8.2. Knowledge
• Lafarge product platform (problem analysis)

• Technical Memento
• Minor Elements Database
• Cementitious Database
• Grinding Aids Technical Agenda Study
• Les Cahiers Techniques
8.3. Tools
• Concrete Predictive Model Database

• EN conformity evaluation tool
• Standards
• Micro-concrete
• Model for balancing trace elements in a plant
• TYTP toolkit
My notes:
CHAPTER 5 – ENVIRONMENT
5. Environment
© Copyright 1990 - 2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. ENVIRONMENT 1 /20
Table of Contents
1. NOx ...............................................................................................................3
1.1 NOx generalities ............................................................................................. 3
1.2 NOx formation in the kiln ................................................................................ 3
1.3 NOx Formation in the Precalciner .................................................................. 5
1.4 NOx Abatement Methods ................................................................................ 5
2. SO2 ...............................................................................................................7
2.1 SO2 from combustion ..................................................................................... 7
2.2 SO2 from raw material.................................................................................... 7
2.3 Best Available Control Technologies (BACT) for SO2 emissions .................. 7
3. Dust ..............................................................................................................8
3.1 ESP................................................................................................................. 8
3.2 Baghouse...................................................................................................... 10
3.3 Hybrid filters.................................................................................................. 11
3.4 Gas Conditioning & Cooling ......................................................................... 11
4. Mercury ......................................................................................................12
4.1 Hg Generalities ............................................................................................. 12
4.2 Fate of Mercury in the Cement Process ....................................................... 13
4.3 Mercury Abatement Methods ....................................................................... 13
4.4 Regulation..................................................................................................... 13
5. Dioxins & Furans.......................................................................................13

5.1 Dioxins & Furans Formation ......................................................................... 13
5.2 Influencing factors of stack PCDD/Fs levels in cement kilns ....................... 14
5.3 Primary measures and process optimization to reduce PCDD/Fs............... 14
5.4 Regulations................................................................................................... 15
6. Carbon Dioxide..........................................................................................15
7. Others.........................................................................................................16
7.1 Molar ratio calculation (DeNox Example)...................................................... 16
7.2 Correction to Standard Oxygen Conditions.................................................. 16
7.3 Continuous Emission Monitoring (CEMS) .................................................... 17
7.4 Emission Ranges for European Cement Kilns ............................................. 17
7.5 European AF Kiln Emission Limits ............................................................... 18
8. References .................................................................................................19
8.1 Lafarge Documents ...................................................................................... 19
8.2 External Documents ..................................................................................... 19
1. NOx
1.1 NOx generalities

• Gross NOx emissions are typically in the range of 500 to 1,500 ppm being closely related to kiln
combustion conditions.
• In the cement industry normally, 95% of NOx formed is nitric oxide (NO). This gas is colourless and
is readily transformed into NO2 in air.
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a reddish-brown gas and is the principal component of smog. The toxic
effects of NO2 are not completely known, but an exposure to 15 ppm NO2 causes eye and nose
irritations and 25 ppm causes pulmonary discomfort.
• Nitrous Oxide (N2O) represents <1% (typically 10 - 20 ppm) of NOx produced in a cement kiln. It is
very stable and is considered to play a role in the destruction of ozone.
1.2 NOx formation in the kiln

a) Thermal NOx formation mechanisms
• Thermal NOx is defined as that portion of the oxides of nitrogen that originate from fixation of
atmospheric nitrogen. The principal reactions for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen are generally
recognised as follows (Zeldovich mechanism):
O + N 2 → NO + N
N + O2 → NO + O
N 2 + O2 → 2 NO
• In an oxidising atmosphere NO is formed. ALL steps listed above are reversible in a reducing
atmosphere, depending on exact temperature and partial pressure conditions at a given point in the
flame.
• Thermal NO formation kinetics are slow compared with fuel oxidation reactions and may be
disassociated from the combustion process. Thus final NO concentrations never reach levels
predicted by thermodynamic equilibrium at temperatures used.
• Some studies (Fenimore, Bowman,...1971) found that the rates of thermal NOx formation in the
primary flame zone were considerably higher than those in the post flame zone. This “fast NO”
formation occurred at rates greatly exceeding the rate predicted by the O, N atom equilibrium
mechanism. Some NO is formed before the O atom has had chance to form O2 (second
hypothesis).
b) Prompt NOx formation mechanisms
• Prompt NO is formed by the breaking of N2 bonds by “CH” hydrocarbonaceous radicals released

primarily by the fuel instead of O2 radicals in practical terms the amounts are negligible (less than
100ppm).
c) Fuel NOx
• The “fuel NOx” is due to the nitrogen conversion in the flame during the combustion. Nitrogen is
mainly contained in aromatic compounds.
• Rule of thumb : 0.2 to 2% N in fuel may yield 60 to 2100 ppm NO
• Many fuels contain significant quantities of chemically bound nitrogen. Some oils can have nitrogen
in excess of 2-4% and many liquid hazardous wastes can contain even higher levels. The following
table shows the potential NO formation from different fuels, expressed in ppm of neutral combustion
gas:
FUEL Nitrogen % Potential NO

ppm @ 0% O2
Natural Gas 0 0
Fuel Oil 0.3 – 0.5 500 – 800
Fuel Oil 0.5 – 1.0 800 - 1600
Coal 0.5 – 2 1200 – 4900
Petcoke 1-2 1800 - 3600
d) What Affects the NOx Formation in the Kiln?
The Oxygen Level 1 Nox reduction in natural gas flame

NA combustion book, p164
• O2 level affects the formation of both fuel and 0.8

thermal NOx which is explained by the fact
Nox/Nox ambient air
that NOx formation requires a free oxygen 0.6

atom. 0.4
• Even if NO is formed, reducing conditions 0.2
(even local) and high temperature can Oxidant oxygen level (%)
produce NO separation into N2 and O2 – 0
lowering total NO produced. 21 20 19 18
Combustion air temperature

400 600
Air 500 Air
NO (ppm)
300
NO, ppm
NO thermal Ar/O2 400

Thermal NOx
200 300
NO combustible Ar/O2
200
100
100 Fuel NOx
0
0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 50
Excess air
Excess air
NO formation with ambient air NO formation with preheated air - 275 °C
• This shows that the preheated air increases thermal NOx but not fuel NOx.
• Formation of thermal NOx is strongly dependent on the flame temperature and a few factors can
affect it.
Flame Shape
• The hotter the flame, the higher the NOx emission so the burner pipe settings affecting the flame
shape also have an impact on the NOx emission: i.e. primary air, combustible fineness, volatiles
content...
1.3 NOx Formation in the Precalciner

• NOx generated in the calciner is mainly fuel related. Thus we’d rather use low N content fuel.
• About 60% of the fuel nitrogen is converted into NOx in a PH/PC tower (cf. Davenport Kiln audit
1997, 64%).
a) What Affects the NOx Generation in the Precalciner?
CO Level
• The CO presence (even ppm level) indicates reducing atmospheres which affects NO formation.
Low-NOx precalciners create local reducing atmospheres to reverse NO formation. However, large
amounts of CO are produced and thus require a low temperature post burn to control the quantity of
CO emitted. Rule of thumb: 3 sec. residence time (Richmond FLS – ILC). Some FLS designed ILC
in South America also employ 3 circuit burners, which are claimed to contribute to lower NO
formation. It is possible to create reducing atmospheres in a calciner by relocating the fuel injection
point.
Oxygen Level
• The fuel nitrogen needs oxygen to be transformed into NOx so that the NOx level will increase with
the oxygen level. This is true for conventional precalciner designs. This is not true for Low-NOx
precalciners, since O2 levels include the excess air required for post burn.
Temperature
• Some tests were performed by FLS. An increase of the precalciner flame temperature seems to
reduce the NOx emission but this phenomenon is not yet well understood.
1.4 NOx Abatement Methods

a) Methods
For further details, see Technical Agenda: “NOx reduction techniques study”.
Process Mastery
1) Improve KFUI: permits the operator to burn consistently at a lower temperature.
2) Improve mix burnability: lower clinkerization temperature (not always applicable).
3) Improve clinker cooler stability: Minimize secondary air temperature fluctuations that can affect
flame temperatures. For air separate precalciners, it stabilizes the tertiary air temperature.
4) Avoid over burning: Points 1, 2. also consider burning practices and the employment of LUCIE.
5) Reduce excess air
6) Reduce Primary air – lower limit depends upon fuel burned
7) Optimise burner settings
Modifications
8) Lower Fuel Nitrogen
9) Install a Low-NOx burner – high momentum with low primary air
10) Inject water - limited application due to higher fuel consumption
11) Whole tire injection (preheater kiln): Creates reducing atmospheres,
12) Injecting fuel into lower part of kiln riser to create a reduction zone. Consider mid-kiln fuel
injection on long kilns and above calciner in Lepol grates
13) Staged Fuel Combustion (SFC): to create a long enough reducing atmosphere zone (NOx -> N2):
<800mg/Nm3 with low reactive fuels and <500mg/Nm3 with high reactive fuels.
Post-combustion control technologies

14) Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) with ammonia or Urea Injection. Optimum
temperature ranges (850 to 950°C for urea and 900 to 1000°C for NH3). Ammonia emission
(ammonia slip) can become an issue at the lowest NOx levels.
15) Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) using NH3 in presence of a catalyst with potential for low
NOx emission (pilot plants with 90% NOx reduction) without ammonia slip. However, it is still a
developing technology for cement industry and experience is limited. Optimum temperature
window for SCR is 350 – 400°C. Two main configurations are proposed – high dust design at
preheater exit, requiring frequent cleaning of catalyst and resulting in reduced catalyst lifetime
and a low dust design after the waste gas de-dusting requiring reheating of the gases to the
temperature window.
2. SO2
2.1 SO2 from combustion

See also chapter Volatile in section pyroprocessing
• 1% sulphur in heavy fuel oil yields 700 ppm SO2 in the dry stoichiometric products of combustion.
2.2 SO2 from raw material

A large part of the S content in raw material (sulphates and sulphides) forms SO2 in the upper stages of
the preheater and is the main source of stack emissions of SO2 for a preheater / precalciner kiln system.
The ability of different process to trap the SO2 is described in the following table:
2-
S /total SO Online operation Trapping by
Kiln type Process Mastery 3
Mastery of raw mill process
Long wet High Low - Medium

Long dry High Low High Medium
LEPOL Medium Medium - Medium
Pre-heater/Pre- Low High High High
Calciner
A special case is the kiln line equipped with a Chlorine by-pass: the amount of SO2 (in some cases up to
10000ppm) in the by-passed stream can require the addition of some form of SO2 trapping equipment.
2.3 Best Available Control Technologies (BACT) for SO2 emissions

(see Cembureau BAT reference document 2000/03)
Max. SO2 Kiln
SO2 reduction CAPEX
[mg/Nm³] systems Comments
[%] (M€)
(10%O2, dry) applicability
Slaked lime – Ca(OH)2 < 1200 < 60 - 80 0.2 – 0.3 [1]
Slaked lime(slurry) - Micromist and
? ~90 - Dry
Ca(OH)2 [2] others [3]
Circulating fluidized None in
bed Absorber (CFBA) operation in
> 1200 (1500) <90 ~11 Dry
cement
industry
Wet Scrubber > 1200 75 - ~95 10 – 14 All
Activated carbon Adsorbs other
> 1200 ~95 15 Dry pollutants
from gases
Efficiencies are given for optimum process conditions and cannot be guaranteed for all installations.
[1] Dry addition to kiln feed or gas flow after preheater.
[2] Slurry addition in conditioning tower, with special solution of “Micromist/ENVIROCARE”.
[3] Limited practical experiences in Lafarge and reported unreliable operation (blockage and wear of
nozzles). Reported high efficiencies only achieved for a very short time.
Wet scrubber and slaked lime addition are the only ones believed applicable and reliable.
NB: there is an draft updated version of BAT (chapters 19, 20) published in 2009, less exhaustive than
the previous one, that only refers to absorbent addition and wet scrubber; it also mentions an optimisation
of raw milling process (for dry lines) to reduce SO2.
⇒ See Technical Agenda study Gas Scrubber for more details.
3. Dust
3.1 ESP
a) Collection efficiency
• Gas velocity impacts treatment time and power density (range from 0.6 – 1.5 m/s).
• Specific collecting area (SCA) in ranges from 60 - 180 m2/Am3/s
• Migration velocity W (Lafarge NA cement kilns): 30 to 110 cm/s.
• For a four field ESP with 80% collection efficiency, you will get an overall efficiency of 99.8%.
Cumulative
Entering Collected
Field # Collection
(kg) (kg)
Efficiency
1 100.0 80.0 80.0 %
2 20.0 16.0 96.0 %
3 4.0 3.2 99.2 %
4 0.8 0.6 99.8 %
• Modified Deutsch Equation: Efficiency= 1 – (exp – {(A/Q)*W}0.5), where
Q is the gas flow through precipitator, A is the Collection area and SCA (A/Q) is usually calculated to
reach the efficiency problem to compute the migration velocity W, 0.5 is an empirical factor.
Process Range of migration Range of SCA

velocity (cm/s) m2/(m3/s)
Wet Kilns 30 – 80 60 - 110
Long Dry Kilns 30 – 60 80 - 180
PH/PC Kilns 45 – 110 65 - 115
Data for ESPs on PC kilns with 400 mm plate spacing and dust emission < 50 mg/Nm3:
SCA m2/(m3/s)
Main ESP – Direct Operation 70 - 90

Main ESP – Compound Operation 50 – 70
Cooler Exhaust 90 - 120
• Operating voltage: 30 to 70 kV (in some cases up to 100kV), depending on design factors.

• Operating current density: 5 to 50 mA/ m2.
• Dust layer thickness: 0.75 to 1.5cm.
b) Load and particle size

Higher voltage gives increased collection efficiency. Usually, the first field will collect the biggest particles
and consequently, the finest will be found in the last field. Finer particles are more difficult to capture as
shown in the following typical curve:
Efficiency %
99.99
99.8
98
90
0.1 1 10 50
. Particle Size µm
Volatile compounds such as salts of alkali metals and chlorine have a tendency to be attached to the finer
dust. Hence separation of dust from the outlet field(s) can be an effective way of bleeding volatile
compounds from the process.
c) Gas moisture impact
• Gas moisture controls the ability to maintain power input.

• Power increases with moisture at elevated temperatures up to an optimum one.
• Moisture allows conductance of electrons through dust layer allowing surface voltage to decrease
(i.e., higher effective kV) and suppresses space charge effects of fine particles (i.e. reduces
sparking).
Impact of Moisture & Temperature upon Dust Resistivity
• Volume of moisture required is not constant and changes with temperature, particle size chemistry,
loading and ESP design (i.e., site specific)
3.2 Baghouse
a) Filter media
• There are two types of filter media:

Woven
Felt
• Cloth type and weight are selected, based on temperature, moisture (because of hydrolysis) and
resistance (acid, alkali, oxidation and abrasion). Mostly used in cement industries are:
Max. temp. on Lifetime
Generic name type Trade name type continuous op. Application guarantee
(ºC) (years)
Polypropylene Herculon 125 General 2

Polyester Dacron 130 General, mills 2
Glass Fiberglass 260 Kiln, cooler 3
Polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) Teflon 250 Kiln, cement 4
Expanded PTFE Rastex, Gore-tex 250 Kiln 3–4
Expanded PTFE/Glass Superflex 250 Kiln 5–6
Aromatic Aramid Nomex 190 Kiln, cooler 2–3
Polymide P 84 240 Kiln 2–3
b) Air/Cloth (A/C) ratio (or filtration velocity)
Configuration Recommended Net A/C m3/s/m2/min Pressure drop ΔP

Styles De-dusting Mills Kiln Coolers mm Hg
Shaker type 0.6 – 0.8 0.6 – – 7.5 – 11
Reverse air 0.6 – 0.8 0.6 0.45 – 0.55 0.5 – 0.6 7.5 – 11
Pulse-jet 1.2 – 1.8 1.2 0.9 – 1.1 1.0 – 1.3 9 – 19
c) Bag length
• For an optimised cleaning effect and longer bag lifetime, the maximum acceptable bag length for a
high pressure system is 4m and 7m for the low pressure ones.
•
d) Cleaning of Pulse-jet Filters
• Cleaning can be either online or offline, however, online cleaning is generally preferred due to a
lower capital cost. Also online cleaning will lead to more consisted dust flow from the filter,
compared to the offline mode
• Filter designs are available with high pressure (6.5 bar) or low pressure (2.5 bar) cleaning. The
advantage of the latter is the increase in bag lifetime to 4-6 years compared with 3-4 years with the
high pressure design. Longer bags can also be used with the low pressure design.
3.3 Hybrid filters

• There is a mix -solution for process filters: those that are formed by an electrostatic field in the first
part and a bags section in the second.
• This is a common solution when upgrading a ESP (higher line capacity, adaptation to new
regulations, etc.) that can save money (assuming good conditions for casing, electrical part and
dust evacuation, the cost of a hybrid filter in an existing ESP casing can be less expensive than a
new filter).
• This solution guarantees the emissions in case of a short-time electrical part malfunctioning while
reducing the total pressure loss, air consumption, and increasing the lifetime of bags. A separation
of CKD from different uses is also possible.
3.4 Gas Conditioning & Cooling

• In older plants using electrostatic precipitators for the kiln, gas conditioning towers (GCTs) were
fitted for gas conditioning to ensure efficient dust collection
• Modern plants using bag filters are normally fitted with downcomer sprays to reduce gas
temperature to a temperature that can be safely handled by the filter bags, normally 200 – 220°C.
• GCT’s and duct cooling are benchmarked using evaporation rate:
waterflow(kg / hr )
Evaporation _ Rate(kg / hr / m 3 ) =
Effective _ tower _ volume(m 3 )
The effective tower (or duct) volume is defined as the volume available in the straight vertical part
starting from the spray entry level.
• Typical GCT proportions: Length (effective) to Diameter ratio 3 to 4
Spillback systems:
High pressure (40 Bar) pumps provided atomization at the nozzles, with flow control fitted on a
water return line.
Relatively large droplet size 380 – 450 µm : low evaporation rates 15 – 18 kg/hr water / m3 tower
volume
Variability of droplet size with flow often meant difficult transitions switching from raw mill on to
raw mill off condition and vice versa.
Difficulty to maintain 150°C outlet temperature
• Air Atomised systems:

Improved atomization with compressed air overcame most of the problems with spillback
systems
Smaller droplet size 125 – 250 µm depending upon the nozzle design and quantity of
compressed air used.
Potential to uprate existing plants and still maintain ESP performance
Possibility to use air atomised nozzles for gas cooling in the downcomer (assuming a straight
vertical duct) to 200°C when using a bag filter for main dust collector, i.e. no need for a GCT to
be installed
Increase in power consumption due to compressed air 1 – 2 kWh/t clinker
Typical design evaporation rates are up to 30 kg/hr/m3 for GCT’s and up to 50 kg/hr/m3 for
cooling in the downcomer. However, “wet bottoms” have been experienced when operating
near these upper values.
• Multi-Nozzle Lances:
Recognising the negative impact upon power consumption, one supplier, Lechler, has developed
Multi-Nozzle lances as a solution to improve old spillback systems without having to go to an Air
Atomised system.
The design provides smaller droplet sizes than older spillback systems at around 350 µm
Operating evaporation rates with these nozzles have been reported up to 24 kg/hr/m3 maximum
from installations in Lafarge.
4. Mercury
4.1 Hg Generalities
• Mercury enters the kiln system with the raw materials and fuels.
• Raw materials contribute the majority (60-95%) of Hg input into the cement manufacturing process.
• While raw materials typically have lower mercury concentrations than coal, raw material contribution
is larger due to greater mass flow. Limestone influence is the greatest. The range for Limestone is
from 0.004 ppm up to 0.81 ppm. High levels have been seen in the layer in contact with clay and
shale.
• Variability of mercury concentrations in raw materials is significant
maximum minimum A verage
ppb ppb ppb
100000
10000
1000
100
10
Mercury Concentrations in Kiln Feed Materials (Lafarge data 2005-2008).
• Significant contribution to total mercury has been noted for plants with elevated mercury content in
fly ash due to mercury capture in power plants.
• Hg is highly concentrated in the CKD. The range for CKD is from 0.06ppm up to 40ppm.
• Hg concentration in the clinker is very low. Hg removal by clinker is negligible.
4.2 Fate of Mercury in the Cement Process

• The mercury vaporizes from the raw material at temperatures between 200°C and 700°C, while
mercury in the fuel vaporizes in the flame.
• The mercury is adsorbed by the solids in the cold end of the kiln, which are captured in the ESP or
bag-house.
• The mercury captured by the ESP or bag-house can be recycled to the pyro-process with the dust.
If so, a recirculation loop is established that builds up the mercury levels in the gas and entrained
solids until a steady state is established.
• If the ESP or Fabric Filter temperature is reduced or if kiln gas is passed through the raw mill (when
the mill is on line), the mercury emissions in the stack will be reduced due to the higher absorption
by the solids. As the solids are recycled to the kiln, the levels of emissions will gradually return to
the original values, in the absence of dust removal. However, if dust is removed, the amount of
mercury removed with the dust will increase with decreases of ESP or bag-house temperature, so
that the net emissions of mercury will be reduced.
4.3 Mercury Abatement Methods

a) Primary Measures
• The primary measures to stop an Hg enrichment cycle must be applied individually or by

combination:
⇒ A reduction of the Hg inputs by selecting raw materials and/or fuels with a low Hg content.
⇒ CKD removal, which is the most efficient factor, added to the cement milling stage.
⇒ Hg removal can be improved by a temperature reduction at the inlet of the de-dusting
system via an improved Hg trapping on the particles (raw meal, CKD, reagent …).
• These measures are detailed in the TA Mercury Fate & Control.
b) Secondary Measures
• Secondary Abatement Measures are proposed in the TA Mercury Fate & Control.
4.4 Regulation
• The regulations are changing with moves to lower emissions of mercury, therefore up to date
national regulations need to be consulted.
• As an example national regulations in European countries range from 30 – 200 µg/Nm3 (dry gas
10% Oxygen, 101.325 kPa and 273 K) for half hourly averages. (Jan 2010).
5. Dioxins & Furans
5.1 Dioxins & Furans Formation

PCDD/Fs can derive from volatile organics in the raw meal and Cl-donors from fuel or raw mix.
• Organics partially combust hence producing benzene-type compounds or precursors (most likely
precursors in cement kilns are: polychlorophenols, polychlorobenzene, phenol, benzene,
dibenzofuran).
• Precursors react in:

Gaseous phase (mainly 400-700°C): combination of 2 benzene compounds to form PCDD/Fs,
Heterogeneous phase i.e. on dust surface (mainly 300-500°C) where they react with Cl2 and HCl
+ O2 with a metal catalyst (eg: Cu, Fe, Ni, Al, Zn) to form PCDD/Fs.
5.2 Influencing factors of stack PCDD/Fs levels in cement kilns

The formation of PCDD/Fs needs several factors at the right level (Temp.; residence time; Cl; precursors;
catalyst) otherwise the formation of PCDD/Fs is not possible. Most of the time emissions levels of most of
the cement kilns are extremely low.
The main factors influencing PCDD/Fs are:
• Temperature: 400°C is the optimum temperature for PCDD/Fs formation by catalysis on dust. No
formation below 180-220°C.
• Residence time: positive correlation if within temp. window / kiln type (long or short, with gas
quenching or not at filter inlet).
• Presence of catalyst: Cu, Fe, Ni, Al, Zn.
• Presence of Cl (but no correlation Cl/HCl vs PCDD/Fs)
• Presence of hydrocarbons from raw materials (but no correlation THCs vs PCDD/Fs)
• Rate of adsorption desorption on dust: gases through raw mill on or not, bypass or not,
baghouse – filter cake acts as adsorbent – or ESP, accumulation of dust in the ducts.
• SO2 emissions: SO2 react with Cu Æ inhibits the catalyst reaction.
5.3 Primary measures and process optimization to reduce PCDD/Fs

By experience, the 6 first primary measures have shown to be sufficient to operate below the emissions
limits.
• Continuous and regular supply of fuels and alternative fuels.
• Pre-treatment / preparation of waste (waste specific) with the objective to provide a more
homogeneous feed and more stable combustion conditions.
• Feeding of alternative fuels through the main burner or the secondary burner at precalciner-pre-
heater kilns at temperature > 900°C.
• No alternative material feed as part of raw-mix if it includes organics.
• Stabilisation of process parameters.
• No alternative fuels feed during start-up and shut-down.
• Check the rates of adsorption desorption on dust: gases through raw mill on or not, bypass or not,
baghouse – filter cake acts as adsorbent – or ESP, accumulation of dust in the ducts.
• Check the presence of catalyst.
• Compare SO2 emissions from the past with present situation. SO2 react with Cu Æ inhibits the
catalyst reaction.
• Quick cooling of kiln and by-pass exhaust gases lower than 200°C – target 180°C.
• Reduce the retention time of the exit gas in the temperature window of 450°C-200°C at least below
5-10 seconds.
5.4 Regulations
References EU reference US reference
Temp. : 0°C Temp. : 20°C
Pressure : 101,3 kPa Pressure : 101,3 kPa
O2%vol : 10% O2%vol : 7%
Limits Basis : dry Basis : dry
EU regulation 0.1 ng TEQ/Nm
3
0.119 ng TEQ/Nm3
US Regulation (EPA)
PMCD* inlet ≥ 204°C 0.169 ng TEQ/Nm3 0.2 ng TEQ/Nm

3
PMCD* inlet < 204°C 0.337 ng TEQ/Nm3 0.4 ng TEQ/Nm

3
* Particulate matter control Device

Table from TA DIOXINS & FURANS STUDY - May2004 - version n°1
Regulations expressed as TEQ – Toxic Equivalent
Additional information is available in the Technical Agenda DIOXINS & FURANS STUDY – May 2004 –
version 1.
6. Carbon Dioxide
• The cement industry contributes around 5% of global industrial CO2 emissions and is therefore
considered as a major emitter
• Direct sources of CO2 emissions are the carbonates in the raw feed and from the combustion of
fuels. Typical direct emission for a modern preheater/precalciner plant are 850 – 900 kg CO2/t
clinker, with around 60% from the calcination of raw materials and the rest from fuel combustion.
• Indirect emissions are from electric power consumed by the plant. Our main concern is to reduce
power consumption. Indirect emissions per MWh vary widely dependant upon the method of
electricity production.
• Main short term options for reduction of direct emissions:
Increased use of additives in cement to reduce clinker usage
Improve fuel consumption of process
Increased use of biomass fuels, considered as carbon neutral
Use of fuels with lower CO2 intensity (e.g petcoke 95 kg CO2/GJ)
• Potential options for the future
New clinkers / cements requiring less calcium carbonates in raw materials
More energy efficient processes
CO2 capture and storage
7. Others
7.1 Molar ratio calculation (DeNox Example)

This part explains how to calculate the molar ratio for a DeNOx system using ammonia solution at 25% of
NH3 in mass. The same principle can be used for another component (HCl; SO2…) and another reagent.
• These definitions have been addressed in the TA Study on NOx reduction techniques – Appendix
14 – page 18.
Stack gasflow: 200 000 Nm3/h dry at 10% O2.
Initial NOx (eqNO2 ) emission, without reagent: 1 500 mg/Nm3 dry at 10% O2.
NOx flow: 200 000 x (1500 / 1000) = 300 000 g/hr.
NOx molar rate : 300 000 / 45.9995 = 6522 mole/hr.
Final NOx (eqNO2 ) emission, with reagent : 500 mg/Nm3 dry at 10% O2.
NOx flow: 200 000 x (500 / 1000) = 100 000 g/hr.
NOx molar rate: 100 000 / 45.9995 = 2174 mole/hr. (45.9995 g/mole for NO2)
NOx molar rate reduction: 6522 – 2174 = 4348 mole/hr.
SNCR reagent: 500 l/hr (453.7 kg/hr) of ammonia solution of 25% in mass of NH3, with a density
of 0.9073 kg/litre at 20°C.
Actual NH3 injected: 453.7 x 25/100 = 113.41 kg/hr
NH3 molar rate : (113.41 x 1000) / 17.0306 = 6660 mole/hr
SCNR Process Efficiency:

Net Molar Ratio: NH3 molar rate / NOx molar rate reduction = 6660 / 4348 = 1.53.
NOx reduction rate : NOx molar rate reduction / Initial NOx molar rate = 4348 / 6522 = 66.7%
The specific consumption of 25%NH3 solution kg / kg NOx reduced is:
453.7 kg/hr / (200,000 g/hr NOx reduced / 1000) = 2.27
Gross Molar Ratio is: NH3 molar rate / Initial NOx molar rate = 6660 / 6522 = 1.02
NH3 yield = NOx molar rate reduction /nb mole NH3injected = 0.65.
7.2 Correction to Standard Oxygen Conditions

How to transform a process measurement to references conditions?
• Measurement:
450ppm NO
8%O2
• If reference conditions are 10%O2
⎛ 0.21 − [O2 ]reference ⎞

[NO]reference = ⎜⎜ ⎟ × [NO ]measured
⎝ 0.21 − [O2 ]measured ⎠
⎟
[NO]reference = ⎛⎜ 0.21 − 0.10 ⎞⎟ × 450 = 519 ppm

⎝ 0.21 − 0.08 ⎠
7.3 Continuous Emission Monitoring (CEMS)

• CEMS are required by most national regulations often with online reporting direct to the authorities.
• In addition to dust emission measurement, the minimum gases to be measured (to be checked with
local regulations) are O2, NOx, SO2, CO and TOC (Total Organic Carbons).
• Use of alternative fuels will increase the requirement for measurement of other gases, both
continuous and periodic.
• Also, due to local regulations, the CEMS must have a proper maintenance as their reliability can
influence on the process conditions (AF and ARM use).
7.4 Emission Ranges for European Cement Kilns

• For further details and actual values and reference conditions, please contact your TC.
(based on IPPC Feb. 2009)
7.5 European AF Kiln Emission Limits
EC-directive 76/2000 (waste GER: New TA-Luft GER: 17. BImSchV AUT: Incineration of
Parameter France 03/05/93 6)
inc.at cem. ind.) 24.7.02 (Draft 17.3.03) waste
Up to 100% valid 01/03 (new
non-haz & > 40% haz. No waste (case no plants) valid 01/06
2) valid end of 2007 < 60% / > 60% waste
< 40% haz. Waste longer exists) (exist. Plants)
1)
waste
DA DA DA HHA DA HHA DA
[mg/Nm³, dry, 10%O2] [mg/Nm³, dry, 10%O2] [mg/Nm³, dry, 11%O2] [mg/Nm³, dry, 10%O2]
11)
Dust 30 10 50 20 40 / 30 20 / 10 30 (50)
SO2 + SO3 3) 12)
50+exempt. 50 500/1200/1800 350 (200) / 200 (50) / 50 50 (350)
NO + NO2 5) 5) 4) 13)
500/ 800 200/ 400 1200/1500/1800 500 1000 /400 500/200 500 (800)
to be defined, when
NH3 - - (30) - - using SNCR/SCR
C org 10+exempt. 10 -
7)
(20) (10) 10 (120)
14)
CO - 50 - - (100) (50) -
HCl 10 10 (30) 60 10 10
HF 1 1 - 4 1 0.7
av 0,5-8hrs. av 0,5-8hrs. av 0,5-8hrs. av 0,5-8hrs.
Cd + Tl 0.05 0.2 0.05 0.05 0.05
Hg 0.05 1 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.05
Sb + As + Pb + Cr + Co +
0.5 5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Cu + Mn + Ni + V
av 6-8hrs. av 6-8hrs. av 6-8hrs.
2,3,7,8-TCDD-
0.1 [ng/Nm³] - 0.1 [ng/Nm³] 0.1 [ng/Nm³]
Equivalent
8. References
8.1 Lafarge Documents

• Technical Agenda Study NOx
• Technical Agenda Study Gas Scrubber
• Priority Study Bag Filters
• TA Study Dioxins and Furans
• TA Study Mercury Fate & Control
• TA Study On Line Gas Analyser
8.2 External Documents

• IPPC BREF – Dec 2001
• IPPC Draft Reference Document on BAT – May 2009
My notes:
CHAPTER 06 – FLUID FLOW
6. Fluid Flow
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. FLUID FLOW 1/14
Table of Contents
1. General Formulas - Definition..................................................... 3

1.1 Basics......................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Piping Pressure Losses ............................................................................. 3
2. Pitot Measurement....................................................................... 6
2.1 Formula ...................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Density Correction ..................................................................................... 6
2.3 Measurement Locations............................................................................. 7
3. Fans .............................................................................................. 9
3.1 Fan Power / Efficiency ............................................................................... 9
3.2 Fan Laws.................................................................................................... 9
3.3 Comparison of Efficiency of Different Fan Control Methods.................... 11
4. Others ......................................................................................... 11
4.1 Airflow Measurement by Venturi .............................................................. 11
4.2 Estimating False Air ................................................................................. 12
5. Reference Documents ............................................................... 13
5.1 Cement Portal .......................................................................................... 13
5.2 International Standards............................................................................ 13
1. General Formulas - Definition
1.1 Basics
Avogadro Law
• Equal volumes of different gases at the same pressure and temperature contain the same number of
molecules.
• Avogadro’s number N: The number of molecules in one gram-mole of a gas, N = 6.022 x 1023.
Ideal Gas Law
- P Absolute pressure (Pa ) - T Absolute Temperature (K )
PV = nRT - V Volume m ( )3 - n Number of moles (gmole)
- R Universal Gas Constant =8.31434 J/gmole.ºK
• 1 gmole of ideal gas at normal conditions (0ºC, 101325 Pa) occupies a volume of 22.414 litres.
Bernoulli
• For a steady, one-dimensional incompressible flow without losses:
v2
P + ρgz + ρ = Cst Where:
2 - P static pressure in N/m2 (=Pa)
- ρ density in kg/m3
- g acceleration due gravity 9.81m/s2
- z: elevation in m
- v fluid velocity in m/s
1.2 Piping Pressure Losses

a. Formulae
Pressure Drop Formula Where:

- ΔP Pressure drop (Pa)
• Circular pipe, constant area. The pressure drop is:
- f Friction factor (Darcy)
L v2 - D Pipe diameter (m)
ΔP = f ρ - ρ Fluid density (kg/m3)
D 2
- v Average fluid velocity (m/s)
- L Pipe length (m)
Friction Factor
64
Laminar flow (Re < 2000) f =
Re
- Re Reynolds Number
⎛e ⎞
Transition Zone (Re > 3000) 1
= −2 log⎜⎜ D +
2.51 ⎟
f ⎜ 3.7 Re f ⎟⎟
- f dependant upon Re and absolute roughness e ⎝ ⎠
D
1
Turbulent Zone f = 2
⎛ ⎞
⎜ 2 log 3.7 ⎟
- Re dependant upon absolute roughness ⎜⎜ e ⎟⎟
- f independent of Re ⎝ D⎠
Reynolds Number (Dimensionless)

where:
- k kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
v ∗ D ρ *v* D
Re = = - v Average fluid velocity (m/s)
k μ - D Diameter of the pipe (m)
- (for a rectangular duct equivalent diameter =
2* a* b
)
a+b
- μ the absolute viscosity (Pa.s)
Roughness
• Roughness (e): the mean distance between high and low points of the surface.
• Typical values e (m)
• Commercial steel 0.00005
• Drawn tubing 0.0000015
• Concrete pipe 0.0009
Example Pressure Drop Calculation

Calculate the pressure drop of 60,000 m3/hr of air (20° C and 101325 Pa) flowing through a
horizontal steel pipe of 100m long and 1 m internal diameter.
The gas density is 1.2 kg/m3 and viscosity is 1.72 x 10 -5 Pa.s
• (
Gas velocity v m.s
−1
)= 60000
= 21.22
Π * 12 4
1.2 * 1 * 21.22
• Reynolds Number Re = −5
= 1.486 * 10 6
1.72 *10
0.00005
• Absolute roughness e = = 0.00005
D 1
• Look up Darcy friction factor from Moody chart (see below) or solve
⎛e ⎞
= −2 log⎜⎜ D + ⎟ by iterative calculation f = 0.0121
1 2.51
f ⎜ 3.7 Re f ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
100 1.2 * 21.22 2
• Calculate Pressure Loss ΔP ( Pa ) = 0.0121 * * = 329
1 2
Average velocity in industrial design

Cold air (higher for larger size) 10 to 15 m/s
Hot air 20 to 25 m/s
Dusty Gases 25 to 30 m/s
Natural Gas 10 (20 mm pipe) to 30 m/s (100mm pipe)
Water general services 1 to 3 m/s
Viscous oil 0.3 to 0.6 on pump suction and 1 to 2 m/s on discharge
Slurries 1.5 to 2 m/s for 20 to 200 micron particles
b. Pressure Losses for Fittings etc

Restriction, elbow...
Length of straight pipe (of same size) that would produce the same pressure drop as the fitting, elbow…
expressed in L/D
Nominal pipe size (D mm) 12 25 50 75

90 elbow r/D=8 1.24 2.10 4.13 10.1
Nominal pipe size (D mm) 25 150 350 750
90 elbow r/D=1 2.1 10.1 22.5 49
Mitred 45 elbow 1.4 7.58 16.9 36.7
Pipe exit 3.8 33.7 86.5 213
Pipe entrance 3.04 27 69.2 170
Enlargement 0.5 2.13 18.9 48.5 119
Contraction 0.5 1.33 11.8 30.3 74.5
r= pipe radius, D=inside pipe diameter

Examples of other Pressure Loss Relationships
• Pressure loss through filter bag: Δp = hv , v is the velocity
Pressure loss through a grain bin: Δp = hv
1.5
•
2. Pitot Measurement
2.1 Formula
where:
2.Δp
V =k - V = Gas velocity in m/s
ρ - k = Pitot tube correction factor (eg. “S” tube = 0.85)
- Δp = Average velocity (dynamic) pressure in Pa
- ρ = density in kg/m3
2.2 Density Correction

Temperature and Pressure
• ρ = ρo .
273.15 (Pb + Ps ) - Pb = Barometric pressure (Pa)
273.15 + T ( C ) ) 101325
o
. - Ps = Static pressure (Pa )
- ro= density (kg/m3 )
Water and Chemistry: example
• Gas: CO 2 = 20% , H 2 O = 10% , O2 = 15% , N 2 = 100 − (20 + 10 + 15 ) = 55%

⎛ 44 ⎞ ⎛ 18 ⎞ ⎛ 32 ⎞ ⎛ 28 ⎞
• ρ =⎜ x 0.2 ⎟ + ⎜ x 0.55 ⎟ + ⎜ x 0.15 ⎟ + ⎜ x 0.55 ⎟ = 1.375kg.Nm −3
⎝ 22.4 ⎠ ⎝ 22.4 ⎠ ⎝ 22.4 ⎠ ⎝ 22.4 ⎠
Warning: Dry or Wet Basis?
Be careful to take account of the basis for the measurement of gas composition, usually it is measured on
a dry basis
Dust
• The pitot formula is correct only for clean gas, so whenever possible measure airflow in clean in a
gas. In cases where there is no option but to measure a dusty gas flow an approximation can be
made by adding the dust loading to the gas density:
ρ = ρ gas + dust concentration (kg/m3)
• In the previous example with a dust concentration of 70 g/Nm3, then ρ =1.375+0.07=1.445 kg/m3
(assuming dust does not take up room in the gas stream).
• In case of dusty gas, an Straucheib (S type) tube is used instead of L-Tube (see coefficient correction
below).
Standard Pressure Conditions
• Standard day sea level pressure :

- 760mm Hg 29.92 in. Hg 10332 mm WG
- 101325 Pa 2
14.696 psi (lb/in ) 406.8 in. WG
• Normal Conditions: Standard sea level pressure 0oC.
Effect of Elevation on Atmospheric Pressure
• (
P ( Pa) = P0 1 − 2.2558 * 10 −5 * h )
5.255
where: h = elevation (m)
Averaging the dynamic pressure:

⎛ ∑ ( pv ) ⎞
2
⎜ ⎟
• Δp = ⎜ N ⎟ where p v = traverse readings
⎜ N ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Pitot Correction coefficient
• If any, the corrective coefficient for the pitot tube (for instance k=0.84) is applied directly on the
velocity as calculated.
2.3 Measurement Locations

The idea is to have the same surface area for each measurement. Methods include Centroid and Log-
Tchebychef
(Centroid method) Total traverse points per diameter
# point 4 6 8 10 12 14 20 22
#1 .062 .044 .033 .025 .021 .018 .013 .011
#2 .250 .147 .105 .082 .067 .057 .039 .035
#3 .750 .295 .194 .146 .118 .099 .067 .060
#4 .938 .705 .323 .226 .177 .146 .097 .087
#5 .853 .677 .342 .250 .201 .129 .116
#6 .956 .806 .658 .355 .269 .165 .146
#7 .895 .774 .645 .366 .204 .180
#8 .967 .854 .750 .634 .250 .218
#9 .918 .823 .731 .306 .261
#10 .975 .882 .799 .388 .315
#11 .933 .854 .612 .393
#12 .979 .901 .694 .607
#13 .943 .750 .685
#14 .982 .796 .739
#15 .835 .782
#16 .871 .820
#17 .903 .854
#18 .933 .884
#19 .961 .913
#20 .987 .940
#21 .965
#22 .989
3. Fans
3.1 Fan Power / Efficiency

• Useful Power (Theoretical Air Power): 20 140
Wu (Watts) = Pt * Q 18
120
- P: Total fan pressure (Pa) 16 Power
- Q: Volume flow (m3/s) 14 Wu 100
12
• Difference between the useful power and 80
the fan shaft power is due to skin friction, 10
60
fluid turbulence…. 8 Pressure
Efficiency
• Usually the supplier gives fan shaft power 6 40
vs flow 4
20
2
• Fan total efficiency at any point is given by :
0 0
Wu Pt * Q η
= = t 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000
Ws Ws Flow Rate Q
Drive Efficiency • Reducer 95 - 96%

• Direct Drive 99.5%
• ‘V’ Belt drive 90 – 95%
• Flat Belt 99%
a. Typical Efficiencies for Different Blade Types (Test Conditions supplier figures)
• Straight radial: 60-75% efficiency (fan shaft) • Backward curved radial: 78 - 85 % (for dusty
• Backward inclined : 75 – 80% gas).
• Airfoil: 84 - 91% (clean gas).
b. Efficiency Losses due to Faults
• Cone condition: 3-4%
• Missing Inlet duct flow guide: 2-5%.
• Build up on impellor: 4-6 %
3.2 Fan Laws

a. Fan Law Summary
Change in Parameter Total Effect

All
Impact on Fan Density Diameter Changes
ρ Speed N Width L*
D*
Flow Q 0 N L D3 N. L. D3
Pressure P ρ N2 0 D2 ρ .N2. D2
Power W ρ N3 L D5 ρ .N3. L. D5
*A change in dimensions applies to fans of identical geometry; although these two laws can be used to
give approximate effects for small changes in size e.g. fan impellor tipping.
b. Gas Density Influence

(Fans are constant volume machines)
20 160
• Pressure: proportional to gas density
18
P1 ρ1 140
= 16
P0 ρ 0
120
14
100
12
• Power: proportional to gas density
10 80
W1 ρ1
= 8
60
W0 ρ 0 6
40
4
• System curve : proportional to gas density 20
2
H 1 ρ1
= 0 0
H 0 ρ0 0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Flow Rate Q
25000 30000 35000
c. Fan Speed Influence (same circuit & gas 30 250

density)
• Volume: directly proportional to fan speed 25
200
Q1 N 1
= 20
Q0 N 0 150
• Pressure: proportional to square of speed 15
P1 ⎛⎜ N1 ⎞
2 100
10
= ⎟
P0 ⎜ N 0 ⎟⎠
⎝ 5
50
• Power: proportional to cube of speed

0 0
W1 ⎛⎜ N 1
3
⎞ 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000
= ⎟⎟
W0 ⎜ N 0
Flow Rate Q
⎝ ⎠
Warning:Common Traps with Fan Curve Conventions

A) Be sure to know the pressure basis used for drawing the fan curve, suppliers have 3 main
conventions;1) Total pressure; 2) Fan static pressure ; 3) Static pressure rise.
B) Usually the fan curve refers to inlet volume but some suppliers use average volume between inlet and
outlet of the fan.
C) For dusty gases suppliers usually adjust the power curve by adjusting the gas density, some suppliers
use 100% of the dust content whlist others use 50% of the dust content. This will impact the
D) You can also find curves drawn with specific energy and fan efficiency against fan flow, where you will
need to calculate the power and pressure curves.
3.3 Comparison of Efficiency of Different Fan Control Methods

100
90
80
70
Inle t d a m p e r
O utle t
60
damper
% Power
Inle t va ne s
50
40
30
V a ria b le
20
sp e e d
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% F lo w
Louvre Damper Flow Control Radial Vane Damper Flow Control

120 100 100
90 90
100 20% open 80 80
40% open
80
70 70
60% open
60 60
60 50 50
80% open
40 40
40
Wide open 30 30
20 20 20
10 10
0 25% open 50% 75% 100%
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000
0 0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000
Flow F low
Louvre dampers modify system resistance to Radial vane dampers modify the fan curve to
adjust gas flow adjust gas flow
4. Others
4.1 Airflow Measurement by Venturi
1
2
Where:
2.( P1 − P2 )
Q = C v . A1 . Q – gasflow m3/s
⎛⎛ A ⎞2 ⎞ Cv venturi coefficient (usually 0.98)
ρ .⎜ ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ − 1⎟ A1 & A2 areas at 1 & 2 m2
⎜ ⎝ A2 ⎠ ⎟ P1 & P2 pressures at 1, & 2 Pa
⎝ ⎠
R gas density kg/m3
4.2 Estimating False Air

Velocity through an opening:
Where :
V – velocity m/s
2..ΔP
V = 0.6. ΔP – pressure drop Pa
ρ r – gas density kg/m3
Note: the formula is only approximate since the discharge coefficient 0.6 can vary depending upon the
shape of the opening, etc.
Example False Air Estimation

Estimate the false air into a kiln inlet seal with an opening of 6mm around the periphery of the
kiln, with a diameter of 4.5 m, kiln inlet pressure is -350 Pa.
V = 0.6.
2.350
= 14.8m / s : FlowArea =
(
4.512 2 − 4.5 2 .π )
= 0.0849m 2
1.15 4
Flow = 14.8 x 0.0849x 3600 = 4525 m3/hr
5. Reference Documents
5.1 Cement Portal

How to Procedures
How to measure airflow by Pitot tube

How to measure static pressure by Pitot tube
How to measure gas temperature by thermocouple
How to measure moisture of gas by wet bulb temperature
How to measure moisture content of gases using silica gel
How to measure gas composition by gas analyser
How to measure false air
How to measure fan efficiency of the main fans
How to improve fan efficiency by internal inspection
Tools
Lafarge Pitot Measurements
5.2 International Standards

ISO 3966 - Measurement of fluid flow in closed conduits — Velocity area method using Pitot static tubes
ISO 5167 - Measurement of fluid flow by means of pressure differential devices inserted in circular cross-
section conduits running full -- Part 4: Venturi tubes
ISO 5801 - Industrial fans -- Performance testing using standardized airways
My notes:
CHAPTER 7 – PROCESS CONTROL
7. Process Control
© Copyright 2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. Process Control – Page 1/9
Table of Contents
1. Control Loops..............................................................................................3
1.1 Open Loop ...................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Feed Forward Control..................................................................................... 3
1.3 Feed Back Control .......................................................................................... 3
1.4 Cascade Control ............................................................................................. 4
2. Feed Back Controller, PID ..........................................................................4

2.1 General ........................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Proportional Gain:........................................................................................... 4
2.3 Integral Action (Reset time): ........................................................................... 5
2.4 Derivative Function: ........................................................................................ 5
2.5 PID controller .................................................................................................. 5
3. Controller Tuning ........................................................................................6

3.1 Tuning General ............................................................................................... 6
3.2 Online Trial and Error Tuning ......................................................................... 6
1. Control Loops
1.1 Open Loop

• Based on experience, the inputs are set to achieve the good target on output.
• This kind of control does not react towards the perturbations that can happen in the inputs or in the
process.
Example: Open Loop Control

In a mill open circuit, the quantity of feed to give the good cement fineness.
1.2 Feed Forward Control

• A measurement of the inputs is made
and changes are made on the actuators
to obtain the good target of the output. Disturbances
• It does not take into account the unmeasured Feed forward
perturbations. controller
Manipulative Controlled
Process
variable variable
Examples: Feed Forward Control

Water injection quantity in the first compartment based on the clinker temperature.
Gypsum addition based on SO3 in Gypsum and clinker.
1.3 Feed Back Control

• A measurement of the variable to be Disturbances
controlled (output) is made and
compared with a set point. If a
Manipulative Controlled
difference exists between the measured Process
and the setpoint value, corrections are variable variable
made on the inputs to get the correct
value.
Feedback Output
controller setpoint
Examples: Feedback Controllers

Water injection controlling the mill discharge temperature.
Feed rate controlling the circulating load.
Fan speed controlling cooler fan Airflow
Fuel federate controlling precalciner temperature
1.4 Cascade Control

• The primary controller (master) Disturbances
is used to vary the setpoint of
the secondary controller (slave) Manipulative Controlled
Process
• It can be usefully applied with two variable Controlled variable 1
interacting variables especially when it Variable 2
is required to keep the measured
variable of the slave controller within a Secondary Primary
Output Controller setpoint Controller
ertain range
Example: Cascade Control

Primary: Controlling coal mill inlet temperature setpoint by the mill outlet temperature
Secondary : Coal mill hot air damper (and recycle damper) controlling coal mill inlet
temperature
2. Feed Back Controller, PID
2.1 General
Controllers automatically compare the value of the PV to the SP to determine if an error exists. If there
is an error, the controller adjusts its output according to the parameters that have been set in the
controller. The tuning parameters essentially determine how much correction should be made
(proportional), how long should the correction be applied (integral) and the speed at which a correction
is should be made (derivative).
Controllers are tuned in an effort to match the characteristics of the control equipment to the process so
that two goals are achieved:
• The system responds quickly to errors.
• The system remains stable (PV does not oscillate around the SP).
2.2 Proportional Gain:

Gain of a controller is defined simply as the change in output divided by the change in input.
Δ output
• Gain =
Δ input
The adjustment of the controller output due to proportional action is given by:
Y = Y0 ± K p ( X − S )
Where:
Y – New controller output
Y0 – Existing controller output
KP – Proportional gain
X – measured value
S – controller setpoint
Since the proportional action only responds to a change in error (between setpoint and measured value)
then on it’s own it will not return the measured value to setpoint.
Note: Proportional Band

Proportional band is another way to represent gain. PB=100/gain.
2.3 Integral Action (Reset time):

The purpose of integral action is to return the PV to SP. This is accomplished by repeating the action of
the proportional mode as long as an error exists. With the exception of some electronic controllers, the
integral or reset mode is always used with the proportional mode. The setting is made in minutes or
seconds.
The effect of the integral time on the control output is given by:
Kp
Y = Y0 ±
Ti ∫ ( X − S ) dt Where Ti – integral action time
2.4 Derivative Function:

The purpose of the derivative action (rate action) is to try to anticipate the control action by looking at the
time rate of the error change (the derivative).
dX
Y = Y0 + Td where Td is the derivative action time (min)
dt
• In theory, the derivative action should X

always improve the system response. But, it
is necessary to give a particular attention to
S
this term because there is not perfect
Derivative
derivative action, and if the signal is very action Yo
noisy, the derivative action amplifies the
noise, producing fluctuation in the control. Proportional
action
Resulting Y
Integral
action action
Time
2.5 PID controller
The 3 terms together form the overall PID controller:

Kp
Y = Y0 ± K p ( X − S ) ± ∫ ( X − S ) dt ± K p Td
dX
Ti dt
Not every process requires a full PID control strategy.
PI control is used where no offset can be tolerated, where noise (temporary error readings that do not
reflect the true process variable condition) may be present, and where excessive dead time (time after a
disturbance before control action takes place) is not a problem.
In processes where no offset can be tolerated, no noise is present, and where dead time is an issue, use
full PID control.
3. Controller Tuning
3.1 Tuning General

There are several established techniques for controller tuning, Zeigler Nichols Open Loop, Zeigler
Nichols Closed Loop, Internal Model Control. In addition there are online and offline automatic tuning
tools that can be used to the optimum control parameters.
However, for the moment the most frequently used in our plants is by online trial and error.
3.2 Online Trial and Error Tuning
a) Proportional action:
- Set integral and derivative action at 0 action (maximum Ti , minimum Td ).
- Set K p at a low value, for example 0.5. (use a typical value for your system if you know
already, look at operator actions)
- Put the controller in auto.
- With a small change in set point, the controller reaction will be very sluggish.
- Double the proportional coefficient until the loop becomes oscillatory.
- After reaching this ultimate gain, set the K p half of the ultimate K p .
Low Gain Example - In the example below, the
proportional band is high (gain is low). The loop is
very stable, but an error remains between SP and
PV.
High Gain Example - In the example, the

proportional band is small resulting in high gain,
which is causing instability. Notice that the process
variable is still not on set point.
b) Integral action:
- With the controller in auto and the proportional band fixed, start to reduce Ti by factor 2, with
small changes in set point after each step.
- Find the value of Ti that makes the system oscillatory, underdamped and set Ti double of that.
High Integral Time (Slow Reset) Example - In
this example the loop is stable because the total
loop gain is not too high at the loop critical
frequency. Notice thatthe process variable does
reach set point due to the reset action.
Short Integral Time (Fast Reset) Example - In

the example the reset is too fast and the PV is
cycling around the SP.
c) Derivative action:
- Increase the derivative term until the system noise starts to appear on the controller output.
- Set the Td at THIRD of this maximum value.
No and Slow Derivative Rate Examples –
Effect of Fast Rate – Increase of the rate setting

increases controller gain much higher. As a result,
both the IVP (controller output) and the PV will
cycle. Increasing the rate setting will not cause the
PV to settle at the SP.
My notes:
CHAPTER 8 – REFRACTORIES
8. Refractories
© Copyright 2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. REFRACTORIES – Page 1/12
Table of Contents
1. Process Impacts on Refractories ..............................................................3

2. Refractory Classification ............................................................................4
2.1 Alumina Bricks ................................................................................................ 4
2.2 Basic Bricks .................................................................................................... 4
2.3 Monolithics (unshaped products) ................................................................... 6
3. Kiln Zoning ..................................................................................................6

3.1 Typical Zoning for an AS Precalciner Kiln ...................................................... 6
3.2 Refractory Layout ........................................................................................... 7
4. Kiln Retaining Ring .....................................................................................7

5. Installation Methods for Kiln Bricks ..........................................................8
5.1 Bricks for Rotary Kilns .................................................................................... 8
5.2 Brick Installation Methods............................................................................... 8
6. Refractory Storage ......................................................................................9

7. Refractory Performance Indicators ...........................................................9
8. Kiln Heat Up Profiles.................................................................................10
9. Division Reference Documents ...............................................................10
9.1 How to procedures ....................................................................................... 10
9.2 Tools ............................................................................................................. 11
9.3 Other important documents .......................................................................... 11
1. Process Impacts on Refractories

The nature of the clinkering process in rotary kiln necessitates that the kiln lining needs to withstand not
only high temperatures, but also to resist destruction by the extremely aggressive environment. Potential
Impacts are shown in the schematic below:
Impacts on the Lining
Mechanical
Thermal
•Shell condition
•Flame / impingement
•Shell ovality
•Overheating
•Kiln alignment
•Thermal cycling
•Tyre clearances
•Thermal Shock
•Shell thickness
Atmosphere •Kiln speed
•Reducing
•Oxidising
•Cycling
•Volatiles
•Dust
Kiln Charge Lining Stability
•Brick Quality
•Infiltration of liquid
•Condensation Volatiles •Brick Tolerance
•Fitting to shell
•Chemical Attack
•Abrasion •Ring tightness
•Alignment to shell
•Chemical Variations
•Stability / presence coating •Expansion allowance
•Retaining ring
• Refractories are not able to withstand the extremes of all conditions – design is a compromise of
properties
• First approach to a premature failure / wear issue should be to make improvements to the
process conditions and equipment to reduce the impact upon the refractories, instead of trying to
change the refractory specification
• Most important property of refractory selection is “performance in service” – hence development
of Division Equivalency Chart
2. Refractory Classification
2.1 Alumina Bricks

The main components of alumina bricks are alumina (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2). Main raw materials used
are bauxite, andalusite (sillimanite group) and fireclay. There are 3 classifications:
• High alumina with alumina content of >45%
• Firebrick with alumina content <45%
• Insulating firebrick with > 45% porosity
TYPICAL DATASHEET PROPERTIES OF ALUMINA BRICKS

High Fireclay Insulating
Alumina
Al2O3 60 42 33
Fe2O3 0.9 1.9 1.6
SiO2 35.5 54 60
3
Density t/m 2.6 2.2 0.8
Apparent Porosity % 13 18 68
Temp Limit °C 1520 1440 1380
Thermal Conductivity 1000°C W/mK 1.6 1.4 0.33
2.2 Basic Bricks

• Main oxides magnesia (MgO) or lime (CaO).
• Additional raw material or synthetic product e.g spinel to give flexural strength
• Mainly synthetic materials, except dolomite which occurs naturally
• The classification refers to the raw material base or the elasticising system
o Raw Material Base
magnesia (MgO)
magnesia doloma (MgO CaO)
magnesia zirconia (MgO ZrO2)
forsterite (MgO SiO2)
o Spinel Systems
magnesia spinel (MgOAl2O3)
magnesia hercynite (MgOFe2O3)
magnesia galaxite (MgOMn2O3)
magnesia chromite (MgOCr2O3).
TYPICAL DATASHEET PROPERTIES OF BASIC BRICKS

Magnesia Magnesia Magnesia Dolomite Dolomite
Hercynite Chrome Zircon
MA Spinel
CaO - - - 59 58
MgO 87 85 81.5 38 38
Fe2O3 0.5 7.4 8 0.5 0.7
Al2O3 10.5 3 2.2 1 0.5
ZrO2 - - - - 1
Cr2O3 - - 5.8 - -
3
Density t/m 2.94 3.05 3.03 2.86 2.83
Apparent Porosity % 15 15 17.5 15 16
Refractoriness under >1700 >1600 >1600 >1400 >1400
load °C
Thermal Conductivity 3.0 2.4 2.3 2.6 2.4
1000°C W/mK
2.3 Monolithics (unshaped products)

There are various methods to classify monolithics. For detailed information please refer to DIN EN 1402-
1. The following table is one way to classify monolithics.
RC = Regular Cement Concrete

MCC = Medium Cement Concrete
LCC = Low Cement Concrete
ULCC = Ultra Low Cement Concrete
NCC = Now Cement Concrete
3. Kiln Zoning
3.1 Typical Zoning for an AS Precalciner Kiln

Outlet zone: up to 1.2m
Lower Transition Zone (LTZ): 1–2xØ
Burning Zone (BZ): 6-8xØ
Upper Transition Zone (UTZ): 2–4xØ
Safety (Security) Zone (SZ): 2xØ
Calcining Zone (CZ): up to kiln inlet
(Ø = kiln diameter)
Lower Burning Upper Safety Calcining

Transition Zone Transition Zone Zone
Zone Zone
Outlet
Zone
3.2 Refractory Layout

The final refractory layout of the burning line is determined by the stresses (thermal, chemical and
mechanical) applied upon the refractory lining at the application area. At the above example of an AS
Precalciner kiln system with grate cooler a standard refractory layout could be like:
Outlet zone: 75 – 85% Alumina

Lower Transition Zone (LTZ): magnesia spinel, magnesia doloma
Burning Zone (BZ): magnesia spinel, magnesia hercynite, magnesia galaxite,
magnesia doloma, forsterite
Upper Transition Zone (UTZ): magnesia spinel, magnesia hercynite, magnesia galaxite
Safety (Security) Zone (SZ): 60 – 75% Alumina
Calcining Zone (CZ): 30 – 50% Alumina
4. Kiln Retaining Ring

To reduce the lining thrust on the kiln outlet segments a metallic retaining ring is installed at distance of
up to 1200mm from the discharge end.
Lining thickness Kiln diameter (m) Retaining ring Kiln Diameter Number of
(mm) (X in mm) D (m) sections
180 Less than 3.6 60 D<3 8

200 3.6 to 4.2 70 3<D<5 12
220 4.2 to 5.2 80 D>5 16
220 or 250 (*) > 5.2 80 or 100 (*)
(*) to be confirmed
The retaining rings are made of the following steel qualities:

A 42 CP or W Sc E255 or E 24-2.
Section Length
5. Installation Methods for Kiln Bricks
5.1 Bricks for Rotary Kilns

• A combination of two different tapered brick shapes is used.
• Brick shapes are standardised according to VDZ, ISO and ASTM standards according to turning
circles of whole metres e.g. 2, 3, 5, 6 and 8 metres
• A combination of two standard brick sizes with a proper mixing ratio allows for lining any kiln
diameter.
5.2 Brick Installation Methods

a) Bricking Machine
The most common and safest method to install kiln bricks is the use of a bricking machine. The lower half
of the kiln is bricked first and the bricking machine is used to brick the upper half. Pneumatic jacks in a rig
(arch) keep the bricks in place until the ring is closed and self supporting. The kiln does not need to be
rotated.
b) Bricking Template
A bricking template is similar to the bricking rig but without pneumatic pressure. Wooden wedges are
used to keep the bricks in place until the ring is closed and self supporting. The kiln does not need to be
rotated.
c) Screw Jack Method

With the screw jack method the kiln needs to be rotated. The lower half of the kiln is bricked before screw
jacks are installed to fix the bricks at 90° and 270°. The kiln is turned 90°. The next screw jack is installed
to fix the bricks as before. The kiln is turned another 90° to close the last section.
d) Glue Method
With the glue method the kiln needs to be rotated. Typically a two component epoxy resin is spread in
axial direction on the clean kiln shell at a width of about six bricks. In total four to six glue strips are
applied per circumference, dependent on the kiln diameter, as the bricking work progresses.
e) Bolt Method
With the bolt method the kiln needs to be rotated. A number of nuts are welded on the kiln shell in axial
direction. Two lines of bricks are installed in parallel to the nuts. Threaded bolts and U-shaped iron pieces
are fixing both brick lines. In total two to four of such stripes are applied per circumference, dependent on
the kiln diameter, as the bricking work progresses. As a final step, each fixation is removed and the gap
filled with bricks.
6. Refractory Storage
• Basic bricks and monolithics have a shelf life from 6 to 12 months.
• Both products are sensitive to water or high level of humidity
• Monolithics are additionally sensitive to high or freezing ambient temperature.
• Basic bricks and monolithics should be stored dry and well ventilated.
• Storage height should not exceed five (5) pallets.
• Apply first in first out.
7. Refractory Performance Indicators

NSFRI: Number of Stops For Refractory Incidents <1
Benchmark of specific refractory consumption by kiln system [g refractory/t clinker]
Semi Dry 300 Air Separate Precalciner 300
Long Dry 500 Air Through Precalciner 500
Long Wet 800 Suspension Preheater 500
8. Kiln Heat Up Profiles

The heating up of refractories must be done slow enough to avoid excessive thermal and mechanical
stress in the lining, otherwise serious damage could result. The cooling down of refractories should also
be done slowly for the same reasons.
See the procedure “How to warm up / cool down a kiln” on the Cement Portal (Refractory Domain)
9. Division Reference Documents
9.1 How to procedures

• How to select the refractory
• How to perform trials
• How to receive and store bricks
• How to ensure safety for brick demolition and lining works
• How to ensure safety for brick cutting
• How to ensure safety for castable mixing
• How to ensure safety for cyclone lining works
• How to align kiln burner
• How to align the burner pipe
• How to cast low cement castables
• How to place anchors for monolithic
• How to start the brick work
• How to line the kiln (dry method)
• How to line the kiln (other tying methods)
• How to line the kiln inlet
• How to install and line the retainer ring

• How to cast the nose ring
• How to use a shell scanner
• How to use the shell cooling fan
• How to plan a kiln shut down
• How to handle a hot spot
• How to assess the refractory condition after a kiln stoppage
• How to warm up / cool down the kiln
• How to line the cyclones
• How to line riser ducts
9.2 Tools
• Division Equivalency chart
• Winbrix
• Heat losses calculation
9.3 Other important documents

• Brick lining installation golden rules
• Coating and lining inspection check list
• Brick failure investigation check list
My notes:
CHAPTER 9-1 – MATHEMATICS
9-1. Mathematics
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. MATHEMATICS - Page 1/8
Table of Contents
1. Algebra ............................................................................................... 3
2. Trigonometry...................................................................................... 4
3. Plane Geometry ................................................................................. 5
4. Solid Geometry .................................................................................. 6
1. Algebra
(
a 3 − b3 = (a − b ) a 2 + ab + b 2 )
a) Exponents e) Logarithms
( )( )
am ∗ an = am+n log x + log y = log( xy )
(a m )n = a mn log x − log y = log
x
(am )∗ (bm ) = (a ∗ b)m y
am m−n
( )
x * log y = log y x
=a 1
an log n x = * log x
n
n
an ⎛a⎞ log10 a = 0.4343 In a
=⎜ ⎟
n ⎝b⎠
b In a = 2.3026 log10 a
a1 / k = k a
1 f) Determinants
a−n =
an Simultaneous equations: ax + by + cz = d ,
n ex + fy + gz = h , ix + jy + kz = l
am / n = am If:
a b c d b c
b) Fractions D = e f g D1 = h f g
a c a±c
± = i j k l j k
b b b
a c a∗c a d c a b d
∗ =
b d b∗d D2 = e h g D1 = e f h
a c a∗d a d i l k i j l
÷ = = ∗
b d b∗c b c
The solution is:
D1 dfk + bgl + cjh − ( cfl + gjd + khb )
c) Radicals x= =
(n a )n = a D afk + bgi + cje − ( cfi + gja + keb )
n n
a =a D 2 ahk + dgi + cie − ( chi + gla + ked )
y= =
n a * n b = n ab D afk + bgi + cje − ( cfi + gja + keb )
n
a na D3 afl + bhi + dje − ( dfi + hja + leb )
= z= =
n
b b D afk + bgi + cje − ( cfi + gja + keb )
g) Quadratic Equation
d) Factoring
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
ax + ay = a ( x + y )
a 2 − b 2 = (a + b )(a − b ) − b ± b 2 − 4 ac
x=
a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = (a + b )2 2a
a 2 − 2ab + b2 = (a − b )2
(
a 3 + b3 = (a + b ) a 2 − ab + b2 )
If: b) Right Triangle

2
- b − 4 ac > 0 , the roots are real and
unequal.
c a
2
- b − 4 ac = 0 , the roots are real and A
b
equal.
a c
-
2
b − 4 ac < 0 , the roots are imaginary. sin A = csc A =
c a
b c
h) Power of Ten cos A = sec A =
( p ) pico = 10 −12 deka = 101 ( da ) c b
−9 a b
(n) nano = 10 hecto = 10 2
(h) tan A = cot A =
−6 b a
( μ ) micro = 10 kilo = 10 3
(k )
−3 6
( m ) milli = 10 mega = 10 (M ) c) Any Triangle
−2 9
(c) centi = 10 giga = 10 (G ) C a
−1 12
(d ) deci = 10 tera = 10 (T ) b
A B
c
2. Trigonometry Law of sines
a b c
a) General Relationships = =
sin A sin B sin C
sin 2 A + cos 2 A = 1
Law of cosines
sec 2 A = 1 + tan 2 A 2 2 2
a = b + c − 2bc cos A
csc 2 A = 1 + cot 2 A
1 1 b 2 = a 2 + c 2 − 2ac cos B
sin A = cos A =
csc A sec A c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos C
sin A cos A Law of tangents
tan A = cot A =
cos A sin A A− B
tan
sin( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B 2 = a −b where a > b
2 A+ B a +b
sin A = 2 sin A cos A tan
2
cos 2 A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A B −C
tan
= 1 − 2 sin 2 A , = 2 cos 2 A − 1 2 = b−c where b > c
A 1 − cos A B+C b+c
sin = ± tan
2 2 2
A−C
A 1 − cos A tan
tan = ± 2 = a−c where a > c
2 1 + cos A A+C a +c
A 1 + cos A tan
cos = ± 2
2 2 Newton's formula
c a+b
=
C A− B
sin cos
2 2
Tangents of half angles

b+c+d
3. Plane Geometry
If p =
2 a) Rectangle
( p − a )( p − b )( p − c )
2 Area: a * b
p a
tan =
p−a
b
( p − a )( p − b )( p − c )
2
p b) Parallelogram
tan =
p−b
a Area: a * b
( p − a )( p − b )( p − c )
2
p
tan =
p−c b
Area
c) Triangle
S = 2 , p( p − a )( p − b )( p − c )
a 2 sin B sin C
= a c Area: 0.5 * a * b
2 sin A d
2
b sin A sin C
=
2 sin B b
c 2 sin A sin B b+c+d
=
2 sin C If p =
2
bc sin A
= Area: p * ( p − b ) * ( p − c ) * ( p − d )
2
ac sin B
= d) Circle
2
ab sin C
=
2
Circumference: = πD , = 2πr
d) Hyperbolic
x −x
sinh x = e + e
2
−x
= 0.25πD , = πr
x 2 2
cosh x = e + e Area:
2 0.25c 2 + h 2
r =
2h
β
c = 2* h * ( D − h ) , = 2rsin
2
h = r − r 2 − 0.25c 2
ß
s = πD , = 0.01745 rβ
360
Where:
e) Circular Sector n is the number of sides
s 180°
n Area = nr 2 tan
n
5 1.7205 s2
6 2.5981 s2
r ß 7 3.6339 s2
8 4.8284 s2
Area = 0.5 rs, = 0.008727 r2ß ( β in °) 9 6.1818 s2
j) Trapezoid
f) Circular Segment
s
h h H
c
r ß c b a
Area = 0.5 [b*(H+h) + ch + aH]
Area = 0.5 (rs - c*(r-h))
ß c* ( r − h )
= πr 2 *
360 2
4. Solid Geometry
g) Circular Ring a) Cube
π 2
Area = ( D − d2 ) a
d 4 c
D
b
Volume: = abc
Surface area: = 2(ab+bc+ca)
h) Ellipse
b) Cylinder
a
π
Area = Aa
A 4
h
D
i) Polygon
s π
Volume = D 2h
4
Area = 0.5*n*s*r
r Surface area: = πDh (without end surface)
= πD (0.5D + h) (with end
surface)
c) Pyramid
g) Segment of a Sphere
s
h h
c r
area of base
Volume = h ⎛ c2 + 4h2 h ⎞
3 Volume = π h2 ⎜ − ⎟
perimeter of base ⎜ 8h 3 ⎟⎠
s ⎝
(c2 + 4h2 )
Lateral area =
2 π
Sphere surface =
4
d) Cone
Total surf = (c + 8rh)
π 2
π 4
Volume = r 2h
3
h
Surface area = π r (r 2 + h 2 ) h) Sector of a Sphere
r h 2 2
c Volume = πr h
3
e) Frustum of a Cone π
r Total surface = r ( 4h + c )
r 2
h
s h
i) Torus
R
d
π
Volume =
3
( )
∗ r 2 + rR + R 2 ∗ h D
Surface area = πs ( R + r )
π2
Volume (compl ring) = D d2
f) Sphere 4
Surface ( " ) = π2 Dd
D π
Volume = D3
6
Surface area = πD 2
My notes:
CHAPTER 9-2 – STATISTICS
9-2 . Statistics
© Copyright 2000-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. STATISTICS - Page 1/16
Table of Contents
1. Descriptive Statistics ........................................................................ 3

1.1 Definitions.......................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Basic.................................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Normal Probability Distribution.......................................................................... 3
1.4 Interval Estimation and Tables.......................................................................... 4
2. Statistical Estimation Tests .............................................................. 5

2.1 Generalities ....................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Test for the Equality of Two Variances ( σ 1 ,σ 2 ) of two Normal
Population of Random Size, ( n1 , n 2 ) ............................................................... 6
2.3 Fisher Distribution Table ................................................................................... 7
3. Correlation Between Data – Regression.......................................... 8

3.1 Generalities ....................................................................................................... 8
3.2 Least Squared Lines ......................................................................................... 8
4. Temporal/Regionalized Series (Variables)....................................... 9

4.1 Stationnarity ...................................................................................................... 9
4.2 Variogram.......................................................................................................... 9
4.3 Raw Mix Control Tuning.................................................................................. 11
5. Sampling........................................................................................... 12
5.1 Golden Rules................................................................................................... 12
5.2 Fundamental Error (FE) .................................................................................. 12
5.3 Minimum Representative Weight (MRW)........................................................ 13
5.4 Estimation of the Maximum Particle Size........................................................ 14
5.5 Minimum Number of Observations ................................................................. 14
5.6 Mechanical Sampling ...................................................................................... 15
5.7 Manual Sampling on Conveyor Belt................................................................ 15
1. Descriptive Statistics
1.1 Definitions
• Statistics is the science of drawing conclusions about a population based on an analysis of sample
data from that population.
• Population: values that can be taken by a variable.
• Sample: drawing of n values of the variable taken from the population.
• Random Variable = X = ( xi ) .
• Probability Distribution = P ( xi ) . It describes the random variable probability of occurrence and is
described by its parameters. (Example: Normal distribution is described by μ and σ , see below).
• Statistic = Any function of the sample data.
• Estimator = An estimator of a parameter is a statistic, which corresponds to the parameter. For
instance :
The sample mean ( x ) is the estimator of the actual population mean μ
The sample variance ( S 2 ) is the estimator of the actual population variance σ 2
• Interval Estimation: An interval estimation of a parameter is the interval between 2 statistics that
includes the true value of the parameter with a given probability (1- α ).
1.2 Basic
∑ (xi − x ) 2
n n
∑ xi
i =1 i =1
• Arithmetical Mean = x = Standard Deviation = S X =
n n −1
• 2
Variance = S X
2 2 2 2 2 2
- SX +Y = S X + S Y and S aX = a ⋅ S X
- a : Coefficient, X = ( xi ) , Y = ( yi ) : two series of independent values.
∑ (xi − x ) * ( yi − y )
n
• Covariance = Average of the products of paired deviations: COV ( X ,Y ) = i =1

n
1.3 Normal Probability Distribution

• The most often used probability distribution is the Normal probability distribution:
2
1 ⎛ x − x ⎞⎟
( − ⎜⎜ )
dZ 1 2 ⎝ σ ⎟⎠
= e
dx σ 2π
Central Limit Theorem

• For a group of n independent sampling units drawn from a population of mean μ and variance σ 2 ,
n
σ2
∑
1
the sampling distribution of x = x i is approximately Normal with mean μ and variance .
n n
i =1
⎛ σ2 ⎞
Said: x → Ζ ⎜ μ , ⎟.
⎜ n ⎟
⎝ ⎠
1.4 Interval Estimation and Tables
a) If the Variance σ 2 is Known

• The confidence interval, with a probability of (1- α ), in which for any samples of the population with
a given unknown mean ( μ ) and known variance ( σ 2 ), the average x of the sample should range is
given by:
σ σ
x−Ζα ≤ μ ≤ x+Ζα
n n
2 2
b) Normal Gaussian Distribution Table

α Zα α Zα
0.25 0.6745 0.0232 2
0.159 1 0.01 2.32
0.10 1.28 0.005 2.57
0.05 1.64 0.00135 3
0.025 1.96 0.001 3.09
Example: Estimation of the true LHV mean ( μ ) of liquid waste fuel
An n-size sample (n=100) of different waste fuel shipments gave a mean x = 5.5 MCal/kg.
Standard deviation σ of the waste fuel shipment population (considered infinite) is supposed
to be 1Mcal/kg.
Then, according to the Central Limit Theorem, x follows a Normal distribution probability with
σ2
a variance of = 1 / 100 = 0.01 .
n
α
Thus, we are sure at 1 − α = 90% (then = 0.05 ) that the mean ( μ ) is between
2
x ± 1.64 × 0.01 = [5.5 − 0.164 ,5.5 + 0.164 ] = [5.336 ,5.664 ] .
Remark:
If the population from which the sample is taken, is not infinite (let’s say population size=800),
then we have to use a corrective factor of 1− n = 1 − 100 = 0.935 .
N 800
c) If the Variance σ 2 is Unknown and Sample Size n<30,
• It has to be approximated by the variance S 2 of the sample. The Normal distribution is replaced by a
t distribution (Student distribution). The estimated interval, with a confidence of (1- α ) and n-1
degree of freedom, is given by:
S S
x − tα ≤ μ ≤ x + tα
, n −1 n , n −1 n
2 2
Example
With the data as above assuming S=1Mcal/kg, then with the same confidence (90%) and say
20 (21 samples) degrees of freedom, (μ ) is between: x ± 1.72 × 0.01 =
[5.5 − 0.172,5.5 + 0.172] = [5.328 ,5.672] .
d) Student Fisher Distribution Table

υ t 0.005 ,υ t0.01,υ t 0.025 ,υ t 0.05 ,υ t 0.10 ,υ t 0.25 ,υ t 0.45 ,υ
1 63.66 31.82 12.71 6.31 3.08 1 0.158
2 9.92 6.96 4.3 2.92 1.89 0.817 0.142
3 5.84 4.54 3.18 2.35 1.64 0.765 0.137
4 4.6 3.75 2.78 2.13 1.53 0.741 0.134
5 4.03 3.36 2.57 2.02 1.48 0.727 0.132
10 3.17 2.76 2.23 1.81 1.37 0.700 0.129
15 2.95 2.60 2.13 1.75 1.34 0.691 0.128
20 2.84 2.53 2.09 1.72 1.32 0.687 0.127
40 2.70 2.42 2.02 1.68 1.30 0.681 0.126
120 2.62 2.36 1.98 1.66 1.29 0.677 0.126
2. Statistical Estimation Tests

2.1 Generalities
• A statistical hypothesis is a statement about the values of the parameters of a probability distribution.
• Null hypothesis (H o ) : A = B , Alternative hypothesis (H 1 ) : A ≠ B .
• To test a hypothesis, we take a random sample from the population under study, compute an
appropriate test statistic and then either reject or fail to reject ( H o ) with a α risk of rejecting H o
although H o is true.
2.2 Test for the Equality of Two Variances ( σ 1 ,σ 2 ) of two Normal

Population of Random Size, ( n1 , n 2 )
(Excel Function FTEST)
Test Description
• H o : σ 12 = σ 22 , H 1 : σ 12 ≠ σ 22
S2
• We compute the statistic Fo = 1 , where F = Fisher Distribution
S 22
• We reject H o if Fo > Fα or if Fo < F ⎛ α ⎞

, n1 −1, n2 −1 1−⎜ ⎟ ,n1 −1, n2 −1,
2 ⎝2⎠
α
• Where Fα and F ⎛ α ⎞ denote the upper and lower percentage points of
,n1 −1,n2 −1 1−⎜ ⎟ , n1 −1, n2 −1 2
2 ⎝2⎠
the F distribution with n1 − 1 and n 2 − 1 degrees of freedom, respectively.
• As the table for the F table gives only the upper tail points of the F, so to find F ⎛ α ⎞ we
1−⎜ ⎟ ,n1 −1,n2 −1
⎝2⎠
1
must use: F ⎛ α ⎞ = (be careful about n1 and n 2 , which are inverted).
1−⎜ ⎟ , n1 −1, n2 −1 Fα
⎝2⎠ , n2 −1, n1 −1
2
Example 1: Cement sampling:
We want to determine the best way of sampling cement. We can compare the variances of two
sets of samples collected at the mill discharge by two different ways. The H o hypothesis
would be that there is no difference between both ways of sampling (true variances equal). If
the result says that according to the samples, there is a difference, then the best sampling
method could be the one with the lowest variance (one-sided alternative hypothesis).
SSB measured: #1 way: (4350, 4365, 4850, 4750, 4580, 4600, 4450, 4740),
#2 way: (4500, 4520, 4800, 4420, 4360, 4250, 4400, 4380)
• H o : σ 12 = σ 22 , H 1 :σ 12 ≠ σ 22 (two-sided alternative hypothesis)

8
∑ (xi − 4586 ) 2
i =1
After computing: x1 = 4586 , x 2 = 4454 S12 = = 34796 , S 2 2 = 26598
8 −1
34796
• Fo = = 1.308 < F0.05 = 4.99
26598 ,8 −1,8 −1
2
and F.975 ,7 ,7 = ( F0.025 ,7 ,7 ) 1 = ( 4.99 ) −1 = 0.20 <1.308
−
The test yields not to reject H o : the measurements don’t allow us to conclude that #1 way of sampling is
significantly, with 5% confidence, different than #2 (even if S 1 > S 2 ). The excel function is
FINV(0.025,7,7).
2.3 Fisher Distribution Table

(Calculated for the upper 2.5% of the F distribution (in our case, when α = 5% )).
F(0.025, n1,n2) Ex:

F(0.025,5,10)=4.24
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200
1 647.79 38.51 17.44 12.22 10.01 8.81 8.07 7.57 7.21 6.94 6.20 5.87 5.69 5.57 5.42 5.34 5.29 5.25 5.22 5.20 5.18 5.10
2 799.48 39.00 16.04 10.65 8.43 7.26 6.54 6.06 5.71 5.46 4.77 4.46 4.29 4.18 4.05 3.97 3.93 3.89 3.86 3.84 3.83 3.76
3 864.15 39.17 15.44 9.98 7.76 6.60 5.89 5.42 5.08 4.83 4.15 3.86 3.69 3.59 3.46 3.39 3.34 3.31 3.28 3.26 3.25 3.18
4 899.60 39.25 15.10 9.60 7.39 6.23 5.52 5.05 4.72 4.47 3.80 3.51 3.35 3.25 3.13 3.05 3.01 2.97 2.95 2.93 2.92 2.85
5 921.83 39.30 14.88 9.36 7.15 5.99 5.29 4.82 4.48 4.24 3.58 3.29 3.13 3.03 2.90 2.83 2.79 2.75 2.73 2.71 2.70 2.63
6 937.11 39.33 14.73 9.20 6.98 5.82 5.12 4.65 4.32 4.07 3.41 3.13 2.97 2.87 2.74 2.67 2.63 2.59 2.57 2.55 2.54 2.47
7 948.20 39.36 14.62 9.07 6.85 5.70 4.99 4.53 4.20 3.95 3.29 3.01 2.85 2.75 2.62 2.55 2.51 2.47 2.45 2.43 2.42 2.35
8 956.64 39.37 14.54 8.98 6.76 5.60 4.90 4.43 4.10 3.85 3.20 2.91 2.75 2.65 2.53 2.46 2.41 2.38 2.35 2.34 2.32 2.26
9 963.28 39.39 14.47 8.90 6.68 5.52 4.82 4.36 4.03 3.78 3.12 2.84 2.68 2.57 2.45 2.38 2.33 2.30 2.28 2.26 2.24 2.18
10 968.63 39.40 14.42 8.84 6.62 5.46 4.76 4.30 3.96 3.72 3.06 2.77 2.61 2.51 2.39 2.32 2.27 2.24 2.21 2.19 2.18 2.11
15 984.87 39.43 14.25 8.66 6.43 5.27 4.57 4.10 3.77 3.52 2.86 2.57 2.41 2.31 2.18 2.11 2.06 2.03 2.00 1.98 1.97 1.90
20 993.08 39.45 14.17 8.56 6.33 5.17 4.47 4.00 3.67 3.42 2.76 2.46 2.30 2.20 2.07 1.99 1.94 1.91 1.88 1.86 1.85 1.78
25 998.09 39.46 14.12 8.50 6.27 5.11 4.40 3.94 3.60 3.35 2.69 2.40 2.23 2.12 1.99 1.92 1.87 1.83 1.81 1.79 1.77 1.70
30 1001.40 39.46 14.08 8.46 6.23 5.07 4.36 3.89 3.56 3.31 2.64 2.35 2.18 2.07 1.94 1.87 1.82 1.78 1.75 1.73 1.71 1.64
40 1005.60 39.47 14.04 8.41 6.18 5.01 4.31 3.84 3.51 3.26 2.59 2.29 2.12 2.01 1.88 1.80 1.74 1.71 1.68 1.66 1.64 1.56
50 1008.10 39.48 14.01 8.38 6.14 4.98 4.28 3.81 3.47 3.22 2.55 2.25 2.08 1.97 1.83 1.75 1.70 1.66 1.63 1.61 1.59 1.51
60 1009.79 39.48 13.99 8.36 6.12 4.96 4.25 3.78 3.45 3.20 2.52 2.22 2.05 1.94 1.80 1.72 1.67 1.63 1.60 1.58 1.56 1.47
70 1011.01 39.48 13.98 8.35 6.11 4.94 4.24 3.77 3.43 3.18 2.51 2.20 2.03 1.92 1.78 1.70 1.64 1.60 1.57 1.55 1.53 1.45
80 1011.91 39.49 13.97 8.33 6.10 4.93 4.23 3.76 3.42 3.17 2.49 2.19 2.02 1.90 1.76 1.68 1.63 1.59 1.55 1.53 1.51 1.42
90 1012.61 39.49 13.96 8.33 6.09 4.92 4.22 3.75 3.41 3.16 2.48 2.18 2.01 1.89 1.75 1.67 1.61 1.57 1.54 1.52 1.50 1.41
100 1013.16 39.49 13.96 8.32 6.08 4.92 4.21 3.74 3.40 3.15 2.47 2.17 2.00 1.88 1.74 1.66 1.60 1.56 1.53 1.50 1.48 1.39
200 1015.72 39.49 13.93 8.29 6.05 4.88 4.18 3.70 3.37 3.12 2.44 2.13 1.95 1.84 1.69 1.60 1.54 1.50 1.47 1.44 1.42 1.32
3. Correlation Between Data – Regression

3.1 Generalities
• Goal: express a dependant variable ( Y : ( y i )i =1ton ) as a function of one or a series of p
independent variables X j : ( X j = ( x j ,i ) j =1top ,i =1ton ) ).
• Y E = b0 + b1 ⋅ X 1 + .. + b p ⋅ X p
Y E = estimated dependant variable, X j = independent variables.
We have n observation for each variable.
3.2 Least Squared Lines

• The method minimizes the deviation E ( Ei ) between the points and the line.
- SST = total sum of square of the variable of interest =
y
∑( )
n
x B1=y/x yi − y 2
Y i =1
E=Y-YEst
∑ (E i − E ) 2
YEst n
Y
- SSE = sum of square of errors =
B0 i =1
X
SSR- = sum of square explained by the regression line: SST =
SSR+SSE
• We want to optimize SSR/SSE. Thus we test the hypothesis that the slope B1 equals 0:
H o : B1 = 0 , H 1 : B1 ≠ 0 .
• Under H o , the ratio (SSR/p)/(SSE/(n-p-1)) follows a Fisher distribution with p and n-p-1 degrees of
freedom (excel function FINV (α, p, n-p-1)).
• If Fα is high, then H o is rejected and with a certain significance α , we assume the regression is
significant.
Coefficient of Determination R2
• The coefficient of determination R2=SSR/SST gives the proportion of variation in the dependent
variable ( Y : ( y i )i =1 ton ) explained by the regression line.
• The coefficient of correlation is defined by: r =sqrt (R2)
H0: there is no correlation .75

n=5, p=1, .7
SST=0.051+0.019,
.65
MSR=0.051/1=0.051,
MSE=0.019/3=0.0063, .6
SO3
F=0.051/0063=8.05, .55
R2 = 0.051 / (0.051 + 0.019) = 0.73, r = 0.85 .5
Critical F value (α = 0.025), F1,3,0.025 = 17.44 >
.45
8.05
The ratio belongs to the F distribution .4 Y = 2.077 - .032 * X; R^2 = .727
We cannot reject H0, the regression is not .35
significant. 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52
CaO
4. Temporal/Regionalized Series (Variables)

4.1 Stationarity
• The series X (t ) is stationary if its average X (t ) and its variance S 2 (t ) are constant (over time or
over the region of study) and if the covariance COV ( X (t ), X (t' )) does not depend on t and t' but
only on the difference (distance) t' −t = Δt (= h ) .
4.2 Variogram
a) Variogram Construction
• A variogram is a plot of the average difference of a selected variable (C3S for example) between
pairs of units selected as a function of time, where the pairs are chosen in whole-number multiples
(e.g. every minute, 2 minutes, 1 meter, 2 meters, …).
2
N ⎛⎜ ⎞ with :
∑ x j − x j +h ⎟
j =1 ⎜ ⎟ - j : numbering of the sample’s value
⎝ ⎠
γ X (h ) = - N: number of pairs of sample with a specific time or
2 ⋅( N − 1) spatial distance (=h) between values of a pair.
Example:
The C3S values of kiln feed samples are:
Sample# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:00
C3S (%) 54.2 57.8 59.8 61.2 60.0 56.0 52.0 52.0 52.4 57.0
Then we can calculate the one-hour pair difference:

Pair# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Diff in pair 3.6 2 1.4 -1.2 -4 -4 0 0.4 4.6 Sum
Square diff 12.96 4 1.96 1.44 16 16 0 0.16 21.16 73.7
Two rules for variogram construction

• Collect enough units (N) to get a statistical population (at least 30 samples for a short term
experiment and 60 samples for a long term); the short term intends to define very precisely the
random heterogeneity term (nugget effect, refer below).
• The number N should reach half the total amount of samples collected (N>n/2).
b) Variogram Interpretation
X
Interpretation of the limit of variogram (h) when h increases
• Whatever the variable is, beyond a certain value of h, the variable ceases to
be correlated with itself. It is because the phenomenon taking place has no
longer any memory of a past long gone (see case 2 and case 3 where the
t
variable level off at a sill generally equal to the variance of the variable). Signal is drifting
• This is true for all raw mix analyses, which are limited in terms of the values γ X(h)
they can take.
• However, over a short period of time (a few hours), the signal may well drift.
(See graph below). In such a case, the variogram will tend to increase
instead of stabilizing itself around σ x2 . h
X
The "Nugget Effect" γ x (h) 2 2
• Many variables, especially those obtained from σ x = σ xn
data measured with a dispersive method #1

(analytical, sampling errors, etc.), present a slight Nugget effect
or marked degree of strictly random variations t h
from one value to the next.
X γ x (h) 2
• As a rule, a variable presenting a "smooth" graph σx
(# 3) when plotted presents a low to non-existent #2
"nugget effect". (i.e. due to variability at a scale 2
Nugget effect σxn
smaller than the sampling distance).
t
• A "noise" (# 1) presents all its variance as a h
2
γ x (h)
"nugget effect" ( σ x2 being called the "nugget effect
X
σx
variance"). #3
No nugget effect
t h
Limitations in h value
• If N values of X are available, shifts of more than N/2 should not be considered.
2
Regionalization and prediction • The span of values of ho for which γx (h) is below σ x is
• A very frequent pattern of variogram is called the "area of regionalization" or the range.
shown as below: • The value of the signal at time t + ho is in fact dependent
2 of all values taken by X between t and t + ho.
γ X (h ) σx
•
x x ,x x
If all values b i +1 i + h+1 are known, then i + h can
be predicted much better than by saying that it is
2
σ xn σ2
randomly distributed with a variance x .
• In fact, the variance of the prediction, at its best, will be
h
γX
2
close to 2 which is much smaller than σ x .
Area of ho
regionalization
Pseudo-periodicity X γ x (h)
• The periodic variations can be self-sustained (control
cycle, oscillator, etc.) or induced by a periodic 2
2 σx
phenomenon (buckets of elevator are unevenly
distributed, correction interval of raw meal).
h
• Even if the periodicity is blurred on the graph of the Pseudo Periodic signal t
signal by random noises or variations of the period, 1 Pseudo-Period

the variogram will tend to underline.
• The variogram will hit a maximum, above the total X γ x (h)
variance σ x2 , for a shift h of exactly 1 period.

Maximum and minimum will repeat themselves and
fade away as h increases. The fading will be quick if
the pseudo period varies much but slow if the signal is t h
Periodic signal
truly periodic.
4.3 Raw Mix Control Tuning

“Correctogram” is a simple statistics tool which can be used to determine whether over-control or under-
control is occuring in a control loop. For spot checking, a plot of the correctogram can be used.
Plot the cartesian coordinates (x, y) where:
x = values of control parameter – set point, at time t

y = values of control parameter – set point, at time t – Δt
Δt is the sampling interval.
Example:
Time C3S SP C3S – SP (x , y)

4
2:00 64.1 60 4.1 ––
4:00 58.5 60 -1.5 (4.1,-1.5) 3
6:00 58.9 60 -1.1 (-1.5,-1.1)

2
8:00 61.7 60 1.7 (-1.1,1.7)
10:00 56.7 58 -1.3 (1.7,-1.3) 1
12:00 59.2 58 1.2 (-1.3,1.2)
0
14:00 54.5 58 -3.5 (1.2,-3.5)
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
16:00 60.8 58 2.8 (-3.5,2.8) -1
18:00 55.1 58 -2.9 (2.8,-2.9)
20:00 58.3 58 0.3 (-2.9,0.3) -2
22:00 59 58 1.0 (0.3,1.0)

-3
-4
-5
SLOPE INTERPRETATION & CORRECTIVE ACTION
=0 Perfectly tuned control. All off-target values for the control parameter are due to random
variations (materials, feeder accuracy, etc.)
1 > slope > 0 Undercontrolling. Multiply gain by (1 + slope).
=1 No control taking place.
>1 Divergent control: gain value has wrong sign.
0 > slope > -1 Overcontrolling. Divide gain by (1 – slope).

= -1 Overcontrolling is inducing a cycle with frequency = 2 x sampling interval. Divide gain by
2.
< -1 Divergent cycling due to severe overcontrolling. Divide gain by (1 – slope).
The method is applicable to control response analysis in general.

It can be incorporated as an internal tuning device in a control algorithm.
Analyses of non linear control response can be performed by using polynomial fit rather than linear
regression.
5. Sampling
5.1 Golden Rules
• The MRW.
• The sampling method must allow every particle the same chance of being collected.
5.2 Fundamental Error (FE)

Calculation
• This error can never be cancelled because it is intrinsic to the material. However, we want to collect
the right size (MRW) of the sample based on this Fundamental Error (P. Gy’s theory).
• σ 2 (FE ) = C x d M 3 x
(1 − τ )
m
With:
d M : Top particle size (95% passing) in cm.
τ : sampling proportion (usually quite small, then 1- τ = 1)
m : sample weight in g.
C : Constant characterizing the material sampled, in g / cm 3
• C = fcl g with
f = Particle shape factor. (= 0.5 usually, ranges between 0 and 1)
= 1 when cubic, = 0.2 when flat, = 0.5 when spheroidal
l = liberation factor [0 to 1]
= 0 if homogeneous, = 1 if particles completely distinct, = .001 for homogeneous raw mix,
= .2 medium, = .3-8 heterogeneous
g = factor describing the particle size distribution
• If we call “size range” the ratio d M / d m of the upper size limit d M : (about 5% oversize) to the
lower size limit d m : (about 5% undersize):
Large size range ( d M / d m > 4): g = 0.25, medium size range (4 to 2): g = 0.50, small size
range (< 2): g = 0.75, uniform size ( d M / d m = 1): g = 1.00
• c = Mineralogical composition factor g / cm 3 ( )

c= ∑ pi ⎜⎝
⎛ 1 − ai ⎞
ai ⎠
(
⎟ . ρ i ai + (1 − ai ) ρ i
c )
i
With:
pi = proportion of material I in the mix (%)
a i = concentration of the “critical” within the material I (%) in mass ( g of CaO / g of solid )
pi = volumetric weight of the material i g / cm 3 ( )

ρ ic = volumetric weight of the “initial” in the material
Usually we take ρ i = ρ ic
Example:
Mix is crushed at 12.5 mm of 75% lime and 25% clay, CaO is the critical
Sample weight = 50 kg.
l = 0.3 f = 0.5
CaO lime content = 52%, CaO clay content = 24%
ρCaO = 2.7 g / cm 3 , ρ lime = 2.7 , ρ clay = 2.7, g = 0.25
⎛ 1 − 0.52 ⎞ ⎛ 1 − 0.24 ⎞ 3
c = 0.75 x ⎜ ⎟ x 2.7 + 0.25 x ⎜ ⎟ x 2.7 = 1.869 + 2.137 = 4.00 g / cm
⎝ 0.52 ⎠ ⎝ 0.24 ⎠
Then: C = f l c g = 0.5 x 0.3 x 4.0 x 0.25 = 0.15 g / cm 3
(1.25 )3 x 0.15
And: σ (FE ) = = 2.4 .10 −3 is the fundamental error standard deviation.
50 ,000
Then the 95% probability confidence interval ± 2 σ ( FE ) is 0.0048 and then CaO content
confidence interval is: 052.( 1 ± 2σ ( FE )) = 0.52 ± 0.048% CaO . (Considering that
1−τ ≈ 1)
5.3 Minimum Representative Weight (MRW)
a) Lafarge Corp Simplified Formula

d3
• MRW = 18. f .ρ . .
σ ( FE ) 2
• In case of material encountered in cement plant, we usually have σ ( FE ) 2 <0.06.
Example 1 estimation of the MRW

For quarry crushed stone with:
f = 0.5 , ρ = 2.6 g / cm 3 , d = 1.75cm , σ ( FE ) 2 = 0.01
MRW = 18 × 0.5 × 2.6 × 1.75 3 / 0.01 = 12.54 kg
b) Estimation of the MRW (P. Gy’s formula)

• What is the MRW considering the previous lot C = 0.15 g / cm( 3
)?
Passing 95% = d M = 4.0 cm with σ ( FE ) = 0.04 (be careful, it is a relative standard deviation), then,
3
C .d M 0.15 x 4 3
MRW = = = 6 kg
σ ( FE ) 2 (0.04 )2
5.4 Estimation of the Maximum Particle Size

• Assuming we want to sample a maximum of 5 kg sample with a tolerate standard deviation of
σ = 0.04
3 Mσ 2 5000 x 0.04 2
Then: dM = d M =3 = 3.8 cm
C 0.15
a) Rule of Thumb:
Maximum Particle Size (mm) 10 20 30 40 50 60 75 90
Min sample Coal (ISO1988), kg 0.6 0.8 3
Min Sample Aggregate, ASTM D75, kg 10 25 60 80 100 120 150 175
ASTM for the aggregate industry is very safe.
5.5 Minimum Number of Observations

• Once the right size (MRW) of the sample is calculated, we want to determine how many samples (n)
have to be collected to have the acceptable knowledge (precision P) of the parameter ( X ) we are
interested in, with an afforded risk α .
• The larger the sample size, the closer we can expect the sample mean X to be to the population
mean X . Refer to the ‘Central Limit Theorem’ above. The reliability of X as an estimate of X is
measured by the standard error of the mean which is simply the standard deviation of the sample
mean.
σ 2X
• Rule of thumb: n =
σ2
X
• where:
σ 2X is the variance of the material stream and, σ 2 is the variance of the mean (the variability
X
desired in the result).
Remark:
Each sample must have the MRW in order to have a right observation of the parameter that
we want to have estimated.
Example:
The small-scale random heterogeneity of the raw mix, expressed in C3S variance, at mill
outpout is 10, thus σ 2
X =10.
We would like to decrease this random heterogeneity to 2, thus σ 2 =2,
X
Then to achieve this goal we have to sample 10/2=5 increments. Normally they have to be
collected closely to one another (e.g. 30 second interval).
5.6 Mechanical Sampling

(Sampling ratio 1/1000 to 1/10)
a) Cutter Width and Velocity – Rules of Extraction Correctness

(for flow < 500 m 3 / h ).
d M = Maximum particle diameter
W = Actual Cutter opening
W0 = Minimum theoretical cutter width
b) First rule of Extraction Correctness
For d M > 3 mm : W ≥ Wo = 3 d M
For d M ≤ 3mm : W ≥ Wo = 10 mm
c) Second Rule of Extraction Correctness
• Irrespective of d M , if the actual cutter width is W = n Wo (with n ≥ 1 ) then the cutter velocity V
should not exceed Von = (1 + n ) ⋅ 0.3 m / s
• Economical Optimum is : W = W0 and V = 0.6 m / s
d) Interval of Time between Increment

• No more than 5 minutes, usually every 30 seconds.
• Make sure the number of increments making up the sample is in excess of 6 (a best is 30, ASTM
2234 (coal) recommends 15 increments for cleaned and 35 for uncleaned coal).
5.7 Manual Sampling on Conveyor Belt
a) When the Belt is Stopped

• Sample enough material with regard to MRW.
• Sample over all the width of the belt making sure to collect everything and perpendicular to the belt.
• The length of sampling over the belt should be greater than the width of the belt.
• Make-up the sample with several increments (more than 6 at least) to get the MRW.
b) When the Belt Keeps Running

• Basic rule: extract a full cross-cut section of the flow stream, in several increment if necessary.
• The manual sampling device width must be at least 2.5 times the bulk material top size.
• Interval of time between increment.
no more than 5 minutes, usually every 30 seconds.
number of increments in excess of 6.
My notes:
CHAPTER 9-3 – THERMODYNAMIC AND CHEMICAL DATA
9-3. Thermodynamic and

Chemical Data
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. THERMODYNAMICS AND CHEMISTRY DATA – Page 1/14
CHAPTER 9-3 – THERMODYNAMICS AND CHEMISTRY DATA
Table of Contents
1. Thermodynamic Properties .............................................................. 3

1.1 Heat Capacity and Enthalpy ................................................................................ 3
1.2 Estimation of Cp and Cpm ................................................................................... 4
1.3 Table 1: Heat of Reaction at 25°C ....................................................................... 5
1.4 Table 2: Heat of evaporation of water ................................................................. 5
2. Data ..................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Table 3: Some Properties of the Elements.......................................................... 6
2.2 Table 4: Properties of Typical Components ........................................................ 8
2.3 Table 5: Oxides and Other Definitions................................................................. 9
2.4 Table 6: Correlation constants for calculation of Cp in kcal/kg.°K..................... 10
2.5 Table 7: Cp mean – reference 0ºC .................................................................... 12
3. Psychrometric Chart........................................................................ 13
1. Thermodynamic Properties
1.1 Heat Capacity and Enthalpy

Heat capacity
• It is function of the system conditions:
⎛ ∂H ⎞ ⎛ ∂U ⎞
At constant pressure: C p = ⎜ ⎟ At constant volume: Cv = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ∂T ⎠ p ⎝ ∂T ⎠ v
Cp
∂H
Enthalpy
Cp =
∂T
dH
dT
T
Temperature
Enthalpy
• No absolute value, only changes in enthalpy can be calculated. Integrating over the temperature
change:
T2
ΔH = H ( T2 ) − H ( T1 ) = ∫ C p (T) dT
T1
Enthalpy ∆H
T2
ΔH = ∫ Cp(T ) dT
T1
Cp
∆H
T1 T2
Temperature
Mean heat capacity Cpm

• It is the enthalpy change divided by the temperature difference:
T2
∫ Cp (T) dT
H 2 − H 1 T1
Cp m = =
T2 − T1 T2 − T1
Cpmean
ΔH
Cpm =
T2 − T1
Cp
Cpm
∆H
T1 T2
Temperature
• In the more familiar form used in heat and mass balances: Q = mCp m ΔT
1.2 Estimation of Cp and Cpm
• Cp for different gases and materials at a given temperature can be estimated with the following
correlation:
Cp (T ) = a + b.T + c.T 2 + d .T −2
The constants a, b, c and d are given at the Table 6, at the end of the chapter.
• Cpm can be obtained from the integration of the Cp(T) correlation
• As previously given, the average or Cp mean between T and a reference T0:
T 2 − T02 T 3 − T03 ⎛1 1 ⎞
a × (T − T0 ) + b × + c× − d × ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
Cp m (T ) =
2 3 ⎝ T T0 ⎠
T − T0
• The Lafarge thermodynamic.xla add-in calculates Cpm(T) in kcal/kg.°C using the above equation with
a reference temperature T0 = 0°C (273.15°K)
Btu cal kcal
• Note: 1.0 = 1.0 = 1.0
lb.° F g.(°C ⋅ or ⋅ ° K ) kg.(°C ⋅ or ⋅ ° K )
1.3 Table 1: Heat of Reaction at 25°C
C + ½ O2 → CO + 26.416 kcal/gmole C
C + O2 → CO2 + 94.051 kcal/gmole C
CO + ½ O2 → CO2 + 67.636 kcal/gmole CO
S + O2 → SO2 + 70.960 kcal/gmole S
SO2 + ½ O2 → SO3 + 23.490 kcal/gmole SO2
S + 1½ O2 → SO3 + 94.450 kcal/gmole S
H2 + ½ O2 → H2Ogas + 57.798 kcal/gmole H2 (LHV)
H2 + ½ O2 → H2Oliquid + 68.317 kcal/gmole H2 (HHV)
CaO + CO2 → CaCO3 + 42.499 kcal/gmole CaO
1.4 Table 2: Heat of evaporation of water

Temperature Heat of evaporation
(°C) (kcal/kg)
0 597.5
10 591.8
15 589.0
20 586.2
25 583.4
30 580.6
40 574.9
50 569.1
60 563.3
70 557.5
80 551.5
100 539.1
2. Data
2.1 Table 3: Some Properties of the Elements
ELEMENT SYMBOL ATOMIC ATOMIC WEIGHT VOLUMIC FUSION EVAP.

3
# (g) MASS (g/cm ) TEMP.(C°) TEMP. (°C)
Actinium Ac 89 (227) 10.0 1600 3200
Aluminum Al 13 26.9815 2.694 660.46 2467
Americium Am 95 (243) 11.7 1200 2607
Antimony Sb 51 121.75 6.7 630.75 1750
Argon Ar 18 39.948 17832e-3 -189.2 -185.7
Arsenic As 33 74.9225 5.73 815 (36 at) 613(sub)
Astatine At 85 (210)
Barium Ba 56 137.34 3.59 725 1640
Berkelium Bk 97 (247)
Beryllium Be 4 9.0122 1.84 1278+5 2970
Bismuth Bl 83 208.98 9.80 271.3 1560
Boron B 5 10.811 2.45 2300 2550 (sub)
Bromine Br 35 79.909 (Br2)3.119e-3 (Br2)-7.2 58.78
Cadmium Cd 48 112.4 8.64 320.9 765
Calcium Ca 20 40.08 1.55 839+2 1484
Californium Cf 98 (251)
Carbon C 6 12.01115 (grap) 2.25 3652-3697 4827
Cerium Ce 58 140.12 6.78 798 3257
Cesium Cs 55 132.905 1.87 28.4 678.4
Chlorine Cl 17 35.453 3.214 e-3 -100.98 -34.6
Chromium Cr 24 51.996 7.507 1857+20 2672
Cobalt Co 27 58.9332 8.7 1495 2870
Copper Cu 29 63.54 8.94 1083.4 2567
Curium Cm 96 (248)
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5 8.56 1409 2335
Einsteinium Es 99 (254)
Erbium Er 68 167.26
Europium Eu 63 151.96 5.24 820 1700
Fermium Fm 100 (253)
Fluorine F 9 18.9984 (F2)1.696e-3 -219.62 -188.14
Francium Fr 87 (223)
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 7.95 1313 3233
Gallium Ga 31 69.72 5.9 29.78 2403
Germanium Ge 32 72.59 5.46 937.4 2830
Gold Au 79 196.967 19.3 1064.43 2807
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 13.08 2227 4602
Helium He 2 4.0026 1.785 e-4 -272.2 (26atm) -268.93
Holmium Ho 67 164.93
Hydrogen H 1 1.00797 (H2) 8.99 e-5 -259.14 252.87
Indium In 49 114.82 7.28 156.61 2080
Iodine I 53 126.9044 (I2)4.94 113.5 184.35
Iridium Ir 77 192.2 22.64 2410 4130
Iron Fe 26 55.847 7.9 1535 2750
Krypton Kr 36 83.8 3.708 e-3 -156.6 -152.31
Lanthanum La 57 138.91 6.16 920 3430
Lead Pb 82 207.19 11.343 327.5 1740
ELEMENT SYMBOL ATOMIC ATOMIC WEIGHT VOLUMIC FUSION EVAP.

3
# MASS (g/cm ) TEMP.(C°) TEMP. (°C)
(g)
Lithium Li 3 6.939 .53 180.5 1347
Lutetium Lu 71 174.97
Magnesium Mg 12 24.312 1.74 648.8 1090
Manganese Mn 25 54.938 7.2 1244 1962
Mendelevium Md 101 (256)
Mercury Hg 80 200.59 13.594 -38.87 356.8
Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94 10.2 2617 4612
Neodymium Nd 60 144.24 7.07 1010 3127
Neon Ne 10 20.183 .9002 e-3 -248.6 -246.08
Neptunium Np 93 (237)
Nickel Ni 28 58.71 8.9 1453 2732
Niobium Nb 41 92.906 8.57 2468 4742
Nitrogen N 7 14.0067 (N2)1.2505e-3 -219.86 -193.8
Nobelium No 102 (254)
Osmium Os 76 190.2 22.48 3045 5027
Oxygen O 8 15.9994 (O2)1.429e-3 -218.4 -182.962
Palladium Pd 46 106.4 12.02 1552 3140
Phosphorus P 15 30.9738 2.34 590 (42 atm)
Platinum Pt 78 195.09 21.45 1772 3827
Plutonium Pu 94 (244) 19.74 639.5 3454
Polonium Po 84 (210)
Potassium K 19 39.102 .86 63.65 774
Praseodymium Pr 59 140.907 6.78 931 3212
Promethium Pm 61 (145)
Protactinium Pa 91 (231)
Radium Ra 88 (226) 5 700 1140
Radon Rn 86 (222) 9.73 e-3 -71 -62
Rhenium Re 75 186.2 20.5 3180 5630
Rhodium Rh 45 102.905 12.4 1966 3727
Rubidium Rb 37 85.4 1.532 39 6887
Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07 12.3 2310 3900
Samarium Sm 62 150.35 7.52 1077 1791
Scandium Sc 21 44.956 2.989 1539 2832
Selenium Se 34 78.96 4.81 217 685
Silicon Si 14 28.086 2.32-2.34 1410 2355
Silver Ag 47 107.87 10.49 961.93 2112
Sodium Na 11 22.9898 .97 97.8 882.9
Strontium Sr 38 87.62 2.6 769 1384
Sulphur S 16 32.064 2.07 112.8 444.67
Tantalum Ta 73 180.948 16.6 2996 5425
Technetium Tc 43 (99)
Tellurium Te 52 127.6 6.25 449.5 990

Terbium Tb 65 158.924 158.924
Thallium Tl 81 204.37 11.85 303.5 1457
Thorium Th 90 232.038 11.7 1750 4790
Thulium Tm 69 168.934
Tin Sn 50 118.69 7.18 231.96 2270
Titanium Ti 22 47.9 4.5 1660 3287
Tungsten W 74 183.85 19.35 3410 5660
Uranium U 92 238.03 19.05 1132.3 3818
Vanadium V 23 50.942 5.96 1890 3380
Xenon Xe 54 131.3 5.887e-3 -111.9 -107.1
Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04
Yttrium Y 39 88.905 4.469 1523 3337
Zinc Zn 30 65.37 7.14 419.58 907
Zirconium Zr 40 91.22 6.49 1852 4377
Table 4: Properties of Typical Components
CHEMICAL FORMULA MOLECULAR VOLUMIC FUSION EVAPORATION

WEIGHT (g) MASS (g/cm3) TEMP. (C°) TEMP. (C°)
Al2O3 101.9612 3.9655
BaO 153
BaSO4 136
C3S 228.323
C2S 172.244
C3A 270.199
C4AF 485.971
C2F 271.851
CaCO3 100.0892 2.93 1339 898 (decomp)
CaO 56.0794 3.25-3.8 2580 2850
CaSO4 136.1376 2.61 >200
CaSO4.2H2O 172.1684 2.32 128 (-1.5H2O) 163 (-2H2O)
CO 28.0104 1.25e-3 -199 -191.5
CO2 44.0098 1.977e-3 -56.6 -78.5
Cr2O3 151.9902 5.21 2435 4000
FeO 71.8464 5.7 1420
Fe2O3 159.6922
Fe3O4 231.5386
H2O 18.0154 1.00 0.00 100.0
K2O 94.1994
K2SO4 174.2576 2.662 1069 1689
KCl 74.553 1.984 776 1500 (sub)
MgCO3 84.3142
MgO 40.3044
Mn2O3 157.8742
Na2O 61.979
Na2SO4 142.0372 2.68 884
NaCl 58.4428 2.165 801 1413
P2O5 141.9446
SiO2 60.0848 2.26 1703 2230

SO2 64.0588 2.927e-3 -72.7 -10
SO3 80.0582 1.97 16.83 44.8
TiO2 79.8988 3.84 1830-1850 2500-3000
Slag, blast furnace 0.36
Table 5: Oxides and Other Definitions
Formula Short Form Mineral Name or Technical Name

Free CaO - Free lime
Ca(OH)2 - Portlandite
2CaO.SiO2 C2S Dicalcium silicate, belite, larnite
3CaO.SiO2 C3S Tricalcium silicate, alite
3CaO.Al2O3 C3A Tricalcium aluminate
11 CaO.7 Al 2 O3 .CaX C12 A7 12/7-calcium aluminate, mayenite
2 CAO.( Al 2 O3 .Fe2 O3 ) C 2 ( A, F ) Aluminate ferrite
2 CAO .Al 2 O3 .SiO2 C 2 AS Gehlenite
CaSO4 - Calcium sulphate, anhydrite

CaSO4.½H2O Hemihydrate, plaster
CaSO4.2H2O Gypsum
CaCO3 - Calcium carbonate, calcite
2(CaO.SiO2).CaCO3 - Spurrite
2(CaO.SiO2).CaSO4 - Sulphate spurrite, sulpho-spurrite
K2SO4 - Potassium sulphate, arcanite
Na2SO4 - Sodium sulphate, thenardite
2CaSO4.K2SO4 (0) - Calcium langbeinite
CaSO4.K2SO4.H2O Syngenite
5CaSO4.K2SO4.H2O Gorgeyite
C3A.3CaSO4.32H2O Ettringite
(K , Na )2 SO4 .2CaSO4 - Alkali calcium sulphate
KCI - Potassium chloride, sylvine

K2O.Al2O3.2SiO2 KAS2 Kalsilite
Na2SO4.3K2SO4 Aphthitalite
FeS2 Pyrite
(0) = Calcium langebeinite will react with the atmosphere to form K 2 Ca (SO4 )2 .H 2 O .
2.2 Table 6: Correlation constants for calculation of Cp in kcal/kg.°K
Temperature Cpm Top

Material a b c d
Limit Range Limit
O2 298 to 999°K 1.66341E-1 1.52333E-4 -5.93194E-8 1.14618E+3 0.2408
1000 to 3299°K 2.51162E-1 1.77998E-5 -6.07722E-10 -7.85447E+3 0.2736
3300 to 6000°K 2.83126E-1 1.27044E-5 -9.60847E-10 -1.30952E+5 0.2928
N2 298 to 799°K 2.32210E-1 2.14938E-5 2.76050E-8 6.53840E+2 0.2553
800 to 2199°K 2.42450E-1 5.44079E-5 -1.05755E-8 -7.11335E+3 0.2838
2200 to 6000°K 3.20296E-1 1.05070E-7 2.16255E-10 -5.84722E+4 0.3079
H2 298 to 999°K 3.71752E+0 -6.54182E-4 5.30928E-7 -1.34162E+4 3.4904
1000 to 2099°K 2.11603E+0 1.38511E-3 -2.23797E-7 3.03508E+5 3.7051
2100 to 6000°K 3.79977E+0 2.54376E-4 -8.12917E-9 -8.44345E+5 4.3278
CO2 298 to 799°K 1.49625E-1 2.42420E-4 -9.77776E-8 -1.01938E+3 0.2446
800 to 1799°K 2.60434E-1 6.27757E-5 -1.38167E-8 -1.43928E+4 0.2858
1800 to 3999°K 3.32286E-1 3.92911E-6 -9.13715E-11 -4.80845E+4 0.3158
4000 to 6000°K 3.58571E-1 -5.30873E-6 7.85626E-10 -1.07169E+5 0.3267
CO 298 to 799°K 2.20543E-1 5.60021E-5 8.37651E-9 9.48925E+2 0.2575
800 to 2199°K 2.55445E-1 4.61682E-5 8.98815E-9 9.24077E+3 0.3259
2200 to 6000°K 3.17217E-1 1.74111E-6 3.30179E-11 4.64873E+4 0.3276
SO2 298 to 799°K 9.79544E-2 2.00701E-4 -9.82007E-8 -2.45323E+1 0.1749
800 to 2599°K 2.06945E-1 9.10368E-6 -1.25453E-9 -1.13897E+4 0.2044
2600 to 6000°K 2.17009E-1 2.34333E-6 -6.36079E-13 -1.79038E+4 0.2172
NO 298 to 1199°K 1.81362E-1 1.28289E-4 -4.08850E-8 1.92938E+3 0.2566
1200 to 6000°K 2.92103E-1 3.55985E-6 -1.76784E-10 -2.64192E+4 0.2918
H2O (vapor) 298 to 1199°K 3.75618E-1 1.68470E-4 4.13071E-10 1.72986E+3 0.5052
1200 to 2599°K 4.14544E-1 1.91743E-4 -2.78523E-8 -3.59274E+4 0.5997
2600 to 6000°K 7.48058E-1 1.29251E-5 -3.91557E-10 -4.02480E+5 0.7009
SiO2 298 to 846°K 1.74571E-1 1.54435E-4 0.00000E+0 -3.84423E+3 0.2444
847 to 1078°K 2.34315E-1 3.99401E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 1.3490
1079 to 1994°K 2.89399E-1 5.15389E-6 0.00000E+0 -1.64753E+4 0.7851
1995 to 2200°K 3.42819E-3 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.7015
Al2O3 298 to 599°K 1.58181E-1 3.16316E-4 -1.99797E-7 -4.40115E+3 0.2295
600 to 1599°K 2.70931E-1 3.61871E-5 -4.81287E-9 -9.75318E+3 0.2784
1600 to 2327°K 3.56484E-1 -2.66895E-5 7.55563E-9 -5.22846E+4 0.2929
2328 to 4000°K 3.92311E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.3375
Fe2O3 298 to 499°K 2.62773E-1 -2.71539E-4 3.64815E-7 -5.24040E+3 0.1754
500 to 799°K 1.93927E-1 1.68039E-5 5.79035E-8 -4.88997E+3 0.0898
800 to 1099°K 9.36550E+0 -1.24510E-2 4.70597E-6 -1.39500E+6 0.1423
1100 to 1599°K 2.27310E-1 -1.91821E-5 8.86418E-9 -7.56606E+3 0.1691
CaO 298 to 1399°K 2.11063E-1 2.41220E-5 -2.70785E-9 -3.42270E+3 0.2201
1400 to 3199°K 2.09137E-1 2.15260E-5 -7.61534E-10 0.00000E+0 0.2412
3200 to 4000°K 2.67475E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.1894
MgO 298 to 899°K 2.56115E-1 8.67130E-5 -3.47648E-8 -5.23329E+3 0.2725
900 to 4000°K 2.92535E-1 1.98752E-5 -3.78829E-11 -8.79060E+3 0.3274
Correlation constants for calculation of Cp in kcal/kg.°K (cont’d)
Temperature C p mean Top

Material Limit a b c d
Range Limit
K2O 298 to 499°K 1.72260E-1 3.18402E-4 -3.33239E-7 -2.24501E+3 0.2276
500 to 799°K 7.41409E-2 3.14076E-4 -1.12686E-7 9.04108E+3 0.2417
800 to 2000°K 1.87709E-1 9.96111E-5 1.09170E-9 -4.40135E+2 0.3025
Na2O 298 to 599°K 1.04965E-1 5.91884E-4 -3.72410E-7 1.61265E+3 0.2988
600 to 1023°K 3.12327E-1 8.43466E-5 -2.18119E-8 -8.84785E+3 0.3287
1024 to 1405°K 3.18377E-1 4.76363E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.3447
1406 to 3500°K 4.03356E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.3828
CaCO3 298 to 1200°K 2.49575E-1 5.23529E-5 0.00000E+0 -6.19443E+3 0.2692
MgCO3 298 to 599°K 1.90758E-1 2.12990E-4 -1.43661E-10 -3.39798E+3 0.2628
600 to 799°K 1.34623E-1 3.85987E-4 -1.47945E-7 -1.38980E+3 0.2879
800 to 1000°K 1.25484E-1 4.04459E-4 -1.53722E-7 -2.64523E+3 0.3081
K2SO4 298 to 599°K 1.58125E-1 1.54102E-4 -3.18000E-8 -1.89092E+3 0.2074
600 to 856°K -7.13991E-1 1.36132E-3 -3.64171E-7 9.43877E+4 0.2331
857 to 1341°K -3.72465E-1 4.47300E-4 -2.64252E-10 1.88203E+5 0.2556
1342 to 3000°K 2.69999E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2643
Na2SO4 298 to 521°K 1.38524E-1 2.59737E-4 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2417
522 to 979°K 2.44072E-1 9.18685E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2879
980 to 1156°K 2.40087E-1 9.98029E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2997
1157 to 3500°K 3.32160E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.3233
CaSO4 298 to 1400°K 1.23255E-1 1.73351E-4 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2683
+ ½ H2O 298 to 1000°K 1.16776E-1 2.68688E-4 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2878
+ 2 H2O 298 to 1000°K 1.26844E-1 4.41399E-4 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.4078
KCl 298 to 699°K 1.61827E-1 1.89934E-5 2.40342E-8 -4.62219E+2 0.1747
700 to 1043°K 4.60282E-1 -5.38732E-4 3.19498E-7 -2.63462E+4 0.1862
1044 to 2000°K 2.35949E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2138
NaCl 298 to 1073°K 2.29593E-1 -5.18511E-5 8.87734E-8 -1.37371E+3 0.2350
1074 to 1499°K 5.09687E-1 -3.28475E-4 1.14261E-7 0.00000E+0 0.2499
1500 to 2500°K 2.73785E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2606
CaCl2 298 to 599°K 1.66077E-1 6.89417E-6 2.86392E-9 -1.02094E+3 0.1634
600 to 1044°K 1.95989E-1 -7.99550E-5 7.04763E-8 -1.79242E+3 0.1708
1045 to 3000°K 2.20815E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2067
CaF2 298 to 599°K 3.29378E-1 -2.80694E-4 2.60932E-7 -5.23867E+3 0.2269
600 to 1423°K 1.74378E-1 9.21586E-5 6.35505E-9 3.01806E+3 0.2635
1424 to 1690°K 3.30558E-1 3.20184E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2855
1691 to 3500°K 3.05840E-1 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2969
C3S 298 to 2600°K 2.18324E-1 3.77524E-5 0.00000E+0 -4.44532E+3 0.2663
C2S 298 to 969°K 2.02438E-1 5.65457E-5 0.00000E+0 -3.63425E+3 0.2238
970 to 1709°K 1.86705E-1 6.39768E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.2488
1710 to 2403°K 2.84470E-1 8.22990E-5 0.00000E+0 0.00000E+0 0.3156
C3A 298 to 2500°K 2.21910E-1 2.77202E-5 0.00000E+0 -4.36714E+3 0.2540
C4AF 298 to 2500°K 1.84143E-1 3.58039E-5 0.00000E+0 -1.79020E+2 0.2335
2.3 Table 7: Cp mean – reference 0ºC
kcal/kg°C 20°C 100°C 200°C 300°C 400°C 500°C 600°C 700°C 800°C 900°C 1000°C
O2 0.2190 0.2206 0.2236 0.2271 0.2306 0.2340 0.2372 0.2401 0.2428 0.2451 0.2473
N2 0.2487 0.2485 0.2492 0.2506 0.2525 0.2547 0.2572 0.2597 0.2623 0.2648 0.2671
H2 3.4073 3.4304 3.4453 3.4541 3.4610 3.4681 3.4767 3.4872 3.5000 3.5144 3.5308
CO2 0.1977 0.2077 0.2183 0.2275 0.2356 0.2428 0.2493 0.2550 0.2602 0.2649 0.2891
CO 0.2489 0.2488 0.2500 0.2519 0.2542 0.2568 0.2644 0.2719 0.2780 0.2834 0.2882
SO2 0.1466 0.1522 0.1587 0.1644 0.1695 0.1739 0.1777 0.1810 0.1839 0.1864 0.1886
NO 0.2385 0.2374 0.2383 0.2403 0.2429 0.2456 0.2483 0.2510 0.2536 0.2560 0.2583
H2O 0.4450 0.4471 0.4519 0.4580 0.4648 0.4721 0.4796 0.4873 0.4951 0.5031 0.5111
Air 0.2418 0.2420 0.2433 0.2452 0.2474 0.2499 0.2525 0.2562 0.2578 0.2602 0.2625
SiO2 0.1703 0.1868 0.2025 0.2154 0.2267 0.2372 0.2455 0.2491 0.2524 0.2557 0.2586
Al2O3 0.1768 0.1962 0.2137 0.2286 0.2366 0.2444 0.2509 0.2563 0.2609 0.2650 0.2687
Fe2O3 0.1497 0.1620 0.1729 0.1347 0.1066 0.0923 0.1093 0.1286 0.1401 0.1480 0.1544
CaCO3 0.1870 0.2057 0.2212 0.2322 0.2407 0.2476 0.2536 0.2589 0.2637 0.2681
Raw 0.1835 0.2018 0.2172 0.2277 0.2359 0.2431 0.2496 0.2549 0.2596 0.2639
Slag 0.211 0.211
CaO 0.1749 0.1850 0.1932 0.1989 0.2032 0.2057 0.2096 0.2121 0.2143 0.2162 0.2180
C3S 0.1735 0.1869 0.1980 0.2059 0.2120 0.2170 0.2213 0.2251 0.2286 0.2318 0.2347
C2S 0.1731 0.1851 0.1954 0.2032 0.2094 0.2148 0.2196 0.2240 0.2275 0.2309 0.2344
C3A 0.1752 0.1880 0.1985 0.2057 0.2113 0.2157 0.2195 0.2228 0.2257 0.2283 0.2308
C4AF 0.1920 0.1940 0.1961 0.1982 0.2001 0.2020 0.203 0.2058 0.2076 0.2095 0.2113
Clinker 0.1780 0.1881 0.1985 0.2069 0.2137 0.2190 0.2233 0.2289 0.2302 0.2334 0.2370
kcal/kg°C 1100°C 1200°C 1300°C 1400°C 1500°C 1600°C 1700°K 1800°C 1900°C 2000°C
O2 0.2493 0.2511 0.2528 0.2545 0.2560 0.2574 0.2588 0.2602 0.2614 0.2627
N2 0.2694 0.2715 0.2735 0.2754 0.2772 0.2789 0.2805 0.2820 0.2834 0.2847
H2 3.5490 3.5685 3.5892 3.6107 3.6327 3.6549 3.6772 3.6994 3.7213 3.7430
CO2 0.2729 0.2764 0.2795 0.2825 0.2852 0.2876 0.2899 0.2920 0.2940 0.2958
CO 0.2927 0.2969 0.3011 0.3051 0.3091 0.3130 0.3170 0.3209 0.3249 0.3261
SO2 0.1906 0.1924 0.1939 0.1954 0.1967 0.1979 0.1900 0.2000 0.2010 0.2019
NO 0.2604 0.2623 0.2641 0.2668 0.2673 0.2687 0.2701 0.2713 0.2724 0.2735
H2O 0.5191 0.5269 0.5346 0.5420 0.5492 0.5562 0.5629 0.5694 0.5757 0.5817
Air 0.2647 0.2668 0.2687 0.2706 0.2723 0.2739 0.2755 0.2770 0.2783 0.2796
SiO2 0.2611 0.2634 0.2655 0.2673 0.2690 0.2706 0.2720 0.2605 0.2469 0.2348
Al2O3 0.2720 0.2749 0.2777 0.2802 0.2826 0.2847 0.2867 0.2886 0.2904 0.2921
Fe2O3 0.1597 0.1643 0.1682 0.1717 0.1748 0.1776 0.1801 0.1825 0.1847 0.1868
CaO 0.2197 0.2212 0.2227 0.2241 0.2254 0.2267 0.2279 0.2291 0.2303 0.2314
C3S 0.2375 0.2402 0.2428 0.2453 0.2478 0.2502 0.2525 0.2548 0.2570 0.2592
C2S 0.2377 0.2411 0.2444 0.2477 0.2565 0.2676 0.2779 0.2875 0.2966 0.3051
C3A 0.2331 0.2353 0.2373 0.2393 0.2413 0.2431 0.2449 0.2467 0.2485 0.2502
C4AF 0.2131 0.2150 0.2168 0.2186 0.2204 0.2222 0.2240 0.2258 0.2276 0.2294
Clinker 0.2412 0.2464 0.2529 0.2610 0.2711 0.2836 0.2987 0.3167 0.3382 0.3632
3. Psychrometric Chart
My notes:
CHAPTER 9-4 – UNIT CONVERSION
9-4. Unit Conversion
© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved. UNIT CONVERSION – Page 1/10
Table of Contents
1. Mass .............................................................................................................3
2. Length ..........................................................................................................3
3. Area ..............................................................................................................4
4. Volume .........................................................................................................4
5. Velocity.........................................................................................................5
6. Flow Rate .....................................................................................................5
7. Concentration ..............................................................................................5
7.1 General Concentration Units .......................................................................... 5
7.2 Gas Concentration.......................................................................................... 6
8. Pressure .......................................................................................................7
9. Heat, Work ...................................................................................................7
10. Calorific Value .............................................................................................8
10.1 Calorific Value (Gas Basis)............................................................................. 8
10.2 Liquid Calorific Value ...................................................................................... 8
10.3 Calorific Value (Mass Basis)........................................................................... 8
11. Specific Heat................................................................................................9

11.1 Specific Heat (Gas Basis)............................................................................... 9
11.2 Specific Heat (Mass Basis)............................................................................. 9
12. Force ............................................................................................................9
1. Mass
Time:
[]
The fundamental unit of time t is the second s whose definition is based on an invariant property of
cesium 133.
Mass:
International System of Unit ISU : [kg]. 1 kg is the mass of a cylinder of platinum alloy kept at Sèvres,
France.
troy hundred sh hundred
MultiplyÈ to obtain Æ kg g t lb Short ton grain ounce
weight weight
ounce
kg 1 1000 0.001 2.2046 1.102E-03 15432 32.151 35.274 0.0197 0.022
g 0.0001 1 1E-06 0.0022 1.1E-06 15.4323 0.0322 0.0353 1.97E-05 2.20E-05
T 1000 1E+06 1 2204.6 1.10231 1.5E+07 32151 3.5274 19.684 22.046
lb 0.4536 453.59 0.0005 1 0.0005 7000 14.583 16 0.0089 001
Short ton 907.19 907185 0.9072 2000 1 1.40E+07 29167 32000 17.857 20
grain 6.48E-05 0.0648 6E-08 0.0001 171E-08 1 0.0021 0.0023 1.28E-06 1.43E-06
troy ounce 0.0311 31.104 3E-05 0.0686 3.4E-05 480.00 1 1.0971 0.0006 0.0007
ounce 0.0283 28.35 3E-05 0.0625 3.1E-05 437.499 0.9115 1 0.0006 0.0006
hundred weight 50.802 50802 0.0508 112 0.056 783994 1633.3 1792 1 1.12
sh hundred weight 45.359 45359 0.0454 100 0.05 699996 1458.3 1600 0.8929 1
2. Length
(ISU : [m] ; 1 meter = wavelength of orange-red light)
miles miles
MultiplyÈ to obtain Æ m cm km in ft yd
(stat) (naut)
m 1 100 0.001 39.37008 3.28084 1.093613 0.000621 0.00054
cm 0.01 1 0.00001 0.393701 0.032808 0.010936 6.21E-06 5.4E-06
km 1.00E+03 100000 1 39370.08 3280.84 1093.613 0.621371 0.539665
in 0.0254 2.54 2.54E-05 1 0.83333 0.027778 1.58E-05 1.37E-05
ft 0.3048 30.48 0.000305 12 1 0.333333 0.000189 0.000164
yd 0.9144 91.44 0.000914 36 3 1 0.000568 0.000493
miles (stat) 1609.344 160934.4 1.609344 63360 5280 1760 1 0.868507
miles (naut) 1853 185300 1.853 72952.76 6079.396 2026.465 1.151401 1
3. Area
(ISU : [m 2 ] )
MultiplyÈ to obtain Æ m2 cm2 km2 hectare in2 ft2 yd2 miles2 acre (US)
m2 1 10000 1E-06 0.0001 1550.003 10.7639 1.19603 3.86E-07 0.00025
cm2 0.0001 1 1E-10 1E-08 0.155 0.00108 0.00012 386E-11 2.47E-08
km2 1.00E+06 1.00E+10 1 100 1.55E+09 1.1E+07 1196029 0.3861 247.105
hectare 1.00E+04 1.00E+08 0.01 1 1.55E+07 107639 11960.3 0.00386 2.47105
in2 0.00065 6.4516 6.5E-10 6.5E-08 1 0.00694 0.00077 2.49E-10 1.59E-07
ft2 0.0929 929.03 9.3E-08 9.3E-06 143.9999 1 0.11111 3.59E-08 2.30E-05
yd2 0.8361 8361 8.4E-07 8.4E-05 1295.958 8.99971 1 3.23E-07 0.00021
miles2 2590000 2.59E+10 2.59 259 4.015E+09 2.79E+07 3097716 1 640.003
acre (US) 4046.85 4.05E+07 0.00405 0.40469 6272637 43560 4840 0/00156 1
4. Volume
(ISU : [m 3 ] )
MultiplyÈ to obtain Æ M3 cm3 Litre inch3 ft3 US gallon
US UK gallon yd3 fION
barrel
m3 1 1000000 1000 61024 35.3147 264.171 6.28978 219.974 1.30794 33783.8
cm3 1E-06 1 0.001 0.06102 3.53E-05 0.00026 6.29E-06 0.00022 1.31E-06 0.03378
Litre 0.001 1000 1 61.024 0.03531 0.26417 0.00629 0.21997 0.00131 33.7838
inch3 1.6E-05 16.387 0.01639 1 0.00058 0.00433 0.0001 0.0036 2.14E-05 0.55361
ft3 0.02832 28316.8 28.3168 1728 1 7.48047 0.17811 6.22895 0.03704 956.649
US gallon 0.00379 3785.43 3.78543 231.002 0.13368 1 0.02381 0.83269 0.00495 127.886
US barrel 0.15899 158988 158.988 9702.08 5.61462 42 1 34.9732 0.20795 5371.22
UK gallon 0.00455 4546 4.546 277.415 0.16054 1.20092 0.02859 1 0.00595 153.581
yd3 0.76456 764560 764.56 46656.5 27.0002 201.974 4.80892 168.183 1 25829.7
fION 2.96E-05 29.6 0.0296 1.80631 0.00105 0.00782 0.00019 0.00651 3.87E-05 1
5. Velocity
(ISU : [m 3 .s −1 ] )
MultiplyÈ to obtain Æ m/s m/s km/h ft/min miles/h knots ft/s
m/s 1 60 3.6 196.8504 2.237136 1.942795 3.2808
m/min 0.016667 1 0.06 3.28084 0.037286 0.03238 0.05468
km/h 0.277778 16.66667 1 54.68066 0.621427 0.539665 0.911333
ft/min 0.00508 0.3048 0.018288 1 0.011365 0.009869 0.016666
miles/h 0.447 26.82 1.6092 88 1 0.86843 1.466518
knots 0.514722 30.88333 1.853 101.3233 1.151504 1 1.688701
ft/s 0.304804 18.28822 1.097293 60.00073 0.681887 0.592171 1
6. Flow Rate
(ISU : [m 3 .s −1 ] )
MultiplyÈ to obtain Æ m3/s m3/min m3/h l/m ft3/s ft3/m gal US/min
m3/s 1 60 3600 60000 35.31472 2118.883 15850.25
m3/min 0.016667 1 60 1000 0.588579 35.31472 264.1708
m3/h 0.000278 0.016667 1 16.66667 0.00981 0.588579 4.402846
l/m 1.67E-05 0.001 0.06 1 0.000589 0.035315 0.264171
ft3/s 0.028317 1.699008 101.9405 1699.008 1 60 448.8283
ft3/m 0.000472 0.028317 1.699008 28.3168 0.016667 1 7.480471
gal US/min 6.31E-05 0.003785 0.227126 3.78543 0.002228 0.133681 1

European standard conditions: dry gas @ 273K, 101 kPa, 10%O2
7. Concentration
7.1 General Concentration Units

(ISU : [kg .m −3 ] )
MultiplyÈ to obtain Æ kg/m3 g/cm3 g/m3 mg/l grain/UKgal grain/ft3 lb/ft3 lb/UKgal
kg/m3 1 0.001 1000 1000 0.07015673 436.9961 0.062428 0.010022
g/cm3 1000 1 1000000 1000028 70.15673 436996.09 62.42782 10.02241
g/m3 0.001 0.000001 1 1.000028 0.070157 0.4369961 6.24E-05 1E-05
mg/l 0.001 1E-06 0.999972 1 0.070155 0.4369839 6.24E-05 1E-05

grain/UKgal 14.254 0.0143 14.2538 14.2542 1 6.228855 8.9E-4 0.000143
grain/ft3 2.29E-3 2.29E-06 2.2884 2.2884 0.1605 1 1.43E-04 2.29E-05
lb/ft3 16.0185 0.016019 16018.5 16018.95 1123.806 7000.022 1 0.160544
lb/UKgal 99.7764 0.099776 99776.4 99779.19 6999.986 43601.90 6.228823 1
7.2 Gas Concentration
Multiply ppm by figures

below for mg/m3
Molecula
Density mg/Nm3 mg/m3 mg/m3
r
kg/Nm3 0°C 20°C 25°C
Weight
Nitrogen N2 28.013 1.250 1.250 1.165 1.145
Oxygen O2 31.999 1.428 1.428 1.330 1.308
Air (dry) 28.963 1.292 1.292 1.204 1.184
Hydrogen Chloride HCl 36.461 1.627 1.627 1.516 1.490
Hydrogen Sulfide H2S 34.080 1.520 1.520 1.417 1.393
Ammonia NH3 17.031 0.760 0.760 0.708 0.696
Nitrogen Monoxide NO 30.006 1.339 1.339 1.247 1.226
Nitrogen Dioxide NO2 46.006 2.053 2.053 1.913 1.880
Nitrous Oxide N2O 44.013 1.964 1.964 1.830 1.799
Carbon Monoxide CO 28.011 1.250 1.250 1.164 1.145
Carbon Dioxide CO2 44.010 1.964 1.964 1.830 1.799

Methane
CH4 16.043 0.716 0.716 0.667 0.656
Propane
C3H8 44.097 1.967 1.967 1.833 1.802
Benzene
C6H6 78.115 3.485 3.485 3.247 3.193
Sulfur Dioxide SO2 64.063 2.858 2.858 2.663 2.619
8. Pressure
(ISU : 1[Pa] = 1[N .m −2 ] )
MultiplyÈ to obtain Æ mmHG
kgf/cm2 mbar Pascal mmWG PSI hWG inHG ATA ATU
(torr)
kgf/cm2 1 980.66 98066 10000 735.56 14.223 393.7 28.959 0.96784 74.6269
mbar 0.001 1 100 10.197 0.7501 0.0145 0.4015 0.0295 0.00099 0.0761
Pascal 1.020E-05 0.01 1 0.102 0.0075 0.0001 0.004 0.0003 9.87E-06 0.00076
mmWG 1.00E-04 0.0981 9.8065 1 0.0736 0.0014 0.0394 0.0029 9.68E-05 0.00746
mmHG 0.0014 1.3332 133.32 13.595 1 0.0193 0.5352 0.0394 0.00132 0.10146
PSI 0.0703 68.947 6894.7 703.08 51.715 1 27.68 2.036 0.06805 5.24679
inWG 0.0025 2.4909 249.09 25.4 1.8683 0.0361 1 0.0736 0.00246 0.18955
inHG 0.0345 33.864 3386.4 345.32 25.4 0.4912 13.595 1 0.03342 2.57699
Atmosphere 1.0332 1013.2 101325 10332 760 14.696 406.78 29.921 1 77.1067
ATU 0.0134 13.141 1314.1 134 9.8566 0.1906 5.2756 0.3881 0.01297 1
1 Newton/m2 = .01 millibar = 10 A/cm2 1kgf/m2 = 1 mmWG

1 Pieze = 10 millibar = 10000 dyne/cm2
9. Heat, Work
(ISU : 1[J ] = 1[N .m]; 1 cal = 4 ,1868[J ]) used to be defined as the quantity of heat, which must be
transferred to one gram of water to raise its temperature by one centigrade).
MultiplyÈ to Joule Calorie kJ kcal BTU Thermie Therm kgfm ft-poundf kWh hph
obtain Æ
Joule 1 0.2388 0.001 0.0002 0.0009 2.39E-07 9.48E-09 0.102 0.7376 2.78E-07 3.73E-07
Calorie 4.1868 1 0.0042 0.001 0.004 1.00E-06 3.97E-08 0.4269 3.088 1.16E-06 1.56E-06
kJ 1000 238.85 1 0.2388 0.9478 0.0002 948E-06 101.97 737.56 0.0003 0.0004
kcal 4186.8 1000 4.1868 1 3.9683 0.001 3.97E-05 426.93 3088 0.0012 0.0016
BTU 1055.1 252 1.0551 0.252 1 0.0003 1E-05 107.59 778.17 0.0003 0.0004
Thernie 419E+06 1.00E+06 4186.8 1000 3968.3 1 0.0397 426935 3.09E+06 1.163 1.5596
Therm 1.06E+08 2.52E+07 105506 25200 100000 25.2 1 1.08E+07 7.78E+07 29.307 39.302
kgfm 9.8067 2.3423 0.0098 0.0023 0.0093 2.34E-06 9.29E-08 1 7.233 2.72E-06 3.65E-06
ft-poundf 1.3558 0.3238 0.0014 0.0003 0.0013 3.24E-07 1.29E-08 0.1383 1 3.77E-07 5.05E-07
kWh 3.60E+06 859845 3600 859.85 3412.1 0.8598 0.0341 367098 2.66E+06 1 1.341
hph 2.68E+06 641187 2684.5 641.19 2544.4 0.6412 0.0254 273745 1.98E+06 0.7457 1
1 Joule = 1 Newton-metre
10. Calorific Value
10.1 Calorific Value (Gas Basis)

(ISU: J .m[ −3
] at 273.15oK and 101375 Pa)
To Obtain
J/m3 kcal/m3 kcal/m3
Multiply By 0°C 0°C 15°C
760 mmHg 760 mm Hg 760 mmHg BTU/ft3
J/m3 1 0.238846 0.226406 0.025018
kcal/m3 4.1868 1 0.947917 0.104745
kcal/m3 4.416844 1.054945 1 0.1105
BTU/ft3 39.97138 9.547 9.04976 1
10.2 Liquid Calorific Value

[
(ISU: J .m −3 ) ]
To Obtain
Multiply By Joule/m3 Joule/1 kcal/1 Therm/UK gal BTU/US gal
Joule/m3 1 0.001 0.000239 4.31E-08 3.59E-06
Joule/1 1000 1 0.238846 4.31E-05 0.003588

kcal/1 4186.8 4.1868 1 0.00018 0.015022
Therm/UK gal 23208688 23208.69 5543.3 1 83.27002
BTU/US gal 278716 278.716 66.57018 0.012009 1
10.3 Calorific Value (Mass Basis)

[
(ISU: J .kg −1 ) ]
To Obtain
Multiply By J/kg J/g kcal/kg BTU/lb BTU/st Therm/t
J/kg 1 0.001 0.000239 0.00043 0.859158 9.63E-06
J/g 1000 1 0.238846 0.429923 859.1579 0.00963
kcal/kg 4186.8 4.1868 1 1.8 3597.122 0.04032
BTU/lb 2326 2.326 0.555556 1 1998.401 0.0224
BTU/st 1.16393 0.001164 0.000278 0.0005 1 1.12E-05
Therm/t 103839 103.839 24.80152 44.64273 89214.1 1
11. Specific Heat
11.1 Specific Heat (Gas Basis)

[ ] [
(ISU: J /( m 3 .o K ) = J / m 3 .o C ]
To Obtain
Multiply By J/m3*°C kJ/m3*°C kcal/m3*°C BTU/ft3*°F
J/m3*°C 1 0.001 0.00023885 1.4911E-05
kJ/m3*°C 1000 1 0.2388459 0.01491066
kcal/m3*°C 4186.8 4.1868 1 0.06242796
BTU/ft3*°F 67066.1 67.0661 16.0184628 1
11.2 Specific Heat (Mass Basis)

[ ][
(ISU: J /( kg .o K ) = J /( kg .o C ) ]
To Obtain
Multiply By J/kg*°C kJ/kg*°C kcal/kg*°C BTU/lb*°F
J/kg*°C 1 0.001 0.00023885 0.00023885
kJ/kg*°C 1000 1 0.2388459 0.2388459
kcal/kg*°C 4186.8 4.1868 1 1
BTU/lb*°F 4186.8 4.1868 1 1
12. Force
[
(ISU : kg .m.s
−2
] = 1 [N ] Newton )
1 Newton is the force which when applied to a one-kilogram mass will produce an acceleration of one
meter per second).
Newton dyne gf sthene poundal poundforce
Newton 1 100000 101.9716 1.00E-03 7.233011 0.224809
dyne 0.00001 1 0.00102 1E-08 7.23E-05 2.25E-06
gf 0.009807 980.665 1 9.81E-06 0.070932 0.002205
sthene 1000 1E+08 101971.6 1 7233.011 224.809
poundal 0.138255 13825.5 14.09809 0.000138 1 0.031081
poundforce 4.44822 444822 453.5922 0.004448 32.17403 1
Temperature
• The Celsius scale is defined as the ice point (freezing point of water salined with air at standard
atmospheric pressure = 1 atm = 101 325 Pa) is 0oC and the steam point (boiling point of pure water at
1 atm = 101325 Pa) = 100oC.
• Fahrenheit: (oF)=32+1.8*( oC).
• Kelvin: (oK)=( oC)+273.15.
• Rankine: (oR)=( oF)+459.67.
My notes:

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CEMENT PROCESS ENGINEERING VADE-MECUM

CHAPTER 4 – PRODUCT QUALITY AND DEVELOPMENT

4. Product Quality &

1. Chemical Characterization ................................................................ 3

1. Chemical Characterization • KSt I ( Kühl ) =

100 * ( 2.8 S + 1.65 A + 0.3 F − C )

1.6. Percent Liquid 1.7. Bogue Formulas

If we accept that this reaction can occur only

1.9. Other Indicators

2. Particle Size Distribution

(In (In 100 )) vs. In (d)

2.2. Specific Surface Area

 Mi = the particle weight

 ri = the particle radius

 F = Form factor (close to 1) do = 0.1 μm d6 = 4 μm d12= 48 μm

2.3. Blaine Surface Area

Rules of thumb (Les Cahiers Techniques)

3.2. Sulfate Addition

c) The Chemistry of False and Flash Set

2.5 Soluble Anhydrite 80

• How to determine the % of gypsum dehydration? Do refer to the National standards.

Available Hydration time Type

High Low Flash

Low High False

• S = 1.2(% sol Na 2 O equiv .) + 0.2 (% Al 2 O3 ) + 6.2 10 −3 (BSS ) − 0.7 .

4.2. Cement Strength

Parameters influencing the cement strength :

A variation of X MPa 1 day 2 days 7 days 28days

Sol Na2Eq (%) 10 10 Compressive strength (MPa)

5. Ten Basic Facts on Clinker

Here, MPa is European standard (1.45 EN MPa= 1 US/Can MPa)

+ 10 % C2S ´ + 5 kWh/t for 350 m2/kg SSB

Strengths improve with an increase in the C3 A content.

6.2. Finished products

Potential For each product:

PFK Results reported in tons/year

Maximum For each product compute the PFK as

INTERNAL USE ONLY

© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved.

91-day, min (d) 33.0 (d)

Version September 2010

INTERNAL USE ONLY

SiO2, min, % (b) (b) (b)

Al2O3, max, % (b) (b) (b)

CaO, max, % (b) (b) (b)

© Copyright 1990-2010, Lafarge SA. All rights reserved.

1-day, min 10 (1450) 13.5

91-days, min 33.0 (s)

Version September 2010

EN 197-1 (2000) ´ Tables are extracted from BS EN 197-1

• Lafarge product platform (problem analysis)

• Concrete Predictive Model Database

5. Dioxins & Furans.......................................................................................13

1.1 NOx generalities

1.2 NOx formation in the kiln

b) Prompt NOx formation mechanisms

• Prompt NO is formed by the breaking of N2 bonds by “CH” hydrocarbonaceous radicals released

FUEL Nitrogen % Potential NO

d) What Affects the NOx Formation in the Kiln?

The Oxygen Level 1 Nox reduction in natural gas flame

• O2 level affects the formation of both fuel and 0.8

that NOx formation requires a free oxygen 0.6

Combustion air temperature

NO thermal Ar/O2 400

Mi = the particle weight

ri = the particle radius

F = Form factor (close to 1) do = 0.1 μm d6 = 4 μm d12= 48 μm

SCNR Process Efficiency:

[NO]reference = ⎛⎜ 0.21 − 0.10 ⎞⎟ × 450 = 519 ppm