TRANSFORMERS

Transformer
A transformer is a static piece of equipment used either for raising or lowering the
voltage of an AC supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current.
Principle of operation
Transformers mainly works under the principle of “Mutual Induction” , according to
“Faraday’s Laws of Electro Magnetic Induction” EMF is induced in the transformer.
Mutual Induction Principle: The change of current in one coil produces EMF in the other
coil when the two coils are placed mutually such that there are having same magnetic
medium.
When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux ϕ is set
up in the core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.f’s E1
and E2 in them according to “Faraday’s Laws of Electro Magnetic Induction”.

Working
When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux ϕ is
set up in the core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces
EMFS E1 and E2 in them according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic
induction. The EMF E1 is termed as primary EMF and EMF E2 is termed as
secondary EMF.
𝑑∅
𝐸1 = −𝑁1
𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅
𝐸2 = −𝑁2
𝑑𝑡
𝐸1 𝑁1
=
𝐸2 𝑁2
Note that magnitudes of E1 and E2 depend upon the number of turns on the
secondary and primary respectively. If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1 (or V2 > V1) and we
get a step-up transformer. On the other hand, if N2 < N1, then E2 < E1 (or V2 <V1)
and we get a step-down transformer. If load is connected across the secondary
winding, the secondary EMF E2 will cause a current I2 to flow through the load.
Thus, a transformer enables us to transfer a.c. power from one circuit to another
with a change in voltage level.

The following points may be noted carefully:

1. The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.
2. There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary. The
a.c. power is transferred from primary to secondary through magnetic
flux.
3. There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same
frequency as the input power.
Construction of Transformer:

The various parts of transformer are

1.Core: It is made up of high grade silicon steel
laminations.Its function is to carry the flux, providing low
reluctance to it. Generally ‘L’ shaped or ‘T’ and ‘I’ shaped
laminations are used as shown in figure.
2.Limb:It is vertical portion of the core and its function is
to carry the windings.
3.Yoke: The top and bottom horizontal portion of the core is called yoke. Its
function is to carry the flux produced by one winding to reach to the other winding
and provide the low reluctance path to the flux.
4.windings: The coils used are wound on the limbs and are insulated from each other. The
function of the windings is to carry the current and produce the flux necessary for the
functioning of the transformer.
5.Conservator: The oil in the transformer expands when temperature inside the the
transformer increases due to heat while it contracts when the temperature decreases the
function of the conservator is to takeup the expansion and contraction of the oil without
allowing it to come in contact with the ambient air.
6.BreatherThe breather is a device which extracts the moisture from the air when the air is
taken in and doesnot allow oil to come in contact with the moisture. The breather contains
silica gel crystals which releases the pressure and protects the transformer.
7.Buchholz relay: It is a safety gas operated relay connected to transformer, when the fault
gets developed inside the transfomer,the gases are released. The buchholz relay is operated
with these gases and trips the circuit breaker to protect the device.
8.Transformer Oil:It is used as the coolanat for cooling purpose and also used in the
Insulation purpose.
9. Bushings: The purpose of bushings is to provide proper insulation for the incoming and
outgoing leads.
10.Radiators: Radiators are used in tramsformers for cooling the transformer winding
General Construction of transformers:
A transformer consists of two inductive windings and a laminated steel core.
Transformer windings:
There are two windings present in the transformer. One is primary winding, and another
one is secondary winding. These windings are made by Copper.
Transformer Core:
The magnetic core is a stack of thin silicon steel laminations.
The core is made of silicon steel which has low hysteresis loss and high permeability.
And core is laminated in order to reduce eddy current loss.
On the basis of construction, transformers can be classified into two types as;
(i) Core type transformer and (ii) Shell type transformer
Core type transformer
 In core type T/F, the windings surround a
considerable part of steel core.
 The core consists of two vertical legs (or limbs).
  In a core type T/F, half of primary winding and half of secondary winding
are placed on each limb in order to reduce leakage flux.
 Usually LV winding placed adjacent to the core and HV winding is placed
outside, in order to minimize the amount of insulation required.
Shell type transformers
In shell type T/F’s Core is surrounded considerable part
of winding of transformer.
 Core has three limbs.
 In this both the windings are placed round the
central limb.
 The windings are placed like a sandwiched
manner in order to reduce leakage flux.
Differences Between Core type and Shell type Transformers
CORE TYPE SHELL TYPE

It has two limbs It has three limbs

Core is surrounded by the windings Winding is surrounded by the core
Both the limbs are provided with Central limb is provided with winding
windings
Leakage flux is more Leakage flux is less
It has series magnetic circuit It has parallel magnetic circuit
It has single magnetic circuit It has double magnetic circuits
Cylindrical type of coils are used Multilayer disc or sandwich type of coils are
used
Natural cooling is easy Natural cooling does not exist
Maintenance easy Maintenance is difficult
Preferred for high voltage applications Preferred for low voltage applications
Preferred for low current applications Preferred for high current applications
 E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer
Consider that an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is applied to the primary shown in
Fig. (i)
The sinusoidal flux ф produced by the primary can be represented as:ф= фm sinωt

The instantaneous e.m.f. e1 induced in the primary is

𝑑∅
𝑒1 = −𝑁1
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑒1 = −𝑁1 (∅ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑚

𝑒1 = −𝑁1 𝜔∅𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 = −2𝜋𝑓𝑁1 ∅𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡

𝑒1 = −2𝜋𝑓𝑁1 ∅𝑚 sin⁡(900 − 𝜔𝑡) = 2𝜋𝑓𝑁1 ∅𝑚 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 − 900 )

The induced EMF will be maximum when sinusoidal function value is maximum i.e 1
𝐸1𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑁1 ∅𝑚

𝑜𝑟⁡𝐸1𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑁1 𝐵𝑚 𝐴
𝐸1𝑚𝑎𝑥
The RMS value of induced EMF is given by 𝐸1 =
√2

𝐸1 = 4.44𝑓𝑁1 ∅𝑚 = 4.44𝑓𝑁1 𝐵𝑚 𝐴
Similarly the induced EMF in secondary is given by
𝐸2 = 4.44𝑓𝑁2 ∅𝑚 = 4.44𝑓𝑁2 𝐵𝑚 𝐴

Alternate method for EMF Equation:

Let N1 = No. of turns in primary
N2 = No. of turns in secondary
ɸm = Maximum flux in core in webers = Bm A
f = Frequency of a.c. input in Hz
 As shown in figure flux increases from its zero value to maximum value ɸm in one
quarter of the cycle i.e. in 1/4 f second.
∅
Average rate of change of flux =⁡⁡1⁄𝑚
4𝑓

= 4 f ɸm Wb/s or volt
Now, rate of change of flux per turn means induced e.m.f. in volts.
Average e.m.f./turn = 4 f ɸm volt
If flux ɸ varies sinusoidally, then r.m.s. value of
induced e.m.f. is obtained by multiplying the average value with form
factor.
𝑓orm factor = rms value/average value =1.11

r.m.s. value of e.m.f./turn = 1.11 * 4 f ɸm = 4.44 f ɸm volt

Now, r.m.s. value of the induced e.m.f. in the whole of primary winding

= (induced e.m.f/turn) * No. of primary turns

E1 = 4.44 f N1ɸm= 4.44 f N1 BmA

Note: for Ideal transformer 𝐸1 = 𝑉1⁡ 𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝐸2 = 𝑉2

For Practical transfomer 𝐸1 ≠ 𝑉1⁡ 𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝐸2 ≠ 𝑉2 due to the presence
winding resitance and leakage reactance.
Open and short circuit tests: Open and short circuit tests are performed on a transformer to
determine the:
1. Equivalent circuit of transformer
2. Voltage regulation of transformer
3. Efficiency of transformer
Open-circuit or No-load Test

The purpose of this test is to determine

no-load loss or core loss and no-load I0
which is helpful in finding X0 and R0.One V1 V E2=V2

winding of the transformer –

Low High
whichever is convenient but usually
high voltage winding – is left open and the other is connected to its supply of normal voltage
and frequency. wattmeter W, voltmeter V and an ammeter A are connected in the low- voltage
winding i.e. primary winding in the present case. With normal voltage applied to the primary,
normal flux will be set up in the core, hence normal iron losses will occur which are recorded by
the wattmeter. As the primary no-load current I0 (as measured by ammeter) is small (usually 2 to
10% of rated load current), Cu loss is negligibly small in primary and nil in secondary (it being
open). Hence, the wattmeter reading represents practically the core loss under no-load condition .It
should be noted that since I0 is itself very small, the pressure coils of the wattmeter and the
voltmeter are connected such that the current in them does not pass through the current coil
of the wattmeter. Sometimes, a high-resistance voltmeter is connected across the secondary. The
reading of the voltmeter gives the induced e.m.f. in the secondary winding. This helps to find
transformation ratio K.
𝑊 = 𝑉1 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅0

∴ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅0 = 𝑊 ⁄𝑉1 𝐼0

𝐼𝜇 = 𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅0 𝐼𝑤 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅0 ∴ 𝑋0 = 𝑉1 /𝐼𝜇 and ∴ 𝑅0 = 𝑉1 /𝐼𝑤

Short-Circuit or Impedance Test

This is an economical method for determining the following : Equivalent impedance
(Z01 or Z02), leakage reactance (X 01 or X

Short Circuit
I0 W
A
02) and total resistance (R01 or R02) of the
L.V.
transformer as referred to the winding in which
Supply V
the measuring instruments are placed. V

(i) Cu loss at full load High Low

(ii) Knowing Z01 or Z02, the total voltage drop in the transformer as
referred to primary or secondary can be calculated and hence regulation of
the transformer determined.
In this test, one winding, usually the low-voltage winding, is solidly short-circuited by a thick
conductor (or through an ammeter which may serve the additional purpose of indicating rated load
current) as shown in Figure. A low voltage (usually 5 to 10% of normal primary voltage) at correct
frequency (though for Cu losses it is not essential) is applied to the primary and is cautiously
increased till full-load currents are flowing both in primary and secondary (as indicated by the
respective ammeters). Let us consider wattmeter reading is Psc. Since, in this test, the applied
voltage is a small percentage of the normal voltage, the mutual flux ɸ produced is also a small
percentage of its normal value Hence, core losses are very small with the result that the wattmeter
reading represent the full-load Cu loss or I2R loss for the whole transformer i.e. both primary Cu
loss and secondary Cu loss. That the entire voltage V SC is consumed in the impedance drop
of the two windings. 𝑃𝑠𝑐 = 𝑅𝑒 𝐼𝐿2
 Where, Re is equivalent resistance of transformer.
If, Ze is equivalent impedance of transformer.
𝑉𝑠𝑐
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛⁡𝑍𝑒 = 𝐼𝐿

Therefore, if equivalent reactance of transformer is Xe.

Then 𝑋𝑒2 = 𝑍𝑒2 − 𝑅𝑒2.
LOSSES:

In a static transformer, there are no friction or windage losses. Hence, the only losses
occurring are :
(a) core losses—eddy current and hysteresis losses
(b) copper losses—in the resistance of the windings

Core or Iron Loss: It includes both hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. Because the
core flux in a transformer remains practically constant for all loads (its variation being 1 to
3% from no-load to full-load). The core loss is practically the same at all loads.
a) Hysteresis loss: Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of magnetization in the transformer
core Wh= ηBmax1.6fV (watts)

where, η = Steinmetz hysteresis constant

V = volume of the core in m3

Eddy Current Losses transformer: AC current is supplied to the primary winding

which sets up alternating magnetizing flux. When this flux links with secondary winding, it
produces induced emf in it. But some part of this flux also gets linked with other
conducting parts like steel core or iron body of the transformer, which will result in
induced emf in those parts, causing small circulating current in them. This current is called
as eddy current. Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be dissipated in the form of
heat.
𝐸𝑑𝑑𝑦⁡𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡⁡𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠⁡𝑊𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒 𝑓 2 𝐵𝑚
2 2
𝑡 𝑣
Where Ke = Constant depending upon the electrical resistance of core
and system of units used
Bmax = Maximum flux density in Wb/m2
f = Frequency of magnetic reversals in Hz
t = Thickness of lamination in m
v = Volume of core in m3

The magnitude of eddy current can be reduced by making core resistance as high as
practical. Laminating a core increases the core resistance which decreases the eddy current
and hence the eddy current loss.
COPPER LOSSES:

Copper loss is due to ohmic resistance of the transformer windings.

Copper loss for the primary winding is I12R1 and for secondary winding is I22R2. Where,
I1 and I2 are current in primary and secondary winding respectively, R 1 and R2 are the
resistances of primary and secondary winding respectively.
Efficiency: the efficiency of a transformer at a particular load and power factor is defined as the
output divided by the input–the two being measured in the same units (either watts or kilowatts).

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡⁡𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂% = ∗ 100
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡⁡𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡⁡𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂% = ∗ 100
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡⁡𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦⁡𝜂% = ∗ 100
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝑊𝑖 + 𝑊𝑆𝐶
Efficiency at fraction of load (x)

𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ ∗ 𝑥
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦⁡𝜂𝑥 % = ∗ 100
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ ∗ 𝑥 + 𝑊𝑖 + 𝑥 2 ∗ 𝑊𝑆𝐶
Condition for maximum Efficiency:
At constant power factor
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
⁡𝜂 =
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝑊𝑖 + 𝐼𝑆2 𝑅02

𝑉𝑠 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
⁡𝜂 =
𝑉𝑠 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + 𝑊𝑖 /𝐼𝑆 + 𝐼𝑆 𝑅02
For maximum efficiency denominator must be minimum
𝑑 𝑊𝑖
(𝑉𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ + + 𝐼𝑆 𝑅02 ) = 0
𝑑𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑠

−𝑊𝑖 𝑊𝑖
+ 𝑅02 = 0; = 𝑅02 ;
𝐼𝑆2 𝐼𝑆2

∴ 𝑊𝑖 = 𝐼𝑆2 𝑅02 = 𝑊𝑆𝑐

𝑊
The fraction of load at maximum efficiency 𝑥 = √𝑊 𝑖
𝑆𝐶

𝑊
The output power at maximum efficiency = ⁡𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 √𝑊 𝑖
𝑆𝐶
 All day efficiency of transformer is given by

Eout
allday %  *100
Eout  Wi 24  Wcu 24

 allday = all-day efficiency of trnasformer

Eout = energy consumption in 24 hours in watts

Wcu 24 = Total cu losses in 24 hours in watts

Wi  24 = Total constant losses in 24 hours in watts

Voltage Regulation: The voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the drop in

secondary output voltage expressed as a fraction of no load rated voltage.

𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑔 % = ∗ 100
𝑉𝑁𝐿

Vreg = Voltage Regulation

VNL=Rated secondary output voltage at no-load
VFL=Rated secondary output voltage at full-load

𝐼2 𝑅02 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅2 ±𝐼2 𝑋02 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅2

Voltage regulation =
𝑉2

𝐼2 = Rated⁡secondary⁡current

𝑅02 = 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦⁡𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡⁡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑋02 = Secondary⁡equivalent⁡reactance
𝑉2 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑⁡𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦⁡𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒⁡
𝑐𝑜𝑠∅2 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟⁡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟⁡𝑜𝑓⁡𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟⁡𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
′+′ 𝑓𝑜𝑟⁡𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔⁡𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟⁡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟(𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒⁡𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠)
′−′ 𝑓𝑜𝑟⁡𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔⁡𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟⁡𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟(𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒⁡𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠)

Condition for zero voltage regulation tan ∅2 = 𝑅02 /𝑋02

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
Construction of 3 phase Induction motor
A 3-phase induction motor has two main parts (i) stator and (ii) rotor. The rotor is separated
from the stator by a small air-gap which ranges from 0.4 mm to 4 mm, depending on the power
of the motor.

1. Stator
It consists of a steel frame which encloses a hollow, cylindrical core made up of thin laminations
of silicon steel to reduce hysteresis and eddy current losses. A number of evenly spaced
slots are provided on the inner periphery of the laminations. The insulated connected to form
a balanced 3-phase star or delta connected circuit. The 3-phase stator winding is wound
for a definite number of poles as per requirement of speed. Greater the number of poles, lesser
is the speed of the motor and vice-versa. When 3-phase supply is given to the stator winding, a
rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude is produced. This rotating field induces currents in
the rotor by electromagnetic induction.

2. Rotor
The rotor, mounted on a shaft, is a hollow laminated core having slots on its outer
periphery. The winding placed in these slots (called rotor winding) may be one of the following
two types:
(i) Squirrel cage type (ii) Wound type

Squirrel cage rotor. It consists of a laminated cylindrical core having parallel slots on its
outer periphery. One copper or aluminum bar is placed in each slot. All these bars are joined at
each end by metal rings called end rings. This forms a permanently short-circuited winding
which is indestructible. The entire construction (bars and end rings) resembles a squirrel cage
and hence the name. The rotor is not connected electrically to the supply but has current induced
in it by transformer action from the stator.
 (ii) Wound rotor. It consists of a laminated cylindrical core and carries a 3- phase
winding, similar to the one on the stator. The rotor winding is uniformly distributed in the slots
and is usually star-connected. The open ends of the rotor winding are brought out and joined to
three insulated slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft with one brush resting on each slip ring.
The three brushes are connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat as shown in Figure. At
starting, the external resistances are included in the rotor circuit to give a large starting
torque. These resistances are gradually reduced to zero as the motor runs up to speed.
The external resistances are used during starting period only. When the motor attains normal
speed, the three brushes are short-circuited so that the wound rotor runs like a squirrel cage
rotor.

The other parts, which are required to complete the induction motor, are:
1. Shaft for transmitting the torque to the load. This shaft is made up of steel.
2. Bearings for supporting the rotating shaft.
3. One of the problems with electrical motor is the production of heat during its rotation.
In order to overcome this problem we need fan for cooling.
4. For receiving external electrical connection Terminal box is needed.
5. There is a small distance between rotor and stator which usually varies from 0.4 mm to
4 mm. Such a distance is called air gap

Working Principle of Three Phase Induction Motor

.
Consider a portion of 3-phase induction motor as shown in
Figure. The operation of the motor can be explained as under:
(i) When 3-phase stator winding is energized from a
3-phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is
set up which rotates round the stator at synchronous speed
Ns (= 120 f/P).

(ii) The rotating field passes through the air gap and cuts the rotor conductors, which as
yet, are stationary. Due to the relative speed between the rotating flux and the stationary
rotor, e.m.f.s are induced in the rotor conductors. Since the rotor circuit is short-circuited,
currents start flowing in the rotor conductors.
(iii) The current-carrying rotor conductors are placed in the magnetic field produced by the
stator. Consequently, mechanical force acts on the rotor conductors. The sum of the mechanical
forces on all the rotor conductors produces a torque which tends to move the rotor in the same
direction as the rotating field.
(iv) The fact that rotor is urged to follow the stator field (i.e., rotor moves in the direction of
stator field) can be explained by Lenz’s law. According to this law, the direction of rotor
currents will be such that they tend to
oppose the cause producing them. Now, the cause producing the rotor currents is the relative
speed between the rotating field and the stationary rotor conductors. Hence to reduce this relative
speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction as that of stator field and tries to catch it.

Production of Rotating Magnetic Field

The induction motor rotates due to the rotating magnetic field in 3 phase induction motor,
which is produced by the stator winding in the air gap between in the stator and the rotor. The
stator has a three phase stationary winding which can be either star connected or delta connected.

Whenever the AC supply is connected to the stator windings, line currents IR, IY, and IB start
flowing. These line currents have phase difference of 120o with respect to each other. Due to
each line current, a sinusoidal flux is produced in the air gap. These fluxes have the same
frequency as that of the line currents, and they also have the same phase difference of 120 o with
respect to each other.
Let the flux produced by the line currents IR, IB, IY be φR, φB,
φY respectively.

Mathematically, they are represented as follows:

φR = φm sin ωt = φm sin θ
φ Y = φm sin (ωt – 120o) = φm sin (θ – 120o)
φ B = φm sin (ωt – 240o) = φm sin (θ – 240o)

The effective or total flux (ɸT) in the air gap is equal to the phasor sum of the three components
of fluxes ɸR, ɸY and, ɸB.

Therefore, ɸT = ɸR + ɸY + ɸB
At any instant the resultant magnetic flux is ɸT =1.5 ɸm for any value of θ

Synchronous speed: The speed at which magnetic field rotates is known as synchronous speed
Ns (= 120 f/P).
 Slip: The difference between the synchronous speed Ns of the rotating stator field and the
actual rotor speed N is called slip speed.
The ratio of slip speed to the synchronous speed is known as slip,
Ns  N  100
% slip s =
% slip is expressed as N

Rotor current frequency:

At any slip-speed, the frequency of the rotor current be f .
𝑓 ′ = 𝑠𝑓

Differences between Squirrel cage Induction motor and Slip ring Induction motor:
S.N Wound or Slip Ring Induction
O Motor
1 Rotor consists of 3 phase winding
similar to stator
2 Construction is complicated
3 Resistance can be added externally to
the rotor
4 Slip rings and brushes are present
5 Frequent maintenance is required
6 Less applications in Industry
7 Starting torque is high
8 Rotor starter can be used
9 Losses are high , efficiency is less
10 Less running torque
11 Used in lifts, hoists, cranes, elevators,
compressors etc.
Squirrel cage Induction Motor
Rotor consists of metallic bars which are
shorted by using end rings
Construction is simple
Addition of resistance is not possible
Slip rings and brushes are absent
Frequent maintenance is not required
More applications in Industry
Starting torque is less
Rotor starter cannot be used
Losses are less , efficiency is more
High running torque
Used for lathes, drilling machines, water
pumps, grinders, printing machines etc.