Nitrite

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Not to be confused with nitride, nitrate, or nitrogen dioxide.

Nitrite

Names

Systematic IUPAC name

dioxidonitrate(1−)

Other names

nitrite

Identifiers

CAS Number  14797-65-0 

3D model (JSmol)  Interactive image

ChEBI  CHEBI:16301

ChemSpider  921

EC Number  233-272-6

PubChem CID  946

UNII  J39976L608 
 show

InChI

show

SMILES

Properties

Chemical formula NO−

Molar mass 46.005 g·mol−1

Conjugate acid Nitrous acid

Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in

their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).

Infobox references

The nitrite ion has the chemical formula NO−

2. Nitrite (mostly sodium nitrite) is widely used throughout chemical and pharmaceutical

industries.[1] The nitrite anion is a pervasive intermediate in the nitrogen cycle in nature.

The name nitrite can also refer to organic compounds with the – ONO group, which are
esters of nitrous acid.

Contents

 1Production
 2Structure
 3Reactions
o 3.1Acid-base properties
o 3.2Oxidation and reduction
o 3.3Analysis of nitrite
o 3.4Coordination complexes
 4Biochemistry
 5Toxicity
 6Uses
o 6.1Chemical precursor
o 6.2Nitrite in food preservation and biochemistry
 6.2.1Curing of meat
 7Organic nitrites
 8Safety
 9See also
 10References
 11Bibliography
 12External links
Production[edit]
Sodium nitrite is made industrially by passing "nitrous fumes" into aqueous sodium
hydroxide or sodium carbonate solution:[2][1]
The product is purified by recrystallization. Alkali metal
nitrites are thermally stable up to and beyond their melting
point (441 °C for KNO2). Ammonium nitrite can be made
from dinitrogen trioxide, N2O3, which is formally
the anhydride of nitrous acid:
2 NH3 + H2O + N2O3 → 2 NH4NO2

Structure[edit]

The two canonical structures of NO−

, which contribute to the resonance hybrid for the nitrite ion
2

The nitrite ion has a symmetrical structure

(C2v symmetry), with both N–O bonds having equal
length and a bond angle of about 115°. In valence bond
theory, it is described as a resonance hybrid with equal
contributions from two canonical forms that are mirror
images of each other. In molecular orbital theory, there
is a sigma bond between each oxygen atom and the
nitrogen atom, and a delocalized pi bond made from
the p orbitals on nitrogen and oxygen atoms which is
perpendicular to the plane of the molecule. The
negative charge of the ion is equally distributed on the
two oxygen atoms. Both nitrogen and oxygen atoms
carry a lone pair of electrons. Therefore, the nitrite ion is
a Lewis base.

Reactions[edit]
Acid-base properties[edit]

Dimensions of trans-HONO (from the microwave spectrum)

Nitrite is the conjugate base of the weak acid nitrous

acid:
 HNO2 ⇌ H+ + NO−
2;      pKa ≈ 3.3 at 18 °C
[3]

Nitrous acid is also highly volatile – in the gas phase

it exists predominantly as a trans-planar molecule.
In solution, it is unstable with respect to
the disproportionation reaction:
3HNO2 (aq) ⇌ H3O+ + NO−
3 + 2NO

This reaction is slow at 0 °C.[2] Addition of acid to

a solution of a nitrite in the presence of
a reducing agent, such as iron(II), is a way to
make nitric oxide (NO) in the laboratory.
Oxidation and reduction[edit]
The formal oxidation state of the nitrogen atom
in nitrite is +3. This means that it can be either
oxidized to oxidation states +4 and +5, or
reduced to oxidation states as low as −3.
Standard reduction potentials for reactions
directly involving nitrous acid are shown in the
table below:[4]

Half-reaction E0 (V)

NO−
+0.94
3 + 3 H  + 2 e  ⇌ HNO2 + H2O
+ −

2 HNO2 + 4 H+ + 4 e− ⇌ H2N2O2 + 2 H2O +0.86

N2O4 + 2 H+ + 2 e− ⇌ 2 HNO2 +1.065

2 HNO2+ 4 H+ + 4 e− ⇌ N2O + 3 H2O +1.29

The data can be extended to include

products in lower oxidation states. For
example:
H2N2O2 + 2 H+ + 2 e− ⇌ N2 + 2 H2O;      E0 = +2.65 V
Oxidation reactions usually result in the
formation of the nitrate ion, with nitrogen
in oxidation state +5. For example,
oxidation with permanganate ion can be
used for quantitative analysis of nitrite
(by titration):
5 NO−
2 + 2 MnO
−

4 + 6 H  → 5 NO
+ −

3 + 2 Mn  + 3 H2O
2+

The product of reduction reactions

with nitrite ion are varied, depending
on the reducing agent used and its
strength. With sulfur dioxide, the
products are NO and N2O; with tin(II)
(Sn2+) the product is hyponitrous
acid (H2N2O2); reduction all the way to
ammonia (NH3) occurs with hydrogen
sulfide. With the hydrazinium cation
(N
2H
+

5) the product of nitrite reduction

is hydrazoic acid (HN3), an instable

and explosive compound:
HNO2 + N
2H
+

5 → HN3 + H2O + H3O

+

which can also further react with

nitrite:
HNO2 + HN3 → N2O + N2 + H2O
This reaction is unusual in that
it involves compounds with
nitrogen in four different
oxidation states.[2]
Analysis of nitrite[edit]
See also: Nitrite test
Nitrite is detected and
analyzed by the Griess
Reaction, involving the
formation of a deep red-
colored azo dye upon
treatment of a NO−
2-containing sample

with sulfanilic acid and
naphthyl-1-amine in the
presence of acid.[5]
Coordination
complexes[edit]
Main article: Transition metal
nitrite complex
Nitrite is an ambidentate
ligand and can form a wide
variety of coordination
complexes by binding to metal
ions in several ways.[2] Two
examples are the red nitrito
complex
[Co(NH3)5(ONO)]2+ is metastabl
e, isomerizing to the yellow nitro
complex [Co(NH ) (NO )]2+
3 5 2 . Nitrite is
processed by several
enzymes, all of which utilize
coordination complexes.

Biochemistry[edit]

A schematic representation of the

microbial nitrogen cycle.[6]
[7]
 ANAMMOX is anaerobic
ammonium oxidation, DNRA is
dissimilatory nitrate reduction to
ammonium, and COMMAMOX is
complete ammonium oxidation.
In nitrification, ammonium is
converted to nitrite. Important
species include Nitrosomonas.
Other bacterial species such
as Nitrobacter, are
responsible for the oxidation
of the nitrite into nitrate.
Nitrite can be reduced to nitric
oxide or ammonia by many
species of bacteria. Under
hypoxic conditions, nitrite may
release nitric oxide, which
causes potent vasodilation.
Several mechanisms for nitrite
conversion to NO have been
described, including
enzymatic reduction
by xanthine
oxidoreductase, nitrite
reductase, and NO
synthase (NOS), as well as
nonenzymatic
acidic disproportionation reacti
ons.

Toxicity[edit]
The existence of nitrite ions in
water samples and human
food product sources can
cause various human
diseases. For example, nitrites
can produce N-nitrosamines in
the presence of
secondary amines which are
suspected to cause stomach
cancer[citation needed]. These
materials can also react
with hemoglobin producing
methemoglobin which
decreases blood oxygen-
carrying capacity in the
concentration of 50 mg kg−1 of
baby foods in infants and
young children. The presence
of nitrate can cause the same
effect due to its transformation
to nitrite in the digestive
system and/or by a microbial
reduction in food products.[8]

Uses[edit]
Chemical precursor[edit]
Azo dyes and other colorants
are prepared by the process
called diazotization, which
requires nitrite.[1]
Nitrite in food
preservation and
biochemistry[edit]
See also: Warmed-over flavor
Sodium nitrite is used to
speed up the curing of meat
and also impart an attractive
colour.[9] A 2018 study by the
British Meat Producers
Association determined that
legally permitted levels of
nitrite have no effect on the
growth of the Clostridium
botulinum bacteria which
causes botulism, in line with
the UK’s Advisory Committee
on the Microbiological Safety
of Food opinion that nitrites
are not required to prevent
Clostridium botulinum growth
and extend shelf life.[10] In the
U.S., meat cannot be labeled
as "cured" without the addition
of nitrite.[11][12][13] In some
countries, cured-meat
products are manufactured
without nitrate or nitrite, and
without nitrite from vegetable
source. Parma ham, produced
without nitrite since 1993, was
reported in 2018 to have
caused no cases of botulism.[9]
In mice, food rich in nitrites
together with unsaturated fats
can prevent hypertension,
which is one explanation for
the apparent health effect of
the Mediterranean diet.
[14]
 However, adding nitrites to
meat has been shown to
generate known carcinogens;
the World Health Organization
advises that eating 50 g
(1.8 oz) of nitrite processed
meat a day would raise the
risk of getting bowel cancer by
18% over a lifetime.[9] The
recommended maximum limits
by the World Health
Organization in drinking water
are 3 mg L−1 and 50 mg L−1 for
nitrite and nitrate ions,
respectively.[8]
Curing of meat[edit]
In a reaction with the
meat's myoglobin, nitrite gives
the product a desirable pink-
red "fresh" color, such as with
corned beef. In the US, nitrite
has been formally used since
1925. According to scientists
working for the industry group
American Meat Institute, this
use of nitrite started in the
Middle Ages.
[15]
 Historians[16] and
epidemiologists[17] argue that
the widespread use of nitrite in
meat-curing is closely linked
to the development of
industrial meat-processing.
French investigative journalist
Guillaume Coudray asserts
that the meat industry
chooses to cure its meats with
nitrite even though it is
established that this chemical
gives rise to cancer-causing
nitroso-compounds.[18]

Organic nitrites[edit]

A nitrite ester

In organic chemistry, nitrites

are esters of nitrous acid and
contain the nitrosoxy
functional group. Nitro
compounds contain the C–
NO2 group. Nitrites have the
general formula RONO, where
R is
an aryl or alkyl group. Amyl
nitrite and other alkyl nitrites
are used in medicine for the
treatment of heart diseases,
and occasionally used
recreationally for their "rush"
and prolongation of orgasm,
particularly in males. A
classic named reaction for the
synthesis of alkyl nitrites is
the Meyer synthesis[19][20] in
which alkyl halides react with
metallic nitrites to a mixture to
nitroalkanes and nitrites.

Safety[edit]
See also: Curing (food
preservation) §  Nitrates and
nitrites
Adding nitrites to meat has
been shown to generate
known carcinogens such
as nitrosamines; the World
Health Organization
(WHO) advises that each 50 g
(1.8 oz) of processed
meat eaten a day would raise
the risk of getting bowel
cancer by 18% over a
lifetime; processed
meat refers to meat that has
been transformed
through fermentation, nitrite
curing, salting, smoking, or
other processes to enhance
flavour or improve
preservation. The World
Health Organization's review
of more than 400 studies
concluded, in 2015, that there
was sufficient evidence
that processed
meats caused cancer,
particularly colon cancer; the
WHO's International Agency
for Research on Cancer
(IARC) classified processed
meats as carcinogenic to
humans (Group 1).[9][21]
Nitrite (ingested) under
conditions that result in
endogenous nitrosation,
specifically the production
of nitrosamine, has been
classified as "Probably
carcinogenic to humans"
(Group 2A) by the IARC.[22][23]

See also[edit]
 Curing (food
preservation)
 Alkyl nitrites

References[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to:      Laue
a b c

W, Thiemann M,
Scheibler E,
Wiegand KW
(2006). "Nitrates and
Nitrites".  Ullmann's
Encyclopedia of
Industrial Chemistry.
Weinheim: Wiley-
 VCH.  doi:10.1002/1
4356007.a17_265.
2. ^ Jump up
to:a b c d
       Greenwood,
pp. 461–464.
3. ^ IUPAC SC-
Database A
comprehensive
database of
published data on
equilibrium
constants of metal
complexes and
ligands
4. ^ Greenwood, p.
431.
5. ^ V. M. Ivanov
(2004).  "The 125th
Anniversary of the
Griess
Reagent". Journal of
Analytical
Chemistry.  59  (10):
1002–1005.  do
i:10.1023/B:JANC.0
000043920.77446.d
7. S2CID  98768756
. Translated from V.
M. Ivanov
(2004).  Zhurnal
Analiticheskoi
Khimii.  59  (10):
1109–1112. Missing
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title= (help)
6. ^ Sparacino-
Watkins, Courtney;
Stolz, John F.; Basu,
Partha (16
December
2013). "Nitrate and
periplasmic nitrate
reductases".  Chem.
Soc. Rev.  43  (2):
676–706. do
i:10.1039/c3cs60249
d. ISSN 1460-4744. 
PMC  4080430.  PMI
D 24141308.
7. ^ Simon, Jörg;
Klotz, Martin G.
(2013).  "Diversity
and evolution of
bioenergetic
systems involved in
microbial nitrogen
compound
 transformations".  Bi
ochimica et
Biophysica Acta
(BBA) -
Bioenergetics.  1827 
(2): 114–
135.  doi:10.1016/j.b
babio.2012.07.005. 
PMID 22842521.
8. ^ Jump up to:a b Bagheri,
H.; Hajian, A.;
Rezaei, M.;
Shirzadmehr, A.
(2017). "Composite
of Cu metal
nanoparticles-
multiwall carbon
nanotubes-reduced
graphene oxide as a
novel and high
performance
platform of the
electrochemical
sensor for
simultaneous
determination of
nitrite and
nitrate". Journal of
Hazardous
Materials.  324  (Pt
B): 762–
772.  doi:10.1016/j.jh
azmat.2016.11.055. 
PMID 27894754.
9. ^ Jump up
to:a b c d
       Wilson, Bee
(1 March
2018). "Yes, bacon
really is killing
us". The Guardian.
London. ISSN 0261-
3077.  Archived  from
the original on 10
February 2021.
Retrieved 14
February  2021. In
trade journals of the
1960s, the firms who
sold nitrite powders
to ham-makers
spoke quite openly
about how the main
advantage was to
increase profit
margins by speeding
up production.
10. ^ Doward, Jamie
(23 March
 2019). "Revealed:
no need to add
cancer-risk nitrites to
ham".  The
Observer.
London. Archived fr
om the original on
26 January 2021.
Retrieved 14
February  2021. The
results show that
there is no change
in levels of
inoculated  C
botulinum  over the
curing process,
which implies that
the action of nitrite
during curing is not
toxic to  C
botulinum  spores at
levels of 150ppm
[parts per million]
ingoing nitrite and
below.
11. ^ De Vries, John
(1997).  Food Safety
and Toxicity. CRC
Press.
p. 70.  ISBN  978-0-
8493-9488-1.
12. ^ sodium nitrite and
nitrate
facts Accessed Dec
12, 2014
13. ^ Doyle, Michael P.;
Sperber, William H.
(23 September
2009). Compendium
of the
Microbiological
Spoilage of Foods
and Beverages.
p. 78.  ISBN  978144
1908261.
14. ^ Charles, R. L.;
Rudyk, O.;
Prysyazhna, O.;
Kamynina, A.; Yang,
J.; Morisseau, C.;
Hammock, B. D.;
Freeman, B. A.;
Eaton, P.
(2014).  "Protection
from hypertension in
mice by the
Mediterranean diet
is mediated by nitro
 fatty acid inhibition
of soluble epoxide
hydrolase".  Proceed
ings of the National
Academy of
Sciences.  111  (22):
8167–72. Bibcod
e:2014PNAS..111.8
167C. doi:10.1073/p
nas.1402965111. P
MC  4050620.  PMID 
24843165.
15. ^ Binkerd, E. F;
Kolari, O. E (1
January 1975). "The
history and use of
nitrate and nitrite in
the curing of
meat". Food and
Cosmetics
Toxicology. 13 (6):
655–661. do
i:10.1016/0015-
6264(75)90157-1. I
SSN 0015-6264.  P
MID  1107192.
16. ^ coudray,
guillaume, eric
(2017).  Cochonnerie
s : comment la
charcuterie est
devenue un poison.
paris: Decouverte.
pp.  part I, chapter 2
(p. 40–55) and
chapter 3 (p. 56–
70).  ISBN  9782707
193582. OCLC  101
1036745.
17. ^ Lauer, Klaus (1
January 1991).  "The
history of nitrite in
human nutrition: A
contribution from
German cookery
books".  Journal of
Clinical
Epidemiology. 44 (3
): 261–
264.  doi:10.1016/08
95-4356(91)90037-
A.  ISSN  0895-4356. 
PMID 1999685.
18. ^ "Guillaume
Coudray on the Nitro
Meat Cancer
Connection". 14
April 2021.
19. ^ Victor
Meyer  (1872). "Ueb
er die
Nitroverbindungen
der
Fettreihe".  Justus
Liebig's Annalen der
Chemie.  171  (1): 1–
56.  doi:10.1002/jlac.
18741710102.; Victo
r Meyer, J. Locher
(1876).  "Ueber die
Pseudonitrole, die
Isomeren der
Nitrolsäuren". Justu
s Liebig's Annalen
der
Chemie.  180  (1–2):
133–55. do
i:10.1002/jlac.18761
800113.; V. Meyer
and Stüber
(1872).  "Vorläufige
Mittheilung". Chemis
che Berichte. 5:
203–05. do
i:10.1002/cber.1872
0050165.; Victor
Meyer, O. Stüber
(1872).  "Ueber die
Nitroverbindungen
der
Fettreihe".  Chemisc
he Berichte.  5: 399–
406.  doi:10.1002/cb
er.187200501121.; 
Victor Meyer, A.
Rilliet
(1872).  "Ueber die
Nitroverbindungen
der Fettreiche. Dritte
Mittheilung". Chemis
che Berichte. 5  (2):
1029–34. do
i:10.1002/cber.1872
00502133.; Victor
Meyer, C. Chojnacki
(1872).  "Ueber die
Nitroverbindungen
der Fettreihe. Vierte
Mittheilung". Chemis
che Berichte. 5  (2):
1034–38. do
i:10.1002/cber.1872
00502134.
20. ^ Robert B.
Reynolds, Homer
Adkins (1929). "The
 Relationship of the
Constitution of
Certain Alky Halides
to the Formation of
Nitroparaffins and
Alkyl
Nitrites".  Journal of
the American
Chemical
Society.  51  (1):
279–87. do
i:10.1021/ja01376a0
37.
21. ^ "IARC
Monographs
evaluate
consumption of red
meat and processed
meat"  (PDF).
International Agency
for Research on
Cancer. 26 October
2015. Archived
from  the
original  (PDF)  on 18
January 2021.
Retrieved 14
February  2021. Pro
cessed meat was
classified as
carcinogenic to
humans (Group 1),
based on sufficient
evidence in humans
that the
consumption of
processed meat
causes colorectal
cancer.
22. ^ "List of
classifications,
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IARC Monographs
on the Evaluation of
Carcinogenic Risks
to
Humans".  Internatio
nal Agency for
Research on Cancer
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(WHO). 2010.
Archived from  the
original on 10 June
2017. Retrieved  25
September  2016.
23. ^ VOLUME 94 -
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 Nitrite, and
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Peptide Toxins -
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Retrieved 25
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Bibliography[edit]
 Greenwood,
Norman N.;
Earnshaw, Alan
(1997). Chemistry
of the
Elements (2nd ed.)
. Butterworth-
Heinemann. ISBN 
978-0-08-037941-8.
 Coudray,
Guillaume. Who
poisoned your
bacon. London:
Icon Books,
2021. ISBN 9-781-
78578612-9

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Nitrites.

 Material Safety
Data Sheet, sodium
nitrite (archive)
 ATSDR – Case
Studies in
Environmental
 Medicine –
Nitrate/Nitrite
Toxicity (archive) -
US Department of
Health and Human
Services (public
domain)
 Article about
Toxicity of Nitrite
‹ The template below (Nitrogen compounds) is
being considered for merging. See templates for
discussion to help reach a consensus. ›

show

Nitrogen species

show

Nitric oxide signaling modulators
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Curing (food preservation)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigationJump to search

Sea salt being added to raw ham to make prosciutto

Curing is any of various food preservation and flavoring processes of foods such

as meat, fish and vegetables, by the addition of salt, with the aim of drawing moisture
out of the food by the process of osmosis. Because curing increases the solute
concentration in the food and hence decreases its water potential, the food becomes
inhospitable for the microbe growth that causes food spoilage. Curing can be traced
back to antiquity, and was the primary method of preserving meat and fish until the late-
19th century. Dehydration was the earliest form of food curing.[1] Many curing processes
also involve smoking, spicing, cooking, or the addition of combinations of sugar, nitrate,
and nitrite.[1]
Slices of beef in a can

Meat preservation in general (of meat from livestock, game, and poultry) comprises the

set of all treatment processes for preserving the properties, taste, texture, and color of
raw, partially cooked, or cooked meats while keeping them edible and safe to consume.
Curing has been the dominant method of meat preservation for thousands of years,
although modern developments like refrigeration and synthetic preservatives have
begun to complement and supplant it.
While meat-preservation processes like curing were mainly developed in order to
prevent disease and to increase food security, the advent of modern preservation
methods mean that in most developed countries today curing is instead mainly
practised for its cultural value and desirable impact on the texture and taste of food.
For lesser-developed countries, curing remains a key process in the production,
transport and availability of meat.

Curing salt, also known as "Prague powder" or "pink salt", is typically a combination of sodium
chloride and sodium nitrite that is dyed pink to distinguish it from table salt.

Some traditional cured meat (such as authentic Parma ham[2] and some authentic

Spanish chorizo and Italian salami) are cured with salt alone.[3] Today, potassium
nitrate and sodium nitrite (in conjunction with salt) are the most common agents in
curing meat, because they bond to the myoglobin and act as a substitute for
the oxygen,[4] thus turning myoglobin red.[4][5] More recent evidence shows that these
chemicals also inhibit the growth of the bacteria that cause the disease botulism.[4] Yet, a
2018 study by the British Meat Producers Association determined that legally permitted
levels of nitrite have no effect on the growth of the Clostridium botulinum bacteria which
causes botulism, which in line with the UK’s Advisory Committee on the Microbiological
Safety of Food opinion that nitrites are not required to prevent C. botulinum growth and
extend shelf life.[6]
The combination of table salt with nitrates or nitrites, called curing salt, is often dyed
pink to distinguish it from table salt.[7] Neither table salt, nor any of the nitrites or nitrates
commonly used in curing (e.g., sodium nitrate,[8] sodium nitrite,[8] and potassium nitrate[9])
is naturally pink.

Contents

 1Necessity of curing
 2History
o 2.1Traditional methods
o 2.2Middle Ages
o 2.3Early modern era
 3Chemical actions
o 3.1Salt
o 3.2Sugar
o 3.3Nitrates and nitrites
o 3.4Nitrites from celery
o 3.5Smoke
 4Effect of meat preservation
o 4.1On health
o 4.2On trade
 5See also
 6Notes
 7References
 8Bibliography
 9External links

Necessity of curing[edit]
Meat decomposes rapidly if it is not preserved. The speed of decomposition depends on
several factors, including ambient humidity, temperature, and the presence
of pathogens. Most types of untreated meat cannot be kept at room temperature for
lengthy periods before spoiling.[citation needed]
Spoiled meat changes color and exudes a foul odor. Ingestion can cause serious food
poisoning. Salt-curing processes were developed in antiquity [10] in order to ensure food
safety without relying on artificial anti-bacterial agents.
The short shelf life of fresh meat does not pose significant problems when access to it is
easy and supply is abundant. But in times of scarcity and famine, or when the meat
must be carried over long voyages, the usefulness of food preservation is obvious.
Curing significantly increases the length of time meat remains edible, by making it
inhospitable to the growth of microbes.
History[edit]
A survival technique since prehistory, the preservation of meat has become, over the
centuries, a topic of political, economic, and social importance worldwide.
Traditional methods[edit]

Young man preparing a pig's head after a sacrifice. Vase v. 360–340 BC, National Archaeological Museum of
Spain.

Food curing dates back to ancient times, both in the form of smoked meat and salt-
cured meat.[11]
Several sources describe the salting of meat in the ancient Mediterranean
world. Diodore of Sicily in his Bibliotheca historica wrote that the Cosséens[12] in the
mountains of Persia salted the flesh of carnivorous animals.[13] Strabo indicates that
people at Borsippa were catching bats and salting them to eat.[14] The ancient Greeks
prepared tarichos (τάριχος), which was meat and fish conserved by salt or other means.
[a]
 The Romans called this dish salsamentum – which term later included salted fat, the
sauces and spices used for its preparation.[15] Also evidence of
ancient sausage production exists. The Roman gourmet Apicius speaks of a sausage-
making technique involving œnogaros (a mixture of the fermented fish
sauce garum with oil or wine).[16] Preserved meats were furthermore a part of religious
traditions: resulting meat for offerings to the gods was salted before being given to
priests, after which it could be picked up again by the offerer, or even sold in
the butcher's.[15]
A trade in salt meat occurred across ancient Europe. In Polybius's time,[17] the Gauls
exported salt pork each year to Rome in large quantities, where it was sold in different
cuts: rear cuts, middle cuts, hams, and sausages. This meat, after having been salted
with the greatest care, was sometimes smoked. These goods had to have been
considerably important, since they fed part of the Roman people and the armies.
The Belgae were celebrated above all for the care which they gave to the fattening of
their pigs. Their herds of sheep and pigs were so many, they could provide skins and
salt meat not only for Rome, but also for most of Italy. [citation needed] The Ceretani
of Spain drew a large export income from their hams, which were so succulent, they
were in no way inferior to those of Cantabria. These tarichos of pig became especially
sought, to the point that the ancients considered this meat the most nourishing of all and
the easiest to digest.[15]
In Ethiopia, according to Pliny,[18] and in Libya according to Saint Jerome, the
Acridophages (literally, the locust-eaters) salted and smoked the crickets which arrived
at their settlements in the spring in great swarms and which constituted, it was said,
their sole food.
The smoking of meat was a traditional practice in North America, where Plains
Indians hung their meat at the top of their tipis to increase the amount of smoke coming
into contact with the food.[11]
Middle Ages[edit]
In Europe, medieval cuisine made great use of meat and vegetables, and the guild of
butchers was amongst the most powerful. During the 12th century, [19] salt beef was
consumed by all social classes. Smoked meat was called carbouclée in Romance
tongues[20] and bacon if it was pork.[21]
The Middle Ages made pâté a masterpiece: that which is, in the 21st century, merely
spiced minced meat (or fish), baked in a terrine and eaten cold, was at that time
composed of a dough envelope stuffed with varied meats and superbly decorated for
ceremonial feasts. The first French recipe, written in verse by Gace de La Bigne,
mentions in the same pâté three great partridges, six fat quail, and a dozen larks. Le
Ménagier de Paris mentions pâtés of fish, game, young rabbit, fresh venison, beef,
pigeons, mutton, veal, and pork, and even pâtés of lark, turtledove, cow, baby bird,
goose, and hen. Bartolomeo Sacchi, called Platine, prefect of the Vatican Library, gives
the recipe for a pâté of wild beasts: the flesh, after being boiled with salt and vinegar,
was larded and placed inside an envelope of spiced fat, with a mélange of pepper,
cinnamon and pounded lard; one studded the fat with cloves until it was entirely
covered, then placed it inside a pâte.
In the 16th century, the most fashionable pâtés were of woodcock, au bec doré,
chapon, beef tongue, cow feet, sheep feet, chicken, veal, and venison. [22] In the same
era, Pierre Belon notes that the inhabitants of Crete and Chios lightly salted then oven-
dried entire hares, sheep, and roe deer cut into pieces, and that in Turkey, cattle and
sheep, cut and minced rouelles, salted then dried, were eaten on voyages with onions
and no other preparation.[23]
Early modern era[edit]
Barrels of salt beef and other products in a reconstruction of an American Civil War stockpile, at Fort Macon
State Park, North Carolina

During the Age of Discovery, salt meat was one of the main foods for sailors on long
voyages, for instance in the merchant marine or the navy. In the 18th century, salted
Irish beef, transported in barrels, were considered finest. [24]
Scientific research on meat by chemists and pharmacists led to the creation of a new,
extremely practical product: meat extract, which could appear in different forms. The
need to properly feed soldiers during long campaigns outside the country, such as in
the Napoleonic Wars, and to nourish a constantly growing population often living in
appalling conditions drove scientific research, but a confectioner, Nicolas Appert, in
1795 developed through experimentation a method which became universal and in one
language bears his name: airtight storage, called appertisation in French.
With the spread of appertisation, the 19th-century world entered the era of the "food
industry", which developed new products such as canned salt meat (for example corned
beef). The desire for safer food led to the creation of the Pure Food and Drug Act in
1906, followed by the national agencies for health security and the establishment
of food traceability over the course of the 20th century.[citation needed] It also led to continuing
technological innovation.
In France, the summer of 1857 was so hot that most butchers refused to slaughter
animals and charcutiers lost considerable amounts of meat, due to inadequate
conservation methods. A member of the Academy of Medicine and his son issued a 34-
page summary of works printed between 1663 and 1857, which proposed some
solutions: not less than 91 texts exist, of which 64 edited for only the years between
1851 and 1857.[25]

Chemical actions[edit]
Salt[edit]
Main article: Salting (food)
Salt (sodium chloride) is the primary ingredient used in meat curing. [11] Removal of water
and addition of salt to meat creates a solute-rich environment where osmotic
pressure draws water out of microorganisms, slowing down their growth. [11][26] Doing this
requires a concentration of salt of nearly 20%.[26] In addition, salt causes the soluble
proteins to come to the surface of the meat that was used to make the sausages.
These proteins coagulate when the sausage is heated, helping to hold the sausage
together.[27]
Sugar[edit]
The sugar added to meat for the purpose of curing it comes in many forms,
including honey, corn syrup solids, and maple syrup.[28] However, with the exception of
bacon, it does not contribute much to the flavor, [29] but it does alleviate the harsh flavor of
the salt.[11] Sugar also contributes to the growth of beneficial bacteria such
as Lactobacillus by feeding them.[30]
Nitrates and nitrites[edit]

Nitrosyl-heme

Nitrates and nitrites extend shelf life, [citation needed] help kill bacteria, produce a characteristic
flavor and give meat a pink or red color.[31] Nitrite (NO−
2) is generally supplied by sodium nitrite or (indirectly) by potassium nitrate. Nitrite salts

are most often used to accelerate curing and impart a pink colour. [32] Nitrate is
specifically used only in a few curing conditions and products where nitrite (which may
be generated from nitrate) must be generated in the product over long periods of time.
Nitrite further breaks down in the meat into nitric oxide (NO), which then binds to the
iron atom in the center of myoglobin's heme group, reducing oxidation and causing a
reddish-brown color (nitrosomyoglobin) when raw and the characteristic cooked-ham
pink color (nitrosohemochrome or nitrosyl-heme) when cooked. The addition of
ascorbate to cured meat reduces formation of nitrosamines (see below), but increases
the nitrosylation of iron.
The use of nitrite and nitrate salts for meat in the US has been formally used since
1925.[citation needed] Because of the relatively high toxicity of nitrite (the lethal dose in humans
is about 22 mg/kg of body weight), the maximum allowed nitrite concentration in US
meat products is 200 ppm. Plasma nitrite is reduced in persons with endothelial
dysfunction.[33]
Nitrite-containing processed meat is associated with increased risk of developing
colorectal cancer.[34] Adding nitrites to meat has been shown to generate known
carcinogens such as nitrosamines, N-Nitrosamides[35] and nitrosyl-heme, resulting
from nitrosylation reactions; the World Health Organization (WHO) advises that each
50 g (1.8 oz) of "processed meats" eaten a day would raise the risk of getting bowel
cancer by 18% over a lifetime; "processed meat" refers to meat that has been
transformed through salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to
enhance flavour or improve preservation. The World Health Organization's review of
more than 400 studies concluded, in 2015, that there was sufficient evidence that
"processed meats" caused cancer, particularly colon cancer; the WHO's International
Agency for Research on Cancer classified "processed meats" as carcinogenic to
humans (Group 1).[32][36]
The use of nitrites in food preservation is highly controversial [37] due to the potential for
the formation of nitroso-compounds such as nitrosamines, N-Nitrosamides and nitrosyl-
heme.[citation needed] When the meat is cooked at high temperatures, nitrite-cured meat
products can also lead to the formation of nitrosamines. [31][38] The effect is seen for red
processed meat, but not for white meat or fish.[39][40] Nitrates and nitrites may cause
cancer and the production of carcinogenic nitrosamines can be potently inhibited by the
use of the antioxidants vitamin C and the alpha-tocopherol form of vitamin E during
curing.[41] Under simulated gastric conditions, nitrosothiols rather than nitrosamines are
the main nitroso species being formed. [39] The use of either compound is therefore
regulated; for example, in the United States, the concentration of nitrates and nitrites is
generally limited to 200 ppm or lower.[31]
While the meat industry considers nitrites irreplaceable because they speed up curing
and improve color,[32] they have no effect on the growth of the bacteria which causes
botulism:[32] an extremely rare disease (less than 1000 cases reported worldwide per
year), and almost always associated with home preparations of food storing. [42] All Parma
ham has been made without nitrites since 1993, and was reported in 2018 to have
caused no cases of botulism.[32]
Furthermore, while the FDA has set a limit of 200 ppm of nitrates for cured meat, they
are not allowed and not recognized as safe in most other foods, even foods that are not
cooked at high temperatures, such as cheese.[43]
Nitrites from celery[edit]
Processed meats without "added nitrites" may be misleading as they may be using
naturally occurring nitrites from celery instead.[44]
A 2019 report from Consumer Reports[45] found that using celery (or other natural
sources) as a curing agent introduced naturally occurring nitrates and nitrites. The
USDA allows the term "uncured" or "no nitrates or nitrites added" on products using
these natural sources of nitrites, which provides the consumer a false sense of making
a healthier choice. The Consumer Reports investigation also provides the average level
of sodium, nitrates and nitrites found per gram of meat in their report.
Consumer Reports and the Center for Science in the Public Interest filed a formal
request to the USDA to change the labeling requirements in 2019. [46]
Smoke[edit]
Main article: Smoking (cooking)
Meat can also be preserved by "smoking". If the smoke is hot enough to slow-cook the
meat, this will also keep it tender.[47] One method of smoking calls for a smokehouse with
damp wood chips or sawdust.[48] In North America, hardwoods such
as hickory, mesquite, and maple are commonly used for smoking, as are the wood from
fruit trees such as apple, cherry, and plum, and even corncobs.
Smoking helps seal the outer layer of the food being cured, making it more difficult
for bacteria to enter. It can be done in combination with other curing methods such as
salting. Common smoking styles include hot smoking, smoke roasting (pit barbecuing)
and cold smoking. Smoke roasting and hot smoking cook the meat while cold smoking
does not. If the meat is cold smoked, it should be dried quickly to limit bacterial growth
during the critical period where the meat is not yet dry. This can be achieved, as
with jerky, by slicing the meat thinly.
The smoking of food directly with wood smoke is known to contaminate the food with
carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.[49]

Effect of meat preservation[edit]

On health[edit]
Since the 20th century, with respect to the relationship between diet and human disease
(e.g. cardiovascular, etc.), scientists have conducted studies on the effects
of lipolysis on vacuum-packed or frozen meat. In particular, by analyzing entrecôtes of
frozen beef during 270 days at −20 °C (−4 °F), scientists found an
important phospholipase that accompanies the loss of some unsaturated fat n-3 and n-
6, which are already low in the flesh of ruminants.[50]
In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health
Organization classified processed meat, that is, meat that has undergone salting,
curing, fermenting, or smoking, as "carcinogenic to humans".[51][52][36]
On trade[edit]
The improvement of methods of meat preservation, and of the means of transport of
preserved products, has notably permitted the separation of areas of production and
areas of consumption, which can now be distant without it posing a problem, permitting
the exportation of meats.
For example, the appearance in the 1980s of preservation techniques under controlled
atmosphere sparked a small revolution in the world's market for sheep meat: the lamb
of New Zealand, one of the world's largest exporters of lamb, could henceforth be sold
as fresh meat, since it could be preserved from 12 to 16 weeks, which was a sufficient
duration for it to reach Europe by boat. Before, meat from New Zealand was frozen,
thus had a much lower value on European shelves. With the arrival of the new "chilled"
meats, New Zealand could compete even more strongly with local producers of fresh
meat.[53] The use of controlled atmosphere to avoid the depreciation which affects frozen
meat is equally useful in other meat markets, such as that for pork, which now also
enjoys an international trade.[54]

See also[edit]

 Food portal

 Brining – Food processing by treating with brine or

salt
 Ceviche – Dish of marinated raw seafood
 Charcuterie – Branch of cooking of prepared meat
products, primarily from pork
 Cured fish
 Curing salt
 List of dried foods – Wikipedia list article
  List of smoked foods – Wikipedia list article
 Sausage making – Sausage production processes
 Biltong – Form of dried, cured meat that originated in
South Africa

Notes[edit]
1. ^ In time the original term came to mean salted fish only,
whereas salted meat was called kreas tarichrou (κρέας
ταριχηρὸν), according to Athenaeus of Naucratis in
his Deipnosophistae, IV, 14.137f (en ligne)

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insufficiency". Meat Science.  92  (3): 274–
279.  doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2012.03.001.  PMID  22464105.
42. ^ "Botulism". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Retrieved 30 September  2018.
43. ^ "Import Alert 12-12". U.S. Food & Drug Administration.
Retrieved 30 September  2018.
44. ^ Choi, Candice (30 June 2017). "Experts say hot dogs minus
artificial nitrites may be no better".  Chicago Tribune.
Retrieved 2 October 2018.
45. ^ Calvo, Trisha (29 August 2019). "Danger at the
Deli".  Consumer Reports. Retrieved 31 August  2019.
46. ^ Aubrey, Allison (29 August 2019). "Duped In The Deli
Aisle? 'No Nitrates Added' Labels Are Often
Misleading". NPR. Retrieved  31 August 2019.
47. ^ "Smoking Meat and Poultry". Fact Sheets. United States
Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original  on 17
October 2010. Retrieved  27 January 2011.
48. ^ Busboom, Jan R.  "Curing and Smoking Poultry
Meat"  (PDF). Washington State University. Archived from the
original  (PDF)  on 20 July 2011. Retrieved  27 January 2011.
49. ^ Fritz, W.; Soós, K. (1980). "Smoked Food and
Cancer". Foreign Substances and Nutrition. Forum of
Nutrition.  29. pp.  57–64.  doi:10.1159/000387467.  ISBN  978-
3-8055-0621-2.  PMID  7447916.
50. ^ Bauchart, Dominique; Thomas, E.; Scislowski, V.; Peyron,
Alain; Durand, Denys (4 October 2006).  "Effets des modes de
conservation de la viande bovine sur les lipides et leur
contenu en acides gras polyinsaturés" [Effects of beef
preservation methods on lipids and their polyunsaturated fatty
acid content].  Journées Sciences du Muscle et Technologies
des Viandes  (in French). Hors-Série.  INIST:18356301.
51. ^ Stacy Simon (26 October 2015). "World Health
Organization Says Processed Meat Causes
Cancer". Cancer.org.
52. ^ Gallagher, James (26 October 2015). "Processed meats do
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53. ^ "Les marchés à l'importation"  (PDF). 2004. Archived
from  the original  (PDF)  on 22 September 2016. Retrieved 21
July  2010.
54. ^ Trégaro, Yves (2003).  "Exportations françaises de viande
de porc et stratégies des opérateurs nationaux" [French
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French).  35: 217–222.
Bibliography[edit]
 This article was partially translated from the French
Wikipedia.

 McGee, Harold. On Food and Cooking (revised). New York, NY:

Scribner, 2004. ISBN 0-684-80001-2
 Coudray, Guillaume. Who poisoned your bacon. London: Icon
Books, 2021. ISBN 9-781-78578612-9, 9-781-78578786-7
 Bertolli, Paul. Cooking by Hand. New York, NY: Clarkson
Potter/Publishers, 2003. ISBN 0-609-60893-2
 National Research Council Academy of Life Sciences. "The Health
Effects of Nitrate, Nitrite and N-Nitroso Compounds". Washington
DC: National Academy Press, 1981.
 Article in The Scientist, Volume 13, No. 6:1, Mar. 15, 1999
(registration required).[dead link]
 Post on April 29, 2012 "Making Cured Meats"

External links[edit]
Look up cure in
Wiktionary, the free
dictionary.

 National Center for Home Food Preservation -

Curing Foods
 National Center for Home Food Preservation - How
Do I? Curing and Smoking
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