Fibre Chemistry, Vol. 38, No.

3, 2006

WORLD PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

OF POLYESTER FIBRES AND THREAD*

E. M. Aizenshtein UDC 677.494.674.003

In the last 20 years, PES fibres and thread have developed at very high tempos (by 7.2% a year on average).
The share of PES fibres and thread in Asia is 64.6% of the world level for chemical fibres. China is still the
unconditional leader, where production of PES fibres from 2004 to 2008 will increase from 11.5 to 18.5
million tons. Progressive methods of manufacturing TPA (terephthalic acid) from DMT (dimethyl terephthalate),
synthesis of PET directly from PC (polycarbonate) and ethylene, the two-reactor polycondensation scheme,
highly efficient catalytic systems, and new kinds of fibres and thread from modified polyesters are being
developed. In Russia, scarce PET and the raw material for it are consumed for manufacturing bottles to the
detriment of development of PES fibres and thread, of which there are almost none in the country at present,
while the scales of production of packaging materials from biodegradable polymers made from environmentally
safe and regularly reproducible sources are more and more actively increasing abroad.

Beginning in the 1970s, polyester (PES) fibres and thread have dominated the textile raw material market. Now PES
fibres mean not only fibres manufactured from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) but also from polybutylene terephthalate
(PBT), polymethylene terephthalate (PTT), polyethylene naphthalate (PEN), and from other fibre-forming polymers —
polycarbonate (PC), polylactide (PLA), polyethylene oxalate (PEO), and others. The statistical data reported below primarily
concern PET-based fibres and thread.
Over the last 20 years, the growth rate for production of PES fibres has been 7.2% a year on average. In 2004,
manufacture of PES fibres increased by almost 9.7%, i.e, to 24.5 million tons, giving it a 64.6% share on the world chemical
fibre market (Fig. 1). All segments of the polyester market — both fibres, including tow, and complex textile and industrial
fibres, exhibited such impressive results. At the end of 2008, world production of polyester products could increase from 38
to 50 million tons in comparison to 2004, i.e., by approximately 32%, and the share of commercial granulate (primarily for
bottles), fibres, and films will almost not change while the share of complex fibres will increase by 2% [1].
Polyester production is mostly concentrated in Asia — approximately 61% — and will remain at this level for the next
5-6 years (Fig. 2). Asian production will increase from approximately 20 to 28 million tons, or by 40%, in 2004-2008, and the
increase in production of bottle PET will not be as marked (by a total of 0.6 million tons) — from 4.7 to 5.3 million tons, or by
12.8%, i.e., the proportion of the increase in fibres is more than 3 times higher than for bottle raw material. This is what
Russian companies must take into consideration in expanding PET granulate production capacities for transient business
conditions by irresponsibly consuming the initial raw material — p-xylene, terephthalic acid, and monoethylene glycol —
required for development of PES fibres and thread. The data for 2000-2010 on a decrease in the average world increase in
consumption of commercial PET are also guarded (Fig. 3).
The commanding role in the development of polyesters indisputably belongs to China. It is responsible for half of
world production of PES fibres, and the increase in 2004 in comparison to the preceding year reached an unimaginable figure:
22%. According to projections, from 2004 to 2008, production of PES fibres and thread will increase from 11.5 to 18.5 million
____________
*Based on proceedings of the conference “Polymer Fibres and Thread: Fabrication, Processing, Use,” All-Russian
Exhibition Center, Moscow, March 29, 2006.

Translated from Khimicheskie Volokna, No. 3, pp. 67-72, May-June, 2006.

264 0015-0541/06/3803-0264 © 2006 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc.

 Polyacrylonitrile Other 0.6%

Polypropylene 6.3%
7.9%

Polyamide
12.2%
64.6%
8.4%
Cellulose

Polyester

Fig. 1. Share of different types of chemical fibres

on the world market.

1000 15
6

60 800 12
7

millions of tons
50 5
6 600 9
40 4
millions of tons

30 400 6 3
2
20 5
4 200 3 1
10 3
2
0 1
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 0 0
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
Years
Years
Fig.2 Fig.3
Fig. 2. Polyester production by regions: 1) North America; 2) Sough America; 3) Western Europe; 4) Eastern
Europe; 5) Africa; 6) Asia and the Far East; 7) Japan.

Fig. 3. Annual growth of consumption of commercial PET by regions: 1) North America; 2) South America;
3) Africa and Middle East; 4) Europe; 5) Asia and Oceania; 6) increase in consumption in %.

tons in China, and more modestly, from 2 to 3 million tons in India, it will remain on almost the same level in Southeast Asia
and Taiwan, and will decrease slightly (by ~0.5 million tons) in South Korea. The increase in capacities in China will not be as
rapid as production, while the increase in production will be due to an increase in utilization of capacities (Fig. 4). At annual
growth of 16%, China’s share in world production of PES fibres will more than double over 10 years, while it will gradually
decrease in other regions. In 2006, the 22 largest companies in the world, including Sinopec (China), Reliance (India), Nan YA
(Taiwan), Huvis (South Korea), Invista (USA), and Teijin (Japan) intend to manufacture more than 11 million tons of PES
fibres and thread, including 5.5 million tons of staple fibre, 5.4 million tons of textile, and 0.5 million tons of industrial fibres.
Approximately 7.0 million tons in this volume will be manufactured by Chinese firms.
It is projected that world PES fibre consumption will double from 2000 to 2010, including by almost 3 times in China,
by 2 times in the rest of Asia, by 44% in America, and by only 16% in Europe. The annual growth in consumption is illustrated
by the data in Fig. 5. PES fibres and thread are the only textile raw material, except for PP fibres and thread (overall index)
whose per capita consumption and share in the overall balance of all types of fibres has continuously increased for half a
century — both staple fibre and complex fibres, outstripping even popular polypropylene products in absolute values.
Expansion of production of the initial raw materials is necessary to ensure the above trends in the development of PES
fibres in the near future (Fig. 6): p-xylene (PX), terephthalic acid (TPA), and monoethylene glycol (MEG). Observing the
important jump in TPA production after 2005, we note the total lack of growth in production of dimethyl terephthalate (DMT),

265
 30 80%
40000
25 35000 1
75%
millions of tons

30000

thousands of tons
20 2
25000
15 70% 20000
3
10 15000
65% 10000
5
5000 4
0 60% 0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Years Years
Fig.4 Fig.5
Fig. 4. Polyester fibre production in China (2004-2008): o — production; n — capacities; l — utilization of capacities.
Fig. 5. Annual growth in PES fibre consumption in 2000-2010 in the world (7%) and in regions: 1) America (3%);
2) Europe (2%); 3) China (11%); 4) remainder of Asia (7%).

50
millions of tons

40
1 2
30
20
3
10
4
0
2001 2003 2005 2007
Years

Fig. 6. Production of the basic kinds of raw materials

for PES fibres: 1) TPA; 2) PX; 3) MEG; 4) DMT.

which has recently been stuck at ~5 million tons/year. The causes of this lie in the obvious advantages of TPA: important (by
12-15%) decrease in consumption of the basic monomer and decrease in the explosion and fire hazards of the process, which
significantly reduces the cost of PET. For polyester markets with a developed economy, the share of TPA is now approximately
90% and the share of DMT is 10%, and experts predict [1] the practical disappearance of the latter in the next 5-10 years.
To retain the equipment in DMT units to the maximum, Hegmans (Germany) and Sulzer (Switzerland) proposed an
improved process that allows using these units for production of TPA. The process provides for rational utilization of the
thermal energy of oxidation of PX, recrystallization of DMT from melt, optimization of the stage of hydrolysis of DMT into
TPA, and total recycling of methanol. If high quality of hydrolyzed DMT in comparison to ordinary TPA is added to this
(absence of bromine, low content of 4-carboxybenzaldehyde, p-toluyl ester, and other contaminants), then it is evident that the
new DMT/TPA process merits the totally understandable interest from a technical and economic point of view.
North America and Asia dominate the MEG market (2/3 of world volume). In the near future, the countries in the
Middle East will occupy a noteworthy position in this market, primarily because of expansion of subsidiaries of Sabic (Saudi
Arabia). Iraq and Kuwait will also significantly increase MEG production capacities which will give them a 35% share of the
market in the Middle East.
In evaluating the advances in the chemistry and technology of PET synthesis, we note the following. Eastman [2] has
conducted some amazing research, resulting in the Integ-Rex process. The PX and ethylene used in the process are directly
transformed into PET in one stage. The mechanism of the reaction can only be guessed at (the authors have more than 100
patent applications), but the inevitability of oxidation of ethylene and PX into ethylene oxide and p-toluylaldehyde followed by
aldol hydration yields tetraphthalic acid mono- and di- (in repeated oxidation and hydration) glycol ester (TDG). The traditional
stages of synthesis of TPA, MEG, and TDG are eliminated in this process. The company plans to build a large plant with a
capacity of 350,000 tons/year of PET based on the Integ-Rex process at the end of 2006, investing approximately $100 million,
and counting on a four-fold increase in the efficiency of utilization of the work space, a significant decrease in power consumption
and labor, and a 15-30% reduction in production costs. Utilization of half of the active production areas will allow Eastman to
double output of PET.

266
 TABLE 1. Comparison of Schemes for Production of PES Industrial Fibre from Granulate and
by Direct Melt Spinning

Power consumption Granulate scheme Direct melt spinning

Heat, kW/ton 190 15
Electricity, kW/ton 190 30
3
Chilled water, m /ton 130 −
3
Cold water, m /ton 22 2
Nitrogen, kW/ton 12 −
3
Volume of production premises, m 10000 450
Investments, % 100 70

1000
900
800
Units output, tons/day

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Years

Fig. 7. Development of individual PET production line

capacities by years: 1) autoclave; 2) continuous classic;
3) high-capacity with one polycondensation unit.

18
16 2000

14 2005
millions of tons

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5

Fig. 8. World PET product market: 1) fibre; 2) complex

fibre; 3) bottle granulate; 4) films; 5) other.

Successful attempts are being made to create new catalytic systems, primarily based on titanium derivatives. In particular,
the products Hombifast PC (Sachtleben Chemie, Germany), Ecocat BuT (Zimmer, Germany), C94 (Acordis, Netherlands),
Tyzor (DuPont, USA), etc., have been developed. For example, Hombinat PC catalyst, a finely ground inorganic titanate
added to the polymer in the amount of 25 parts/million, reduces the polycondensation cycle by more than 30% in comparison
to synthesis of PET using antimony trioxide as the catalyst. C94 — a solid amorphous substance based on titanium, silicon,
oxygen, and an organic molecule, has approximately the same effect. The Japanese companies Mitsubishi, Mitsui, Teijin, and
Toyobo propose using mixed phosphorus-containing catalysts containing titanium, magnesium, aluminum, and other metal
cations for polycondensation. Zimmer has broached the problem of creating a catalyst free of antimony. Titanium, germanium,
tin, zirconium, and aluminum prepared in the form of alcoholates have been tested as the metal ions. The requirements for the

267
 100
87
200 81
80 78

65 66
150

Recovery, %
thousands of tons
1 60
42
100 40
2 3
50 20
4

0 0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 PET PTT PBT
Years
Fig.9 Fig.10
Fig. 9. PES tire cord market for 2000-2005 by regions: 1) Asia; 2) NAFTA; 3) Europe;
4) South America.
Fig. 10. Degree of elastic recovery of 75 dtex fibres made of different types of polyesters
after stretching by 10 (o) and 20% (n).

TABLE 2. Distribution of Industrial Textiles by Chemical Fibre Types in 2001-2008 in Europe 

Proportion (in %) of industrial textile based on fibres

Years
polyamide polyester polypropylene viscose aramid
2001 26.3 41.5 14.0 17.7 0.5
2002 26.6 41.1 14.1 17.7 0.5
2003 26.9 40.5 14.3 17.8 0.5
2004 27.2 39.8 14.5 18.0 0.6
2005 27.5 39.1 14.7 18.1 0.6
2006 28.0 38.3 14.8 18.3 0.6
2007 28.4 37.5 15.0 18.6 0.6
2008 28.7 36.7 15.1 18.8 0.6

new system of catalysts consist of a very low concentration of the metal and absence of metal residue. For this purpose, the
catalytic compositions were adsorbed in heterogeneous medium consisting of such substances as zeolite, activated carbon,
diatomite, etc. with an internal surface area >500 m2/g and average particle size of 0.5 μm. To manufacture transparent PES,
the individual contaminant particles cannot be greater than 2 μm in size. The catalyst metals listed above satisfy this requirement
for synthesis of PET intended for both textile and for bottle raw materials.
Aguafil Engineering (Germany) has developed a unique apparatus conditionally called UPR (universal polymerization
reactor) in which esterification and prepolycondensation reactions [3] can be continuously conducted, resulting in PET with an
intrinsic viscosity of 0.36-0.40, which is sufficient for normal granulation of the polymer. A polymer of the required viscosity
for spinning textile (0.58-0.68) and industrial (0.78-0.82) fibres can be obtained in additional polycondensation in melt or in
the solid phase in a second reactor. The advantages over traditional technologies for synthesis of PET that require a minimum
of four units are determined by the important (20%) decrease in investments due to savings in expenses.
The scheme for production of PES industrial (cord) fibre from granulate undergoing solid-phase polycondensation is
gradually beginning to replace the technology for direct spinning of PET from a highly viscous melt due to the obvious
economic advantages (Table 1).
Figure 7 shows the increase in output of individual PET production lines. The greatest advances in this area were made
in the last 10 years, when this index approached a very high mark: 1000 tons/day with a scheme with one final polycondensation
unit. However, most experts believe a capacity for one unit of 300-500 tons/day to be optimum due to the greater process
flexibility, significantly lower investments, optimum production load, and fast pay-back. In particular, more than 30 new lines
constructed in recent years by the Chinese companies Ctie/Ctcic and Cta/Sinopec have output of 300-600 tons/day.

268
 TABLE 3. Comparative Characteristics of PET and PEN Fibres

Indexes PET PEN

Strength, cN/tex 60-80 80-90
Elongation at break, % 8-20 5-8
Modulus, N/tex 10-12 20-23
Thermal shrinkage (180°C/15 min), % 1-18 3-8
Equilibrium moisture content, % 0.4-0.5 0.2
Residual strength after treatment, %
hydrolytic (135°C/50 h) 40-50 80-85
hot air (150°C/24 h) 96 100
hot air (150°C/7 days) 92 100

TABLE 4. Fibre Raw Material for Production of NM in Europe to 2010

Production, thousands of tons

Fibre type
1999 2000 2003 2010
Staple PET 245 463 528 635
Spunbond PET 62 87 90 100
Staple PP 213 363 452 546
Spunbond PP 73 305 430 535
Staple PA 51 29 28 25
Staple PAN 28 23 15 10
Cotton 54 74 60 60
Wool 17 13 10 10
Other 57 129 195 250
Total 969 1708 2039 2425

The world market for PET products changed rather markedly in 2005 (Fig. 8), and production volumes for complex
fibres and commercial bottle granulate especially increased, while volumes for fibres and films increased less significantly.
PES industrial (cord) fibre drew the greatest attention. We note that in 1998-2008, the share of industrial PES textiles will
occupy the leading position in auto construction in comparison to materials made of other chemical fibres (Table 2). Figure
9 confirms the totally substantiated revival of the PES tire cord market: significant in Asia and gradual in North America
and Europe.
According to data from PCI Consulting Group (Great Britain), the demand for PES industrial fibres in China will
increase by 85% in 2010 in comparison to 2005, reaching 370,000 tons/year, i.e., it will be higher than in the USA and Western
Europe (270 and 290,000 tons/year, respectively). In the next five years, the demand in these regions will only increase by
10,000 tons/year. The increase in demand for PES industrial fibre in China noted above is primarily due to the explosive
development of the auto industry — by 500% in 2005-2010. For these purposes, including tires, belts, and air bags, the
increase in PES industrial fibres will be 132%. The China’s example in this area caused a significant increase in manufacture
of PES industrial fibres in Thailand, Malaysia, and the Philippines. The use of PES fibres for industrial textiles is very
promising: they are superior to similar PET fibres with respect to many important performance characteristics (Table 3).
PES textile fibres probably underwent the boom because of the creation of high-output equipment with a spinning speed
of up to 6000 m/min, drawing and rewinding speeds of up to 1500 m/min, and combining manufacturing stages on one machine
(DTY, FDY, etc.). Methods of physical modification gave way to different methods of chemical modification, up to use of
polyesters other than PET, for example, Corterra fiber (PTT), Mirhon WE, Elite (PBT, etc. These fibres have attractive elastic
properties that ensure high recovery after 10-20% stretching (Fig. 1). In addition, Mirhon WE, developed by the Italian

269
companies Miroglo and Montefibre, can be dyed at a low temperature (98°C) both with disperse and with cationic dyes
without “carriers”, acquiring dark hues that do not change under different effects. With 100% PBT content, Mirhon WE fibre
is suitable for manufacturing sports clothing and swim wear and is also used in blends with PET, viscose, and polyacrylonitrile
fibres, cotton, linen, and wool.
The Italian company Sinerama came out with PES complex fibres with stable fireproof and antibacterial properties,
which allows making upholstery material for furniture, for use in the home and in auto construction, and for manufacturing
work clothes. For manufacturing antistatic industrial textiles, IWH Group (Great Britain) proposed adding 2-5% PES fibre
filled with finely disperse carbon black and with electrical resistance from 10 to 100 MΩ/cm to the fabric. Of the new schemes
proposed for production of PES textured fibres, preference must be given to technologies that combine drawing and warping
with air texturing, whose cost is more than two times lower than for the traditional technology with separate warping and
mechanical texturing operations.
What’s new for PES staple fibre and tow? The German firms Neumag and Zimmer continue to saturate the Asian
market with high-capacity spinning and finishing lines with output of up to 200 tons/year. Their products are distinguished by
high quality; in particular, 0.9 dtex PES fibre has tenacity of 6.7-6.8 cN/tex, elongation at break of 18-20%, crimp resistance of
65-68%, and shrinkage in hot air of 5.0-5.5%.
PES fibres are becoming the main source of raw material for nonwoven materials (NM) regardless of the method of
manufacture (spandex, airlaid, needle-punch, adhesive, etc.). The data in Table 4 on the example of the European market
demonstrate the dominant role of PES fibres among the different kinds of fibre raw material for NM. At a 7-10% annual
increase in the growth rates of world production of NM over the last 10 years, spunlace (hydroentangling) has drawn the
greatest attention among the other “associated” technologies. The NM manufactured by the spunlace method has excellent
drape, is soft and pleasant to the touch, since the higher degree of entanglement increases the stresses without increasing the
shear modulus. This material, usually processed from 1.7 and 3.3 dtex PES fibres, was the basis for original developments of
the internationally known firms Montefibre (Italy) and Fleiβner (Germany).
Ticona (Germany) utilized the special properties of PBT in the complex technical sphere of creating microfilters,
developing the special type Celanex PBT 2008 with which ultrafine NM were made (fibre diameter < 1 μm) which have the
desirable ability to spread. This unreinforced material is manufactured by melt blown or spunbond methods (the melting point
of PBT is 235°C, the processing temperature is 240-280°C). NM of the Celanex 2008 type with a very high surface density
(up to 400 g/m2) is being successfully used for thermal and acoustic insulation.
Filzfabrik Fulda (Germany) has created a new generation of special NM for filtration of liquids and dust protection.
They are thermofusible materials made from microfibres. They are manufactured by reinforcing thermoplastic fibres with hot
air without using chemical treatment or binders. NM consist of untwisted superfine (0.2 dtex) PES fibres (60-70%) which are
spun from a melt, aerodynamically drawn in two stages, tempered, and strengthened with a water jet. Additives that give the
NM antistatic, hydrophilic, and semiconducting properties are additionally incorporated [4]. The NM obtained is intended for
fabrication of multiuse overalls for working in the microelectronic and pharmaceutical industries.
Scarcely more than 20,000 tons/year of PES stable fibre of coarse titers not suitable for blending with cotton or wool and
only approximately 6000 tons/year of air-textured fibres are now manufactured at Tver’-Poliefir in Russia, a country rich in textile
traditions. We have repeatedly noted the anomalous structure of PET consumption in Russia: 93% is used for packaging (primarily
for manufacture of bottle preforms and only 6% is used for production of PES fibres and thread, 1% is used for films (25, 67, 6,
2% other products in the world). With respect to per capita PES fibre production (~200 g/capita), Russia is approximately 15
times behind the average world level and 100 times behind Belarus’. The country also annually imports 340,000 tons of PET for
food applications for manufacturing bottles and packaging materials for a total of more than $400 million [5]. If we add the
capacities for food-grade PET under construction in Solnechnogorsk (180,000 tons/year), Blagoveshchensk (120,000 tons/year),
Klaipeda (460,000 tons/year), the operating factory in Tver’ (52,000 tons/year), then it becomes clear that Russia will not catch up
for a long time yet, and the textile industry will remain doomed to dependence on imports as before.
We will not compare the incomparable — PET fibres and bottles. We simply note that only cotton is an alternative to
the former, of which there is still none in Russia, and PES complex fibres — textile and industrial — do not exist in general,
especially for the technical rubber article and tire industry. Second, the lifetime (from appearance to destruction) of fibres and
bottles is not comparable, 10 years and 10 days, respectively, and the methods of utilizing them are far from the same. The
current “boom” with processing bottles into flakes is beginning in municipal dumps and will end in production of poor-quality
raw materials for limited use (in particular, in NM) with very doubtful economic indexes.

270
 The main question which is directly related to the fate of PET bottles, in addition to the motivation indicated above, is
the new and promising market for biodegradable polymers made of natural raw materials [6]. In 2005, the demand for these
materials attained almost 250,000 tons. Over the next decade, the world market for biopolymers will increase by 30% each
year, and by 2010, the production capacities could increase to 1 million tons. The many companies involved in development
of biopolymer technology include the American Cargill Dow, Cronpol, DuPont, and Metabolix, the Italian Nonvomont, the
German BASF, English Monsanto, Japanese Mitsui Chemicals and Shimadzu. Products of processing specially grown corn or
similar products of other grain crops (renewable resources and natural polymers — cellulose, starch, etc.) are the raw material
for production of biopolymers. Nature Works (Belgium) states that its biodegradable polymer based on grain crops — polylactide
(PLA) — could soon displace traditional PET packaging on the market. The company came to this conclusion after testing its
new discovery — a polymer bottle for packaging milk made of wheat-based PLA. PLA packaging is much better than PET
materials, since it decomposes in 75-80 days, making it environmentally safe. In 3-5 years, Nature Works is planning to change
over to the new technology where corn wastes (leaves, stems, straw, cob husks) are used as the raw material. The cellulose
contained in them and the hemicellulose is converted into sugar during fermentation. The following stages of the manufacturing
process are similar to the existing process (lactic acid — lactide — PLA). In 2005, two American beverage manufacturers
packaged their goods — juices, mineral water, and milk — in Nature Works biodegradable packaging for the first time.
According to the experience of Cargill Dow (USA), monolayer PLA bottles can be manufactured on the same equipment as
ordinary plastics. The same packaging will be developed in the near future for cold tea and bottled juices. We should add that
one of the largest PET manufacturers in Europe — Amcor PET Packaging (Poland) — intends to begin production of
biodegradable bottles from PLA, which is becoming an increasingly popular alternative to PET, whose cost increases with the
price of crude oil. Amcor plans to package uncarbonated beverages, juices, water, milk, vegetable oil, etc., in the new bottles,
responsible for more than 70% of world consumption of PET.
In continuing the fascinating story of biodegradable polymers, we mention that starch obtained from grains, potatoes,
maize, eggshells, etc., is the raw material for them and that draft legislation that prohibits production and use of nonbiodegradable
packaging, including PET packaging, whose use will be considered illegal in 2010, is being developed.
It is important to understand that the reasons for the heightened interest of world economics in polymers made of
renewable raw materials are primarily the rapidly increasing price of crude oil and petrochemical raw materials for production
of synthetic polymers processed into plastics, fibres, films, packaging, etc. And this not only concerns the rising prices, but
also the limited and nonrenewable resources of crude oil and gas. For this reason, the reasonable trend toward renewable raw
materials should soon free important volumes of PET used for production of noncompetitive containers (bottles) for special-
purpose and substantiated use for production of fibres and thread.

REFERENCES

1. E. M. Aizenshtein, Tekhn. Tekstil’, No. 13, 12-15 (2006).

2. J. PET pla. Net Insider.
3. Chem. Fibers, #"; Man-Made, #, No. 10 (2004).
4. Catalog In the World of Equipment/Legprombiznes, No. 7 (58), 28 (October, 2005).
5. Chem. J., No. 1, 30 (January, 2006).
6. E. M. Aizenshtein, Khim. Volokna, No. 5, 70 (2005).

271