BIO

Made by: Riana Cordova

 NITROGENOUS WASTE
°
Animals produce nitrogenous waste formed from excess proteins and amino acids . These are

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broken down to form nitrogen -
containing product : urea .

How urea is made in the Liver

EX C R E T O RY PRODUCTS
'

1) Protein in food taken into alimentary canal and protein molecules are broken down into

o Excretion : Removal from organisms of waste products of metabolism amino acids .

( respiration ) toxic materials and excess substances .

2) As amino acids are absorbed into the blood inside the small intestine and are
,

Egestion : Removal of undigested food waste in faeces through anus . carried to the liver through the hepatic portal vein for assimilation .

*
Egestion ¥ Excretion
L
Amino acids used to build protein like fibrinogen which is important for blood clotting .

Lungs t kidney 3) Excess amino acids in the blood cannot be stored so they are deaminate d ( broken

o
Lungs excrete carbon dioxide ( waste product of aerobic respiration ) down ) into carbs and ammonia .
Enzymes in the liver split amino acid molecules .

during exhalation because it dissolves in water to form an acidic 4) Carbs converted to glycogen are stored / used in the liver and the ammonia is

lowering pH of activity converted to urea

solution
,
cells reducing enzyme .
.

°
Kidneys excrete excess water ,
urea
,
and salts ( formed in liver 5) Urea dissolves in blood and taken to kidney to be excreted .
Small amount excreted

from excess amino acids ) by producing urine as it is a toxic substance in sweat .

Needed amino acids taken away by the blood throughout the body .

in high concentrations . * Because the amino acids contain energy ,

it is wasteful for it to be excreted as it is .

T HE K l D N EY Fi Iteration

°
Located in the back of the abdomen behind the intestines .
0
Inside the nephron ,
blood is brought to the renal capsule in the branch of the renal artery .

They have two important functions : afferent rena, capsule

0 There are thousands of renal capsules in the cortex of each
arteriole
q , ( Bowman's capsule)

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water content in blood a'IEEE Inside the renal capsule tangle of blood
'

Regulate kidneys
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* .
. are a cap -

Foiled
{
renal
artery tubule

* Excrete toxic waste products of metabolism and ill aries called the glomerulus .

in excess .
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Afferent arteriole is wide and efferent arteriole is narrow so

°
Each kidney contains million tiny structures called nephrons First coiled
blood in glomerulus cannot get away easily .
High pressure
tubule

&
( kidney tubules ) . Loop of e-
collecting
builds up so blood in glomerulus pushes against capillary walls .

Hence
duct

L Start in the cortex loop down the medulla and back up L walls have holes in them to let molecules
'
through : water salts , ,
,

the cortex again ,

then goes down to the medulla again glucose and urea . Amino acids are too big to go through .

t
to the pelvis .
A Nephron capillaries 0 Inside the Bowman's capsule and glomerulus is where filler a -

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ti on happens
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cortex
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Reabsorption

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salts and urea dissolved in it . ( Urine)

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→ ureter

Component Reabsorbed at
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on
-

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Blood passing through kidneys gets filtered and removes most of the Glucose ONLY in first coiled tubule →
By active transport ; nephron has many mitochondria
-

urea as well as excess salts Urea Not reabsorbed cannot take place else
.

anywhere
-

°
After substances have been absorbed the final product is a

solution of salt and water : urine .

TH E B LA D D E R
L Flows out kidneys , along ureters and into the bladder where it is 0
Urine from all nephrons in the kidney take it to the ureter and then to the bladder .

stored for a while before being released through the urethra .

0
Stores urine ; has stretchy walls to hold large quantities .

*
Large quantities of urine →
pale yellow → a lot of water and 0
Leading out the bladder is the urethra with a sphincter muscle at top which is tightly

less urea concentration .

closed .

* small quantities of urine → darker yellow / orange - little

water and more urea concentration .

L water intake will affect the concentration of water in urine

L temp . and exercise as water is lost in sweat .

 Disease q M Infection

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Accidents
Both kidneys

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K I DN E Y D l AL Y S IS y

No treatment kidney Dialysis kidney transplant

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Inside machine blood and

and water balance the kidney out -

* dialysis fluid are separated by a partially permeable

replace both kidneys
,

is upset side of body

-
membrane - -

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Blood flows opposite to the fluid allowing exchange through concentration gradient .
* Fluid in machine continually refreshed so concentration gradients

* Dialysis Fluid are maintained .

one several

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No urea .
* Anticoagulant is added into blood before dialysis to prevent blood

Concentration clotting .

in fluid diffuses from blood to the dialysis fluid along the large concentration gradient
° →
No urea .

o No concentration gradient for glucose as the concentration levels are similar in blood and fluid .
This prevents net movement .

°
Movement of salts across the membrane occurs if there is an imbalance in concentration . ( low salts in blood / high salts in blood )

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TRANSPLANTS VS . D l A L Y S lS

Advantages of Transplants Disadvantages of transplant

÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ :÷
°
Patient has much more freedom ,
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Risk of rejection as immune system treats
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to move around '

foreign substance
not connected the donor as a
-
.

÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷:÷÷÷i:
procedure .
o Not enough donors to cope with demand .

/
°
Long term solution -
dialysis

only work for limited

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Dialysis Procedure
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 Hypothalamus
°
A part of the brain at the centre of the control mechanism that keeps internal temperature constant .

°
Contains thermo receptors that sense temperature of blood running through it .

°
Defined as the maintenance of a constant internal environment . * If temp .
is I 37°C , hypothalamus sends electrical impulses along the nerves
,
to parts of body
L
Internal conditions within your body ( temp . blood pressure ,
water that controls body temp .

conc .
, glucose conc .
, )
etc need to be kept within a certain limit Hot temperatures

to ensure body cells can function .

°
Erector muscles relax so hair lies flat and trap less air .

L
If one of the conditions deviate and not brought back to
°
Sweat in sweat glands evaporate to cool the skin as it takes heat with it .

normal asap body will not function properly .

o
Vasodilation : Arterioles supplying the the capillaries near surface dilate . More blood in surface
,

means more heat is easily lost from blood into air .

B O D Y TEMP .
CONTROL o Metabolism slows down

° Endothermic Animals : Maintain their body temperature constantly Cold Temperatures

even if their environment changes due to

energy from respiration .
0
Erector muscles contract so hairs are upright which traps a layer of warm air for insulation .

They also have to consume more food . ( warm blooded animals) .

0 Muscles in the body contract and relax very quickly to produce heat . This is shivering . Heat generated

°
Ectothermic Animals : Unable to regulate body temperature .
is distributed all over the
body .

Take in temperature from surroundings .

( Cold blooded animals ) -
o vasoconstriction :
Arterioles that supply blood to surface of the skin are constricted so not much

The Skin blood flows through and no heat is lost .

o Made up of two layers :

top layer epidermis and bottom layer o Metabolism may increase to produce more heat .

dermis .

I n

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.sn/ure'Functions- NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
iea e-

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Epidermis consists of Three layers 0 Occurs when conditions change from the

→
cornified Layer → contains keratin -

effective waterproof set point and returns back to normal mechanism

IGAINHEATN Body too hot a
conditions
-
- -

:÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ :÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷:÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷i÷÷:÷
layer
.
.

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erial from UV radiation Blood glucose levels controlled by negative feedback involving production of
0 are
.
mechanism insulin
-

Dermis and glucagon hormones .

→ Blood Vessel → Temperature regulation .

L
Hormones are made by the islets of Langerhans cells in the pancreas with two glands in one .

→
sebaceous Gland → secretes sebum -
acts as lubricant . Blood glucose rises Blood glucose falls
#

→
Sweat Gland →
Produces sweat -

cooling agent .
1) Insulin secreted from pancreas . 1) Glucagon secreted .

Heat control
→ Hair →
2) Stimulates the liver and muscle cells to convert 2) stimulates liver and muscle cells to convert
-

→ Erector Muscle → contracts / relaxes to control hair the stored glucose from respiration into stored glycogen ( polysaccharide) into

position .
glycogen .

glucose .

→ Receptors → Detects heat temp .

and pressure . 3) Blood glucose concentration falls to normal . 3) Blood concentration rises to normal .

→ Elastic Fibre Has collagen elasticity of skin Diabetes

# -
-

→ .

Dermis o
type 1 Diabetes : blood glucose levels are not able to be regulated as the islets of Langerhans

* underneath the dermis is a layer of fat called adipose tissue . cells have died .

L Adipose Tissue : Made up of cells which contain large drops of L

thought to be result of the person's own immune system .

Oil .
0
Hyperglycemia : Blood glucose levels are too high because no insulin can be produced .

* Insulates body .
0
Hypoglycaemia : When blood glucose levels drop low because no glucose has been made due to

* Energy reserve absence of insulin .

* Provides protective padding around organs .

o
symptoms : extreme thirst ,
weakness / tiredness ,
weight loss .

o treatment : Monitor blood glucose levels ,

physical activity and diet ( affects amount of insulin

needed) As well injecting insulin checking glucose conc in urine and exercising (
glucose
.
as even .

, ,

) can be used for respiration .

 * Once pectin ase is broken down ,
the cell walls break more easily and more

juice squeezed .

* Adding pectinase to fruits also helps produce a clearer juice -

larger poly -

°
Biology involves using living organisms to carry out processes to make substances saccharides like pectin makes juices seem cloudy .

we want . Lactase

o lactose is the sugar found in milk and lactase is an enzyme that breaks

USE OF MICROORGANISMS it down .

lactose -
lactase
glucose t galactose
foods Many people lose the ability to produce lactase older in certain
can be used by humans to produce and other useful substances they get
° 0
Microorganisms . as

regions They become lactose intoler ht

L
Ex : Bacteria and microscopic fungi .
.
.

* Bacteria and fungi are very small and easy to grow ,

do not take up much space , reproduce * Milk can be made lactose free by adding lactase to it and allowing it to break

quickly ,
and are capable of producing complex molecules . down .

* No ethical issues can arise .

L Also produces glucose and galactose for sweets .

* Easy to remove plasmids and manipulate .

USE OF PENICILLIN
USE OF YEAST 0
First anti Obi tic discovered in 1928 by Alexander Fleming .

are substances which kill bacteria harming

Making Biofuels L Antibiotics without human cells .

°
Yeast is a single -
celled fungus that uses sugar as a food source .
o
production of penicillin on a large scale using an industrial fernenter .

* Fermentation o Ferment ers -

are containers used to grow

glucose → ethanol t carbon dioxide culture microorganisms in large amounts .

CGH 1206 → 2C 5 Hs OH t 2 CO2 °

Conditions can be carefully controlled to

°
Ethanol used as a biofuel to reduce the use of fossil fuels .
produce large quantities of exactly the

1) Maize crop is usually used and treated with amylase so starch is broken down to right type of microorganism .

glucose .

2) Yeast is added and uses the glucose for anaerobic respiration .

3) Ethanol produced is extracted by distillation .

* Alcohol burns well but does not contain as much energy as fossil fuels so petrol is
Industrial Fer mentor
added for vehicle engine use .

Advantage : sustainable resource ,

reduce coz from air
GENETIC ENGINEERING
Disadvantage : land used for biofuels could be used for food instead The changing of genetic material of organism by removing changing inSer
0
.
an ,
or -

Making Bread ting individual genes from another organism .

o Yeast will respire anaerobically if it has access to plenty of even if oxygen L

organism relieving genetic material is said to be genetically modified
sugar or a

is present .

transgenic organism .

Yeast is mixed with flour and water respires anaerobically producing CO2 that now has the other organisms DNA is known as
'
* ,
. L DNA of the organism
,

L CO2 causes the bread to rise .

recombinant DNA .

* Alcohol broken down and yeast is killed as bread bakes .

Ex : Human insulin into bacteria ,
GM crop plants

Process

USE OF ENZYMES 1) Scientists identify the gene in organism A with the trait they want to put

Biological washing Powders in organism B .

°
Many stains on clothes are organic molecules .

2) Restriction enzymes are used to cut the gene out of the DNA strand and to cut

°
Contain enzymes to break down large food molecules . Open a plasmid from bacteria cell .

Advantages 3) Gene splicing takes place ( cut out gene inserted to plasmid ) .

L Quickly breaking down large ,

insoluble molecules into smaller ,
soluble ones
4) Transformation : Recombinant DNA plasmid is inserted into an
embryonic cell of an

that will dissolve . organism getting the new trait .

L
Effective at lower temperatures → less energy and money . 5) If successful ,
cell will make the DNA plasmid a part of it's own DNA and the foreign

L Be used to clean delicate fabrics which aren't suitable for high temp .
gene will begin making it 's protein and causes a new trait .

Pectinas e 6) when cell divides ,

it copies the foreign gene along with it's own DNA so organism that

° Fruit juices are extracted using an enzyme called pectinase .

develops from original cell has a
copy of the new gene in all it's cells .

* Pectinase is added and breaks down a chemical called pectin that is found inside

plant cell walls .

 INHERITANCE
What is inheritance ? inheritance : transmission of genetic information from one generation to another .

mother ( XX )
gametes
→
-

consists of genotypes and phenotypes .

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What is a genotype ?
-

Genotypes shown with two letters that are called alleles .

X X
-

Ihewmaudnsefwhpootaee9eeesticcommbat.MY Alleles : two alternative forms of a gene that can be dominant or recessive .

father

(capital ( XY )
to form a gene Dominant : letter ) usually seen the most as it is dominant .

Y X Y X y
- -

EX : Eye height
-

colour ,
Recessive : ( lowercase letter ) Only when there is no dominant allele present .

Offspring Ratio :
500/0 of boy ( XY )
What is a phenotype ? Homozygous :
( Having the same ) two identical alleles →
Pure breeding
An organisms physical properties .
500/0 of girl ( XX )
Heterozygous :
( Having different ) Two different alleles →
Not Pure
breeding
Determined by the genotype
-

,
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genetic modification ,
and environmental

f)
factors .

XX and XY chromosomes -

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What is a sex-linked sex -

linked characteristic :
the gene responsible is located on a sex chromosome →
gene shows similarity in one sex than the other .

inheritance ? * If a male has an X -

linked condition →
pass the gene to the daughter b/c of the single X chromosome more likely to show sex-linked
recessive conditions

carrier : Organism that inherited * Females have two X chromosomes → likely to inherit one dominant allele that masks effect of recessive allele .

recessive allele for a trait but does

not show the trait at au .

If the recessive allele is masked , they become the carrier .

→ one dominant
allele that masks
Only able to pass the allele if offspring is male he will inherit the disease
→
recessive allele
-
. .

What is w dominance ? codominance when genes have

: alleles that are equally dominant → both
→ Inherits the disease
in
expressed equally a
phenotype .

ble inherited recessive allele .

* Codominant alleles shown with uppercase letters in genetic diagrams using different letters .

EX : Blood group AB is co dominance

.

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What is Putten synthesis ? * pro tiers are
polymers of amino acids →
in humans there are twenty amino acids .
Genotype Phenotypes
-

*
IA IA or IA lo A
Transcription to translation is DNA to RNA .

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RNA →
ribonucleic acid Lt will they grab on to a ribosome to make a protien .

In depth detail

what is DNA ? * since DNA is too big to travel out of the nucleus
,
base code of each gene is transcribed to mRNA .

deoxy ribonucleic acid

* mRNA moves out nucleus and attaches to ribosome → reads code on the mRNA in groups of three ( triplet bases codes specific amino acid ) .

* Ribosome translates sequence of bases into sequence of amino acids makes protein
→
.

* Amino acid chain released from ribosome to fold and form final protein structure

cell division
offspring
identical
replace produces
what is mitosis ? Mitosis
I Pnnewdn! p dqmeeeaged g → genetically
µ parent
Nuclear division producing * replacement of cells asexual reproduction
used for growth ,
repair damaged tissues , ,
.

identical cells
genetically
.

* Parent cell contains four chromosomes → Mitosis occurs each chromosome splits and each goes to
daughter cell → During growth exact copy is

88%-1%8 f :
, ,

made of each chromosome .

f
⑧⑧ ←

Meiosis

* Used for production of gametes to increase variation .

What is meiosis ? * Reduction division occurs

during meiosis → to ensure that gametes are haploid cells

Nuclear division that produces * Starts with chromosomes doubling in mitosis and lining up in the centre of the cell → cells divide twice so only one copy of each chromosome
genetically different cells .

passes to each gamete .

* haploid cells →
b/c of double division meiosis produces four haploid cells
Reduction Division chromosome Gametes as
.

: ,

number is halved from diploid to

haploid →
genetically
different cells .
 VARIATION AND NATURAL SELECTION

¥on? Variation :
differences between individuals of the same species .

Continuous variation : has a continuous variation : situation in which there are many intermediates and are usually caused by both genes and environmental factors .

normal distribution in graphs and

charts .

( Bell shaped )
-
There are several numbers of genes involved
,
can be arranged in an order
,
can be measured on a scale (EX : height ,
mass ) .

* Genes are inherited → environ -

Discontinuous Variation :
Depend entirely on genes →
are genetically controlled and cannot be environmentally altered .

ment can change it .

Genetic defects ( colour blindness ,

albinism ) are discontinuous variations ( Ex :
gender ,
blood group ) .

Discontinuous variation : the graph

and charts show a random there are no intermediate States .

distribution .
( step shaped ) -

WYNTON ? Mutations :
when the nucleotide sequence in the DNA changes randomly →
random genetic changes .

* No effect on the phenotype →

protein that mutated gene produces works the same as un mutated 's
gene protein .

Example :
bird develops mutation to
* on rare occas sirens mutations lead to the
give colorful feathers
, development of new alleles → new phenotypes →
small effect on organism →
gives them survival adv .

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* can lead to harmful changes → sickle cell anaemia
greater advantage of mating .

d
increased breeding and the
* Mutations happen spontaneously and continuously due to the
following factors
passing
:

of the mutation .

radiation bonds and

Ionising change in
-

:
damage base sequence -

* increased rates of mutation chemicals ( Mercury lead )

types of
-

mutagens : certain and .

sickle cell Anaemia

causes : strokes blindness damage

* Mutation changes the molecule haemoglobin → causes RBC 's to become sickle -

shaped when releasing oxygen .

, ,

to lungs kidneys ,
heart .

*
,

sickle cell tends to get stuck in narrow blood vessels → blocks flow of blood .

Risk for life threatening

acute chest syndrome Two alleles ( A and ) dominant →
A is normal S is sickle cell anaemia
.

* s are co and .

Carrier Mother
→
normal Hb

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Both Parents are carriers →

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ke chance they will have a child who suffers one .

↳ Heterozygous are said to be

carriers .

WhH-aM ? Adaptive Features : inherited feature that helps organisms to reproduce and survive in their environment .

reproducing in its environment

'

Fitness : probability of an organism surviving and .

Hydrophytes -

small roots : extract nutrients easily

plants adapted to extremely wet -

Thin cuticle : no need to prevent water loss

conditions .

stem and leaves hollow spaces : filled w/ air to help the plant float for photosynthesis

-
Have stomata on both sides :
quicker gas exchange from atmosphere .

Xerophytes -

closing of stomata : slows down transpiration → water loss

plants adapted to extremely dry

conditions .
-

waxy cuticle : barrier for evaporation and reflects heat → lowers temperature

Hairy leaves traps in moisture

-

-
stomata on underside : lower surface is cooler → less water evaporates

Cuts down surface area : less water evaporates

spread -
out roots : seeks water deep down / across wide area .

WW .
Natural selection : 's
Charles Darwin theory of survival of the fittest .

in genes
by differences
* Individuals show
Increased variation
a range of variation caused

& * Overproduction of offsprings → competition for food and resources .

Overproduction of
* Individuals with the fittest characteristic → more reproduction → allele is passed down to offspring →
greater number of individuals with better
offsprings
&
adapted variations .

Fittest characteristic gets

Evolution : change in adaptive features overtime as a result of natural selection
passed on to offspring .

&
Stabilizing selection : when natural selection tends to keep populations the same from generation to generation →
change will occur it environment changes .

Greater chance of survival

Antibiotic resistance to Bacteria
The process of adaptation
* Baden as reproduce quickly greater chance of evolution in short amount of time
-

→ a .

* Variation will bacteria to be resistant to antibiotics they

caused by mutation might do not die
→ cause some →
occur .
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* An example of natural * Genes of antibiotic resistance will be passed on to next
offspring → whole population will inherit the gene .

Selection

characteristic
WeA¥ng ? Selective Breeding : select individuals with the most desirable and
breeding them together .

* process has to be repealed for many successive generations to ensure a new breed organism with the desirable traits .

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increased crop chicken that lay large eggs

-

yield
-

Hardiness to weather Domestic dogs with gentle nature

-

Better tasting fruits -

sheep w/ good quality wool

flowers Horses with fine features and fast

Large 1 unusual are
-
-

COORDINATION AND RESPONSE

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consists of the central nervous system and peripheral system
System nervous
:
.

* Allows us to make sense of our surroundings and to respond to them and coordinate and regulate body functions .

central nervous system ( cws ) :

the brain and the spinal chord * Information is sent through the nervous system as nerve impulses .

* Neurons have a long fibre ( axon ) which enables less time to be wasted in transferring impulses .

peripheral Nervous system :

all of the nerves in the

body * Axon insulated by a fatty sheath w/ small uninsulated sections along it ( nodes ) → electrical impulses jumped from one node to the next .

electrical
* cell bodies have dendrites → connects to many other neurons ( forms a network of connection )
Nerve impulses
.

signals that pass along neurons

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sensory Neurons :
carry impulses impulse
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schwann cells

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Voluntary Response : conscious

SENSORYNEVRONETTRELAYNEVRON.LI
MOTORNEVRONETAyhraiandt.im sTM Receptor
decision is made to carry out → → →
( starts in the
pain I pressure / detected by sends electrical impulses to connects to motor neurone carries impulse to effector

touch receptor cells spinal chord and passes impulses

involuntary Response :
does not
involve the brain → not aware
→ Effect → RESPONDED REFLEX PATHWAY
& where the stimulus effector will react
to stimulus
essential to basic survival touched accordingly

The synapse

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neurotransmitters :
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 f÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
Hormones : chemicals which transmit information from one part of an organism to another to
bring about a
change
ystem
.

*
Endocrine system that
Endocrine Glands have a good blood
supply
→
hormones need to get to the plasma in the blood stream quickly → travel around the
:
glands
produce hormones
body to target organs to bring about a
response .

Pancreas produces hormones to ru a'In'T

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.
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* once a hormone has been used →
destroyed in the liver .

regulate blood glucose levels ,

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as well as digestive enzymes

Hormones can only bind to cells with target receptors that to
* cells w/ receptors found inside cells
* are
complimentary such as pancreatic amylase +

or on cell membrane
lipase .

the shape of the hormone .

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÷" -i

±:

oestrogen : controls menstrual cycle and develops sexual characteristics in females .

Adrenaline

Produced in situations where the be in

*
body may danger .

Fighter * causes a range of different things in the body to prepare for fight or flight :

f
t increasing blood glucose concentration increase respiration in muscle cells
-
→ .

What adrenaline does to

get our muscles to react

-

Increasing pulse rate t

breathing rate →
glucose t oxygen delivered quickly to muscle cells t cos taken more quickly .

g
gum , you aimed towards mu, yes oxygen is cam ed me for respiration
.

,
, ,

* pupils also dilate to allow

much light as possible for
information .

COORDINATION : THE EYE

-

Whory Erg and? Sensory organs :

contains a
group of receptors that respond to specific stimuli .

skin sensitive to pressure temperature and pain → touch and temperature -

Nose : chemicals in air → smell
specialized cells that
:
Receptors : ,

detect a change in the environment

and stimulate impulses in
-

Tongue : chemicals in food t drink → taste -

Eye : eight → sight

response .

Ear : sound and movement →

hearing t balance

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Structure t function of Eye
-
cornea :
transparent lens that retracts light entering eye .

retina
-

his
-

Iris : controls how much light enters pupil .

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brain .

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Radial muscles contract radial muscles relax
.

.. .

muscles relax muscles contract

ciliary ciliary
-
- -
-

Accommodation :
way the lens

circular muscles relax circular muscles contract suspensory ligaments slack

suspensory ligament
-

focusing
- - -

bring fine

Pupil dilates
-

Pupil contracts pulled lens are fat

change shape
-

elastic
-

hens : ,
can

depending on suspensory ligament -

More light enters the eye

-

less light enters the eye -

lens are thin

Muscles muscles that

ciliary
:

cause the Rods and cones

change

Rods :
receptor cells sensitive to dim light → found all over retina

Blind spot : area where the retina

is attached to the optic nerve

cones : receptor cells that distinguish color in bright light → 3 types that are colour sensitive ( red ,
blue and green
)
and there are no rod cells found
fovea : area on retina → almost where all cone cells are found
 HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Fertilisation fusion of nuclei to create
Whwin ? the the male gamete and female
gamete a zygote
: .

Cell Membrane
( telly coating
.

Sperm cells Egg cells -

Gametes :
sex cells ( have adaptations Aarne ( contains that forms a barrier after

¥Lnauids
to increase chances of fertilisation and
fertilisation to prevent other sperm cells )

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enzymes to digest jelly

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development of embryo) .
coat of egg cell membrane)

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How does the

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fetus form ? * After fertilisation in the oviduct ,
the zygote travels to the uterus → a three day period in which the zygote will divide several times to form an

Embryo :
unborn offspring in the embryo .

process of development .

* then implants itself in the thick lining of the uterus then grows and develop es → gestation period is nine months
Embryo .

Gestation time : period of development

* First 12 weeks →
embryo gets nutrients for the major development of organs → nutrients taken from the mother by diffusion through uterus

lining .

time
*
remaining gestation → fetus
grows bigger .
* organs are all in peace → placenta formed → embryo is now fetus .

* Amniotic sac cushions 's

fetus to mother

abdomen → protects fetus .

* Telus surrounded
by amniotic sac → 's blood plasma
filled with amniotic fluid made from mother .

* Umbilical chord 's

join fetus 's blood supply to placenta →
exchange of nutrients t removal of waste products .

The placenta

* worth substances * Fetus develops by gaining glucose amino acids fats 's blood
water and oxygen from mother
remembering two .

, ,
,

→ waste substance : urea t CO2

Nutrients water * fetus 's blood vessels connects to and from the placenta via umbilical chord
fats Oz
.

→ :
,
t

* Movement of molecules occurs by * Mother's blood absorbs waste from fetus 's blood in the placenta so that
they don't accumulate in high concentrations .

diffusion → difference in cone .

gradients .
* Placenta is adapted to diffusion by having a large surface area t thin wall .

* Not all toxin molecules are stopped

* Acts as a barrier to prevent toxins and pathogens entering fetus 's blood .

( depends on molecule sire ) .

* umbilical chord is out after baby is born ( does not hurt → no nerves ) → tied to prevent bleeding .

* Placenta is removed → afterbirth

After birth : placenta detaches from .

uterus wall → pushed out due to

contractions .

Breastfeeding
*
During pregnancy →
mammary glands enlarged t become prepared to secrete milk .

* After birth mother will stimulated to release milk due to sucking action of the at breast
→ be
baby .

Bottle feeding
Breastfeeding

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages

right nutrients in right not come easily to the

-

to bond Risk of infection increased

-

Does meows father baby it

-
-

t →

amounts the baby mother → postnatal bottles t equipment not sterilized

contains antibodies depression

-

Allows mother more freedom

- → -

expensive
prevents infection
Responsibility with the mother
-

-
mother t
baby bond
-
the

Whwe? Antenatal : ( before birth ) name is given to the care and advice given to expectant mothers along with checks on fetal growth and development .

* Diet : take folic acid to prevent development issues with the fetus t importance of balanced diet .

* Exercise : to
stay fit .

* Health precautions :
avoiding infections ,
tobacco ,
alcohol ,
nicotine ,
drugs .
 HUMAN SEX HORMONES
sexual characteristics changes that during puberty
Whdary Sexual secondary occur
: .

M¥4.4 ? temall Male

* controlled by release of hormones .

* Emotional changes also occur → mood swings t more interest

-

Breasts develop -

Growth of penis t testes

oestrogen : sex hormone in girls -

Body hair grows

-

Growth of facial hair and body hair

hormone in boys in opposite gender
testosterone : sex .
-
menstrual cycle begins -

muscles develop

Hips get wider voice breaks

-
-

- Testes start to produce sperm

Menstrual cycle regular natural change that occurs in the female that makes pregnancy possible
what is the Menstrual cycle ? t reproductive system
:
.

I #

* Average menstrual cycle is 28

* Starts in early adolescence → controlled by rise and fall of oestrogen .

days long .

through cycle then egg travels down oviduct to uterus

* Ovulation occurs
halfway
.

* Menstruation lasts around g- -

y
.

days * Failure to fertilize egg causes menstruation to occur → caused by the breakdown of the thick uterus lining .

* After menstruation →
lining of uterus starts to thicken again in preparation for implantation in the next cycle .

Whatarethehormonls ① Pituitary gland produces FSH → stimulates development of a follicle in the

ovary .

CONNING thlmenstmal ② Egg develops inside follicle → produces oestrogen → causes growth and repair of the lining of the uterus wall t inhibits production
cycle ?
-

of FSH .

f- SH
③ Oestrogen rises to high enough level →
stimulates release of LH from pituitary gland → causes ovulation
follicle stimulating Hormone
.

④ Follicle become the corpus luteum → starts producing progesterone → maintains uterus lining
released by pituitary gland
.

&

causes egg to start maturing and

⑤ Ovum not fertilized → corpus luteum breaks down t
progesterone levels drop →
causes menstruation .

ovaries to start releasing oestrogen

⑥ If pregnancy occurs → corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone →
preventing uterus lining from breaking down .

Oestrogen : levels rise from

day I to peak before day 14
LH Luteinising Hormone
.

peak
* causes uterine wall to start
thickening t egg to mature .

oestrogen levels reach

N
Progesterone stays low from and starts to rise once ovulation
pituitary gland stimulated :
day I 14 occurs
-

to release LH .

* to thicken further continues through pregnancy until placenta has developed

µ Increasing levels cause uterine lining → .

Causes ovulation to occur t

stimulates ovary to produce

* Decreasing levels causes uterine lining to break down → causing menstruation .

progesterone .