VITAMINS AND MINERALS DIRECTLY INVOLVED IN ENERGY METABOLISM

KEY IDEAS
Energy is obtained from the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids by several pathways involving numerous
enzyme catalyzed reactions; and many of these enzymes require vitamins or minerals for their activity. AEROBIC METABOLISM
Vitamins provide the essential components of coenzymes that are required for many enzyme catalyzed reactions in
energy metabolism. See Infographic 11.4.
Similar to vitamins, minerals often function as critical cofactors that bind to enzymes and are required for enzymes to
catalyze chemical reactions.
Fatty Acids
When excess carbohydrates or amino
acids are eaten, acetyl-CoA that is not
needed to meet our energy needs can be
The minerals phosphorus and magnesium are used to synthesize fatty acids that will be
involved throughout metabolism. Phosphorus as a stored as triglycerides in adipose tissue.
component of ATP, which must form a complex
with magnesium to be utilized as an energy source.

Biotin functions in the synthesis of
glucose and fatty acids because it is
used as a coenzyme in reactions that
add a carbon dioxide to the original
The release of glucose molecule, making it one carbon larger.
from glycogen requires
the coenzyme that is
made from vitamin B 6.
Biotin Niacin Fatty acids are broken down by removing
Niacin Riboflavin two carbons at a time to produce the
two-carbon compound acetyl-CoA. “CoA”
Pantothenic acid Pantothenic acid
is short for coenzyme A which is formed
from the vitamin pantothenic acid.
Acetyl-CoA is produced by the
breakdown of carbohydrates,
fatty acids, and amino acids.

ATP ATP
Niacin Niacin
Thiamin Thiamin
Niacin Riboflavin Riboflavin
Vitamin B 6 Magnesium Pantothenic acid Pantothenic acid
Glucose Pyruvate Acetyl-CoA CO2, H2O,
Glycogen
6 Carbons 3 Carbons 2 Carbons Iron Heat
Niacin Biotin Sulfer
Magnesium Manganese
Copper

Vitamins
Minerals
Because of the variety of amino acids that are present in
Niacin our body, once their nitrogen has been removed they
form a variety of different chemical compounds (such as
When amino acids are used to make Thiamin
pyruvate, acetyl-CoA, and others) that enter metabolic
glucose (or fat), or are used as an Vitamin B 6 pathways at many different stages or steps.
energy source, the first step in their Pantothenic acid
metabolism is to remove the nitrogen
in reactions that require the same
VITAMINS AND MINERALS INVOLVED IN ENERGY METABOLISM
Vitamin B 6 containing coenzyme that
Food source information is provided in the Infographics listed below.
is required for glycogen breakdown. AMINO ACIDS
Water-Soluble Vitamins Major Minerals
• Thiamin (p 240), Infographic 11.5 • Magnesium (p 291), Infographic 13.5
• Riboflavin (p 243), Infographic 11.7 • Phosphorus (p 291)
• Niacin (p 241), Infographic 11.6 Various Various
• Vitamin B6 (p 243), Infographic 11.8 Trace Minerals Amino Acids Folate Amino Acids
• Folate (p 244), Infographic 11.11 • Manganese (p 328) Niacin
• Vitamin B12 (p 247), Infographic 11.12 Vitamin B 6
• Pantothenic acid (p 244) Vitamin B12
• Biotin (p 253) Manganese

Some non-essential
amino acids can be

?
interconverted
1. What two sources of energy would we be unable to use well if we were severely deficient in vitamin B6? using reactions that
2. What macronutrients can be used to synthesize fatty acids when they are eaten in excess? use one or more of
3. Can you anticipate what exhaled waste product is produced when pyruvate is metabolized to acetyl-CoA? these nutrients.

4. Examine the flow through the pathways and answer this question: why can’t glucose be synthesized from fatty acids?
Photo credits (left to right): t_kimura/Getty Images, Burwell and Burwell Photography/Getty Images, milanfoto/Getty Images
 NUTRIENTS WITH ANTIOXIDANT FUNCTION
KEY IDEAS Sources of Free Radicals and Their Effects The free radicals we are exposed to can come from
environmental sources or are produced by our own bodies. Although free radicals have necessary functions in our
Some vitamins and minerals function as antioxidants.
body, high levels can cause damage.
Antioxidants can donate an electron and neutralize a free radical without becoming unstable and reactive.
FORMATION OF FREE RADICALS

Antioxidants Defend Against Oxidative Damage Caused by Free Radicals Free radicals are
molecules containing unpaired electrons, which makes them highly reactive. The free radical either causes oxidative
damage by reacting with another molecule and chemically modifying it, or it stabilizes itself by stealing an electron
from a nearby molecule, which creates a new free radical and begins a chain reaction. Antioxidants are able to stop
the chain reaction by donating an electron.
Cigarette smoking Air pollution UV light Some drugs
Free radical molecules have
unpaired electrons, making In normal molecules all
them unstable and reactive. the electrons are paired

The free radical steals an

electron from another
molecule to stabilize itself.
Mitochondrial
energy metabolism Immune responses
The molecule that lost its FREE
electron has been oxidized, RADICALS
creating a new free radical.

Vitamins
Minerals
LDL
This creates a chain reaction;
the newly formed free radical
oxidizes another molecule by
NUTRIENTS WITH ANTIOXIDANT FUNCTION stealing an electron from it.
Food sources of each nutrient are found in the Infographics
listed in parentheses.

DNA
Water-Soluble Vitamins
Vitamin C is an electron donor and functions as a water- Lipids
soluble antioxidant (Infographic 11.13)
Antioxidant
Riboflavin is part of an essential coenzyme that is required
by an enzyme that has an antioxidant function, and is Protein
particularly important in red blood cells (Infographic 11.7)
Antioxidants can donate an
electron without becoming DAMAGE FROM FREE RADICALS
Fat-Soluble Vitamins unstable and reactive.
Vitamin E neutralizes free radicals by donating an electron
(Infographic 10.9)
The Antioxidant Functions of Vitamin E Vitamin E can break the chain of oxidation by donating an electron
Trace Minerals
to free radicals without becoming unstable. Because it is a fat-soluble vitamin it is particularly good at performing this
The minerals copper (Infographic 14.10), zinc (Infographic
function in cell membranes, and even in lipoproteins like LDL.
14.9), manganese (Infographic 14.12), and selenium Vitamin E neutralizes free
(Infographic 14.11) function as essential components of radicals and breaks the
enzymes that are involved in important antioxidant defense Vitamins Chain reaction of Vitamin E chain of oxidative damage.
mechanisms that neutralize free radicals Minerals oxidation caused
by free radicals
Phytochemicals
Beta-carotene and other phytochemicals may provide health
benefits by their ability to function as antioxidants in our
body (Infographic 9.6) Free radical

??
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What might be the consequences of free-radical damage to the DNA of a cell?
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Phospholipid
bilayer
 NUTRIENTS INVOLVED IN BONE HEALTH
KEY IDEAS Calcium, Phosphorus, and Magnesium are the Primary Mineral Components of Bone
Accounting for 98% of the body’s total mineral content by weight, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium play key
Bone is an active organ, it is constantly being remodeled as it is undergoes continual cycles of being broken down and rebuilt.
roles in the development and maintenance of bone and other calcified tissues.
All body cells require calcium to function, and its absorption, excretion and release from bone is tightly regulated.
The interaction of vitamins and several minerals are needed to build and maintain bone.
BONE REMODELING

Vitamin D, Parathyroid Hormone, and Blood Calcium Concentrations The active hormone
form of vitamin D and parathyroid hormone work together to maintain calcium concentrations in blood.
Bone tissue
is continually Crystals of bone mineral
remodeled as some are deposited on a matrix of
Inactive vitamin D is
cells break down protein that is comprised
synthesized in the skin
bone and others primarily of collagen.
and consumed in Bone
the diet. tissue rebuild it. Bone Weight-bearing exercise
broken tissue stimulates bone remodeling
down rebuilt to make bones denser, which
UV reduces the risk of osteoporo-
light sis and bone fractures (see
Vitamins
1 Minerals
Infographic 13.4).

Dietary sources of vitamin D Skin Magnesium makes up about

1 Vitamin D is synthesized from cholesterol in skin 1% of bone mineral. It is found
with exposure to ultraviolet light. primarily on the surface of
Inactive vitamin D calcium/phosphorus crystals.
Vitamins Inactive
Minerals enters blood and is
vitamin D
transported to the liver. 2 Vitamin D is metabolized to its active hormone
form in two steps, the first occurring in the 2a) Collagen
liver and the second in the 2b) kidneys.

Calcium/phosphorus crystals
3 Vitamin K and manganese
When blood calcium concentrations drop,
Crystals of bone mineral deposited are required for the
parathyroid hormone (PTH) and the active synthesis of non-collagen
on a protein matrix Copper and vitamin C
hormone form of vitamin D act together to raise bone proteins.
2a blood calcium concentrations. In response to are required for
Liver increases in PTH and active vitamin D levels: the collagen synthesis.

Conversion to the kidneys excrete less calcium; the small intestine

active form of vitamin D increases calcium absorption;and bone releases
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is begins in the liver. more calcium into blood. VITAMINS AND MINERALS INVOLVED IN BONE HEALTH
released from the parathyroid Food source information is noted in parentheses.
glands in response to low
blood calcium levels.
Inactive 4 PTH is not required for active vitamin D to
vitamin D increase calcium absorption in the small intestine. Fat-Soluble Vitamins
Thyroid Vitamin D is required for calcium absorption, and proper bone growth and maintenance. (Infographic 10.3)
—Severe vitamin D deficiency in children can cause rickets, which results in soft bones and skeletal malformations. See chapter 10.
Parathyroid —In adults vitamin D deficiency can cause osteomalacia, causing bones to become soft and weak as they are depleted of bone mineral.
glands Together PTH and active —Because only a few foods are naturally good sources of vitamin D, fortified foods are an important source of vitamin D for many individuals.
vitamin D increase calcium
Active
4 release from bone.
Vitamin K is required for reactions that chemically modify some bone proteins — making them able to bind calcium. (Infographic 10.11)
Parathyroid
glands PTH stimulates the vitamin D Active vitamin D
kidney to produce 2b increases calcium Water-Soluble Vitamins
active vitamin D. absorption.
Vitamin C is required as a cofactor for enzymes that chemically modify the fibrous protein collagen to increase its strength. (Infographic 11.13)
PTH 3
Together PTH and active Major Minerals
vitamin D stimulate kidneys Small Intestine
Kidney to excrete less calcium. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the human body and is the main component of bones and teeth. (Infographic 13.3)
Bone
Phosphorus is the second most abundant mineral in the body and a structural component of bone. Phosphorus is found In most protein-rich
More calcium foods such as meat and dairy and deficiency is rare.
is returned to
Magnesium is required for absorption and metabolism of calcium. Magnesium contributes to the strength and firmness of bones and makes
blood stream.
teeth harder. Fifty to sixty percent of the total magnesium in the body is found in bone. (Infographic 13.5)
Calcium
Manganese is required for the synthesis of non-collagen bone proteins. (Page 328)

Trace Minerals
Copper is required as a cofactor for enzymes that chemically modify collagen to increase its strength. (Infographic 14.10)
Increased
Low blood blood calcium
calcium levels concentration
 MICRONUTRIENTS THAT SUPPORT BLOOD HEALTH
KEY IDEAS Nutrients Required for Cell Division and Development Vitamin B12, folate, zinc, and iron are
required for DNA synthesis and cell division. A deficiency that disrupts DNA synthesis will have the most detrimental
All but two of the vitamins and about half of the major and trace minerals play some role in maintaining blood health.
effects on cells in the body that are dividing most rapidly, such as red blood cells.

THREE MAJOR COMPONENTS OF BLOOD HEALTH • Deficiencies of folate and vitamin B12 are the most common causes of anemia resulting from impaired cell division.

OXYGEN TRANSPORT IMMUNE FUNCTION CLOTTING

Vitamins Folate and Folate and
Minerals vitamin B12 vitamin B12 In bone marrow,
In bone marrow, impaired DNA
adequate deficient
precursor red blood synthesis will arrest
cells divide and Red blood cell cell division and block
mature normally. precursor the full maturation
of red blood cells.
Production and function Production and function of
Clotting Control
of red blood cells (RBC) white blood cells (WBC)

Dr. E. Walker/Science Source

Cells are unable to
Cells divide divide adequately
Excessive clotting can cause
Anemia can result from normally
Impaired WBC function a heart attack or stroke, while
impaired hemoglobin synthesis,
increases the risk of infection. inadequate clotting can lead
cell division or cell survival.
to excessive blood loss.

Nutrients Involved in the Production and Function of RBCs Anemia can be caused by nutrient Normal Macrocytic
deficiencies that impair hemoglobin synthesis, the division and maturation of RBC, or RBC survival. In the blood, normal mature red red blood (megaloblastic) cells In the blood, these immature red
blood cells no longer contain nuclei. cells blood cells are larger than normal
and they contain large nuclei.
NUTRIENTS REQUIRED FOR HEMOGLOBIN SYNTHESIS The iron containing heme group has a deep red color, and
is the oxygen carrying component of hemoglobin in RBCs.

Protein
CH2
Protein chain Red Blood Cell Survival Deficiencies of nutrients that protect red blood cell membranes from oxidative
Iron H3C CH chain damage can cause anemia because cells are destroyed and removed from blood before their normal lifespan is over.
atom
C C
HC C C CH
N Normal RBC
H 3C C C CH3 Vitamin E neutralizes free
C C
N Fe2+ N When hemoglobin radicals and breaks the
Chain reaction of Vitamin E
CH

−OOC C C C
C C CH3 production is adequate chain of oxidative damage.
C H N oxidation caused
H2 2 HC C C CH RBCs can be produced.
by free radicals • Because vitamin E is a
C C fat-soluble vitamin it is
02 When a nutrient deficiency causes particularly good at
H2C CH3 hemoglobin production to be low, protecting cell membranes
CH3 Oxygen binds RBCs are smaller (microcytic) and from oxidative damage.
−OOC Free
Vitamins to iron in RBC with low paler in color (hypochromic) radical
hemoglobin. because they do not contain as • The B-vitamins Niacin and
Minerals Heme group hemoglobin
Hemoglobin much hemoglobin. riboflavin are necessary to
content
form coenzymes which assist
enzymes in the task of
removing free radicals.
NUTRIENT ROLES IN THE PRODUCTION AND FUNCTION OF RED BLOOD CELLS Neutralized free • The trace minerals zinc,
radicals copper, and selenium function
• Copper is required to mobilize iron from sites of storage. B-Vitamins and trace minerals as cofactors for enzymes that
Damaged
required for heme synthesis remove free radicals.
• Zinc and sulfur function as cofactors for enzymes phospholipids
involved in heme synthesis. • Vitamin B6 • Iron Phospholipid
• Vitamin B6, niacin, riboflavin, and pantothenic acid are • Niacin • Copper bilayer
components of coenzymes required by enzymes involved • Riboflavin • Zinc
in heme synthesis. • Pantothenic acid • Sulfur

? Why does iron deficiency cause RBCs to be paler in color?

? An individual is found to have a low number of red blood cells, but the cells all appear to be of normal size and color. What is a likely cause of
the anemia?
 MICRONUTRIENTS THAT SUPPORT BLOOD HEALTH
Blood Clotting is Dependent on Calcium and Vitamin K

Vitamins
Minerals

Fibrin
An injury activates a cascade
of reactions that sequentially Red blood cells
activate a number of protein
clotting factors. Platelets

Clot

The clotting cascade results in the

formation of a mesh produced
Vitamin K when many linked molecules of the
Calcium protein fibrin trap RBCs and other
cell fragments (platelets), forming
Blood a plug that stops bleeding.
The function of some of these
vessel
clotting factors requires
vitamin K and calcium

• Vitamin K is required for an enzymatic reaction that modifies several protein clotting factors.

• The vitamin K dependent modification of these clotting factors allows them to bind calcium.

• The binding of calcium to clotting factors is necessary for them to function.

• Because infants have low levels of vitamin K when they are born, they are typically given a
vitamin K injection just after birth to prevent uncontrolled bleeding.

? Why does a vitamin K deficiency impair clotting?

Micronutrients and Immunity Together, the variety of cells that make up our immune system require nearly
every vitamin, and major and trace mineral to function appropriately. The nutrients are required for: 1) adequate cell
division and development, 2) regulation of the immune response, 3) functions designed to kill bacteria and virus
infected cells, and 4) protect the immune cells from free radicals that are produced to kill bacteria.

IMMUNE CELLS

Eosinophil Basophil Neutrophil Macrophage Monocyte B Cell T Cell Natural Dendritic cell Mast Cell
killer cell

MICRONUTRIENTS REQUIRED FOR IMMUNE CELL FUNCTIONS

• Vitamin A • Biotin • Chloride • Selenium
• Vitamin C • Niacin • Copper • Sulfur
• Vitamin D • Riboflavin • Iron • Zinc
• Vitamin B6 • Niacin • Manganese
• Vitamin B12 • Magnesium