Chemistry

Ethanol Topic
Catalyst Cracking
An industrial process that high molecular weight is broken into lower
molecular weight to increase the output of high demand products. Involves
surface reactions with inorganic catalysts.

Alkanes and Alkenes

They have similar physical properties (Bp, Mp density etc.) as they are both
non-polar molecules with weak dispersion forces. They differ in
Chemical reactivity.

Ethene Monomer for polymers

Has the double bond which make it highly reactive ’ and easily converted
into useful products. Process of refining it into long chains is Catalyst
Cracking. Its used in cling wrap (glad wrap) and milk bottles
H’ C=C’ H
H H
Addition of water H OH
H’ C=C’ H+ H’ O’ H Ô H’ C-C’ H Ethanol
H H H H
Addition of Hydrogen
H’ C=C’ H+ H Ô CH3 ’ CH3 Ethane
H H

Petrochemical Industry
The petrochemical industry only use a small amount of total oils used.
Scientists are arguing these oils are running out ’ yet as they do ’ prices will
increase ’ and alternate oils will be made cost effective for uses in fuel and
such. The petrochemical industry will still be able to afford the fuel
however ’ and there will be enough for them to use! They will have the
whole remaining oils and Ethanol is the prime candidate for alternate oils
for the rest of us.

Polymerisation
A chemical reaction which small identical molecules form one large
molecule. Monomers form large polymers
CH2 = CH2 CH2 = CH2 CH2 = CH2
- CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 - CH2 -
Polyethylene ’ Addition polymer as it forms by adding molecules. 2 ways
 Chemistry
Polymerisation
Old Method: Chain breaking uses high pressures and temperatures
with initiator and has low density
New Method: Zeigler-Natta process’ uses 60 temperatures and
catalyst ’ high density ’ and uses only a few pressures.

Polymer Properties Uses

Poly ethene Transparent Food containers, Cling
Chemically Stable wrap, Low Stress parts
Non Toxic and Non Polar (soft)
PVC Stable and Strong Food containers, Pipes,
Polar Can be glued and
Can be Non Toxic Water proofing
Acrylic…s Very polar Can be glued, coloured,
Stable and Strong spun into floors
Lots of H Bonding
Poly Styrene Polar and Stable Food Containers,
Very Strong and Electrical components and
Excellent Insulator Can be foamed.
All contain benzene rings which are large and stop movement (read up
structure of each in book ’ may be asked to draw them (were in our trial!!!))

Cellulose
Condensation polymer Polymers that form by the elimination of smaller
molecules when pairs of monomers join together
Cellulose is a naturally occurring condensation polymer ’ and forms from
the monomer Glucose

HO - C6H10O4 - OH - - C6H10O4 - OH- C6H10O4 -

- C6H10O4 - O- C6H10O4 - O- C6H10O4 - O +X{H2O}

The OH links to the H on the left to make water

Glucose must be inverted alternately and it produces linear molecules.
Majour component of Biomass ’ materials produced by living organisms
(plant material)

Cellulose
Each glucose unit of cellulose has 4 carbon atoms ’ and can thus be
regarded as a structure for petrochemicals. There is no easy was to get
glucose from cellulose.
 Chemistry
Biopolymer
Rayon = Cellophane ’ Cellulose Nitrate = Photos ’ Movie ect.
Commercial use of biopolymers -cotton (cellulose) wool and silk (protein)
is declining as polyamide (nylon) and polyester (PET) are taking over. The
petroleum based polymers are non-biodegradable so Polypropylenes ’ like
the same but are biodegradable are used.

Ethanol

De- Hydration
Ethene is made from the dehydration of Ethanol ’ Heated with
concentrated H2SO4 ’ so reaction can speed up and able to occur

CH3 ’ CH3 ’ OH Ô CH2 =CH2 + H2O

r H2SO4 Catalyst

Hydration
Reverse reaction ’ addition of water to ethene ’ also uses heat and dilute
H2SO4

CH2 =CH2 + H2O Ô CH3 ’ CH3 ’ OH

Ethanol as a solvent can be used in cosmetics, food colouring ’ medical

preparations ’ cleaning agent ’ and used in the industry as well. It is polar
and has C-O and H-O bonds which are polar. There is also room for
hydrogen bonding and this increases chances to dissolve.

Ethanol is readily burning and is easy to transport. It possible to be a liquid

for fuel but used now for other reasons ’ petrol extender ’ campers. Made
from CO2 and H2O and sunlight ’ (via glucose) and when burnt - returns
to this and can be converted straight back to ethanol (renewable resource).
Ethanol would reduce greenhouse gases ’ but take up large areas for
cropping and cause large smell dumping of waste (which leads to
environmental problems).

Fermentation
Process in which glucose is broken down into ethanol and CO 2 by
enzymes in yeast. Suitable fruit/grain smushed with water ’ yeast added-
air excluded and mixture kept at blood temperature. The enzymes convert
the starch to glucose and that to ethanol and carbon dioxide ’ which gives
off bubbles. Usually gives 15% content (and yes this is the alcohol process)
 Chemistry
Heat Combustion of Ethanol
Molar heat of combustion of a substance is the heat liberated when one
mole of the substance undergoes complete combustion with oxygen at
constant pressure. You ’ measure 100mls of water in conical flask ’ have
an oil burner with dry wick with the alcohol ’ weight it and get water
temperature. Heat for about 10 degree change and record temp change and
mass of burner H = 4.183 X r M X r T
(something not rite ’ don…t know what)

Nuclear Chemistry
Stable and Radioactive Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms all of one element with different masses ’ due to
neutron difference. An isotope is unstable if its atomic number is greater
than 83 or the ratio of neutron to protons places it outside zone of
stability (you…ll get the zone)

Alpha α - H42 - has positive charge with low penetrating power ’ stoped by
a sheet of paper. Has heavy particles. (see example)
Beta β - Lighter particles e- - negative charge ’ more penetrating ’ stoped
by lead ’ but goes through paper and aluminium. (see example)
Gamma γ - X ’ ray ’ no charge ’ travel at speed of light ’ Extremely
penetrating ’ stoped by concrete ’ no mass. (no example)

Fission and Half Life

Bombarding of certain nuclei with electrons splitting them into 2 roughly
equal parts is nuclear fission. Basis of nuclear bombs and power station
Half life is the time taken for half the atoms in a given radioactive substance
to decay. Independent of initial amount.

Transuranic Elements
Man ’ made elements isotope such as 238U aren…t fissionable and undergo
nuclear reactions producing new elements. The first few are made by
bombarding of nuclei with neutrons and later ones by bombarding heavy
nuclei with high speed particles.

Commercial Radioisotopes Suitable target nuclei are placed in

the reactor core and bombarded with neutrons to produce required
isotopes. Eg Cobalt-60 ’ caner treatment made by Cobalt -59 in reactor
core.
 Chemistry
Detection of Radiation
Photographic Film: Darking of such film is how radiation was
discovered ’ amount of darking can be used as amount of radiation.
Cloud Chamber: Contains supersaturated vapour of water ’ when
radiated ionised the air it passes through. Noticeable by path
α Straight Tracks β Zigzags γ Very Faint
Geiger-Muller counter: β particles ’ ray enters thin end window and hits
gas molecule ’ which ionises and high voltage acceleration towards the
central electrode ionises more particles in its path
Seintillation counter: Certain substances are irritated with α β or γ
particle emit light which is collected and the signals generated with electric
meter.

Use Of Radioisotopes
Medical ’ Cancer:Cobalt-60 effected areas are hit with these
gamma rays ’ killing the bad ’ yet also good cells ’ it attacks the caner as
they penetrate deeply and contain its energy for 4 ’ 6 years half life ’ which
means stay in machines and such for long times!
Industry ’ Pipe Leaks ’ Sodium-24 when water pipes have suspected
leaks ’ added to water system and the radioactive path can be followed and
detected in the surrounding soil. 15 hour half life ’ so doesn…t hang around
for long.
Scientific ’ Studies ’ Carbon ’ 14 Used to study mechanisms of
complex processed such as photosynthesis ’ carbon dioxide can have
Carbon-14 inserted ’ which isolates compounds at certain stages ’ and
radioactive can be measured to see what stages that carbon has reached.

Acid / Bases
Acids - substances which in solution produces hydrogen ions (H +)
Sour Taste Sting and Burn
Conduct Electricity Turn Blue Litmus Red
Bases - substances which either contain oxide O 2-or Hydroxide OH-
(Alkene)
Soapy Feel Bitter Taste
Good Conductor of Electricity Turn Red Litmus Blue.

Indicators
An indicator is a substance which changes colour depending on acidity.
Litmus and Bromothymol Blue: Decide wether Acid Or Base
Methyl Orange And Phenolphthalein: Decide how Acidic Or Basic it is.
 Chemistry
Indicators
Indicators Very Slightly Neutral
Slightly Highly
Acidic Acidic Basic Acidic
Methyl Orange Red Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow
Bromothymol Yellow Yellow ]]]]] Blue Red
Blue
Litmus Red Red ]]]]] Blue Blue
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Colourless Colourless Red

Indicators provide a cheap and connivent way to determine acidity or

alkalinity of a substance. It can be used to test swimming pools and
photographic waste and soils ect.

ACID + BASE ] SALT + WATER

Anion (-) Cation (+) Cation ’ Vacation ’ GOOD -+
Metal Oxide = Base

Neutralisation in reaction of acid and base

There are 3 forms ’ they may ask for any or all three of them
Neutral Species Equation: NaOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) ] NaNO3 (aq) + H2O(l)
Complete Ionic Equation: Na+ + OH- + H+ + NO3- ]H2O(l) + Na+ + NO3-
Note all without states are Aqueous (aq)
Net Ionic Equation: OH-(aq) + H+(aq) ] H2O(l)
This is an exothermic reaction varied slightly on concentration and strength
or weakness of base or acid.

Pracs To Remember so far!!

Soil Testing: Take a couple of soil samples ’ test each
separately ’ adding indicator liquid ’ stirring to a paste ’ then dust white
provided powder over it ’ and note the colour change to that of PH scale

Natural Indicators: Cut up red cabbage leaves and place in beaker

with hot water ’ after 5 to 10 minutes water should be dark and leave
almost white. After cooling decant mixture and add small amount of to
other liquids and note colour changes. Acid ’ pink. Bases -
green

Gas In Soft Drink: Weight bottle with lid’ open bottle allowing gas
to go - replace lid ’ weigh and record. Place in hot water ’ cap off ’ and
weigh every hour with lid off until there is 3 constant readings.
 Chemistry
Oxides
Acid Oxides ’ either React with Water to form Acid: Eg CO2 P2O5
or React with Base to form Salt NO2 & 3
Basic Oxides ’ either React with Acid to form Salt Eg Na2O K2O
or Doesn…t react with Base CuO MgO
Neutral: Don…t react with Acid or Base Eg CO NO
Amphoteric: React with acid to from Salt & Base Eg ZnO SnO
Acidic Oxides are covalent ’ found at right side of table
Basic Oxides are ionic ’ found at left side of table

Le Chatelier s Principal
If a system is at equilibrium and a change is mad ’ which alters the
equilibrium, than the system alters in such a way as to counteract the change
and a new equilibrium is established.
Concentration in CO2(g) + H2 O(l) D H2CO3 (aq)
If more CO2 is pumped in ’ more conversion is needed so the equilibrium
would pump to the right
Pressure (volume)as pressure increases ’ volume decreases ’ so in
the equation above ’ the equilibrium would shift to the right
Temperature Our equation from left to right is exothermic. If
temperature increases ’ the equilibrium shifts to the left.
Heating and endothermic would hover shift to the right

Carbon Dioxide and Water

As above CO2(g) + H2 O(l) D H2CO3 (aq)
Involved in the removal of CO2 from our bodies and photosynthesis and
fizzy drinks. Solubility increases as pressure increases and decreases as
temperature increases. When you open a bottle of fizzy drink ’ to a bigger
surface are ’ you allow some to CO2 escape.
Endothermic reactions have heat addition to the equation and Exothermic
have negative heat or heat added on the right side.

Sulfur SO2
2/3 of Sulfur Dioxide comes from natural sources ’ volcanoes, hot springs
ect. Main human activity realising Sulfur is burning of fossil fuels and
extracting metal from Sulfur oxide. Also releases at refineries through crude
oil. Colourless ’ Stinky and Soluble. Used a food preservative and in paper,
bleach and textiles.
ZnS(s) + 3O2(g) ] 2ZnO(g) + 2SO2(g)
 Chemistry
Nitrogens
N2O2 ’ majour source is lightning and from human activity ’ combustion,
power stations and car exhausts
NO ’ As above and slowly from N2O2
2NO(g) + O2(g) ] 2NO2(g) majour natural source
NO2’ Nitrous oxide is formed naturally by bacteria or notorious material in
soil. Human activity of adding nitrogenous fertilizer for bacteria to grow on
produces this product but contains greenhouse effects.

Sulfur and Nitrates

These oxides don…t spread through the atmosphere as they wash out when
around large volumes of are ’ and they react with water and dissolve.
2NO2(g) + H2O (l) ] 2HNO3(aq)
2NO2(aq) + H2O (l) ] H2NO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)
The water contains some impurities . High amounts of Sulfur and nitrogen
dioxide to the atmosphere lead to acid rain. The effects are
Acidity in lakes (fishys!!) Damage to Pine forests
Erosion of marble and limestone structures and buildings.

Moles
NUMBER Mole =Number

ã (how many)
Nargo

MASS á MOLE â VOLUME

(grams) ä Mole = Volume
Molar V
Mole = Mass CONCENTRATION
M Mass (Mol/Vol)
Mole = Concentration x Volume
Note: N agro = 6.022 x 1023 mol-1
Vol 1mole O 22.41 lit/mol STP
25 24.47 lit/mol NTP

Combustion
Always produces CO2 + H2O
Eg - C4H10O(aq) + 6O2(g) ] 4CO2(g) + 5H2O(l)

Chemistry
Acids in Water
Strong Acids
HCL(aq) + H2O(l) ] H3O+(aq) + CL-(aq)
H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) ] 2H+(aq) + 2SO4-2(aq)
Weak Acids
H3PO4(aq) + H2O(l) D H3O+(aq) + H2SO4-(aq)
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) D H+(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
Self Ionisation Of Water
H2O(l) + H2O(l) D H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
If the degree of ionisation of and Acid is greater than that of the Base then
it is stronger. AND ’ there can be stronger or weaker weak acids but if it…s
a strong acid ’ its just STRONG ’ no degrees of strength. End of Story ’
just accept!

Commons
CH3COOH ’ Acetic Acid ’ or vinegar Sulfuric and
C6H8O7 - Citric Acid Hydrochloric
C6H8O6 - Vitamin C ’ naturally occurring Acids manufactured
Strength wise Citric Acid > Acetic Acid > Boric Acid
(increasing pH)

PH
A system from 1 ’ 14 of the acidity and alkalinity of substance
Acidic = 7 Higher the acidic close to 1
Neutral < 7 &
Basic > 7 Higher the alkanes close to 7

Equations

pH = - Log 10 [H3O+]

pH = 14 + Log 10 [OH-]

[OH-] x [H3O+] = 1 x 10 ’ 14 (mol/l)

Remember
Strong All Dissolved Concentrated Lots of it
(>1mol)
Weak Not All Dissolved Dilute Not Lots of it

Chemistry
Antoine Lavoisier
Proposed that acids contained oxygen ’ soon disapproved as oxygen
containing substances were basic and some distinct acids didn …t have
oxygen.
Humphrey Davey
Acids contain replaceable hydrogen ’ wholly or partly replaced by metals.
When acids react together they form salt and with base they form salt and
water. This definition helped us classify substances!
Svante Arrhenius
Acids ionise in solution to produce hydrogen ions ’ full ionised if strong
and patricianly if weak. Base in solution produces hydroxide ions. This
definition excludes metal oxides and the role of solvents in solution and
increased our understanding by interpreting acid properties.
Lowry and Bronsted
ACID in solution tends to give up protons (hydrogen) Proton Donor
BASEin solution tends to accept protons (hydroxide) Proton
Accepter
HA + H2O(l) D H3O+ + A- HB + H2O(l) D OH- + B+
This definition increased out understanding ’ showing acidity depends upon
the structure and reactant present and gave a sound basis for quantitative
treatment.

NB Mono/Di/Trio Protic acids account to how many H…s last in how

many steps Mono ’ HCL Di - H2SO4 Trio -
H2PO4

Conjugate
An acid gives up a proton to form what is called a conjugate base.
Conjugate means link with and they make a link through each other ’
converse occurs.

Salts as Acids and Bases

Strong Acid + Strong Base
HCL(aq) + NaOH (aq) ] H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)
Na + H2O D XXX No conjunct to strong acid Cl + H2O D XXX
Strong acids H2O = 7
Weak Acid + Weak Base
CH3COOH(aq) + NH3 (aq) ] NH4(aq) + CH3COO-(aq)
CH3COO-3(aq) + H2O(l) ] OH-(aq) + CH3COOH(aq)
NH4(aq) + H2O(l) ] H3O-(aq) + CH3COOH(aq)
H3O- and OH- Cancel out so pH = 7
Chemistry
Salts as Acids and Bases

Strong Base+ Weak Acid

NaOH (aq) + CH3COOH(aq) ] H2O(l) + CH3COO -Na(aq)
CH3COO -+ H2O ] CH3COOH + OH-
Na + H2O ] XXX
Base (OH) pH > 7

Strong Acid + Weak Base

HCL (aq) + NH3 (aq) ] Cl- (l) + NH4(aq)
Cl + H2O ] XXX NH4+ H2O ] NH3 + H3O+
Acidic (H3O+) pH < 7

Amphoric Substances
A substance that can act as a proton donor and acceptor. Water is an
example.
Eg: HCO3- (aq) + H2O(l) ] H3O+ (aq) + CO3- (aq)
HCO3- (aq) + H2O(l) ] OH- (aq) + H2CO3 (aq)

Lewis Definition

Base A substance with a lone pair of electrons which can be used to

form a covalent bond with some other substance. (donor)
Acid A substance that is able to form a covalent bond by using as
lone pair of electrons. (accepter)
Lone Pair: electron pair ’ valence electrons that belong entirely to an
atom (not bonded)
Complex Ion Formed when Lewis base attracts to a certain cation and
forms an ion different to its parent ions.

Titration
Primary Standard is a substance high in purity and stability ’ and a
solution can be made by dissolving the right amount in water. ’ Standard
Solution.

Substances must be as pure as possible ’ cleaning apparatus with distilled

water and the substance before placing them in. Weight the substance
accurately then place in volumetric flask ’ rinsing out what you had the
substance in ’ then dissolve by adding distilled water to the meniscus and
you have your standard solution.

Chemistry
Titration
Titration is a form of analysis in which concentration is determined by
measurement. The steps all involve throughout cleaning of apparatus as in
standard solution ’ Fill the burette with the known solution after rinsing
and fill it up to the zero mark. Measure the unknown concentrated
substance with a pipette and place into a conical flask (only rinsed with
distilled water) with 3’ 5 drops of the appropriate indicator. Run the burette
into the conical flask ’ swirling the flask until a colour change is noted ’ as a
test run. Then re fill apparatus and around the tested area ’ complete the
procedure drop by drop until the first sign of colour change is noted.
Complete this step 3 times for accuracy purposes.
Calculation is VERY important ’ you have to get the equation and
remembering the mole equations convert your information to find the
correct concentration. YOU MUST KNOW IT ’ GO STRAIGHT TO
YOUR BOOK NOW-NOW-NOW-NOW-NOW AND LOOK OVER
IT!!!!!!

Buffer
If a solution contains amounts of weak acid and conjugate base its good at
maintain constant pH.
H2CO3- (aq) + H2O(l) ] H3O+ (aq) + HCO3- (aq)
If hydrogen is added ’ Le Chatelier…s principal states the equilibrium will
move to the left and minimise change ’ pH only slightly effected almost
reversed by equilibrium.

Buffer solution is one which contains comparable amount of weak acid and
conjugate base and is able to maintain an approximate constant pH when
strong acid or base is added.

Alkanols
An alcohol group contains OH group ’ Alkanoic acid has genera; structures
’ e
O - H
Eg Ethanoic Acid CH3 - C = O
CH3COOH
COOH and the Carboxylic group C = O
As C-O And OH are polar bond ’ this is a very polar molecule
The O-H hydrogen bonds and intermolecular forces occur and therefore
have high melting and boiling points.

Chemistry
Esters Condensation reactions
Compounds formed when Alkanoic acids react with alkanols.
CH3COOH + HO ’ CH2 ’ CH3 D (with H2SO4 catalyst and
heat)
CH3 COO ’ CH2 - CH3 + H2O

Esterification ’ called Methyl Propanoate written CH 3 ’ CH2 ’ COO - CH3

You name the one next to the COO first and the other one second

The lack of Hydrogen bonding and polarity means there is a lower boiling
and melting point in Esters than alkanols. H 2SO4 catalyst speeds up the
reaction and absorbs water to from the equilibrium to the right.
Esters smell nice and. Ethyl Acetate is used a solvent- nail polish remover.

Refluxing
The process of heating the reaction mixture in a vessel with a cooling
condenser attached in order to prevent loss of reactant or product. Allows
reactant to occur at high temperatures ’ otherwise cloud vessel is needed
and there is a possibility of an explosion.

Chemical Monitoring
Chemist
Chemists mainly monitor and manage industrial processes to ensure
reactions proceed efficiently by speed and yield that products are pure and
not dangerous. The material meet the specifications and the workplace is
safe without many pollutants.

Monitoring
Normal condensation of Butane
2C3H3 + 13O2 ] 10H2O + 16CO2 Producing CO2
Normal! expected
If the oxygen becomes reduced
2C3H3 + 9O2 ] 10H2O + 8CO Producing CO
TOXIC
If the oxygen is further reduced
2C3H3 + 5O2 ] 10H2O + 8C Producing C
SOLID

Moral of the story ’ if its not monitored ’ you wont get what you want

Chemistry
Ammonia (NH4) (the one that doesn t use H2SO4)
Nitric Acid ’ used in explosives, fertilizers and plastics. Ammonia can be
synthesised from component gases Nitrogen and Hydrogen.
The German Fritz Haber developed a process where they reacted at high
pressure with a catalyst Fe3O4 producing ammonia
N2(g) + 3H2(g) D 2NH3(aq rH = -
92k/mol
This impacted on the World War at the time ’ cause Germany could now
grow crops providing food and chemical weapons due to this discovery.

If the pressure on this system increased ’ the equilibrium would shift to

reduce to pressure - the RIGHT. If the temperature is lowered ’
equilibrium would move to increase temperature ’ the RIGHT

The reaction should be conducted at high pressure and low temperature ’

yet not to low cause reaction slows down.

Identifying cations and anions

There are different procedures ’ I suggest you copy them from your text
book and stick them up on your wall and LEARN them.

There are flow diagrams and you will be somehow tested on them

Flame Test
When compounds of some elements are volatised in a flame they give
distinctive colours ’ decomposing it into elements which give it colour
Compound Metal Ion Colour
+
KNO3 K Violet/Pink
2+
Ca(NO3) 2 Ca Pinky Red
2+
Ba(NO3) 2 Ba Yellow Green
2+
Sr(NO3) 2 Sr Crimson Red
2+
Cu(NO3) 2 Cu Bluey Green
NaNO3 Na Orange

Atomic Emission Spectrum

Think of the picture Rozzy draws (it s an element with lots of valence bands).
The electron absorbs energy jumping from ground state to and excited
valence level. When the electron returns back to it…s ground state ’ energy is
released in the form of colour (light.) Flame in flame tests take electrons to
vacant shells and as all elements are different ’ and energy needed to lift the
electrons is different there are different possible colours.
Chemistry
Atomic Emission Spectrum
If we break the light into different wavelengths ’ it introduces Atomic
Absorption Spectrum ’ measuring the fractions of light at wavelength that…s
absorbed. This is used to monitor small concentrations in the environment
’ or micro-nutrients in soil ’ small contaminates in foods or small
concentrations in living organisms

Chemistry and the Atmosphere

Composition of gases in atmosphere ’ Nitrogen 78% Oxygen 20%
Argon .9%

Osphere s MUST LOOK AT GRAPH IN BOOK

Troposphere Atmosphere closest to Earth, with a good mixture of
gases. As there is hot air at the ground and cool air up the top ’ the hot air
rises and everything mixes ’ causing weather to occur Convection (if your
wondering I got this from the graph in the book I told u too look at!!!)
Stratosphere Little mixing as its hot up the top‘ .the air at the bottom can…t
rise. There…s little weather ’ and products such as Ozone can…t rise. Stays in
Tropopause. This doesn…t harm people ’ but doesn…t escape either.

Pollutants
CO from motor cars and Cigarettes and hydrocarbons from cars
Oxides of nitrogen from combustions ’ particularly fires

UV Rays
Ozone in the Stratosphere HELPS people from UV rays ’
UVc Completely screen by stratosphere ’ and are deadly
UVb Not completely screened ’ biologically active in society.
Causes
Sunburn, cataracts, damage in photosynthesis ect.
UVa Allowed in fully ’ helpful - gives sun tan Vitamin D in farms
and
helps photosyntheses

Ozone Vs Oxygen
Ozone has a Coordinate covalent bond ’ which means it shares its 3 rd bond
’ the 3rd O doesn…t contribute to anything ’ just sits on electrons. (makes
unstable)
So ozone is a covalent molecule with
Low Mp and Bp Reactive
Gas Non conductor
VERY slightly stable Strong oxidising agent
Chemistry
Ozone Vs Oxygen
And is have strong intermolecular forces making it strong with weak
dispersion intermolecular forces making it non soluble
O3 is poisonous to all living things

Oxygen is covalent with a double bond and is stable. It is a gas as there is

dispersion forces between molecules and not much attraction. They have
Low Mp and Bp Diatomic (life giving)
Gas Non conductor (no free electrons)
Very slightly stable Can be oxidised
And is have strong intermolecular forces making it strong with weak
dispersion intermolecular forces making it non soluble
O2 is Life Giving

CFC s
CFC…s: Chlorofluorocarbons synthetic chlorine ’ containing
compounds ’ no hydrogen. Stable at low altitudes ’ Insoluble ’
not washed by rain. Slowly diffuse to Stratosphere.
Eg: C CL3 Fg ] C CL3 Fg + CL(g)
Cl + O3 ] Cl O(g) + O2(g)
Cl O + O ] O2 + Cl
Chlorine aren…t permanently used up ’ which means they can attack more
ozone. One Cl can destroy heaps of Ozone ’ used for refrigerates Aerosol
cans ect.

They had a temporary substitute ’ Hydro - chlorofluorocarbons - they still

contained chlorine however. A permanent substitute then came in, HFC ’
Hydro fluoro carbons ’ such as - 1,1,1,2 ’ Tetra-fluoro Ethene. NO
chlorine ’ zero damage to the ozone ’ C-C bonds degrade in the
atmosphere and therefore doesn…t hang around in the troposphere.

Ultra violet light radiation in the stratosphere releases chlorine in CFC…s the
ozone ’ which protects harmful UV entering.
Ozone loss is greatest over Antarctica ’ as the polar stratospheric clouds (-
800) cause rapid ozone disruption ’ heating at spring.

Montreal Protocol in 1990 was introduce to

S Stop using Halons (like CFC…s in fire extinguishers) by 1994
S Cease manufacture of CFC by 1996
S Phase of HCFC…s by early 21st century
S Allow less developed countries time and money to help phase is out.
Chemistry
CFC s
Monitoring Ozone by ground base instruments and satellites take place.
Ground base instruments ’ Uv spectrometer ’ point vertically upward
throughout the atmosphere. Measures intensity of light received which
ozone does and doesn…t absorb. Have been on board US satieties for the
past 20 years.

Water Features
Temperature
Alcohol thermometer - the ideal temperature is from 2’ 30 oC for living
organisms
If it is less ’ they may freeze and if its more it would kill cells.
The cooler the water ’ the more soluble it is and the more O 2 ’ which is
better for living things.

Acidity/pH
pH meter/Universal indicator Rain is 5 ’ 5.6 Sea Water
7.5 - 8
Less than 5 is dangerous (acid rain) More than 8 ’ photosynthesis

Turbidity
Think of the Prac with the Cylinder and Cross down the bottom
A measure of suspended solids ’ produces cloudiness and lack in
transparency due to small particles that don…t fall ’ but suspend. Yucky
appearance and taste.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Electro Conductive Meter. ’ Mass of solid/Unit of Volume
Pristine River < 100 ppm River/Streams: 200-300 ppm
Drinking Water < 500 ppm Sea Water: 35000 ppm
NB ’ Drinking water got stuff so its drinkable ’ that…s why its high. Rivers
and streams run through farms and caves and stuff!

Dissolved Oxygen
Oxygen sensor (electrolysis of O 2) O2 essential for 99% of all life forms.
Energy for life ’ and in 20% of air.
Water ’ 10ppm O2 ’ for fishys, worms jelly fish
If < 5 ppm ’ species die and yucky smell and increases bacteria ect.
O2 Sources - air, water surface ’ photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O ] Glucose + 6 O2
O2 Increases and decreases with temperature
Chemistry
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
The amount of oxygen needed for complete breakdown of organic mater in
water by Aerobic Bacteria ’
Eg ’ BOD 4 ppm reduced 10 ppm ] 6 ppm Ok!
BOD (O2) 100 ppm for sewerage 1L sewerage uses 10L water 10 ppm
Pristine Water 5 ppm Raw Sewerage 150 ’ 300 ppm
Treated Sewerage 20 ’ 30 ppm Storm Water 150 ’ 500 ppm
To test ’ place water sample in the dark with temperature controlled for 5
days and test the dissolved oxygen before and after ’ with oxygen sensor

Eutrophication

High levels of Nutrients (NO3 - PO4) Increase of Sunlight and

Temperature
¤
Algae (seaweed) grows and multiples ’ and Blue-Green Algae (bacteria) too
¤
Algae and Blue-Green use up all nutrients and Die
¤
Masses of Algae decomposes and distinguish by bacteria ’ increase BOD
¤
Fish Insect and other animals Die
¤
Decay of everything without Oxygen (anaerobic) gases and sediments

Results ’ Water unsuitable for use and toxin produced by cyanobacteria

Membrane Filter
A thin film of synthetic polymer through which pores (small holes) of fairly
uniform size commonly polypropylene. Simplest is a sheet of porus
polymer, pleated (folded) around central rigid porus and held in place with
mesh.
For Each capillary ’ dirty water flows from the outside through walls and
the clean water comes out the inside.
Filter out small particles ’ Thin and rapid flowage of liquid ’ strong with
standing pressure and can be cleaned and reused. 0 used for Drinking water
and treated sewerage.

Chemistry
Water Treatment Domestic
Catchment Area eg Warragamba Dam (Megalong)
Ideally No Farming ’ Industry ’ Away from Town/People - Contaminates
¤
Raw Water / Dam ’ add NaOH = Raise pH > 7
¤
Add FeCl3(aq) ] Fe3+ + Cl-(aq)
¤
FeCl3(aq) + 3OH ] Fe(OH)3 Solid
Suspending solid from large particles with Fe(OH) 3 much easier to filter
¤
Fe(OH)3 precipitates and adsorbs (particles attracted to the outside of
particle ’ not absorbs) other small suspended particles forming large
particles ’ Flocculation
¤
Sand/filter anthracite removes precipitate and adsorbs other impurities
¤
Add Cl2(g) 1 ’ 2 ppm ’ destroys some viruses ’ and bacteria (not Giardia)
¤
Add fluorine 1ppm ’ No purification purposes ’ only to strength kids teeth
¤
Storage reservoir (prospect) TO HOME!

Forensic Chemistry
Avoiding Contaminations

There are 3 main sources of contamination

Addition of extraneous material: samples must be seals
Unclean Laboratory Flack paint / dirty walls
Careless Analysts: Must have protective clothing ect.
Accuracy is important as mistakes could convict innocent people to jail and
payment for large fines ect. Results are important
 Chemistry
Inorganic or Organic
A substance is organic if it contains compounds of Carbon (with the
exception of CO and CO2.) Has all the alkenes and alkanols ect. The
simplest way to distinguish is to heat the substance. If the compound burns
or reacts with air decomposing leaving no residue, it…s organic, if there is
residue it…s inorganic.
If the Inorganic substance is a liquid then its tested with a pH meter to test
acidity. If solid then tested with Na 2CO3 and if bubbles acid ’ or HNO3
and if dissolves insoluble base (oxide hydroxide, carbonate)

Soil
Soil is a complex mixture of inorganic (clay silt ect.)and organic (humus)
materials and living organisms. Forensic scientists can use this to identify
things from crime scenes. They test the
Colour Texture Appearance in water pH

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates compounds of C O and H. Cx (H2O)y called sugars

GLUCOSE CH2OH
C O
H H H
C C
OH OH H OH
C C
H OH

GALACTOSE CH2OH
C O
OH H H
C C
H OH H OH
C C
H OH

FRUCTOSE O

HOCH2 OH
C C
H H OH CH2OH
C C
OH H
 Chemistry
Carbohydrates consist of
MONOSACCHARIDES (monomers) sugars
DIOSACCHARIDIES
POLYSACCHARIDES (Bio Polymers)
Originates from glucose in photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O ] Glucose + 6 O2
CH2OH
C O
H H H α
C C Glucose
OH OH H OH
C C
H OH

CH2OH
C O
H H H β
C C Glucose
OH OH H OH
C C
H OH

Ring and Open Chain

The ring structures have the ability to open up into chain structures.
CH2OH
C OH
H O β
C C Glucose
OH OH H H
C C
H OH
This happens at equilibrium and has Carbonyl group (C= O) and the
Carbonyl Carbon (on what bonds with O and OH)

Condensation Producing water

Glucose + Glucose = Maltose + H2O
Galactose + Glucose = Lactose + H2O
Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose + H2O
Hydrolysis Addition of Water
Maltose + H2O = Glucose + Glucose
Lactose + H2O = Galactose + Glucose
Sucrose + H2O = Glucose + Fructose
 Chemistry
MALTOSE
Look in book ’ the OH at the end of one and beginning of the other join
and take water one O. There is a Carbonyl Carbon (as connected to O and
OH) on the end of the second one ’ which allows Maltose to be oxidised.
There is alpha linkage ’ it…s a reducing sugar. Most commonly Malt sugar

SUCROSE
Same for the glucose ’ and same idea with bonding of fructose. Has no
Carbonyl Carbon ’ cause OH ain…t connected to the O ’ so it cant be
oxidised ’ nothing can be opened up and it is therefore a Non Reducing
Sugar. Most commonly Cane sugar or Table sugar.
All Disaccharides are water soluble and sweet ’ can be broken into 2
monosaccharides and formed from 2 ’ bond joining them called Glycoside
linking. Can be identified by paper chromatography

Polysaccharides
Cellulose: Only produced by plants ’ forms the cell wall of all plant cells
and is indigestible as food in animals ’ is insoluble and linear ’ consisting of
1000-3000 monomers of Beta glucose.
Starch: Only produced by plants and is partially soluble used for fuel
reserve for plants ’ easily identifies by Iodine with 2 compounds ’ Amylose
and Amylopectin ’ Polymer of Alpha glucose.
Glycogen: Only produced by animals (liver) and used as a fuel reserve,
smaller than starch ’ with less glucose molecules and soluble ’ with a
branched chain ’ polymer of Alpha glucose.
Summery
S Cellulose is made of Beta glucose units while starch & glycogen use
Alpha.
S Cellulose and Amylose have unbranched molecules while Amylopectin
and glycogen have a branched chain structure.
S Glycogen & Amylose soluble in water ,cellulose & Amylopectin ain…t
S Cellulose is indigestible and the others ain…t
Other sources of cellulose are carbohydrates ’ Mannan ’ polymer of
manoie- yeast of sugar ’ isomer of glucose.

Tests For Sugars

GLUCOSE: Add Benedict…s With Heat Orange / Red
STARCH: Add Iodine Blue / Black
CELLULOSE: Add Calcofluor With UV Blue Glow
GLYCOGEN: Add Starch Pale Pink
SUCROSE: Chromatography
 Chemistry
Fats And Oils
Fats and oils are esters of Glycerol and have 3 alcohols
Glycerol (don…t change) CH2 OH
H C
CH2 OH
Saturated: No double bond in Carbon max hydrogen
atoms
Unsaturated: One Double bond in Carbon
Polyunsaturated: More than one double bond ’ oil (lower mp)

Lipids: naturally occurring organic compounds that are soluble

in non polar organic solvents such as hexane and chloroform. (fats n
oils)
One classes of lipid is fatty acid other is cholesterol ’ including steroids ect.

They are insoluble in water and when hydrolysed to Glycerol ’ soluble as

there…s H bonding. When in fatty acid its not soluble cause the tail is
tooooo long.
Contains Carboxylic acid function group and 3 alcohol groups ’ C=C group
and ester bonds

Tests
Simple - place a small amount on filter paper and scrape it off ’ if there…s
an oil stain ’ it…s a lipid. Makes brown paper translucent.
Fatty Acids: Other classes of organic compounds by the fact they
form bubble of colourless gas when sodium carbonate is added with heating
& agitation.
Unsaturated Fatty Acids discolour bromine water or permanganate
Glycerol: Triol ’ 3 OH groups that can be shown by adding small piece
of sodium to dried sample. Also high Bp and decolourised permanganate.
LOOK AT ESTERIFICATION PICUTRE cause bothered its huge

Triglycerides Lipids/Fats/Oils
CH O C=O R
CH O C=O R1
CH O C=O R11
Used in cuticle wax and fats and oils in animals.

Carbohydrates provide important direct source of energy in organisms.

Fats does too but its main function is storage ’ being insoluble, insulated
and compact. Excess carbohydrates can be converted into fat.
 Chemistry
Glycerol with Permanganate

Purple Glycerol + MnO4 ] Brown / clear ’ WHEN

Permanganate oxidises the OH on end of carbons to a carboxylic acid.
OR
If the OH group is on a C atom attached to two other carbons

BUT
Purple Glycerol + MnO4 ] NO REACTION WHEN
The OH group is on a C atom attached with 3 other c…s
OH
C C C NO REACTION with MnO4
C
There must be an OH present with 2 or 1 H for oxidisation to brown/clear.
The Alcohol /propanol/ 1,2 ’ prop-andiol / ect ’ Oxides with MnO4 but
are sometimes lower than deduced and slow.

Different Fats and Oils from Organisms

Different organisms produce triglycerides with different proportions of
various fatty acids. Proportions of fatty acids in fats and oils di ffer ’ and
forensic chemist can identify the source of samples of fats and oils by
converting them to methyl esters and analysing.

PROTIENS
Must have C, H, O, N and may have S, P
And have an Amino Acid compound
R O
H2N C C R = Amino Acid
H OH

Functions
Structural Formula make components of organs and cells
Regulatory Insulin, Adrenalin
Immunological Antibodies
Transport Carrier molecules, - haemoglobin
Catalyst Enzyme ’ speed up reactions

Amino Acids
Contains the Simple compound Amine and the Carboxylic Acid. 3 different
groups Non polar R group and Polar R groups which can be
charged or not charged.
 Chemistry
Zwitterions
Amino Acids so far have been viewed as neutral ’ yet COOH is acidic and
tends to lose a proton and the NH 2 gains a proton.
R D R
H2N CH COOH D +
H3N CH COO-
This dipolar ion ’ is a Zwitterion most amino acids are ’ They are solids ’
high Mp and soluble

Peptide
Under certain conditions amines react with the carboxylic eliminating water
to form an amine ’ pairs of amino acids ’ undergo same reaction. The
compound formed when two amino acids react together it…s a dipeptide and
link between them is peptide bond. ’ CO ’ NH’ and sill has ’ COOH.
Compound formed with 3 amino Acids is Tripeptide.
Long ones are poly peptides ’ polypeptides polymers from amino acids
from condensation reactions.
Proteins are polypeptides ’ contain hundreds and thousands of amino acids.

Ri O Rii O
H2N C C + H2N C C +
H OH H OH

Ri O Rii
H2N C C N C C
H H H

Hydrolysis Of Peptides and Proteins

Peptides and proteins can be hydrolysed to amino acid by warming with
concentrated hydrochloric acid.
CH2OH
H3N - CH2 ’ CO ’ NH ’ CH - COOH + H2O
¤
CH2OH
+
H3N - CH2 ’ COOH + H3N’ CH - COOH
In humans and animals ’ enzymes are used not H+. Forensics don…t need to
work out structure just identify protein sample. Usually need fibrous (hair
skin) ’ done microscopically.

Tests For Protein/Amino Acids

Ninhydrin Test: add colourless ninhydrin to a suspected protein OR
amino acid and heat ’ positive test turns PURPLE
 Chemistry
Tests For Protein/Amino Acids
Biuret Test: Proteins only ’ not amino acids
Add 2ml NaOH Drop by drop CuSO4 Positive Blue ] PURPLE
(makes alkanoic) (makes blue)

Chromatography
Paper chromatography is a method of separating substance based upon their
different solubilities in water or other liquid. Eg lines on filter paper ’ green
’ yellow/blue ect.
This happens as the two substances have two solubilities in the liquid which
trap in the cellulose fibres of paper stationary phase… and others move up ’
mobile phase…

Separation By Paper Chromatography

This can be done ’ stationary is polar water ’ mobile less polar.
Amino Acids move through at different rates upon polarity and solubilities.
More polar aminos dissolve in stationary phase and less polar in mobile.
As amino acids are colourless ’ Ninhydrin is used to make the spots visible
after the mobile phase and dried ’ purple spots are identified by
1) Spots of known Aminos placed beside
2) Standard mixture of some acids in which the order separation is
known and one strand run beside is analysed spot run can then be
identified.

Electrophoresis And Amino Acid

Electrophoresis is a method of separating charged substance based upon
different signs of their charges and upon their different mobility…s.
Paper electrophoresis uses a strip of filter paper soaked in electrolyte
solution containing buffer. Voltages is applied across the paper and the
separated substance is placed on a line on the strip. Positive particles go to
the negative electrodes and the negative particles to the positive one ’ and
the neutral ones stay in position.
The SMALLER MORE CHARGED go faster than the
LARGERS LESS CHARGED
And this is commonly used to analyse mixtures of Amino Acids

Chromatography and Amino Acids

• Both separate mixtures of amino acid
• Chromatography separates upon SOLUBILITIES
• Electrophoresis separates upon CHRAGES and SIZE
• Electrophoresis is more Expensive
 Chemistry
DNA
Organic and found in living things
Contains C, H, O, N, P and, S
Nucleotides are the compound/monomer

Sugar (same)
Nucleotides Phosphate (same)
Nitrogen Base Adenine Thymine
Guanine Cytosine
Always paired so
Adenine and Thymine (AT)
Guanine and Cytosine (GC)
DNA can establish two biologic samples (blood, hair ect) came from the
same person. Genetic information is carried within nucleotides.
Phosphate
N Base

Sugar (desoxyribose)
SEE PICTURES OF DIFFERENT CHAIN TYPES IN BOOK

DNA codes is read in sequence of 3 bases Triplets each have codes for one
amino acid ’ a few triplet codes have start and stop sequences.

DNA carried genetic codes for living cells. Genes are sections of DNA ’
we have 46 chromosomes ’ 23 from each. Uniqueness of a person DNA
comes from the non-coding bits (exons I think). DNA analysis allows
forensics to compare DNA of each person ’ through hair and blood ect.
Used to identify killers and crime scenes and fathers of children.

Data banks are used to store the DNA information ’ in two types

1) Involves collection & storage of peoples DNA ’ stable and it lasts

2) Store the results of the profiles ’ eg ’ fingerprint bank.

DNA Fingerprinting
Fingerprints are unique ’ each cell contains DNA with large molecular mass
’ which contains our genes ’ determines our blood hair skin‘ They
contain the substance to make eyes brown ect.
The unique code is broken away‘ ..
Centrifuged to separate then heated to sperate into two strands ’ Enzymes
added to each strand to produce its other half… ’ Reapted and you can have
as many as you want.
 Chemistry
DNA Fingerprinting
Restriction Enzyme used to cut DNA as specific base. Gel Electrophoresis
’ separates DNA fragments (DNA carry electric charge and separate by size
(short fast))
Nylon Membrane transferred to then identified by treating with Radioactive
Probes (single strand DNA with complementary bases.) If matches ’ binds
on X-ray of the pattern taken ’ (like bar code)

Mass Spectrometry
A form of analysis that separates and identify substances on the bases of
masses of positive ions formed by substances when bombarded by high
energy particles in a high vacuum. Powerful and accurate.

Cracking Patterns and Molecular Weight

In mass spectrometry of air ’ water produces peaks at masses 16, 17 and 18.
This occurs as H2O+ is unstable and some calls to OH - and O+. The mass
spectra of molecular substances are complex peaking at different masses.

The relative molecular mass can be deduced from the mass spectrum of the
compound ’ some of the parent ions, after bombardment tend to peak.
The highest peak would be from the parent ions and its mass would be the
molecular mass. Sometimes there is other elements peaking higher.

Eg Mass spectrometry of Neon has more than 1 line so there is

therefore isotopes
As mass spectrometry is unique for each element there like fingerprints… for
compounds ’ used on computers who have a spectrum library…

In mass spectrometry ’ a sample is vaporised and bombarded with a stream

of high ’ energy electrons. The resulting negative ions are diss -guarded and
positive ions are accelerated by an electric field ’ hen passed through a
magnetic field ’ causing the ions to move in curved paths ’ with a radius of
the charge/mass ratio of ions, ion therefore detected by different positions.
Mass is detectable and Intensity determines abundance

Separates and identifies elements and compounds

OH- ] OH+ Ar ] Ar+

e- Bombardment e- knocked out and

X M+ e- become positive
unknown Detection on basis of mass
 Chemistry
Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis
Surface analysis technique provides chemical information about surface of
solid materials ’ X Ray beam focused on solid surface causes electrons to be
emitted. Analysis of energies provide information about elements present in
surface and chemical states. Useful for states of catalyst and lunar rock.

Atomic Force Microscopy

Produces 3-D images of surface of substances ’ Non destructive and
functions by scanning extremely sharp tip mounted on flexible level over
surface of substance. The tip moves up and down responding to strength of
force between it and the surface. Differences interpreted by computers.

Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy

Makes possible high resolution images of surface and absorbed material ’
similar to atomic ’ but relies upon current flowing between surface of
substance and probe. The tip moves in order to maintain constant current
between the sample. May damage fragile substance.

Electromagnetic Radiation
Visible light is a form of radiation ’ with 3 properties
1) Transfer energy from one point to another without mass transfer
2) Transmitted through empty space
3) Speed of 3 x 108
Radio/micro/infra red ’ all have the same 3 ’ Electromagnetic ’
wavelength and frequency are the only different things among them.

Separating light
Light can be broken into it…s wavelength components by passage through a
glass prism, spectroscope. Eg White light made from all colours ’ hence
rainbow appears. This dispersion can be used to measure wavelengths and
can also slit in certain spots to get certain wavelengths.

Emission Spectra
If a sample of an element is excited in a gas discharge tube ’ and if light
emitted as the atom fall back from excited state to ground is examined
through a spectroscope ’ we observe coloured lines on a black background.
Atomic spectrum always depends on electrons
Hydrogen ’ 1 electron ’ originally at ground state n=1 ’ when excited it
goes to n=2 and above. When it falls from the excited states ’ there…s a
high energy realise, and therefore low wavelength. The fall isn…t smooth ’
goes from state to state and more drops ’ less energy difference. These
make lines appear through the UV and IR section of the spectrum .
 Chemistry
Emission Spectra
Briefly ’ Bright lines are caused by electron falls from excited states.
The electrons in atoms have a set of energy levels ’ small than H. All are
different and therefore there are different energies, wavelengths and colours.
As the emission spectra are different they can be used to identify elements.
Atomic Emission Spectroscopy ’ experiment arrangement in book.
If the spectrum is recorded on photographic plate/film ’ called a
Spectrograph or produced as recorder/graph ’ Spectrometer, eyepiece ’
Spectroscope. Possible to use atomic emission spectroscopy for
quantitative estimation.

Flame colours For some elements 1 transition of electrons exist more

readily than others - which means it will have a spectrum of one bright line
and hence the flame is that colour.
Emission spectroscopy is routinely to monitor the concentrations of many
elements in water supplies (lead/mercury.)
Also used for soil analysis at crime scenes ect. from unusual areas on
peoples shoes ect ’ Also to determine elements in a sample.

Infra Red Spectroscopy (heat)

Involves the absorption of infra-red radiation by covalent molecules as a
result of their molecular vibrations. Covalent bonds have characteristic
patterns of vibration and can absorb infra ’ red radiation of particular
frequencies to go from ground to excited state.
When subjected to IR radiation ’ in an IR spectrometer ’ molecules will
absorb radiation at a characteristic frequency. The IR spectrometer record
the intensity of absorption against wave number - inverse of wavelength.
It is quick and easy to run and due to uniqueness of IR spectra sample can
be measured upon graphs of all elements. Spectroscopy provides
information about atoms (Elements) present and useful for organic
substances. (pict of ground and excited states in book)
Generally more useful than Uv providing information on molecules ’
emission provide information on atoms. IR organic substances ’
Emission ’ inorganic ’ Uv both but rarely identifies.

Ultra Violet Spectroscopy

Commonly used to analyse concentrations of organic and inorganic
compound in solution ’ eg Nitrate, phosphate, chlorophyll. Light is passed
through sample and absorbed at a particular wavelength ’ measured and
causes electrons in the molecule to be promoted to excited energy states.
Forensic use this to determine concentrations of substance in various
samples ’ eg stuff in water supplies. (its got a pict too)
 Chemistry
Value of Spectroscopic Methods
Advantages
• Fast and easy to perform
• Can be Performed on small items without damage
Disadvantages
• Costly
Saves time and other tests ’ but limits as its hard to se in large biological
samples (DNA, proteins.)

Chemically Process and Forensic Outcomes

• Proved mercury content in water harmed fish.
• Before this ’ identification of organics was long with lots of tests.
• Help in drug and athletic testing and food poisoning.
• DNA ’ biological stuff‘