SEE 5

Structure of English

Joanna Marie O. Tagalag

BSEd- ENGLISH

SEE 5 - Structure of English 1

UNIT 1. Meet up with the English Language and
Grammar

Objectives:
1. Define and characterize language.
2. Develop a sense of appreciation among students on the significance of studying the
structure of English.
3. Identify the components of language and their features.
4. Discuss how English language is analyzed and constructed.
5. Trace how language is taught before and during the 20th century.

Understanding the English Language

Language, in its simplest definition is the medium of communication. People may
communicate in different forms such as in oral and written. Either written or oral, words are used
to communicate, thus verbal language is used while non-verbal is used in some instances where
thoughts can be conveyed without words. Since language is considered as the medium on how
people communicate, a community needs language. Also, members of the community may have
different styles in expressing their thoughts.

Language vs Dialect (or are they just allies?)

Many language students and even some language teachers define dialect as written or
spoken words used by group of people in a specific geographical or regional area. In the Philippines,
Iloko/Iluko (or Iloco) is basically the dialect spoken and written in its northern part. But what if a
native speaker goes to southern part of the Philippines and eventually meets another native
speaker of the same and they converse using the same medium since they can understand better
with that medium? Base on the previous description of dialect, could Iloco be still called as dialect if
these two native speakers are no longer on the northern part of the country? This scenario may be
the same with other known dialects [?] all over the country.
For another instance, homosexual’s and even millennial’s modes of communication are
considered as languages since these modes are used by the members (sometimes even the non-
members) to express their thoughts and feelings to be understood by one another in these groups.
As long as communication participants call their mode of communication as their ‘language’ this
mode qualifies to be considered as language. This is simply because LGBTQIA+ members and
millennials create a community; they share something in common. These communities share a form
of culture; and language is one of the components of culture. It has to be reiterated that in every
group, a culture and subculture exists, in which a language will always be present. Even a simple
circle of friends can establish another language.

SEE 5 - Structure of English 2

 Putting ideas simply, since dialects[?] are also used by a community, whether in a regional
area or not, to communicate, dialects are also languages. Merriam Webster Dictionary even defines
dialect as “a form of a language that is spoken in a particular area and that uses some of its own
words, grammar, and pronunciations.” From this definition, dialect is a form of language.

Nature of language
Language can be characterized depending on when it is used as to the action of the element
involved – speaker, listener, reader and writer.
To the speaker, language is a stream of sounds which is understandable to others who
speak the language. The sounds are not themselves things or persons or actions, they stand for
them.
To the listener, language is a stream of sounds which he/she hears which his/her ears and
brain can turn into meaning (decoding) by putting sound symbols and think together in his/her
mind. His/her ear must be able to pick out small differences in sound which change the meaning of
what he hears. These small differences are signals to the listener: signals which alter meanings.
To the reader, language is a series of marks printed or written on paper (or any surface)
which are arranged in groups with spaces. Between these groups are words which stand for the
sounds and therefore, also stand for things, ideas and actions.
To the writer, language is a series of marks which he/she makes usually with the pencil or
pen (or anything used to make marks) on paper (or any surface) which are grouped in words and
which also stand for the sounds and thus, for things, ideas and actions.
Note: to do the job in making meaning out of language, each of these (the speaker,
listener, reader, writer) must possess a great number of complicated skills. Without
those skills, language can have no meaning.

Importance of Studying the English Language

There are numerous reasons why English language has to be studied. Some are practical
while others are educational. From here, studying it depends on the person who will use it.
Nevertheless, below are some of the sought reasons:

• To communicate in speech or writing with other people who speak the language;
• To understand directions and instructions in life and at work;
• To read book in English in educational subjects;
• To read books also for pleasure; and
• To read books for technical and scientific subjects.

Components of Language
The word ‘language’ is a complex idea. In fact, its complexity scaffolds different subfields of
studies to identify its arbitrariness. From these theses, one who is interested in learning how
language is finally formed must study how it is formed or what make it up.

SEE 5 - Structure of English 3

 Primarily, communication is oral since there was no system of written communication
during the early civilizations not until the emergence of oldest systems of writing (which have been
discovered) such as hieroglyphics, Sanskrit, Baybayin, etc. Thus, people just used sounds or known
to be as phonemes. These sounds are now represented by sound symbols known to be as phonetics.
Phonology on the other hand is the field that studies these phonemes and phonetics especially the
rules applied depending on the language system. These sounds are now represented by letters of a
particular alphabet. A single letter can already be considered as a morpheme or combinations.
Morpheme, a distinctive collocation of phonemes is word or a part of a word that has a meaning
and that contains no smaller part that has a meaning. Morphology is the study of morphemes
especially its derivation and formation. A morpheme which carries a complete meaning and can
stand alone is now called as word. This word, though with precise meaning from the dictionary may
still suggest another thing or idea depending on how it is used in context. The study that deals with
the word meaning in a context is called semantics. The manner on how word or words are put
together to form phrases, clauses, and sentences, thus to make logical expression of ideas, meanings,
and feelings is called syntax. Word meaning may still differ aside from its literal meaning due to the
situation and this change is under pragmatics or the study which analyzes word meaning in
particular situation. Lastly, discourse refers to the use of words to exchange thoughts and ideas.

Outline Structure of the English Language

The illustration below simplifies the interrelationship of some components of language as to
how the English language is analyzed and constructed.

(Source:http://www.universalteacher.org.uk/lang/engstruct.htm#:~:text=These%20basic%20elements%20are
%20called,its%20structure%20as%20discourse%20analysis.)

Approaches in Studying and Teaching English as a Second Language

(Source: Celce-Murcia, Marianne (2006), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, MG Reprographics, Inc., Philippine Edition/
Third Edition)

Before the discussion of the different approaches to language teaching, the differences
among approach, method, technique, and strategy must be noted. These terms are connected in
prerequisite thus, should not be interchanged.
Approach pertains to one’s viewpoint toward teaching. It also refers to how the teacher
believes a learning process can be attained. Meanwhile, method is a series of related and
progressive acts performed by a teacher and students to achieve the learning objectives or
outcomes for the course of study. Subsequently, technique refers to the personal art and style of

SEE 5 - Structure of English 4

the teacher in carrying out the procedures of teaching. Lastly, strategy consists of a set of decisions
to achieve an objective that results in a plan and its wise implementation.
Prior to the 20th century or during classical and medieval periods, language is taught in two
approaches: (1) getting learners to use a language (to speak and understand it); and (2) getting
learners to analyze a language (to learn its grammatical rules).
During the Renaissance period, there was popularity on the formal study of the grammars
of Greek and Latin. In Latin case, grammar of the classical texts was different from that of the Latin
being used as a lingua franca. People in one country or region began to learn the languages of other
countries or regions.
In the coming of 17th century, Johann Amos Comenius, a Czech scholar and teacher
published books about his teaching techniques between 1631 and 1658. He espoused the use of
imitation instead of rules to teach a language. The students also repeated the target language after
the teacher. There was also initial use of limited vocabulary. The teacher should also help the
students to practice reading and speaking. Lastly, he believed that using of pictures in teaching
language will make the learning meaningful. Because of his techniques, he made explicit an
inductive approach to learning a second language, the goal of which was to teach use rather than
analysis of the language being taught.
By the end of the 19th century, the Direct Method, which once more stressed the ability to
use rather than to analyze a language as the goal of language instruction, had begun to function as a
viable alternative to Grammar-Translation. Francois Gouin, a Frenchman, began to publish in
1880 concerning his work with the Direct Method. He advocated exclusive use of the target
language in the classroom, having been influenced by an older friend, the German philosopher-
scientist Alexander von Humboldt, who has espoused the notion that a language cannot be taught,
that one can only create conditions for learning to take place.
In 1886, during the same period that the Direct Method first became popular in Europe,
the International Phonetic Association was established by scholars such as Henry Sweet,
Wilhelm Vietor, and Paul Sassy. They developed the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) and
became part of the Reform Movement in language teaching in the 1890s. These phoneticians made
some of the first truly scientific contributions to language teaching when they advocated principles
such as the following:
 The spoken form of a language is primary and should be taught first;
 The findings of phonetics should be applied to language teaching;
 Language teachers must have solid training in phonetics; and
 Learners should be given phonetic training to establish good speech habits.
In the coming of 20th century, there were nine approaches to language learning which
came after the two approaches.
1. Grammar-Translation. In this approach, instruction is given in the native language of
students and the focus is on grammatical parsing. There is also little use of the target
language for communication. A typical exercise in this approach is to translate sentences
from the target language into the mother tongue or vice versa. The result of this approach is
usually an inability on the part of the student to use the language for communication.

SEE 5 - Structure of English 5

 2. Direct. This is a reaction to the Grammar-Translation Approach and its failure to produce
learners who could communicate in the foreign language they had been studying. In this
approach there is no use of the mother tongue; lessons begin in conversational style; actions
and pictures are used to make meanings clear; grammar is learned inductively; literary
texts are read for pleasure and are not analyzed grammatically; and the teacher must be a
native speaker or have native-like proficiency in the target language.

3. Reading Approach. In this approach, only the grammar useful for reading comprehension
is taught. Translation is once more a respectable classroom procedure. Reading
comprehension is the only language skill emphasized. The teacher does not need to have
good oral proficiency in the target language.

4. Audio-lingualism. Grammatical structures are sequenced and rules are taught inductively.
A great effort is made to prevent learner to make errors. Language is often manipulated
without regard to meaning or context. Vocabulary is severely limited in initial stages.
Mimicry and memorization are used, based on the assumption that language is habit
formation.

5. Oral-Situational. The spoken language is primary. Only the target language should be used
in the classroom. Efforts are made to ensure that the most general and useful lexical items
are presented. Grammatical structures are graded from simple to complex. New items
(lexical and grammatical) are introduced and practiced situationally.

6. Cognitive. Language learning is viewed as rule acquisition, not habit formation. Instruction
is often individualized; learners are responsible for their own learning. Grammar must be
taught but it can be taught deductively (rules first, practice later) and/or inductively.
Pronunciation is de-emphasized; perfection is viewed as unrealistic and unattainable.
Reading and writing are once again as important as listening and speaking. Vocabulary
instruction is once again important, especially at intermediate and advanced levels. Errors
are viewed as inevitable, to be used constructively in the learning process. The teacher is
expected to have good general proficiency in the target language as well as an ability to
analyze the target language.

7. Affective-Humanistic. Communication that is meaningful to the learner is emphasized.

Collaboration among learners is done during instruction. Learning a foreign language is
viewed as a self-realization experience. The teacher should be proficient in the target
language and the student’s native language since translation may be used heavily in the
initial stages to help students feel at ease; later is gradually phased out.

8. Comprehension-Based. Listening comprehension is very important and is viewed as the

basic skill. Learners should not speak until they feel ready to do so. Error correction is seen
as unnecessary and perhaps even counterproductive.

9. Communicative. It is assumed that the goal of language teaching is developing learner’s

ability to communicate in the target language. It is assumed that the content of a language
course will include semantic notions and social functions, not just linguistic structures. The
teacher should be able to use the target language fluently and appropriately.

SEE 5 - Structure of English 6

UNIT 2. Morphology: Shaping of Words

Objectives:
1. Characterize the kinds of morphemes.
2. Differentiate the kinds of word formation.
3. Structure the given words and label the class of the words.
4. Identify whether the direction of the words given is inflectional or derivational.
5. Discuss how morphemes are inflected and derived.

To understand better the concept of morphology, one of the issues to be clarified is the notion
of “word”.

Words
The most basic units of language carrying meaning are simple words (e.g.: boy,
gun, and dance) or the elements of complex words (e.g.: un-, -faith-, and -ful in ‘unfaithful’). These
basic elements are called morphemes; and the study of how they are combined in words is
morphology. In addition, Payne (2011) defines ‘word’ as the smallest structural piece that can be
surrounded by pauses; and characterizes word of English with the fact that English has a well-
defined stress system.

Kinds of Morphemes
Morphemes come in different types as to their independence, meaning, and vitality. There
are morphemes that constantly carry their meaning while there are some that despite of carrying
their meaning, they still cannot stand alone. The morpheme ‘–s’ in “walks” signifies differently in
“girls.” The ‘–s’ in ‘walks’ indicates present tense and that the subject is singular and in third person
while ‘–s’ in ‘girls’ forms the singular noun ‘girl’ to plural.
Meanwhile, there are morphemes which carry their meaning yet cannot stand alone as a
single word. The ‘electr-‘ in ‘electron’ means the same in ‘electric’.
According to independence
Free
Some morphemes, such as ‘law’ in ‘un-law-ful’ or ‘dream’ in ‘dream-ing’ can stand alone as
words which make sense. These morphemes are known as free morphemes. These morphemes
already carry meaning. Payne (2011), in addition, defined free morphemes as a minimal shape that
can be used in discourse with no other forms attached to it; and it is a fully pronounceable and
usable word in its own.

SEE 5 - Structure of English 7

 Bound
Other morphemes, such as affixes, cannot stand alone. Examples are ‘dis’- in ‘dis-miss’, ‘-
ing’ in ‘dream-ing’, ‘-ness’ in ‘happi-ness’ and ‘-s’ used to form plurals, as in ‘boy-s’. These
morphemes are said to be bound morphemes. Payne (2011) further defined bound morpheme
which must be attached to some other morphemes in order to be used naturally in discourse.
Affixes (prefix, infix, and suffix) are bound morphemes.
Stem
Stem (or bound root) on the other hand is a morpheme which has meaning yet cannot stand
alone as a meaningful word in a sentence. For example, the ‘hydr-’ which means ‘water’ means the
same in ‘hydrogen’ and in ‘hydrate’. Payne (2011) defines bound root as a morpheme that
expresses the basic lexical meaning of a word, and cannot be further divided into smaller pieces.

Inflectional vs Derivational Morphology

A word is changed in its form to show the internal grammar of a sentence. Examples would
be plural forms of nouns (dog + s → dog-s) or past (imperfect) tenses of regular verbs (want + ed →
want-ed). The study of such changes is inflectional morphology (because the words in question
are inflected - altered by adding a suffix).
Other compound or complex words are made by adding together elements without
reference to the internal grammar of a sentence. For example, the verb ‘infect’ suggests a new
verb ‘disinfect’ (=to undo the action of infecting). New words are often formed by: noun + ‘-ize’;
noun + ‘-ism’; or verb + ‘-able’ (scandalize, Stalinism, disposable). The study of such words,
"derived" from existing words or morphemes is derivational morphology. The elements of which
the word is made may have a grammatical relationship within the word but their formation is
independent of the syntax, of the clause or sentence in which they occur.
Note: A complex word may show both inflection and derivation! A derived word may
be inflected. To show for example, tense or number: deported or disposables (as in
nappies or diapers).
Remember that morphology is the study of the structure of words. The structure of words
can also be studied to show how the meaning of a given morpheme, or its relation to the rest of the
word, varies from one complex word to another. Consider how ‘sun’ works in the following
words: sunbeam, sunburnt, sundial, sunflower, sunglasses, sunlight, sunrise, sun-spot (scientific
sense), sun-spot (tourist sense).
Inflection does not really yield “new” words, but alters the form of existing ones for specific
reasons of grammar. Derivation, on the other hand, does lead to the creation of new words.

SEE 5 - Structure of English 8

 Four kinds of word-formation
Prefixation Suffixation Compounding Conversion
(derivational) (derivational) (derivational) (not derivational)

Affix placed before Affix placed after Two base forms are Word changes class,
base of word, e.g. base of word, e.g. added together, e.g. without any change of
disobey kindness blackbird form, e.g. (the) pet (n)
becomes (to) pet (vb.)

According to vitality
Content
These are the words that clearly refer to things, actions, or ideas. Nouns (such as table,
flower, market), action verbs (such as jump, sing, roll), adjectives (such as pretty, huge, loyal),
adverbs (such as irresistibly, well, incredibly) and pronouns (such as we, him, she, it) are examples of
content words.

Function
These are the words that cannot always point to the things or actions they represent.
Articles (a, an, the), conjunctions (such as because, before, so) and some of the prepositions (such as
with, unto, by) are examples of function words.

Word Structure
The word ‘disadvantage’ can be structured through the illustration below wherein,
‘advantage’ served as the root word and is considered as noun. When the prefix ‘dis-‘ is added to the
root word, the word ‘disadvantage’ which is classified as noun was formed. When the bound
morpheme ‘-s’ was added to ‘disadvantage’, the plural of ‘disadvantage’ which is ‘disadvantages’ is
formed.

However, the word ‘disadvantage’ can still be structured differently. Instead of ‘dis-‘ which
is added first to the root it, it can be the morpheme ‘-s’ first. Then, the newly formed word
‘advantages’ will serve as the morpheme where ‘dis’ can be added to form the final word
‘disadvantages.’

SEE 5 - Structure of English 9

 Consider how the word ‘correlations’ is being structured in various ways. These ways only
show that there are many words that one can be familiar with despite of his or her ignorance on
how many words he or she already knows or even you, you have been experiencing this same
unawareness.
One may know the words such as relate (verb), relation (noun), relations (noun – plural of
‘relation’), correlate (verb), and correlation (noun) aside from the complex word ‘correlations’. These
words are interconnected but each of them carries own meaning, thus, can be used as individual
words.

SEE 5 - Structure of English 10

UNIT 3. Name it, Noun!

Objectives:
1. Define noun.
2. Differentiate the types of nouns from one another.
3. Identify how nouns are used in a sentence.
4. Discuss and analyze the rules in pluralizing nouns.

What Nouns Name?

It is known that noun is the part of speech which names person, thing, place, and animals.
Aside from these, noun also names ideas or concepts, events, and feelings. Below are examples of
nouns.

Person teacher, Mr. Cruz, doctor, Ms. Chui, singer, vendor

Place market, mall, Baguio City, Hawaii, country, Asia
Thing pen, umbrella, laptop, towel, perfume, television
Animal lizard, ostrich, zebra, Labrador, fish, hamster, bird
Idea/Concept/ freedom, satisfaction, announcement, absence, joy,
Feeling anger, loneliness, love, pain, hate, fear, anxiety,
hope
Event holiday, intramurals, Christmas Day, debut,
election

Types of Nouns
Common vs Proper Nouns
Common nouns are general and broad. Since these nouns are too broad, other specific
names can be under these nouns. Another, these nouns are written with their first letters small
unless these nouns are the first words of the sentence. Meanwhile, proper nouns specifically name
persons, places, things, animals, and events or occasions. The first letter of a proper noun is
capitalized regardless of its position in the sentence.
Examples:

Category Common Noun Proper Noun

Person US president George W. Bush
Thing laptop Acer
Place country Philippines
Animal snake King Cobra
Event holiday All Souls’ Day

SEE 5 - Structure of English 11

 Abstract vs Concrete
Concrete nouns are tangible for they can be literally observed by human senses (visual,
audio, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory) while abstract nouns are the otherwise. Most of the abstract
nouns are concepts, ideas, and feelings. Perhaps, these abstract nouns can be felt emotionally or can
be thought of since they have been already experienced yet they are not literary observed by the
senses rather conceived or perceived by the mind or by the heart (very psychological not
physiological).

Examples:

Frustration, hope, peace, forgiveness, lifetime,

Abstract Nouns
faithfulness, loyalty, honor, respect, revenge
Cellphone, odor, lasagna, coldness, music, heat,
Concrete Nouns
guitar, bread, noodles, house, car, sauce, fruit

Count vs Collective vs Mass Nouns

Count nouns can be singled out or easily singled out and tallied. Meanwhile, collective nouns
are groups of a class either people, animal, or thing. Mass noun on the other hand cannot be
counted one after the other but measured with the help of unit of measurement.
Examples:

book, eraser, shirt, chair, curtain, participant,

Count Nouns
principal, pencil, match stick, broom, plate
crew, family, battalion, class, flock, team, choir, army,
Collective Nouns
bouquet, tribe, congregation, orchestra
sugar, water, oil, coffee, gasoline, rice, creamer, liquid
Mass Nouns
detergent, sand, noodles, flour, wine

Compound nouns
These are nouns which are composed by two or more words (close compound nouns) like
‘housewife’ and ‘landlord’. Some compound nouns are hyphenated such as ‘sister-in-law’ and ‘light-
year’. Lastly, there are compound nouns that are separated (open compound nouns) such as ‘snake
dance’ and ‘crab grass’.

Plural Forms of Nouns

Rules in forming the plural of nouns are quite confusing for there are always exceptions.
One must visit a dictionary as guide in forming the plural of a noun. Nevertheless, rules are
provided here for your reference.
1. Nouns ending in ‘–s,’ ‘-z,’ ‘-ch,’ ‘-sh,’ ‘-x’ form the plural by adding ‘–es.’
bus – busses church – churches slash – slashes tax – taxes

2. Among the names of fish and animals, the following never take a plural suffix.
salmon perch cattle swine

SEE 5 - Structure of English 12

 mackerel deer fowl sheep

3. Some nouns form their plural with a replacement of vowel.

foot – feet mouse – mice man – men
goose – geese woman – women louse – lice

4. A very few words add ‘–en’ to the singular form.

child – children ox – oxen

5. There are nouns which look like plural in forms but singular in meaning; and they take singular
verb.
news civics Statistics Ethics
Mathematics Politics mumps Physics

6. Nouns suggesting object with two equal parts or always come in pair have no singular form and
they take plural verbs.
pants scissors slippers shears
slacks shoes pajamas tongs

7. Common nouns ending in ‘–y’ and preceded by a consonant, change the ‘y’ to ‘i’ and add ‘-es.’
lily – lilies cherry – cherries enemy – enemies
story – stories city – cities beauty - beauties

8. Proper nouns ending in ‘-y’ preceded by a consonant form the plural by simply adding ‘-s’.
Dy – Dys Sy – Sys Henry – Henrys

9. Nouns ending in ‘-y’ preceded by a vowel, just add ‘-s’ to form the plural.
bay – bays valley – valley guy – guys
toy – toys ploy – ploys key – keys

10. Several words ending in ‘-o’ form their plural with either ‘-s’ or ‘-es’.
cargo – cargos, cargoes zero – zeros, zeroes
grotto – grottos, grottoes motto – mottos, mottoes

11. Nouns ending in ‘-o’ preceded by a consonant vary in plural form. The following rules are
accepted:

*with ‘-s’ only: banjo – banjos piano – pianos

*additional nouns which add ‘-s’ only to form the plural:

dynamo – dynamos bamboo – bamboos

*with ‘-es’:
hero – heroes potato – potatoes tomato – tomatoes

12. Most of the common nouns which end in ‘-f’ or ‘-fe’ drop the ‘-f’ or ‘-fe’ then ‘-ves’ shall be added.
calf – calves thief – thieves knife – knives
wife – wives loaf – loaves shelf - shelves

SEE 5 - Structure of English 13

 13. There are nouns ending [f] sound will simply add ‘-s’.
belief – beliefs gulf – gulfs roof – roofs

14. The plural form of compound nouns is as follow:

*In the noun plus prepositional phrase combination, the noun is pluralized;
mother-in-law mothers-in-law

*In the noun plus adverb compound, pluralize the noun;

passer-by passers-by

*In the noun plus adjective combination, pluralize the noun;

postmaster-general postmasters-general

*Both elements are generally pluralized when the first element is man or woman;
man-servant men-servants

15. The plural form of a letter of the alphabet, of a word discussed as a word, or a figure is written
with ‘-‘s’.
Write three p’s on your paper.
Avoid too many so’s in your paragraph.
Slash all the why’s.

16. There are also nouns which do not have plural forms. Singular and plural forms are just the
same.
Equipment information furniture evidence

17. Some foreign nouns have their plural forms such as follows:
alumna – alumnae alumnus – alumni nucleus – nuclei
syllabus – syllabi axis – axes thesis – theses
datum – data curriculum – curricula criterion – criteria
vertebra – vertebrae basis – bases phenomenon– phenomena

Functions of Nouns
Nouns perform different functions within a sentence.
As a subject. As defined, subject is either the doer of the action or the one being talked
about in the sentence (simply: being described).
Examples:
Maria gives her last money to the beggar. (doer of the action)
NEUST will send student teachers abroad next year. (doer of the action)
Forgiveness is easy to be given by a person with a clean heart. (being described)

SEE 5 - Structure of English 14

 As subject complement. As a complement, the noun completes or renames the subject.
Even if the subject and the predicate are interchanged in position in the sentence, the sentence will
still be the same.
Example:
Our teacher in Interactive English is Ms. Corpuz.
(‘Ms. Corpuz’ serves as the complement of the complete subject ‘Our teacher in Interactive
English’.)
Even if the sentence will be reversed, the complement and the subject are just the same as
in: Ms. Corpuz is our teacher in Interactive English.
But, in the case of:
“Dennis Trillo is an actor.”,
the “actor” is not a subject complement but a predicate noun or predicate nominative.
If we will reverse the positions such as in this way: An actor is Dennis Trillo. It is
unnecessary that ‘an actor’ is ‘Dennis Trillo.’ Not all actors are Dennis Trillo. Keanu Reeves is also
an actor but he is not Dennis Trillo. It is because Dennis Trillo is just among the actors one may
know.

As direct object. Being the direct object of the verb means the noun receives the action of a
transitive verb. The direct object of the verb answers the questions “who” or “what”.
Examples:
Our teacher released our grades.
(The word ‘grades’ answered ‘what is being released by our teacher?’)
Aubrey chooses Anthony as her partner for the prom.
(Who Aubrey chooses? It’s Anthony. So, the noun Anthony receives the action of ‘chooses’)
The President calls the secretary.
(It is the secretary who was being called in this sentence.)
As indirect object. The indirect object of the verb answers the questions “to/for what” or
“to/for whom”.
Examples:
Greg gives Mica chocolates and flowers.
(The noun ‘Mica’ receives the question “‘to whom’ or ‘whom’ Greg gives chocolates and
flowers.”)
My auntie prepares Uncle lasagna.

SEE 5 - Structure of English 15

 (Though ‘lasagna’ receives the action of what is being prepared, ‘Uncle’ answers the question
‘for whom?’ lasagna is prepared.)

As object complement. The noun which serves as object of the verb is being renamed to
complete the object. Object complement also intends to give additional information or details about
the object of the verb.
Examples:
The students consider the novel a masterpiece.
(The ‘novel’ actually receives the action of ‘consider’ and it is described as a ‘masterpiece’.)
The jurors selected that entry the champion.
(The ‘entry’ actually receives the action of ‘selected’ and it is described as the ‘champion’.)
As object of preposition. The term “object” means ‘the receiver’. Thus, the noun receives
what the preposition suggests. The noun immediately follows the preposition.
Examples:
Sit beside Mike.
(‘Mike’ receives the preposition ‘beside’ which signifies ‘where’ the sitting has to be done by the
invisible subject ‘You’.)
She prepared a song number for Josh.
(‘Josh’ receives the preposition ‘for’.)
But take note of this sentence: She prepared Josh a song number.
(‘Josh’ is no longer an object of the preposition but an Indirect Object by simply answering ‘for
whom’ also. Logically, nothing has changed as to the meaning of the noun ‘Josh’ but it has
syntactically.)

As object of infinitive. An infinitive is a verb phrase or verbal composed of the preposition

‘to’ plus the vase form of the verb such as: to sing; to dance; to donate; to collect; to guarantee; to
message; and to be. As an object of the infinitive, the noun will receive the concept of infinitive
which has been used in the sentence.
Examples:
My mother asked me to marry Precious.
(‘Precious’ receives the infinitive of ‘to marry’, thus answering the question ‘who to marry?’ or
‘whom to be married with’.)
The teacher wanted to trust her students again.
(It is the ‘students’ of the teacher who will receive the infinitive ‘to trust’.)
As appositive. This noun (a noun phrase) is placed after the noun. It serves to clarify the
meaning of noun as well as certain other sentence elements.

SEE 5 - Structure of English 16

Examples:
Hamlet, one of William Shakespeare’s greatest works, will be staged by AmaThea next
year.
Ms. Quejada, our Interactive English teacher, will be giving us remedial exam tomorrow.
Cabanatuan City, the Tricycle Capital of the Philippines, will soon be the Philippines’ next
attraction among investors.
Remember that even these appositives will be deleted from these sentences, the ideas are
still complete. In fact, the sentences can still stand on their own. However, these appositives are
used to give details to the specific noun to avoid usage of too much sentences. Brevity is thus
achieved.

As possessive. Nouns can also suggest ownership. Though the use of “of phrase” can
indicate ownership, nouns which can also be used to indicate possession by simply adding
apostrophe (‘) then ‘-s’.
Examples:
Instead of saying: ‘The house of Maki was sold up to 11 million pesos’, it can be ‘Maki’s house
was sold up to 11 million pesos.’

Take these also:

This shirt belongs to Meldina. (longer sentence)
This shirt is Meldina’s. or This is Meldina’s shirt. (shorter sentences)

I have read your work; can I see the work of Shane?

I have read your work; can I see Shane’s? (Actually, this is: ‘I have read your work, can I see
Shane’s work?’)

Using nouns in possessive form can lead to brevity and this nature of writing is one of the
essential principles of technical writing; and technical writing is more preferred in the academe.

As vocative. The action is being addressed to the noun. If this noun is at the end of the
sentence, a comma is put first right after the preceding word before this noun. But, if the vocative
noun is at the beginning of the sentence, the comma is put right after this noun. This noun is
actually in second person but named. The speaker (who is in first person) is addressing his or her
statement to second persons but are named or identified for concreteness or specificity.
Examples:
Amazing! How did you do this, Radz?
Young journalists, practice this principle.
Shane and Kevin, please clean the room before you leave.
Zrad, go now!

SEE 5 - Structure of English 17

UNIT 4. Pronouns: The Substitutes

Objectives:
1. Define what pronoun is.
2. Discuss the different kinds of pronouns.
3. Give examples of each kind of pronoun.
4. Analyze the case or function of pronoun in a sentence.
5. Discuss the different special problems with pronoun-antecedent agreement.
6. Analyze and revise sentences with erroneous usage of pronouns and explain this error.

Pronouns
Basically, pronouns are used to replace or substitute antecedent which is a noun or even
another pronoun in sentences and in paragraphs. This is done not only to substitute nouns but also
to minimize boredom brought by the recurring usage of nouns.

Kinds of Pronouns

Personal and Possessive Pronouns

A pronoun must always agree with its antecedent or the noun or another pronoun to which
the pronoun refers to. If the noun names a male, a pronoun that refers to a male should be used and
the same principle if the antecedent is female, use feminine pronoun. If the noun is singular, a
singular pronoun must be used. Lastly, there must be consistency in person – whether in first,
second, or in third.

Singular Plural
First Person I, me, my, mine we, us, our, ours
Second Person you, your, yours you, your, yours
Third Person he, she, it, him, her, they, them, their, theirs
his, her, hers, its

Examples:
George finished his reports.

His classmates, Richard and Melvin asked him to teach them.

If I were you, I would still pass my plates.

SEE 5 - Structure of English 18

 As a future architect, I will consider the environment for my designs and plans.

Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

These two pronouns have the same forms but have different functions. Intensive pronoun
emphasizes its antecedent or emphasizes the doer or the subject in the sentence while reflexive
pronoun refers back to the subject of the sentence. Reflexive pronouns also serve as object of the
verb.
Examples:
(Intensive) Rita herself did her projects in PROFED 1.
The students themselves believed in their potentials.
Danny himself took his graduation toga from the Marketing Office.
We ourselves made this project.

(Reflexive) Danny saved himself from an embarrassing situation by remaining humble.

Rita prepared herself avocado shake.
We were able to relate ourselves with the group after the first half of the seminar.
The students called themselves millennials.

Interrogative Pronouns
These pronouns intend to ask question. However, not all questions have to be introduced by
interrogative pronouns. The interrogative pronoun also performs the cases or functions of nouns
and pronouns. Aside from these cases and functions, interrogative pronouns may also be used for
modification in the sense of adverb. Justifications and reasons may also be asked through the use of
these pronouns.
Examples:
Who got the approval? (Subject)
What did you do? (Direct Object)
Which of the sites could be possibly visited this month? (Direct Object)
Whom shall I fear? (Direct Object)
Whose proposal caught the attention of the panelists? (Possessive)
Why do you live? (Reason)
How much do you love your profession? (Adverb of Intensity)
How did you meet? (Adverb of Manner)
Where are we going to celebrate our Alumni’s Homecoming Party? (Adverb of Place)

SEE 5 - Structure of English 19

 When will be your teaching demonstration? (Adverb of Time)

Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns are interrogative in form with the addition of one demonstrative-form
pronoun ‘that’. Relative pronouns are used to introduce relative clauses. These clauses give
additional information or rename a noun or a pronoun just like what appositives usually do. Unlike
appositives, relative clause should not be separated from the word described with a comma (,).
Relative pronouns ‘who’, ‘whose’, ‘whom’, ‘whomever’, ‘whoever’ definitely refers to person
while where is to place and when is to time. ‘How’ and ‘why’ deals with manner and reason
respectively. Both relative pronouns ‘which’ and ‘that’ refer to things, animals, concepts, and ideas
but ‘which’ must be preceded by a verb while ‘that’ by a noun or pronoun.
Examples:
The engineer who handles this project is he.
These are the portfolios which interest me.
Mr. Salazar whom I entrust my savings is missing.
The construction materials that you bought are substandard.
Have you seen Carl whose performance was great?
Go to that plaza where I she always jogs.

Indefinite Pronouns
From the word ‘definite’ which means ‘exact’ or ‘accurate’ and with another prefix of ‘-in’
which means ‘not’, ‘indefinite’ means being ‘not exact’ or ‘inaccurate’. Simply, these pronouns do not
refer exactly to anything or any subject.
Examples:
Neither of the women brings her bag.
Everybody remembers to pack his or her drawing materials.
Either the teacher or his students may voice out their opinions.
Either my students or my friend needs his parents.
Several who attended the convocation at the Audio Visual room showed their interest in the
topics.
Both neglected their duties in the laboratory room.
Few will be asked to share their opinions about abortion.

Demonstrative Pronouns

SEE 5 - Structure of English 20

 ‘This’ and ‘that’ are signifying singularity while plurality for ‘these’ and ‘those’. Aside from
the number, ‘this’ and ‘these’ are basically used to point something near from the person/s who
is/are talking. Another, demonstrative pronouns are also used to indicate whether the subject is
being held or not by the speaker.
Examples:
That is a good idea!
Sorry, but I don’t like that.
These are the proposals of marketing department.
Could you not present other designs aside from these?
This may never happen again.
Millennials, are you happy with this?
Those are the rejected applications.
I know them but how about those outside?

But, if the succeeding examples are to be considered, neither being held nor pointed, the
subjects, as represented by demonstrative pronouns are giving other uses of demonstrative
pronouns.

Examples:
This is the life I am dreaming of.
(In this sentence, the subject ‘this’ is neither held nor pointed but experienced by the speaker.).

This will be the room where we shall meet every week. (Assuming that the speaker is neither
holding nor pointing the subject, it can only be possible if the speaker is inside the subject. In
this sentence, the speaker is inside the room).

Reciprocal Pronouns
The idea or functions of reciprocal pronouns have the same concept with reciprocity or
giving back to someone the favor he or she has done. However, reciprocal pronouns do not
necessarily always be used in suggesting positivity. What one has done by another shall be returned
by another.

Examples:
My parents showed how they love each other.

SEE 5 - Structure of English 21

 (‘Each other’ is used only if only two participants are involved.)

The students let one another see their notes in ES for the exam was very difficult.
(‘One another’ is used if three or more participants are involved.)

Cases of Pronouns
Since pronouns replace nouns, most of the functions of nouns can also be performed by
pronouns.

Subjective Case
Examples:
He is an exceptional architect.
This is he speaking in front of the class.
She makes me feel happy whenever she smiles.

Objective Case
Examples:
Mr. Sanchez invited him. (Direct Object)
They are discussing about him (Object of Preposition)
She handed you the project’s brief. (Indirect Object)
Zrad is interested to meet her. (Object of Infinitive)
Your teacher in Structure of English is he. (Subject Complement)

Possessive Case
Examples:
I will prioritize her report not mine.
Your assignment is to collate all the needed date for the past four years.
Play only my toys not his.
Hey! Geneve, is this bag yours?
We need to maximize our time. Accomplish your task and we will do ours.
Isn’t that it is hers? Present your own idea.
Sorry, but that is not ours but theirs.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
Pronoun should refer to its definite antecedent. To establish clear pronoun reference, there
must be consistency in number, in gender, and in person.
Examples:
Mario carries his things. (Masculine, Singular, Third)
The mouse finds its way out. (Neuter, Singular, Third)
A person needs to love himself/herself before he/she gives love. (Common, Singular, Third)
I do not know where Michelle puts her make-up kit. (Feminine, Singular, Third)
My students took their lunch. (Common, Plural, Third)

SEE 5 - Structure of English 22

 Mario dedicated his song to Maria. (Masculine, Singular, Third)
Everyone should know his or her duties and responsibilities in this University.
(Masculine/Feminine, Singular, Third)
The car lost its luxury due to typhoons. (Neuter, Singular, Third)
You should follow your heart in deciding what course to take in college. (Common,
Singular/Plural, Second)
I want to finish my college education abroad. (Common, Singular, First)

Though singular indefinite pronouns used as antecedents take singular pronoun and plural
indefinite pronouns used as antecedents take plural pronouns, in the case of either…or and
neither…nor, the pronoun agrees with the nearer or nearest subject.

Examples:
Either Romeo or Juliet can share her idea.
Either Juliet or Romeo can share his idea.
Either your students or you can receive your award from the Principal’s Office.
Neither the employer nor the employees receive their salary on time for this month.
Neither the employees nor the employer receives his or her salary.
Also, in the cases of indefinite pronouns that can be either singular or plural such all, any,
more, most, none, and some, agreement depends on the number of the indefinite pronoun’s
antecedent (object of the ‘of phrase’).
Examples:
Some of the cake lost its icing.
(The word ‘cake’ is singular, so the pronoun should also be singular.)
Some of the cakes lost their icing.
(The word ‘cakes’ is plural, so the pronoun should also be plural.)

Special Problems with Pronoun Agreement

There are instances that sentences may look grammatically correct in terms pronoun-
antecedent agreement but when analyzed more closely, problems arise. These special problems
include ambiguity, vagueness, and too distant pronoun reference.
Both ambiguity and vagueness suggest confusing pronoun reference but they still differ.
Ambiguity suggests that it is confusing to which the pronoun is referring to. It has to be noted that a
pronoun should refer to specific antecedent. Though pronoun is used to replace a noun or avoid
boredom but if the substitution will just create confusion, better not to replace the noun by a
pronoun.
Meanwhile, vagueness refers to over generalization of ideas or over assumption of the
writer or speaker that the receiver would automatically understand what is meant.
• I heard Greg and J-Ar were talking to each other this morning. Greg told J-Ar that he needed
a vacation. (Ambiguity)

SEE 5 - Structure of English 23

 Correction: I heard Greg and J-Ar were talking to each other this morning. Greg told J-Ar
that J-Ar needed a vacation.
or
I heard Greg and J-Ar talking to each other this morning. Greg told J-Ar that Greg needed a
vacation.

• You did not tell me that you saw them last week. (Vagueness)
Correction: You did not tell me that you saw my parents last week.
or nouns can be added like: You did not tell me that you saw Ethan and Joy last week.
• Tanya is organized and industrious. These will be useful throughout her life. (Vagueness)
Correction: Via is organized and industrious. These traits will be useful throughout life.
(A word which may describe or sum up being organized and industrious can be added.
Synonymous words to ‘traits’ such as: characteristics, features, behaviors, and attitudes may
also be used as long as the message will still be logical and contextual.)
Lastly, distant pronoun reference is self-explanatory which means that the pronoun used is
too far from the word or idea it supposes to refer.

• My cousin has asthma. Her lungs ached from holding her breath. Thick smoke poured under
the door as she irrationally groped for her glasses. Soon they would involuntarily expand,
seeking air. (Too Distant)

Correction: My cousin has asthma. Her lungs ached from holding her breath. Thick smoke
poured under the door as she irrationally groped for her glasses. Soon her [the] lungs would
involuntarily expand, seeking air.

SEE 5 - Structure of English 24

UNIT 5. Oh! Is that a verb?

Objectives:
1. Identify the functions and nature of verbs.
2. Differentiate the kinds of verbs.
3. Analyze the kind of verb used in a sentence.
4. Identify the four principal forms/parts of verbs.
5. Discuss the nature of a verb phrase.
6. Discuss the different tenses of the verbs.

Verbs
Traditional definition of verb is that, it is an action word. Well, there is nothing wrong in this
definition but there is something missing.
In the sentence: “George yells for help.”, the verb ‘yells’ is really an action word. But, in the
sentence: “He is an actor.”, the verb is ‘is’ but it does not suggest action. The verb ‘is’ simply states
being or links the subject to its predicate which intends to describe the subject. Thus, verb is the
part of speech which indicates action or states a being.

Kinds of Verbs
From the definition of the verb, you can now classify verb as either action verb (AV) or
linking verb (LV).
Under action verb, there are still subtypes – transitive, intransitive, regular, and irregular.

Transitive vs Intransitive
Transitive verbs (TV) are action words which require direct object while intransitive
verbs (IV) are known to be as independent verb for they can stand alone without a direct object or
even a modifier. The intransitive verb may or may not have an adverb modifier.

My student dances.
IV

My student dances gracefully.

IV Adv. of manner

My student dances cha-cha.

TV Direct object (DO)

SEE 5 - Structure of English 25

 My student dances cha-cha gracefully.
TV DO Adv. of manner

The first two sentences use ‘dances’ as intransitive verb. The first sentence does not need
object nor modifier. In the second sentence, the verb ‘dances’ is modified by ‘gracefully.’ The
modifier ‘gracefully’ answers the question how ‘my student dances?’ On the other hand, the last two
sentences use ‘dances’ as transitive. The third sentence has a direct object ‘cha-cha’ which is still the
direct object in the last sentence though there is a modifier. That is, even if there is adverb modifier,
as long as there is also a direct object, the action verb is definitely a transitive not intransitive.
Now, it is very clear that action verbs may either be transitive or intransitive depending on
the presence of direct object which will receive the action. However, there are action verbs which
may never have a direct object such as ‘cry’ and ‘jump’.

Regular vs Irregular Verbs

Another types of action verbs are the regular and irregular verbs. To differentiate these two
simply, regular verbs are those action verbs which follow the usual patterns of adding either ‘-d’ or
‘-ed’ to the base form of the verb to make the verb into past and past participle forms. Basically, the
action words which do not follow these patterns but having a unique or different pattern are
irregular. These regular and irregular verbs can still be classified as either transitive or intransitive
depending on the presence of direct object and adverb modifier or none at all. Study the following
tables showing examples of regular and irregular verbs and how these two types of verbs form
themselves in four principal parts/forms of verbs.
Examples of regular verbs

Present participle Past Participle

Base form Past Form
Form Form

walk walking walked walked

dance dancing danced danced

change changing changed changed

arrange arranging arranged arranged

donate donating donated donated

celebrate celebrating celebrated celebrated

SEE 5 - Structure of English 26

Examples of irregular verbs

Present participle Past Participle

Base form Past Tense
Form Form

put putting put put

write writing wrote written

become becoming became become

drive driving drove driven

sing singing sang sung

drink drinking drank Drunk

The Linking and Helping Verbs

The second function of the verb is to link the subject to its predicate whether in the case of
predicate nominative, adjective, or pronoun. In using more complex tense of the verbs, verb phrase
can only be completed with the helping or auxiliary verbs. Some of the linking verbs (‘be’ forms)
have the same forms with the helping verbs but they have definite difference in functions. Sense
verbs can also function as linking verb.
Below are the sentences which use linking verbs:
She is my favorite Math teacher.
(The predicate is in nominative. Specifically, predicate noun is used in this sentence. In this
case, the noun ‘teacher’ also functions as subject complement. )

The principal looks young in her red dress.

(The verb ‘looks’ can be substituted with ‘be’ form ‘is’. Another, the predicate is in adjective
form following the sentence pattern S-LV-C [Adjective].)

Other examples:
Our rest house was vacated few years back.
You are very special to me.
The music sounds romantic.
I am sorry about what had happened last night.

Meanwhile, below are helping verbs (HV) trying to aid the main verbs in verb phrases:

SEE 5 - Structure of English 27

 She is cleaning our house joyfully.
(The verb phrase ‘is cleaning’ is composed by the helping verb ‘is’ and the main verb ‘cleaning’.
Again, here, the verb ‘is’ is no longer a linking verb since this verb is not used to describe the
subject. Rather, the verb ‘is’ functions as helping or axillary verb. Without the helping verb, the
thought will be incomplete and has to be returned to basic form as: She cleans our house
joyfully.)

The same matter will be observed even if the verb phrase has more than two verbs such as:
She will be cleaning our house.
(The verb phrase ‘will be cleaning’ has two helping verbs ‘will’ and ‘be’ with main verb
‘cleaning’.)
Lastly, more than one main verbs can share with the given helping verbs in a verb phrase.
Examples:
I am listening to music while checking the test papers of my students.
At the same time, he is finishing the portrait and baby-sitting his nephew.

Tenses of the Verb

Tense refers to the time when the action took place, takes place, or will take place. It also
pertains to time of a condition or statement.

I. Simple Tenses

One or more actions or states of being expressed at one time. Time indicator added may
help to clarify the time of occurrence or state.

A. Simple Present Tense denotes:

1. habitual action;

Examples:
a. She goes to church every morning.
b. Alden has monthly meet-and-greet with his fans.

2. general truth/idea;

Examples:
a. The Earth revolves around the sun.
b. People need oxygen to survive.

3. present fact; and

Examples:

SEE 5 - Structure of English 28

 a. We are now in the 21st century.
b. There are 366 days this 2020.

4. permanent location.

Examples:
a. The Sun is at the center of the Solar System.
b. Statue of Liberty stands in New York.

B. Simple Past Tense suggests action or state of being in the past.

Examples:
a. Dr. Feliciano Bolisay Jr. was the NEUST Vice President for Academic Affairs in
2016.
b. My parents took me a ride yesterday.
c. She went to church last week.
d. Alden had his meet-and-greet with his fans last month.
e. Alden met his fans last month.

C. Simple Future Tense shows action or condition in the future (will/shall + base form
of the verb).

Examples:
a. Midterm Examination in Structure of English will be on October.
b. My parents will take me a ride to school this afternoon.
c. She will go to church tonight.
d. Alden will have his meet-and-greet with his fans next month.
e. Alden will meet his fans next month.

II. Emphatic Tenses

Just like simple tenses, emphatic tenses have action or actions which happened or
happen/s at one time but with emphasis. Emphatic means intensified. Thus, the action
has intensity.

A. Present Emphatic Tense (do/does + base form of the verb)

Remember: In this tense, the verb ‘does’ is used if the subject is singular and in third
person. The verb must meet these two criteria, any combination other than this
requirement, the verb ‘do’ must be used.

Examples:
a. My parents do take me a ride.
b. She does go to church.
c. Alden does meet his fans.
d. Does Alden meet his fans?
e. I do know you.
f. Do I know you?
g. I do do this work!

SEE 5 - Structure of English 29

 B. Past Emphatic Tense (did + base form of the verb). Unlike in present emphatic tense,
the verb ‘did’ is the only verb used to indicate emphasis regardless of number and
person of the subject.

Examples:
a. My parents did take me a ride to school yesterday.
b. She did go to church last week.
c. Alden did have a meet-and-greet with his fans last month.
d. Alden did meet his fans last month.
e. I did do this work!

III. Progressive/Continuous Tenses

These tenses suggest continuity of actions. Present participle (V-ing) form of the
verb is used as the main verb of the verb phrase in the sentence. The main verb needs
the helping verb/s to complete the thought of the sentence.

A. Present Progressive Tense denotes that the action or state of being is true or going
on at the moment of speaking (am/is/are + present participle form of the verb). This
tense also suggests simple futurity of the action or state of being.

Examples:
a. My parents are taking me a ride to school.
b. She is going to church.
c. Alden is meeting his fans.
d. I am doing this work.
e. They are being kind to me. (They are kind to me.)
f. She is being here. (She is here.)
g. My parents are reminding me on their anniversary dinner while driving me to
school.

B. Past Progressive Tense shows that an action took place while another action in the
past was taking place. The verb of the intervening action is in “simple” past form.
Meanwhile, the progressive action used past form of the helping verb with present
form of the main verb. The conjunction “when” is used to introduce the intervening
action or simply expressed in “simple past tense (SPaT).” The pattern will be
was/were + present participle form + when + SPaT.

Examples:
a. My parents were taking me a ride to school when the rain fell.
b. When she went to church, Alden was calling her.
c. She was going to church when Alden called her.
d. She was being here yesterday when I did my assignment in PRFOED 4.

C. Future Progressive Tense refers to the action which started sometime in the
present but will be going on in the future without definite time of completion
(will/shall + “be” + present participle form of the verb).

Examples:
a. My parents will be taking me a ride to school.
b. She will be going to church this afternoon.

SEE 5 - Structure of English 30

 c. Alden will be having a meet-and-greet session with his fans.
d. Alden will be meeting his fans.
e. She will be being here.

IV. Perfect Tenses

These tenses state actions or being which are completed in thought at the moment
of speaking. The verb phrase is composed of the helping verb has/have/had and main
verb in the past participle form.

A. Present Perfect Tense shows an action or state of being which is completed or

approved at the moment of speaking (has/have + past participle form of the verb).

Examples:
a. My parents have taken me a ride to school.
b. She has gone to church.
c. Alden has have his meet-and-greet with his fans.
d. Alden has met his fans.
e. She has been here. (She is here.)
f. Have you been here?
g. You have been here.

B. Past Perfect Tense indicates two actions or states of being which took place in the
past where the first completed action uses “had” as the helping verb and past
participle form of the verb as the main verb while the second action is in simple past
tense. Conjunctions “after” and “before” will be used depending on chronology of the
actions or states of being. The usual pattern to express this tense is had + past
participle form of the verb + “before” + SPaT.

Examples:
a. My parents had taken me a ride to school before it rained.
b. Before it rained, my parents had taken me a ride to school.
c. After my parents had taken me a ride to school, it rained.
d. It rained after my parents had taken me a ride to school.
e. She had been here before Alden met his fans.
f. Alden met his fans after Kathryn had been here.

C. Future Perfect Tense denotes completeness of action or condition in the future. The
certainty of action or condition is definite or absolute. Compound helping verb “will
have” + main verb in past participle form consist the verb phrase of this tense.

Examples:
a. My parents will have taken me a ride to school this morning.
b. Alden will have met his fans this afternoon.
c. She will have gone to church by eight this morning.
d. She will have been here tonight.

V. Perfect-Progressive Tenses

SEE 5 - Structure of English 31

 These tenses show actions or conditions which are completed or will be completed
with intervening or succeeding actions. The compound helping verb of these tense use
has/have/had (like in perfect tenses) + “been” while the main verbs are in present
participle forms [V-ing] (like in progressive tense).

A. Present Perfect-Progressive Tense indicates a being or an action which is true at

the moment of speaking from definite time in the past and still continues in the
future. The pattern goes: has/have + been + present participle form of the verb + [a.
since + SPaT/specific time; b. when + SPat; and c. for + duration].
Examples:
a. My parents have been taking me a ride to school since I entered elementary.
Since I entered elementary, my parents have been taking me a ride to school.
b. My parents have been taking me a ride to school since last November.
c. My parents have been taking me a ride to school.
d. My parents have been taking me a ride when I entered elementary.
e. My parents have been taking me a ride to school for three years now.

B. Past Perfect-Progressive Tense suggests that an action was going on in the past
and was completed with an intervening action or state of being. This tense follows
had +been + present participle form of the verb + when/before + SPaT pattern.
However, it is rarely used by the writers for past progressive and past perfect tenses
are more preferred for clarity of thoughts.

Examples:
a. My parents had been taking me a ride to school even before I entered
elementary.
b. My parents had been taking me a ride to school before my older brother offered
to do the same on me.

C. Future Perfect-Progressive Tense is also known as “conditional tense”. An action

will take place after the other. The first future action/condition is expressed
perfectly while the second action or state will be named. Conjunctions which can be
used are: “when”; “after”; “until”; “by the time”; “by the moment”; and “if”.
However, the conjunction “before” may also be used depending on the chronology
of the thoughts in the sentence. This tense usually follows the pattern: will/shall +
have + been + present participle form of the verb + “conjunction” + Simple Present
Tense (SPreT). The second action is no longer expressed with the use of either ‘will’
or ‘shall’ for the conjunction to be used already suggests the futurity.

Examples:
a. My parents will have been taking me a ride to school if the rain does not stop.
b. Before the teacher gives quiz to his students, he will have been teaching the
lesson.
c. They will have been marrying by the time they return from abroad.

SEE 5 - Structure of English 32