Physics Lab Manual

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
Experiment # 1: Vernier Caliper
Objectives:
a) To learn how to use Vernier caliper and its components.
b) To determine the length and depth of a given object using Vernier caliper.
c) To determine the internal and external diameters using Vernier caliper.
Experiment Requirements:
1. A Vernier caliper with no zero error.
2. A cube of any size having different holes in it.
3. A solid or a hollow cylinder of suitable length.
About the instrument:
The Vernier scale is an experimental tool which assists in the accurate reading of the fractional
part of a scale division. The Vernier caliper consists of two scales: one is the fixed main scale of
the instrument, and the other (called the Vernier scale) is arranged to slide along the fixed scale
& it is calibrated on L Shaped frame, which carries a fixed jaw. When the two measuring jaws
are in contact with each other, the scale should show zero reading. An adjustable screw is
provided for fine adjustment of movable jaw. Also, a lock nut is provided to lock the sliding
scale on main scale.
SZABIST 1
1. Setup and Procedure:
 Clean the work piece and instruments.

 Check the Vernier caliper for errors like loose sliding jaws and zero error if any.
 If any zero error is present, correct it or change the instrument in case of loose jaws.
 Calculate the least count of the instrument.
 Hold the work piece in the measuring jaws / anvils. Use grip to slide the jaws.
 Note down the readings on main scale and Vernier scale.
 Take the measurements for at least 3 components by Vernier caliper at different points.
 Calculate the total reading of Vernier caliper.
 Complete the observation table.
2. Precautions and safety:

 Always adjust the instruments for zero reading error.
 Do not apply undue pressure.
 Parallax or reading error must be avoided.
 Contact of an object should be made properly with sliding jaw and the main scale.
3. Calculation of Least count and volume of cylinder:
𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆

𝑳. 𝑪. =
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆
Show calculation:
i. Value of smallest division __________________________ cm
ii. No. of total divisions on Vernier scale ______________ div.
iii. Least Count:
Volume of a cube:
𝑽 = 𝑳𝒙𝑩𝒙𝑯
Volume of a solid cylinder:
𝝅
𝑽= (𝒅𝒐 𝟐) 𝒙 𝒉
𝟒
Volume of a hollow cylinder:
𝝅
𝑽= (𝒅𝒐 𝟐 𝒉 − 𝒅𝒊 𝟐 𝒍) 𝒙
𝟒
SZABIST 2
Observation Table:
i. Determine volume of a given cube by measuring all three sides known as length,
width and breadth. Also find the depth of the hole if any.
S.No Reading on Main Scale Reading on Vernier Scale Total Reading =
(cm) (divisions) MSR + (LC*VSR)
1 (L)
2 (W)
3 (B)
V= __________________ cm3
ii. Determine volume of a solid cylinder by measuring its external diameter and height:
1 (Do)
2 (H)
V= __________________ cm3
iii. Determine volume of a hollow cylinder by measuring its internal, external diameter
and height:
1 (Do)
2 (Di)
3 (H)
V= __________________ cm3
SZABIST 3
Experiment # 2: Screw Gauge
Objectives:
a) To learn how to use micrometer screw gauge and its components.
b) To determine the length and thickness of a given object using screw gauge.
c) To determine the volume of sphere using micrometer screw gauge.
1. A micrometer screw gauge.
2. A bolt of appropriate length, a thin plate or a wire.
3. A solid sphere or ball.
About the instrument:
Micrometer is also the precise instrument to measure the circumference or thickness of an object.
It consists of a screw having 10 or 20 threads per cm and revolves in a fixed nut. The end of the
screw forms one measuring anvil and a fixed anvil is in the frame. The spindle can be advanced
or retracted by rotating the thimble. Barrel is a fixed part attached with the frame. The spindle is
slide fit in the barrel. Generally, the pitch of screw thread is 0.5 mm & the thimble has 50equal
divisions on the circumference. Ratchet is provided at the end of thimble to apply sufficient and
uniform measuring pressure.
Pitch and Least count: The pitch is the measure of linear distance moved by one complete
revolution of the spindle while least count is the minimum value that an instrument can measure.
SZABIST 4
 Clean the work piece and the instrument.

 Check the micrometer for errors like play in the jaw, zero error if any.
 If any zero error is present, correct it or change the instrument in case of loose spindle.
 Calculate the least count of the instrument.
 Hold the work piece in the measuring anvils and use ratchet to grip the object.
 Note down the readings on main scale and thimble/circular scale.
 Take the measurements for at least 3 components by micrometer.
 Calculate the total reading of micrometer.
 Complete the observation table.
2. Precautions and safety:

 Always adjust the instruments for zero reading error.
 Do not apply undue pressure.
 Parallax or reading error must be avoided.
 Contact of an object should be made properly with anvil and the spindle.
3. Zero Error:
4. Calculation of pitch and least count (Show calculation):
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉 =
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
Pitch:
𝑷𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
𝑳. 𝑪. =
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆
L.C.:
SZABIST 5
Observation Table:
Zero Error (x): _____________ divisions. (In case of negative zero error, include –ve sign).
Least count (L.C.): ___________ mm.
i. Determine mean volume of a given sphere by using screw gauge:
Pitch Scale Circular Scale Zero Error Corrected Total Reading =

S.No Reading (A) Reading (n) correction Reading T= A + (LC*N)
(mm) (divisions) (x) N= n – x (mm)
1
2
𝟒
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 = (𝝅𝒓𝟑 )
𝟑
Mean Volume = __________________ mm3
ii. Determine the mean thickness of the given plate by at least taken 3 readings:

1
2
3
Mean Thickness = __________________ mm.

iii. Determine length and diameter of a given bolt by using
screw gauge.

1 (L)
2 (D)
SZABIST 6
Experiment # 3: Hooke’s Law
Objectives:
a) To observe behavior of a tension spring under loading conditions.
b) To verify the validity of Hooke’s Law and elastic region of a material.
c) To find the spring constant (K) from graph of force vs displacement.
1. Hooke’s Law apparatus with measuring scale.
2. Tension spring of different stiffness’s.
3. Slotted weights with hanger.
About the experiment:
The purpose of this lab is to determine the spring constant of a given spring. This spring constant
is given by the relation between the force exerted on the spring and the distance the spring is
either stretched or compressed. This relationship is given through Hooke’s law which we are
going to get a better understanding of throughout this lab. The principle we use throughout this
lab is Hooke’s law. Hooke’s law is stated by F= -kx. This means that the force exerted on a
spring is inversely related to the product of the spring constant and the displacement in meters.
This occurs because a spring is a conservative force, a spring when stretched or compressed
stores energy so that it may return to its state of equilibrium once it is released from the position
it is being held at.
SZABIST 7
 Setup the Hooke’s law apparatus on a plane surface which is parallel to the ground.
 Hang the given spring in to the upper blade of the apparatus and adjust the blade so that
the end of the spring is located at the zero position.
 In case of end point of spring is beyond zero position, set the current position at initial
position and hang the weight hanger to the spring.
 Before adding any weight, make sure the hanger is at initial position (as noted before).
 Start adding weights one by one and note down the corresponding position of the spring
after every weight is added.
 Complete the observation table and repeat the experiment with different springs.
2. Theory:
One of the properties of elasticity is that it takes about twice as much force to stretch a spring
twice as far. The linear dependence of displacement upon stretching force is called Hooke’s Law.
Hooke’s Law states that the force exerted by a spring (an elastic material) is proportional to the
distance the spring stretched or compressed from its relaxed position.
F∝x
where F is the applied force (e.g. weight of hanging object from a vertical spring) x is the
extension (or compression) of the spring
If too large a force is exerted on a spring, the spring may be damaged. When this occurs, the
extension x increases to very large values, not according to Hooke’s Law. When the force is
removed, the spring does not return to its original length. We say that the elastic limit is
exceeded. So Hooke’s Law applies only if the elastic limit is not exceeded i.e. called elastic
region.
SZABIST 8
Figure 1: Measurement of spring constant “K”
Observation Table:
Initial Position: _________ m.
S.No Applied Load Distance covered Spring Constant (K)
F (N) X (m) K=-F/x
1
2
3
4
5
6
Plot the graph between applied force (F) vs distance covered (x) and find the slope to
determine the spring constant “K”.
Force Applied (N)
SZABIST 9
Distance covered (m)

Explain why the initial values are higher.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
SZABIST 10
Experiment # 4: Time period of a Simple

Pendulum
Objectives:
a) To determine time period of a simple pendulum for different lengths.
b) To find out value of gravity on earth using simple pendulum.
c) To discuss the result of the experiment.
1. A bob of any material with string attached to it.
2. A stopwatch.
3. Measuring scale.
Simple harmonic motion is not restricted to masses on springs. In fact, it is one of the most common
and important types of motion found in nature. From the vibrations of atoms to the vibrations of
airplane swings, simple harmonic motion plays an important role in many physical phenomena. A
swinging pendulum, for example, exhibits behavior very similar to that of a mass on a spring. By
making some comparisons between these two phenomena, some predictions can be made about
the period of oscillations for a pendulum.
SZABIST 10
 Setup the equipment as instructed.

 Take any suitable length of thread/string and tie it to the mass hanger.
 Measure the length of the cord and write down in observation table.
 Oscillate the pendulum parallel to the line of motion. Do not tilt it.
 Start the timer with oscillation and note down the time taken for specific oscillations.
 Repeat the experiment by changing the length of the string.
 Use different types of pendulum to determine the change in parameters.
2. Theory:
Figure 1 shows a pendulum with the string and mass at an angle 𝜃 from the vertical position. Two
forces act on the mass; the force of the string and the force of gravity. The gravitational force, F =
mg, can be resolved into two components; Fx and Fy. F just balances the force of the string and
therefore does not accelerate the mass. Fx is in the direction of motion of the mass, and therefore
does accelerate and decelerate the mass.
Figure 1: Forces acting on simple pendulum
Using the two congruent triangles in the diagram, it can be seen that Fx = mgsin 𝜽, and that the
displacement of the mass from its equilibrium position is an arc whose distance, x is approximately
L tan 𝜽. If the angle 𝜃 is reasonably small, then it is very nearly true that sin 𝜃 = tan 𝜃. Therefore,
for small swings of the pendulum, it is approximately true that F = mgtan 𝜃 = mgx/L. (Since Fx is
a restoring force, the equation could be stated more accurately as Fx= -mgx/L.) Comparing this
equation with the equation fora mass on a spring (F = -kx), it can be seen that the quantity mg/L
plays the same mathematical role as the spring constant.
SZABIST 11
On the basis of this similarity, you might speculate that the period of motion for a pendulum is
just:
𝒎 𝑳
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 √ = 𝟐𝝅√ ----- equation (1)
𝒎𝒈/𝑳 𝒈
where m is the mass, g is the acceleration due to gravity, and L is distance from the pivot point to
the center of mass of the hanging mass. In this experiment, you will test the validity of this equation.
Observation Table:
i. Determine time period of a simple pendulum and compare with theoretical value.
S.No Length of No. of Measured time for Time period for Calculated
string oscillations ‘N’ oscillations one oscillation Time period
L (m) N (#) t (sec) T=t/N (eq. 1)
1
2
3
4
ii. Modify the equation 1 and determine the value of gravity using the above method.
S.No Length of No. of Measured time for Time period for Value of
string oscillations ‘N’ oscillations one oscillation Gravity
L (m) N (#) t (sec) T=t/N (eq. 2)
1
2
3
4
Derive eq.2 by modifying eq.1 for finding the value of gravity:
Does changing the mass of the pendulum make any different to the time period? ________
SZABIST 12
Experiment # 5: Pressure Measurement

using Bourdon Gauge
Objectives:
To determine pressure using Bourdon gauge apparatus.
1. Dead weight tester/Bourdon gauge apparatus.
2. Slotted weights.
3. Water or any other lubricant.
Pressure is an important parameter in engineering. There is a wide range of methods for pressure
measurement where as many of these methods employs hydrostatic principles. Bourdon pressure
gauge is one of the most common pressure measuring devices in industry.
The mechanism of the gauge may be seen through the transparent dial of the instrument. A tube,
having a thin wall of oval cross-section, is bent to a circular arc encompassing about 270 degrees.
It is rigidly held at one end, where the pressure is admitted to the tube, and is free to move at the
other end, which is sealed. When pressure is admitted, the tube tends to straighten, and the
movement of the pointer being proportional to the pressure applied. The sensitivity of the gauge
SZABIST 13
depends on the material and dimensions of the Bourdon tube; gauges with a very wide selection
of pressure ranges are commercially available.
Figure 1: Bourdon Gauge
There are various known methods and instruments for finding the accuracy of readings from a
pressure gauge, one such technique is known as “Dead Weight Tester”. A dead weight tester
apparatus utilizes known traceable weights to apply pressure to a fluid for checking the accuracy
of readings from a pressure gauge. A dead weight tester (DWT) is a calibration standard method
that uses a piston cylinder on which a load is placed to make equilibrium with an applied pressure
underneath the piston. Deadweight testers are so called primary standards which mean that the
pressure measured by a deadweight tester is defined through other quantities: length, mass and
time.
 Remove the piston from the unit.

 Use a beaker to fill the cylinder with water.
 Remove air trapped in the transparent tube by gently tapping the unit.
 Top up with water and insert piston into cylinder.
 Allow piston to settle.
 Record the initial pressure gauge reading which is corresponding to the piston mass.
 Add available masses and record pressure gauge reading, along with mass added to piston
and total mass (piston mass & added mass).
 To prevent the piston from sticking, rotate the piston gently as each mass is added.
 Remove masses previously added and records the pressure gauge reading, along with
mass removed from the piston and total mass (piston mass & added mass).
 Repeat this procedure for a few times.
SZABIST 14
2. Data Collection:
 Calculate the actual pressure P due to the mass of M (kg) including the piston mass.
𝑭
𝑷=
𝑨
where A is the piston area in m2.
 Calculate the average measured pressure for the increasing and the decreasing procedure
and the average pressure of the two for each applied mass.
 Calculate gauge % error.
Note: This procedure will need to be completed quickly within one continuous process. Due to
leakage the piston will sink to the bottom of the apparatus. At this point no further mass may be
added or removed.
Observation Table:
Piston Weight = _________ N.
Piston Area= __________ mm2
Increasing Mass:
Observed Pressure
Weight Total Experimental Calculated
(kN/m2)
Added Weight Mean Pressure Pressure Error %
Run 1 Run 2
(N) (N) (kN/m2) (kN/m2)
(Air) (Liquid)
0
Decreasing Mass:
Observed Pressure
Weight Total Experimental Calculated
(kN/m2)
Removed Weight Mean Value Error %
Run 1 Run 2
(N) (N) (kN/m2) (kN/m2)
(Air) (Liquid)
0
SZABIST 15
Experiment # 6: Application of
Archimedes’ Principle
Objectives:
 To learn and verify the validity of Archimedes’ principle.
 To determine volume and density of a given object using above principle.
1. A graduated beaker with milliliters marking on it.
2. A Vernier caliper or measuring scale.
3. Some usual and unusual shaped objects.
4. Water or any other lubricant.
In the 3rd century BCE, there was a great inventor, mathematician, and scientist named
Archimedes. He was given the task of checking to see whether Goldsmith had mixed in silver
while fabricating King gold crown because Archimedes was known to be genius and Goldsmith
for his unscrupulous methods. Since, gold has a very high density of 19,300 kg/m3. It doesn't
matter what shape gold is in, its density will always remain same. As we already know density
equals mass divided by volume and it's easy to determine an object's mass. The problem
Archimedes had was figuring out the crown's volume. It was not like a cubic, cylinder, or any other
regular solid.
SZABIST 16
Melting the crown into a sphere of gold to calculate its volume could work, but would ultimately
destroy the crown. King urged Archimedes to find another way. Goldsmith Crook kept assuring
the King the crown was made of pure gold. So what did Archimedes do? Archimedes took a bath
and noticed the level of water rise while he stepped into his bath. It was precisely at this moment
that he had an epiphany. The water level was the key. The water level had risen by a very specific
amount: an amount based on his body's own volume. Logically, then, a crown submerged in water
would displace water by an amount equal to the crown's volume. In essence, he could find V.
1. Theory:
Archimedes' principle states that a body immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the
weight of the displaced fluid. The principle applies to both floating and submerged bodies and to
all fluids, i.e., liquids and gases. It explains not only the buoyancy of ships and other vessels in
water but also the rise of a balloon in the air and the apparent loss of weight of objects underwater.
In determining whether a given body will float in a given fluid, both weight and volume must be
considered; that is, the relative density, or weight per unit of volume, of the body compared to the
fluid determines the buoyant force. If the body is less dense than the fluid, it will float or, in the
case of a balloon, it will rise. If the body is denser than the fluid, it will sink.
Example: Hot air balloons rise into the air because the density of the air (warmer air) inside the
balloon is less dense than the air outside the balloon (cooler air). The balloon and the basket
displace a fluid that is heavier than the balloon and the basket, so it has buoyant force acting on
the system. Balloons tend to fly better in the morning, when the surrounding air is cool.
 Place a beaker on a flat surface, can be checked using bubble level.
 Beaker should have marking on it preferable in milliliters.
 Fill the beaker with pure water at certain readable volume and note down the reading as
initial volume V1.
 Now put an object gently whose volume is to be calculated using mass hanger and let the
water to be stabilized.
 The water will rise to some level, note down the reading as final volume V2.
 Now remove the object and repeat the same procedure for other objects.
 Initial volume of water should be noted every time before submerging the object.
 Use Vernier caliper to calculate the actual dimensions of the object and record data in
appendix A.
3. Precautions:
 Do not throw the mass directly into the water as it will break the beaker.
 Avoid spillage of water to prevent any loss in actual volume.
 Water level should always be obtained from lower meniscus.
 Best readings are observed with distilled water of density 1000 kg/m3 @ 20°C
SZABIST 17
Observation Table:
Object Calculated Initial Final Volume Actual

Error
Mass Volume Volume Volume difference Density
%
(g) (cm3) (ml) (ml) (ml) (g/cm3)
M V V1 V2 VD=V2-V1 D=M/ VD (V-VD)/V
APPENDIX A: Calculation Table for finding volume of an object using Vernier caliper:
Object Mass Outer Dia Inner Dia Height Volume
(g) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm3)
Calculations:
Volume of a solid cylinder:
𝜋
𝑉= (𝑑𝑜 2 ) 𝑥 ℎ
4
Volume of a hollow cylinder:
𝜋
𝑉= (𝑑𝑜 2 − 𝑑𝑖 2 ) 𝑥 ℎ
4
Error percentage:
SZABIST 18
Experiment # 7: Velocity of Sound
Objectives:
a) Determine transmission times for different distances apart of the transmitter and the
receiver.
b) Plot a graph of the path lengths of the sound pulses against their transmission time.
c) Determine the velocity of sound from the graph.
Item # Description Qty. Item # Description Qty.

13900.00 Ultrasonic unit 1 02060.00 Stand tube 3
13900.99 5 VDC Power supply 1 08062.00 Screen metal, 30x30 cm 1
13901.00 Ultrasonic transmitter on stem 1 09936.00 Measuring tape, l = 2 m 1
13902.00 Ultrasonic receiver on stem 1 03001.00 Meter scale, l = 1000 mm 1
12150.00 Cobra 3 Basic Unit 1 07542.11 Screened cable, BNC, l = 75 cm 2
12151.99 Power supply, 12 V 1 07542.27 Adapter, BNC-socket/4 mm plug 2
14602.00 RS 232 data cable 1 14504.61 Measure Software Universal writer 1
02006.55 Barrel base PASS 3
SZABIST 19

 Set up the experiment as shown in above image using stand tubes in the barrel bases to
position the reflector, transmitter and receiver well above the table top, in order to stop the
occurrence of interfering reflections.
 Connect the transmitter to the TR1 socket of the ultrasonic unit, and operate it in “burst”
mode. Connect the receiver to the left BNC socket (prior to the amplifier).
 Ensure that the amplifier of the ultrasonic unit is not operated in the saturation area. In such
a case, the “OVL” diode will light up, reduce the input amplification.
 Apply the synchronization signal (“sync” BNC socket) on the Cobra Basic Unit at “Analog
In 1/S1” input. Apply the amplified alternating voltage signal of the receiver on the
“Analog In 2/S2” input.
 Pay attention to correct polarity when using the corresponding BNC adapter (adapter earth
sign).
 Connect the Cobra 3 Basic Unit to the PC with the USB data cable and open “measure”.
 Go to file > New measurements and select the parameters as shown in Fig. 2.
 Do not exceed distance “x” more than 30cm.
Fig. 1: Diagram for the determination of the path length of ultrasound pulses (T = Transmitter;
R = Receiver; Sc = Screen)
Note: Transmitter and receiver are to be at the same height, pointing perpendicularly towards the
reflector screen and both at the same distance from it. Keep the transmitter and receiver fixed at
their initial positions during the experiment. Change the path length l of the sound pulses by
shifting the reflector and, whenever doing so, ensure that it is always kept perpendicular to the
connecting line between transmitter and the receiver.
SZABIST 20
2. Principle of working:
An ultrasonic transmitter emits sound pulses onto a reflector, from which recording of them by a
receiver shows a time delay. The velocity of sound is calculated from the path length and
transmission time of the sound pulses.
3. Theory and evaluation:
The sound pulses emitted by the transmitter have travelled over a path of length l after reflection
and up to being recorded (see Fig. 1). If the time taken is t, then the velocity of sound c is given
by:
---- equation (1)
For distances of x ≤ 30 cm, the distance d of the transmitter from the receiver is to be taken into
consideration in determining the transmission time. When the barrel bases in which the transmitter
and the receiver are fixed touch each other, then d = 6.5 cm. Measurements are to be carried out
in the “Fast measurement“ software mode, and the appropriate settings for this are shown in Fig.
2. An example of a measurement is shown in Fig. 3. The time t taken by the sound pulse is given
by using the returning echo pulse.
Figure 2: Settings of the software parameters.
SZABIST 21
In Fig. 4, the path length l is plotted as a function of the time taken t. The velocity of sound is
obtained from the slope of the straight line. Under the given conditions (T = 20° C, relative
humidity 50% and f = 40 KHz.), the experiment gave: c = (342.9 ± 1.5) ms−1 (corresponding value,
taken from the “Handbook of Chemistry and Physics” by CRC Press is 344.0 ms−1).
Observation Table: (Determination of path length and speed of sound)
Distance Distance Total path Time taken (t) Velocity of Error
between Tx between Tx/Rx length (l) (from Cobra3 sound (c) from
and Rx (d) and Screen (x) (from eq. 2) data) (from eq. 1) 342.9 m/s
m m m s m/s
0.16 0.18 0.394 1.293m 304.68 11%

0.16 0.3 0.621 1.778m 349.25 1.85%
0.07 0.3 0.604 1.789m 337.65 1.53%
0.07 0.22 0.44 1.267m 351.64 2.54%
0.2 0.17 0.394 1.15m 343.01 0.03%
Total path length using Pythagoras theorem:
𝒅 𝟐
𝒍 = 𝟐 ∗ √( ) + 𝒙𝟐 --------- equation (2)
𝟐
Plot graph of path lengths of the sound pulses against their transmission time to determine
velocity of sound:
Path length (m)
time (s)
SZABIST 22
Expected Graphs/Results:
Figure 3: Expected graph of a measurement to determine the time t taken by the echo pulse
Figure 4: Path length l of the echo pulse as a function of the time taken t.
SZABIST 23
Experiment # 8: Projectile Motion
Objectives:
a) To determine the range as a function of the angle of inclination.
b) To determine the maximum height of projection as a function of the angle of inclination.
c) To determine the (maximum) range as a function of the initial velocity
Item # Description Qty.

11229-10 Ballistic unit 1
11221-01 Recording paper, 1 roll, 25 m 1
02502-01 Steel ball, d = 19 mm 2
02076-03 Two-tier platform support 1
03001-00 Meter scale, demo, l = 1000 mm 1
02006-10 Barrel base 1
11229-30 Speed measuring attachment 1
13900-99 Power supply 5 V DC/2.4 A 1
SZABIST 24

 Make sure the ballistic unit is adjust so that it the parallel to the ground. Use sprit level to
confirm the level.
 Set the scale to 90° and fire the ball upwards with the highest velocity i.e. 3rd notch
setting and catch the ball in the hand.
 Adjust the support base using adjusting screws until vertical projection is obtained.
 Note down the initial velocity of the ball at all three tension stages of firing spring using
the attached speed measuring device.
 The initial velocity can also be verified using mathematical expression i.e. 𝒗 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉
where h is the maximum height obtained. It may vary from unit to unit.
 Set the 2-tier platform support (02076-01) for determining the range and mark the points
of impact on the recording strip that is pasted on the bench with adhesive tape.
 It is best to measure the long ranges before the short ones (secondary impact points!) and
to mark the primary impact points with a pen.
 The distance from the ballistic unit is frequently checked with the meter scale during the
test.
 To measure the height of projection the meter scale is clamped in the barrel base and
moved parallel to the plane of projection and height can be observed by sight.
A steel ball is fired by a spring at different velocities and at different angles to the horizontal.
The relationships between the range, the height of projection, the angle of inclination, and the
firing velocity are determined.
3. Theory of Projectile Motion:
If a body of mass m moves in a constant gravitational field (gravitational force m⃗ g), the motion
lies in a plane (as shown in Figure 1).
Figure 1: Movement of a mass point under the effect of gravitational force.
SZABIST 25
The maximum range s is reach at an inclination angle of 45° for every initial velocity. Fig. 4
shows the range s for an angle of 45° plotted against different initial velocities v0. By choosing a
logarithmic scale, a regression line can be applied to the measured data and used to determine the
maximum range for arbitrary initial velocities.
Note: To ensure an accurate determination of the initial velocity, the time taken for the ball to
cover the measuring distance must be taken into account. Depending on the angle of inclination,
the ball already leaves the light barrier with a reduced velocity. If vexp is the experimentally
determined initial velocity we obtain as actual initial velocity.
𝒗𝒐 = √𝒗𝒆𝒙𝒑 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋
where d is the distance between the striker and the centre between the light barriers.
Observation Table (Part A): To determine the (maximum) range as a function of the initial
velocity. Plot a graph of initial velocity vs maximum range for the angle of inclination of 45°.
Angle of Initial Velocity (m/s) Maximum Range (m) Maximum Height (m)
Inclination (α) 𝒗𝒆𝒙𝒑 𝒗𝒐 Calculated Observed Calculated Observed
45°
45°
45°
SZABIST 26
Observation Table (Part B): To determine the range as a function of the angle of inclination.
Plot a graph of angle of inclination vs range for all three initial velocity.
i. At initial velocity v1:
Angle of Initial Velocity Calculated Observed Error %
Inclination (m/s) Range (m) Range (m)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
ii. At initial velocity v2:

Inclination (m/s) Range (m) Range (m)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
iii. At initial velocity v3:

Angle of Initial Velocity Calculated Observed Range Error %
Inclination (m/s) Range (m) (m)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
SZABIST 27
Observation Table (Part C): To determine the maximum height of projection as a function of
the angle of inclination. Plot a graph of angle of inclination vs height for all three initial
velocity.
i. At initial velocity v1:
Inclination (m/s) Height (m) Height (m)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
ii. At initial velocity v2:

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
iii. At initial velocity v3:

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
SZABIST 28
90
Expected Graphs/Results for all parts:
Fig. 4: Maximum range s as a function of the initial velocity ν0 with a fixed angle of inclination Φ =
45°. (Part A)
Fig. 2: Maximum range s as a function of Fig. 3: Maximum height of projection h as

the angle of inclination Φ for different a function of the angle of inclination Φ for
initial velocities. (Part B) the initial velocities. (Part C)
SZABIST 29
Conclusion: It can be observe that during the experiment the range of projectile motion is not
dependent on the mass or size of an object. The same experiment can be verified using different
types of balls with different sizes and materials.
SZABIST 30
Experiment # 9: Inductance of Solenoid
Objectives:
To connect coils of different dimensions (length, radius, number of turns) with a known
capacitance C to form an oscillatory circuit. From the measurements of the natural frequencies,
to calculate the inductances of the coils and determine the relationships between:
a) Inductance and number of turns
b) Inductance and length
c) Inductance and radius

Induction coil, 200 turns, dia. 40 mm
12150-00 Cobra3 Basic Unit 12150-00 1 11006-04 1
11006-04

12151-99 Power supply, 12 V 12151-99 1 11006-05 1
11006-05

14602-00 RS232 data cable 14602-00 1 11006-06 1
11006-06
SZABIST 30
Cobra3 Universal Recorder

14504-61 1 11006-07 Induction coil, 75 turns, dia. 25 mm 1
software
Cobra3 Function generator

12111-00 1 06515-01 Coil, 1200 turns 1
module
Induction coil, 300 turns, dia.

11006-01 1 39105-20 PEK capacitor /case 1/ 470 nF/250 V 1
40 mm

11006-02 1 06030-23 Connection box 1
32 mm

11006-03 1 07360-01 Connecting cord, 250 mm, 1
25 mm
07360-04 Connecting cord, 250 mm, blue 1 07361-04 Connecting cord, 500 mm, blue 2
07361-01 Connecting cord, 500 mm, red 2 Misc. PC, Windows® XP or higher 1

 The experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2.
 A square wave voltage of low frequency (f ≈ 500 Hz) is applied to the excitation coil L.
 The sudden change in the magnetic field induces a voltage in coil L1 and creates a free
damped oscillation in the L1C oscillatory circuit.
 The frequency 𝑓𝑜 of which is measured with the Cobra3 interface by determining time
period on one cycle as shown in Fig. 5.
 Coils of different lengths l, diameters 2r and number of turns N are available (Tab. 1).
 Connect the Cobra3 Basic Unit to the computer port using USB port.
 Start the measure program and select Cobra3 Universal Writer Gauge.
 Begin the measurement using the parameters given in Fig. 3.
 For the measurement of the oscillation period the “Survey Function” of the Measure
Software is used (see Fig. 4).
 The diameters and lengths are measured with the Vernier caliper and the measuring tape,
and the numbers of turns are given.
Fig. 2: Setup for inductance measurement
SZABIST 31
The following coils provide the relationships between inductance and radius, length and number
of turns that we are investigating:
1.) 3, 6, 7 → L =f (N)
2.) 1, 4, 5 → L/ N2 =f (l)
3.) 1, 2, 3 → L =f (r)
Table 1: Table of coil data
As a difference in length also means a difference in the number of turns, the relationship between
inductance and number of turns found in Task 1 must also be used to solve Task 2.
Fig. 3: Cobra3 measuring parameters
SZABIST 32
The distance between L1 and L should be as large as possible so that the effect of the excitation
coil on the resonant frequency can be disregarded. There should be no iron components in the
immediate vicinity.
Fig. 4: Measurement of the oscillation period with the “Survey Function”.
Fig. 4 shows the rectangular signal and the damped oscillation behind each peak. Determine the
frequency 𝑓𝑜 of this damped oscillation,
1
𝑓𝑜 =
𝑇
where T is the oscillation period.
Fig. 5: Time period of one wave
SZABIST 33
SZABIST 34
Observation Table:
i. Theoretical values using eq. 5 and Measured values using eq. 8.
Number Radius Length Theoretical Experimental Experimental Error
Coil
of Turns of coil of coil Inductance Time period Inductance %
No.
N (#) r (m) l (m) (µH) (ms) (µH)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
𝐓𝟐
𝐋𝒆 = (equation 8)
𝟒𝛑𝟐 𝐂
Where C= 0.47 µF
Plot graphs for following cases:

a. Inductances of the coils (3, 6, 7) as a function of the number of turns, at constant length
and constant radius.
b. Inductance per turn as a function of the length of coils (1, 4, 5) at constant radius.
c. Inductance of the coils (1, 2, 3) as a function of the radius, at constant length and number
of turns.
(a) (b) (c)
SZABIST 35
Experiment # 10: Mechanical Energy

Conservation / Maxwell’s Wheel
Objectives:
The moment of inertia of the Maxwell disk is determined. Using the Maxwell disk, following are
determined as a function of time:
a) The potential energy.
b) The energy of translation.
c) The energy of rotation.
SZABIST 36
02007-55 Support base DEMO 1 11207-30 Light barrier with counter 1
Support rod, stainless steel, l =

02034-00 3 07363-04 Connecting cord, 32 A, 1000 mm, blue 1
1000 mm, d = 12 mm
Support rod, stainless steel, l = Power supply 5 V DC/2.4 A with

02059-00 1 11076-99 1
370 mm, d = 10 mm 4 mm plugs
02040-55 Right angle clamp PHYWE 6 02062-00 Plate holder 1
03001-00 Meter scale, l = 1000mm 1 07542-26 Adapter, BNC-plug/socket 4 mm 1
02201-00 Cursors, 1 pair 1 39105-18 Capacitor 100 nF/250 V, G1 1
02425-00 Maxwell wheel 1 02417-04 Holding device w. cable release 1
Connecting cord, 32 A,

07363-01 1 07363-04 Connecting cord, 32 A, 1000 mm, blue 1
1000 mm, red

 The experimental set-up is shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. Using the adjusting screws on the
support rod, the axis of the Maxwell disk, in the unwound condition, is aligned
horizontally. When winding up, the windings must run inwards.
 The winding density should be approximately equal on both sides. It is essential to watch
the first up and down movements of the disk, because incorrect winding (outwards,
crossed over) will cause the “gyroscope” to break free.
 The release switch, controlling the pin to be placed in a hole of the disk, is used to release
the disk mechanically and to start the counter when determining distance and time.
 The release switch could be adjusted in way that the disk does not oscillate or roll after
the start. Furthermore, the cord should always be wound in the same direction for starting
A. Measurement of the time t

 It is required by the wheel from the start “s” to reach the light barrier.
 Connect the release switch to light barrier as it is shown in Fig. 2.
 Press the wire release and lock the position.
 Set the selection key of the light barrier to
 Press the “Set” button of the light barrier.
 Loosening the wire release stopper sets the wheel into motion and the counter of the light
barrier starts.
 After the wheel has passed the needle of the holder, the wire release is pressed again
and locked before the light barrier is interrupted.
 The counter stops as soon as the axis of rotation enters the path of light of the light
barrier.
SZABIST 37
B. Measurement of ∆𝒕
 It is used to determine the translational velocity v.
 Disconnect “Trigger In” signal from light barrier.
 Fix the wheel in the start position by means of the holder.
 Set the switch of the light barrier to
 Press the “Set” button of the light barrier.
 Loosening the wire release stopper sets the wheel into motion, the counter of the light
barrier does not start yet.
 As soon as the axis of rotation enters the light barrier, the counter starts and stops when it
moves past the light ray.
 Calculate the velocity v according to:
---- equation (1)
where d is the diameter of the spindle which is 5 mm.

Note: During the experiment one have to measure the time t the wheel required between its start
position and the position of the light barrier s and the velocity of the wheel at this position. The
distance should be varied from 15 cm to 50 cm in steps of 5 cm.
Maxwell’s wheel is used to demonstrate the conservation of mechanical energy. When the wheel
is rotated by hand to the top and released, its potential energy Epot turns into kinetic energy Erot +
Etrans (rotation and translation) as it falls. The total energy E of the system is constant and given
by:
𝑬𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑬𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 + 𝑬𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 + 𝑬𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍
Fig. 2: Connections of the light barrier (lb)
SZABIST 38
Fig. 3: Relation between the increase in angle dφ and the decrease in height 𝒅𝒔⃗ in the Maxwell disk
SZABIST 39
---- equation (2)
Fig. 4: Distance travelled by the centre of Fig. 5: Velocity of the centre of gravity of
gravity of the Maxwell disk as a function the Maxwell disk as a function of time.
of time.
As can be seen in results (Fig. 6), the potential energy is almost completely converted into
rotational energy.
SZABIST 40
Observation Table:
S. No. Distance to light Measured time to Time difference Calculated velocity
barrier (lb) reach lb. ∆𝒕 (eq.1)
h (m) t (s) (ms) V (m/s)
1 0.235 9.76 0.049 0.122

2 0.425 5.66 0.043 0.116
3
4
5
6
7
8
i. Determination of the inertia
S. No. Distance to light Calculated velocity Calculated Inertia Mean Inertia

barrier (lb) V (m/s) (eq.2 ) Iz
h (m) I (𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟐) 𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝒈 𝒎𝟐
−𝟑
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
ii. Determination of the energies
S. No. Measured time Potential Energy Translational Rotational Kinetic Energy

to reach lb. 𝑬𝒑𝒐𝒕 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉 Energy Energy Ekin = Etrans
t (J) 𝒎𝒗𝟐 𝑰𝒛𝝎𝟐 + Erot
𝑬𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔 = 𝑬𝒓𝒐𝒕 = (J)
(s) 𝟐 𝟐 (J)
(J)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
SZABIST 41
Fig. 6a: Energy of the Maxwell disk as a function of time (negative potential energy)
Fig. 6b: Energy

Fig. 6c:ofEnergy
the Maxwell
of the disk as a disk as a
Maxwell
function offunction
time (energy
of timetranslation)
(energy of rotation)
SZABIST 42
Experiment # 11: Centrifugal Action
Objectives:
a) Determination of the centripetal force as a function of mass.
b) Determination of the centripetal force as a function of the angular velocity.
c) Determination of the centripetal force as a function of the distance from the axis of
rotation to the centre of gravity of the car.
11008.00 Centripetal force apparatus 1
11060.00 Car for measuring and experiments 1
03949.00 Holding pin 1
11030.93 Laboratory motor, 220 V AC 1
11029.00 Gearing 30/1, for 11030.93 1
02845.00 Bearing unit 1
03981.00 Driving belt 1
02036.01 Support rod w. hole, 100 mm 1
SZABIST 43

 The experimental set-up is arranged as shown in above figure.
 The red pointer supplied should be fitted on the central rod of the car. It indicates the
distance (axis of rotation to centre of gravity of car).
 At the outermost end of the centrifugal apparatus, a mask is glued between the guide rods
and serves for the start-stop triggering of the light barrier.
 When measuring the duration of a complete cycle switch to mode.
 Ensure that the car does not touch the light barrier at maximum radius.
 With increasing angular velocity, the radius increases, since the force measurement
involves movement.
 This should be compensated by moving the spring balance up and downwards.
A. Determination of the centripetal force as the function of mass.

The experimental car is gradually loaded with the additional weights. The centripetal force
apparatus with a constant angular velocity is rotated with each given mass m. The force
occurring Fz is determined with the help of a spring balance. The car is connected below the
pulley to a spring balance by a thread (approx. 26 cm in length) and a decoupling hook. The
spring balance is pushed down to the maximum possible position. Now a constant angular
velocity is set to the motor, which remains constant during the entire course of the experiment.
The force Fz experienced by the measuring car without any additional weight is read. The
position r of the red pointer is marked by a piece of adhesive tape. For this purpose, the motor is
stopped by switching off. The additional weights are placed on the measuring car and the spring
balance is pushed up till the car stands a little before the pulley. The motor is switched on. By
fixing the spring balance in the upper range, it is possible to move it down (at intervals of
approx. 1 cm). By this, the indicator on the measuring car approaches the marked position ‘r’.
When its position is reached, the respective force Fz is read.
Note: If the measuring car moves beyond the marked position from the inside to the outside, the
motor is to be stopped. The spring balance is to be pulled high again and the motor is to be re-
started.
B. Determination of the centripetal force as a function of angular velocity.
The mass of the experimental car stays constant in this part of the experiment. A predetermined
radius (e.g. r = 20 cm) is marked with a piece of adhesive tape. At different angular velocities by
means of displacement of the spring balance as in part 1, the measuring car is brought to position
r. Push the car from inside to the outside. The respective forces Fz are read. The angular velocity
𝜔
⃗ is calculated from the time of rotation T.
𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅/𝑻
SZABIST 44
C. Determination of the centripetal force as the function of distance of the axis of the
rotational centre.
The mass of measuring car remains constant. A fixed angular velocity is set to the motor. The
radius of the orbit r of the measuring car is increased by means of displacement of the spring
balance and the respective centripetal force Fz and the radius r are measured.
Fig. 1: Mass m, at rest in the rotating reference system

In the reference system which rotates with the angular velocity⃗⃗⃗𝜔, the equation of motion of a
mass point (mass m, position
vector 𝑟 ) reads:
---- equation (1)
The external force field U (gravitational field) is compensated by the track, the angular velocity
𝜔 is constant, and the car is at rest in the rotating reference system (U = 0; 𝑣 = const. = 0; 𝜔
⃗ =
const.).
From (1), there only remain the centripetal force and the compensating force⃗⃗⃗𝐹, which is read on
a spring balance:
SZABIST 45
---- equation (2)

Observation Table:
i. Determination of the stiffness constant of the spring to find the radius. (Mean)
Force (Fz) N
Distance
covered (x) cm
Stiffness constant of spring _____________ N/cm.
ii. Determination of the centripetal force as the function of Mass

Constant angular velocity (𝝎) =_____________ rad/s
Force on
N
spring (Fz)
Radius
cm
(r)
Mass
g
(m)
Calculated
N
Force (Fc)
iii. Determination of the centripetal force as the function of Angular velocity

Constant mass (m) = _____________ grams.
Force on
N
spring (Fz)
Radius
cm
(r)
Angular
T
Velocity
(𝝎)
rad/s
Calculated
N
Force (Fc)
Discuss your result:
SZABIST 46
Fig. 2: Centripetal force as a function of the mass “m”
Fig. 3: Centrifugal
Fig. 4: Centrifugal
force asforce
a function
as a function
of of
radiusv
the angular velocity
SZABIST 47
Experiment # 12: Acoustic Doppler

Effect with Cobra3
Objectives:
To observe and measure frequency changes for different relative velocities of source and
observer.

12150-00 Cobra3 Basic Unit 1 11061-00 Car, motor driven 1
12151-99 Power supply, 12 V 1 11061-02 Attachment for car 1
14602-00 RS232 data cable 1 07922-01 Round cell, 1.5 V, R 14 DIN 40865 2
14511-61 Cobra3 Software 1 02006-55 Barrel base, -Pass- 2
03542-00 Microphone* 1 02043-00 Boss head 1
07496-10 Battery, 9V, 6F 22 DIN40871 1 09906-00 Support 1
13652-93 Function generator 1 07359-01 Connecting cord, l = 10 cm, red 1
02060-00 Stand tube 1 07363-01 Connecting cord, l = 100 cm, red 2

03524-00 Sound head 1 07363-04 Connecting cord, l = 100 cm, blue 2
SZABIST 48
Plug with socket and cross Connecting cord, l = 100 cm,

07206-01 1 07363-02 1
hole, 2 yellow 07363.02 1
11202-03 Screen with plug, l = 100 mm 1 11606-00 Track, l = 900 mm 1
Support rod, stainless steel, l

02037-00 1 11207-20 Light barrier, compact 1
= 600 mm

 In accordance with fig. 1 (as shown above) and fig. 3 for the case of a moving
observer, sound source at rest.
 In accordance with fig. 2 and 3 for the case of a moving sound source, observer at
rest.
 Start the "Timer / Counter" program and set the parameters for the frequency
measurement in accordance with Fig. 4.
 Set the desired frequency on the function generator, place the car with the microphone
in the vicinity of the loud speakers and measure the frequency at rest f0 several times.
 To do this depress the “S” key on the keyboard.
 Set the velocity controller on the car to an intermediate position and set the direction
of movement in such a manner that the care moves away from the loudspeakers.
 Release the car and depress the “S” key when the car’s velocity has become constant,
i.e. it is no longer accelerating.
 Repeat the entire procedure several times.
 Now, set the program for velocity measurement according to the parameters given in
Fig. 5.
 Do not change the velocity controller or the direction of movement of the car
with respect to the previous partial experiment!
 Release the car and ensure that the screen passes through the light barrier after the
car’s velocity has become constant.
 Repeat the entire procedure several times
SZABIST 49
Fig. 3: Connection Diagram Fig. 4: Parameters for frequency measurement
2. Principle of operation:
If a source of sound is in motion relative to its medium of propagation, the frequency of the
waves that are emitted is displaced due to the Doppler Effect.
Fig. 2: Experimental set-up for the case of a moving sound source and observer at rest

If a sound source Q with frequency 𝑓𝑜 moves with velocity 𝑉𝑄 towards an observer B who is
stationary relative to the medium of propagation, he hears the frequency:
C is the velocity of sound in the propagation medium. If the source moves away from the
observer at a velocity of−𝑉𝑄 , the frequency is then
For 𝑉𝑂 << C the equations (1) and (2) can be approximated by:
SZABIST 50
and therefore the frequency shift,
In the case that the sound source is at rest and the observer moves towards the source, the
following formulae apply:
----- equation (a)
When sound source is at rest and the observer moves away

from the wave generator:
----- equation (b)
where:
𝑓 = Frequency at rest
𝑣 = Speed of sound= 340 m/s
𝑣𝑜 = Velocity of observer
For the case in which the observer is at rest and the sound source moves towards the
observer, the following formulae apply:
----- equation (c)
For away from the observer,

----- equation (d)
𝑣𝑠 = Velocity of source
4. Troubleshooting
 If the device does not measure the frequency despite clearly audible tone, it may be
necessary to adapt the output voltage of the microphone amplifier to the volume of the
loud speakers.
 The function generator requires a warm-up period that is approximately 10 min long.
Subsequent to this period it provides a sinus tone at a stable frequency
 During the measurement no background noises may occur, since they would also be
registered by the microphone and could falsify the measurement.
SZABIST 51
 If several progressively smaller car velocities are successively measured, although the
position of the velocity controller has not been changed, this indicates this that there
are probably weak batteries in the car. Replace the batteries.
 The fact that the car’s forward and backward velocities differ slightly from each other
for the same velocity setting is normal and is due to the type of drive used in the car.
Fig. 5: Parameters for velocity measurement
Observation Table:
i) When both source and observer is at rest.
Distance between Transmitted Measured
source and observer Frequency by Func. Frequency by Difference between
(cm) Generator Measure Software 𝒇𝑩 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝒐
𝒇𝒐 (Hz) 𝒇𝑩 (Hz)
Min=
Mid=
Max=
CASE I: When sound source is at rest and observer is:
i) Moving towards the source (Use eq. a)

Velocity of Transmitted Measured Calculated Difference
source Frequency Frequency Frequency between
v (m/s) 𝒇𝒐 (Hz) 𝒇𝑩 (Hz) 𝒇𝑪 (Hz) 𝒇𝑩 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝑪
ii) Moving away from source (Use eq. b)
SZABIST 52

CASE II: When observer is at rest and sound source is:
i) Moving towards observer. (Use eq. c)

ii) Moving away from observer. (Use eq. c)

observer Frequency Frequency Frequency between
Discuss your result:
SZABIST 53
Experiment # 13: Stefan-Boltzmann’s law

of radiation with Cobra3
Objectives:
a) To measure the resistance of the filament of the incandescent lamp at room temperature
and calculate the filament's resistance 𝑅0 at 0°C.
b) To measure the energy flux density of the incandescent lamp at different values of lamp
current.
c) To determine the corresponding filament temperature by the resistance calculated from
the measured values of lamp current and lamp voltage assuming a second-order
temperature dependence of the filament resistance.
12150-50 Cobra3 Basic Unit, USB 1 06030-23 Connection box 1
12151-99 Power supply, 12 V 1 06057-10 Resistor in plug-in box 100 Ohm 1
Cobra3 Universal Writer Power supply

14504-61 1 13530-93 1
Software var.15VAC/12VDC/5A
SZABIST 54
08479-00 Thermopile, moll type 1 07361-04 Connecting cord, 500 mm, blue 2
07129-00 Digital multi-meter 1 07361-01 Connecting cord, 500 mm, red 3
08479-01 Shielding tube, for thermopile 1 02006-55 Barrel base PHYWE 2
06175-00 Lamp holder E 14, on stem 1 03001-00 Meter scale, l = 1000 mm 1
06158-00 Filament lamp 6 V/5 A, E14 3 PC, Windows® XP or higher

 Connect the Cobra3 Basic Unit to the computer USB port and start the program
"measure".
 Select "Gauge" > "Universal Writer". Select the "Fast measurement" chart and set the
parameters according to Fig. 2.
 First measure the lamp filament's resistance at room temperature using the circuit shown
in Fig.3.
 For the set-up of the circuit use the connection box and the 100 Ohm resistor.
 The voltage U on the lamp is to be measured with the "Analog In 1 / S1" and the current I
through the lamp with the digital multi-meter. Use the power supply as AC source.
 The 100 Ohm resistor is needed to reduce the current and thus to allow its fine
adjustment.
 Be sure you use the "AC" setting of the digital multi-meter.
SZABIST 55
Fig. 2: Parameters for universal writer

 Adjust the current to 100 mA AC and start the measurement with the "Continue" button.
 After ending the measurement use the "Survey" function to evaluate the peak-to-peak
voltage.
 The function "Analysis" > "Smooth" may help with the evaluation to improve the
visibility of the peaks.
 Divide the peak-to-peak voltage by two and by the square root of two to determine the
effective voltage on the lamp.
 Do the same for a lamp current of 50 mA AC. These currents should be low enough not
to considerably heat the filament.
 Calculate the resistance 𝑅(𝑡𝑅 ) at room temperature 𝑡𝑅 (in °C) by Ohm's law R = U/I and
from this value the resistance at 0°C 𝑅0 by:
where 𝛼 and 𝛽 are material constants of tungsten, whose values are:
 Remove the protective window of the thermopile, since this has only a low permeability
for IR radiation.
SZABIST 56
Fig. 3: Circuit for measuring the resistance of the lamp at room temperature.
 Set up the equipment according to Fig. 1 and align the thermopile in a way that it receives
the lamp's radiation with the distance between lamp and thermopile less than 20 cm.
 The helix of the filament should be at right angle to the thermopile.
 Take care that the thermopile is connected to the positive and negative terminal of the
input “Analog In 2/S2” rather than positive terminal and ground to avoid the unwanted
oscillation of the thermal voltage at the mains frequency.
 The digital multimeter is to measure the current through the lamp and "Analog In 1 / S1"
is to measure the voltage on the lamp.
 Make sure that the thermopile could adapt to the ambient temperature in order to avoid a
zero drift of the measured values.
 Set the AC current so that the digital multimeter shows 1 A. Wait a minute until the
thermopile has tempered and start a measurement with the "Continue" button.
 Increase the current through the lamp in steps of 0.5 A taking a measurement for each
current strength up to 5.5 A.
 U2 is proportional to the energy flux from the lamp if there are no other sources detected
by the thermopile as disturbing background.
 Wait always at least one minute for tempering of the thermopile.
 For evaluation use the function "Survey" to measure the amplitude of "Analog In 1"
voltage U1 in the just recorded measurement (see Fig. 4).
 Take down the effective value, which is the amplitude (half the peak-to-peak value)
divided by the square root of two.
 Use the "Show average value" function to evaluate the "Analog In 2" voltage U2.
 Note down both results in the "measure" program using "Measurement" > "Enter data
manually…" with the current I as x-data set and two channels (for U1 and U2) – measure
the new values and continue with the next current step.
SZABIST 57
The energy emitted by a black body per unit area and unit time is proportional to the fourth
power of the body's absolute temperature (Stefan-Boltzmann law). This is also valid for a grey
body. A grey body has a surface with a wavelength-independent absorption coefficient of less
than one. In this experiment the filament of an incandescent lamp is taken as a model for a grey
body and its emission is investigated as a function of its temperature
If the energy flux density L of a black body, e.g. energy emitted per unit area and unit time at
temperature T and wavelength 𝜆 within the interval 𝑑𝜆 is designated by 𝑑𝐿(𝑇, 𝜆)/𝑑𝜆
Planck’s formula states:
----- equation (1)
Integration of equation (1) over the total wavelength-range from 𝜆 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝜆 = ∞ gives the flux
density L (T) (Stefan- Boltzmann’s law).
----- equation (2)
SZABIST 58
Figure 4: Example for the use of the "Survey function" for evaluation – the amplitude is half the
peak-to peak value
The proportionality 𝐿~𝑇 4 also valid for a so-called “grey” body whose surface shows a wave
length independent absorption-coefficient of less than one.
To prove the validity of Stefan-Boltzmann’s law, we measure the radiation emitted by the
filament of an incandescent lamp which represents a “grey” body fairly well. For a fixed distance
between filament and thermopile, the energy flux ϕ which hits the thermopile is proportional to L
(T).
----- equation (3)
You may have measured negative thermo voltages for small lamp currents, due to insufficient
time to adapt the temperature of the thermopile or interference.
Since the logarithm is defined only for numbers greater than zero, you have to raise all
thermoelectric voltages measured evenly.
SZABIST 59
The absolute temperature 𝑇 = 𝑡 + 273 of the filament is calculated from the measured
resistances R(t) of the tungsten filament (t= temperature in centigrade). For the tungsten filament
resistance, we have the following temperature dependence:
----- equation (4)
SZABIST 60
Now use "Measurement" > "Channel manager…" and set the temperature data to the x-axis so as
to create a plot of the thermopile voltage vs. temperature T. A result may look like Fig. 7.
The following table shows the corresponding measurement values, the resistance 𝑅0 was
calculated as 0.16 Ohm, and the slope of the regression line is with 3.97 close to the theoretical
value of four for the exponent of Stefan-Boltzmann's law.
SZABIST 61
Observation Table:
i) Measuring resistance of the filament of the incandescent lamp at room
temperature and at 𝑹𝟎 at 0°C.
Lamp Current Lamp Voltage Resistance at room Resistance at 0°C.
I (A) U (V) temperature. 𝑹𝟎 (Ω)
𝑹(𝒕𝑹 ) (Ω)
ii) Determine the corresponding filament temperature by the resistance calculated

from the measured values of lamp current and lamp voltage assuming a second-
order temperature dependence of the filament resistance.
Lamp Lamp Resistance at Thermal Filament Energy flux
Current Voltage room voltage temperature density
I (A) U2 (V) temperature. 𝑼𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎 T (K) 𝐋(𝐓) (W-m2)
𝑹(𝒕𝑹 ) (Ω) mV – eq.6 – eq.2
Plot log graph of thermal voltage (Utherm) at thermopile and filament temperature (T) in K.
Utherm (mV)
T(K)
Expected Graphs/Results:
SZABIST 62
Table 1: Expected values
Figure 7: Example result of thermopile voltage vs. temperature T
SZABIST 63
Experiment # 14: Laws of Gyroscope

(3-axis)
Objectives:
a) Determination of the momentum of inertia of the gyroscope by measurement of the
angular acceleration.
b) Determination of the momentum of inertia by measurement of the gyro-frequency and
precession frequency. Investigation of the relationship between precession and gyro
frequency and its dependence on torque.
c) Investigation of the relationship between nutation frequency and gyro-frequency.

02555-00 Gyroscope with 3 axes 1
11207-30 Light barrier with counter 1
11076-99 Power supply 5 V DC/2.4 A 1
02556-00 Additional gyro-disc w. counter-weight 1
03071-01 Stopwatch, digital, 1/100 sec. 1
02006-55 Barrel base -PASS- 1
02205-01 Slotted weight, 10 g, 4
02206-01 Slotted weight, 50 g, black 1
02204-00 Holder for slotted weights 1
SZABIST 63

 The experimental setup is shown in the Fig.1 (shown above).
 To start with, the polar momentum of inertia 𝐼𝑝 of the gyroscope disk must be
determined.
 For this, the gyroscope is fixed with its axis directed horizontally and positioned on
the experimenting table in such a way that the thread drum projects over the edge of
the table (Fig. 2).
 The thread is wound around the drum and the accelerating mass m (m = 60 g; plate
with 5 slotted weights) is fastened to the free end of the thread.
 Several experiments are carried out for different drop heights h of the accelerating
mass, from which the corresponding average falling time 𝑡𝐹 from the moment the
gyroscope disk is released until the mass touches the floor is determined.
 The diagram of 𝒕𝑭 𝟐 versus h is plotted and the moment of inertia of the
gyroscope disk is determined from the slope of the straight line (Fig. 3).
 The gyroscope, on which no forces act, and which can move freely around its 3 axes,
is wound up and the duration 𝑡𝑅 of one revolution (rotation frequency) is determined
by means of the forked light barrier, with the axis of the gyroscope lying horizontally.
 Immediately after this, a mass m* = 30 g is hung at a distance r* = 27 cm into the
groove at the longer end of the gyroscope axis.
 The duration of half a precession rotation 𝑡𝑃 /2 must now be determined with a
manual stopwatch (this value must be multiplied by two for the evaluation).
 The mass is then removed, so the gyroscope axis can regain immobility, and 𝑡𝑅 can be
determined again.
 The inverse of the average value from both measurements of 𝑡𝑅 is entered into a
diagram above precession time 𝑡𝑃 .
 In the same way, the other measurement points are recorded for decreasing number of
gyroscope rotations.
 The slope of the resulting straight line allows to calculate the momentum of
inertia of the gyroscope disk (Fig. 6).
 If a slight lateral blow is given against the axis of the rotating gyroscope on which no
forces are acting, the gyroscope starts describing a nutation movement.
 The duration of one nutation 𝑡𝑁 is determined with the manual stopwatch and this is
plotted against the duration of one revolution 𝑡𝑅 , which is again determined by means
of the forked light barrier (Fig. 7).
2. Principle of operation:
The momentum of inertia of the gyroscope is investigated by measuring the angular
acceleration caused by torques of different known values. In this experiment, two of the axes
of the gyroscope are fixed.
The relationship between the precession frequency and the gyro-frequency of the gyroscope
with 3 free axes is examined for torques of different values applied to the axis of rotation. If
the axis of rotation of the force-free gyroscope is slightly displaced, a nutation is induced.
The nutation frequency will be investigated as a function of gyro-frequency.
SZABIST 64

a) Determination of the momentum of inertia of the gyroscope disk:
If the gyroscope disk is set to rotate by means of a falling mass m (Fig. 2), the following
relation is valid for the angular acceleration:
---- equation (1)
(ωR = angular velocity; α = angular acceleration; 𝐼𝑝 =polar momentum of inertia;

M =F · r = torque)
Fig. 2: Schematic representation of experimental setup to determine moment of inertia

of the gyroscope disk
According to the law of action and reaction, the force which causes the torque is given by the
following relation:
F = m*(g−a) ---- equation (2)
(g = terrestrial gravitational acceleration; a = trajectory acceleration)
The following relations are true for the trajectory acceleration a and the angular
acceleration α:
---- equation (3)
(h = dropping height of the accelerating mass, 𝑡𝐹 = falling time; r = radius of the thread
drum).
Introducing (2) and (3) into (1), one obtains:
---- equation (4)
SZABIST 65
From the slope of the straight line 𝑡𝐹 2 = 𝑓(ℎ) from Fig. 3, one obtains the following value
for the momentum of inertia of the gyroscope
disk:
Fig. 3: Example of determination of the moment of inertia from the slope of straight line
In general, the following is valid for the momentum of

inertia of a disk:
---- equation (5)
Taking the corresponding values for the radius R and the thickness d of the circular disk,
and the specific weight of plastic ρ =0.9 g/cm3, one obtains from (eq. 4):
b) Determination of the precession frequency:

Let the symmetrical gyroscope G in Fig. 4, which is suspended so as to be able to rotate
around the 3 main axes, be in equilibrium in horizontal position with counterweight C. If the
gyroscope is set to rotate around the x-axis, with an angular velocity ω the following is valid
for the angular momentum L, which is constant in space and in time:
𝑳 = 𝑰𝒑 . 𝝎𝑹 ---- equation (6)
SZABIST 66
Adding a supplementary mass m* at the distance r* from the support point induces a
supplementary torque M*, which is equal to the variation in time of the angular momentum
and parallel to it.
---- equation (7)
Fig. 4: Schematic representation of the gyroscope submitted to forces
Due to the influence of the supplementary torque (which acts perpendicularly in this
particular case), after a lapse of time dt, the angular momentum L will rotate by an angle dφ
from its initial position (Fig. 5).
𝒅𝑳 = 𝑳. 𝒅∅ ---- equation (8)
The gyroscope does not topple under the influence of the supplementary torque, but reacts
perpendicularly to the force generated by this torque. The gyroscope, which now is submitted
to gravitation, describes a so-called precession movement. The angular velocity 𝝎𝑷 of the
precession fulfills the relation:
---- equation (9)
SZABIST 67
Fig. 5: Precession of the horizontal axis of gyroscope
Taking 𝜔𝑃 = 2𝜋/𝑡𝑃 and 𝜔𝑅 = 2𝜋/𝑡𝑅 , one obtains:
---- equation (10)
According to (eq. 10), Fig. 6 shows the linear relation between the inverse of the duration of a
revolution 𝑡𝑅 of the gyroscope disk and the duration of a precession revolution 𝑡𝑃 for two
different masses m*. The slopes of the straight lines allow calculating the values of the
momentum of inertia, for which one obtains:
Fig. 6: Determination of moment of inertia from the slope of straight line
The double value of the torque (double value of m*) causes the doubling of the precession
frequency. If m* is hung into the forward groove of the gyroscope axis, or if the direction of
SZABIST 68
rotation of the disk is inverted, the direction of rotation of the precession is also inverted.
If the supplementary disk identical to the gyroscope disk is used too, and both are caused
to rotate in opposite directions, no precession will occur when a torque is applied.
c) Determination of the nutation frequency:
Fig. 7 represents the relation between the nutation frequency 𝜔𝑁 and rotation frequency 𝜔𝑅 .
The constant k depends on the different moments of inertia relative to the principal axes of
rotation.
---- equation (11)
Fig. 7: Nutation time 𝒕𝑵 as a function of time for one revolution 𝒕𝑹
Observation Table:
i) Determination of the momentum of inertia of the gyroscope disk.
Drop Height Falling time Falling time Momentum of Momentum of
h (m) 𝒕𝑭 (s) 𝒕𝑭 𝟐 (s2) inertia (graph) inertia (eq.5)
𝑰𝑷 (kg.m2) 𝑰𝑷 (kg.m2)
ii) Determination of the precession frequency.
SZABIST 69
Precession time Time for one Mass Momentum of Momentum of

𝒕𝑷 (s) revolution 𝒎 (kg) inertia (graph) inertia (eq.10)
𝒕𝑹 (s) 𝑰𝑷 (kg.m2) 𝑰𝑷 (kg.m2)
iii) Determination of the nutation frequency.

Nutation time Time for one Value of K
𝒕𝑵 (s) revolution (eq. 11)
𝒕𝑹 (s)
SZABIST 70
Experiment # 15: Momentum and

Angular Momentum
Objectives:
Determine the following with uniformly accelerated rotary motion:
a) The angle of rotation as a function of time,
b) The angular velocity as a function of time.
c) The angular acceleration as a function of the force,
d) The angular acceleration as a function of the lever arm.
02417-02 Turntable with angle scale 1 07542-26 Adapter, BNC-plug/socket 4 mm. 1
02417-05 Aperture plate for turntable 1 02407-00 Weight holder 1 g 1
11201-02 Precision pulley 1 03916-00 Slotted weight, 1 g, natural color 20
02417-01 Air bearing 1 02412-00 Silk thread,200m 1
Holding device w. cable Connecting cord, 32 A, 1000 mm,

02417-04 1 07363-04 1
release blue
SZABIST 70
11205-01 Pressure tube, length 1.5 m 1 02123-00 Circular level, d = 36 mm 1
Power supply 5 V DC/2.4 A Connecting cord, 32 A, 1000 mm,

11076-99 1 07363-01 1
with 4 mm plugs red
13770-97 Blower 230V/50Hz 1 02002-55 Tripod base -PASS 1
11207-30 Light barrier with counter 1 02006-55 Barrel base -PASS- 1
39105-18 Capacitor 100 nF/250V, G1 1 02010-00 Bench clamp -PASS- 2
1. Setup:
 The experimental set-up is arranged as shown in above in Fig. 1.
 Please refer to the manual of 02417-88 for details about the installation of the
turntable with air bearing.
 By means of a spirit level, and with the blower switched on, the rotary bearing is
aligned horizontally with the two adjusting feet on the support base.
 The release switch should be adjusted so that it touches the curve of the sector mask.
 The triggering range and the electrical switching point can be adjusted with the
knurled screw.
 The angular range to be measured is fixed by moving the light barrier.
 The release switch and light barrier should be connected as shown in Fig. 2.
 The precision pulley is clamped so that the thread is suspended horizontally over the
plate and is flush with the pulley.
 Adjust the tripod’s feet such that the turntable is horizontal.
 Adjust the air supply in such a manner that the rotor is just lifted by the air pressure
and rotates without vibration on its cushion of air.
2. Procedure
It is suitable to perform task 1 and 2 simultaneously. After determining the time of a certain
angle of rotation φ, the corresponding angular velocity ω is measured directly afterwards.
Then, the light barrier is moved to the next position.
Fig. 2: Connection of the light barrier (Lb).
SZABIST 71
A. Measurement of the angle of rotation φ as a function of time t:

 Place the selection key of the fork type light barrier on
 Install the light barrier in a desired angle φ with the shutter release.
 Press the wire release and lock in place.
 Press the “Set” key of the light barrier.
 Loosening the wire release stopper sets in motion the plate of rotation with the screen
and the counter starts.
 After the screen has passed the pin of the shutter release, the wire release is pressed
again and locked.
 As soon as the screen enters the light path of the light barrier, the counter stops.
 Note: If the counter stops on loosening, viz. pressing the wire release, a capacitor of
high capacitance should be connected parallel to the wire release.
B. Measurement of the angular velocity ω as a function of time t

The dark time of the sector mask in the light barrier is used (gate time Δt) for measuring
velocity. Directly after the measurement of the time of rotation t for a certain angle of
rotation φ, the corresponding angular velocity ω is determined by the following steps:
 Disconnect one of the two cords from the release switch
 Place the selection key to the light barrier at.
 Press the “Set” key of the light barrier.
 Set the plate of rotation with the screen into motion by loosening the locked wire
release. As soon as the screen enters the path of the light of the fork type light barrier,
the counter starts; it stops when the screen moves out of the light path.
 Reconnect the cord to the release switch
 Thus, Δt is measured that you need to determine the angular velocity from Δt and ∆ϕ
(the angle of the sector mask).
C. Measurement of the angular acceleration as a function of the force

 To determine the acceleration as a function of the force, the mass on the weight pan is
increased by 1g at a time.
 The instantaneous velocities are measured at a fixed location.
 Determine ω and t for each weight.
D. Measurement of the angular acceleration as a function of the lever arm

 The dependence of the acceleration on the radius is determined at constant mass.
 The instantaneous velocities are measured at a fixed location.
 The precision pulley must be aligned to the corresponding radius (height, alignment).
The light barrier is not moved.
 Determine ω and t for each radius. Three different lever arms can be adjusted
(15/30/45 mm).
3. Theory:
The relationship between the angular momentum 𝐿⃗ of a rigid body in a stationary coordinate
⃗ acting on it, is:
system with its origin at the centre of gravity, and the moment 𝑇
SZABIST 72
SZABIST 73

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

Experiment # 1: Vernier Caliper

1. Setup and Procedure:

 Clean the work piece and instruments.

2. Precautions and safety:

3. Calculation of Least count and volume of cylinder:

𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆

Experiment # 2: Screw Gauge

1. Setup and Procedure:

 Clean the work piece and the instrument.

2. Precautions and safety:

4. Calculation of pitch and least count (Show calculation):

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

i. Determine mean volume of a given sphere by using screw gauge:

Pitch Scale Circular Scale Zero Error Corrected Total Reading =

Pitch Scale Circular Scale Zero Error Corrected Total Reading =

Mean Thickness = __________________ mm.

Pitch Scale Circular Scale Zero Error Corrected Total Reading =

Experiment # 3: Hooke’s Law

1. Setup and Procedure:

Figure 1: Measurement of spring constant “K”

Distance covered (m)

Experiment # 4: Time period of a Simple

1. Setup and Procedure:

 Setup the equipment as instructed.

Figure 1: Forces acting on simple pendulum

Derive eq.2 by modifying eq.1 for finding the value of gravity:

Experiment # 5: Pressure Measurement

Figure 1: Bourdon Gauge

 Remove the piston from the unit.

Object Calculated Initial Final Volume Actual

Experiment # 7: Velocity of Sound

Item # Description Qty. Item # Description Qty.

13900.99 5 VDC Power supply 1 08062.00 Screen metal, 30x30 cm 1

13901.00 Ultrasonic transmitter on stem 1 09936.00 Measuring tape, l = 2 m 1

13902.00 Ultrasonic receiver on stem 1 03001.00 Meter scale, l = 1000 mm 1

12150.00 Cobra 3 Basic Unit 1 07542.11 Screened cable, BNC, l = 75 cm 2

12151.99 Power supply, 12 V 1 07542.27 Adapter, BNC-socket/4 mm plug 2

14602.00 RS 232 data cable 1 14504.61 Measure Software Universal writer 1

02006.55 Barrel base PASS 3

1. Setup and Procedure:

Figure 2: Settings of the software parameters.

0.16 0.18 0.394 1.293m 304.68 11%

Total path length using Pythagoras theorem:

Experiment # 8: Projectile Motion

Item # Description Qty.

1. Setup and Procedure:

Figure 1: Movement of a mass point under the effect of gravitational force.

𝒗𝒐 = √𝒗𝒆𝒙𝒑 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝋

ii. At initial velocity v2:

iii. At initial velocity v3:

ii. At initial velocity v2:

iii. At initial velocity v3:

Fig. 2: Maximum range s as a function of Fig. 3: Maximum height of projection h as

Experiment # 9: Inductance of Solenoid

Item # Description Qty. Item # Description Qty.

Induction coil, 100 turns, dia. 40 mm

Induction coil, 150 turns, dia. 25 mm

Cobra3 Universal Recorder

Cobra3 Function generator

Induction coil, 300 turns, dia.

Induction coil, 300 turns, dia.

Induction coil, 300 turns, dia.

1. Setup and Procedure:

Support rod, stainless steel, l = Power supply 5 V DC/2.4 A with

03001-00 Meter scale, l = 1000mm 1 07542-26 Adapter, BNC-plug/socket 4 mm 1

02201-00 Cursors, 1 pair 1 39105-18 Capacitor 100 nF/250 V, G1 1

Connecting cord, 32 A,