Geothermics, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 117-134, 1993. 0375-6505/93 $6.00 + 0.

00
Printed in Great Britain. Pergamon Press Ltd
CNR.

THE NESTOS DELTA GEOTHERMAL FIELD AND ITS

RELATION TO THE ASSOCIATED SELF POTENTIAL (SP)
FIELD

C. THANASSOULAS and A. L A Z O U
Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration (IGME), Department of Geophysical Research,
70 Messoghion Avenue, Athens, 115 - 26, Greece

(Received May 1992; accepted for publication January 1993)

Abstract--Prospecting for geothermal reservoirs by geophysical methods has proved to be a challenge in

recent years. In the case of Nestos geothermal field, considered to be a blind field (no surface
manifestation), the geological and geophysical data were studied and intercorrelated. The geophysical
results from SP, gravity, and VES data were compared with basement morphology and tectonics, as well
as with the high temperatures measured in the area of main geothermal interest. As a result, the highly
conductive subsurface zone and high temperatures observed on the ground surface were closely associated
with a specific fracturing system. The latter was successfully mapped by the SP method. The SP method
also defined certain fracture zones which, being highly electrically polarized, are hypothesized as future
geothermal targets.
All existing geophysical data have been re-evaluated, along with the SP data acquired over the
geothermal field, and compared with the thermal contour maps and regional tectonics of the area.
A deep borehole, drilled earlier in the area of the geothermal field, detected high temperatures in the
basement (115°C), but very low flowrate of the geothermal fuids. According to the results of this study,
this is due to the fact that the borehole was located outside the area of the main fracture zones of
geothermal interest.

INTRODUCTION
Geophysical methods are widely used in the study of geothermal fields, along with geological
investigations such as geological mapping, tectonic studies and geochemistry. Variations of the
physical parameters of the matrix rock encountered in the geothermal field are studied in detail
by means of different geophysical methods. Various methodologies are adopted, depending on
the objective of the geophysical studies and the physical quantities to be measured.
Gravity, magnetics, seismic and electrical methods generally are used in order to delineate the
main geophysical structure and hence the geological-tectonic setting of the regional geothermal
area and the geothermal field in particular. Thermal methods (gradient, heat flow, shallow
temperature, infrared photography) are used to delineate the geothermal field and its extent,
while microseismic studies are often used to delineate the geothermal reservoir and microearth-
quakes are used to detect major hydrothermal convection systems.
Surface electrical methods are frequently adopted in exploration for geothermal resources.
The use of these methods is justified by the fact that the electrical conductivity of ionic
conductors increases largely with temperature. The conductivity of the host rock of the
geothermal field generally increases because of wall rock hydrothermal alteration and hydro-
thermal mineral deposition in fracture zones. On the other hand, thermoelectric and electro-
kinetic coupling mechanisms generate self-potential anomalies of several tens of miUivolts over
geothermal fluid flowpaths (fracture zones in the basement rock). Consequently, the thermal
and electrical methods are probably the most useful and widely used in geothermal research.
117
118 C. Thanassoulas and A. Lazou

., :2 I ,
2• !: ~

Sea ?>~" %~- N"

g target area ~ ~'
fault

Fig. 1. Location map of the study area in Greece, and tectonic setting of the Nestos river delta. (1) = crystalline
basement outcrop; (2) = Nestos river; (3) = delta of Nestos river; N1,2,3 = boreholes for petroleum exploration;
parallelogram indicatesthe area of interest shown in Fig. 2,

In the case of Nestos geothermal field (Prinos basin, Fig. 1), the surface thermal manifes-
tations are limited (only one hypothermal spring of 21°C exists). The regional area is
characterized by intense tectonics. The lower sedimentary sequence, overlying a basement with
a high temperature (127-178°C), shows a high thermal gradient.
High values of the reflectivity factor observed in vitrinite indicate reheating of the mineral at
270°C, probably due to a plutonic intrusion.
The existence of plutonic intrusions, along with the intense tectonics that characterize the
area, could result in a high thermal gradient and rise of the thermal contours at basement level.
The geothermal survey was focused on the flanks of the basement horsts in Prinos graben
(Kolios, 1988), where the geothermal system is connected with the intense tectonism that
creates faults of a NE and NW direction and the rise of the basement (Sotiropoulos, 1988).
The reservoir was expected to be met either in the conglomerates just above the basement, or
in the marbles of the basement (Sotiropoulos, 1989).
A deep borehole (Nestos l-G, denoted as B H in the following figures) was drilled to a depth of
1377 m in the area. High temperatures (115°C) were observed in the basement, but very low
flowrates of geothermal fluids.

GEOLOGICAL AND TECTONIC SETTING

The sedimentary basin of the Delta of Nestos (450 kmZ), is part of Prinos basin (Fig. 1).
Mountains consisting of marbles and gneiss of the Rhodope Massif border the basin in the north,
while the Thracian Sea represents its western and southern boundaries.
The older sediments of the basin belong to the Mid-Lower Miocene (with maximum thickness
of 1500 m at the centre of the basin), and consist of clastic-deltaic and land formations. The
clastic sediments are overlain by the evaporitic series of the marine sedimentary phase of the
Upper Miocene (thickness approximately 700 m). The younger sediments of the basin are
formations of Plio-Quaternary age (1000 m approx.). The basement consists of metamorphosed
rocks of the Rhodope Massif (gneiss, gneiss-schists, amphibolites and marbles).
 Nestos Delta Geothermal Field 119

A BH

ERATINON CHRISOCHORI
1

1 AGIASMA
#
Fig. 2. Geological sketch m a p of the study area. (1) = alluvial sediments; (2) = w e a t h e r e d material; (3) = gneiss-schists;
(4) = marbles; (5) = mica schists; B H = borehole Nestos l-G; solid areas are villages.

The borders of Nestos basin are defined by faults of NE-SW and NW-SE direction. These
faults contribute to the formation of the graben and horst structures in the area.
A geological sketch map of the Nestos Delta area is shown in Fig. 2.

G E O T H E R M A L SURVEY OF THE NESTOS DELTA AREA

In 1977 three deep (3000--4000 m) boreholes were drilled (Fig. 1) for hydrocarbon exploration
by the Public Petroleum Corporation (PPC). The high temperatures (127-178°C) and geo-
thermal gradient (3.48°C/100 m-4.09°C/100 m) observed were the first promising indications for
geothermal research.
Geochemical analysis (SIO2) of water samples collected from shallow boreholes and wells
indicated temperatures of 80-100°C in the geothermal reservoir.
In the period 1983-1986, 14 shallow boreholes were drilled. From the temperatures measured
in the boreholes, the temperature maps at various depths and the geothermal gradient map were
compiled. Two temperature cross-sections along a NW-SE and NE-SW direction were
compiled from the existing temperature maps, at several depths (200-600 m).
A deep borehole (Nestos l-G) was drilled at 1700 m NW of Eratinon village (Fig. 2). The main
geological formations crossed are the following:
(i) from ground surface down to 715 m, clastic sediments such as sandstones, micro-
conglomerates, clastic limestone, clay, siltstone;
(ii) from 715 m down to 760 m, basal breccia that appeared to be very compact. The existence
of an aquifer there was excluded;
(iii) from 760 m down to 1377 m, formations of the metamorphic basement (gneiss,
amphibolites of the Rhodope Massif) were found.
The temperature measured at 1377 m depth was 115°C, while a short duration pumping test
revealed very low flowrates.
120 C. Thanassoulas and A. Lazou
GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS
Previous geophysical surveys
ABEM (1966) covered northern Greece with airborne magnetics as part of a large pro-
gramme for mineral exploration. Some years later, Makris (1977) compiled a preliminary
gravity map of Greece. In that same year (1977), the Institute of Geology and Mineral
Exploration (IGME) compiled a detailed gravity map of the delta of the Nestos river, on behalf
of PPC, for hydrocarbon exploration purposes. A first approach to interpreting both the
magnetic and gravity data of the delta of the Nestos river was attempted by Loucoyannakis
(1981), and a preliminary model of the structure of the basin was presented. Two gravity profiles
were modelled in terms of basement topography by Thanassoulas and Tsokas (1984). Reflection
seismics were conducted by PPC (1985) and by the IGME (Vasiliadis, 1988), in an attempt to
define the various reflectors related to the main geological formations in the area. A detailed
small-scale electrical study of the geothermal area was performed by Thanassoulas (1984),
which resulted in the compilation of the apparent resistivity map for AB/2 = 500 m, while the
fracture zones and faults determined from the same electrical study were correlated with the
already known geological faults. In 1984, two deep electrical profiles were conducted in order to
study the deep structure of the basin and were combined with a detailed interpretation of the
gravity field along the same profiles (Thanassoulas et al., 1987).
The geophysical surveys conducted in the area indicated the intense tectonic character of the
basement and, therefore, the need for a detailed study of the fracture zones and faults, which are
the main flowpaths of the geothermal fluids in the geothermal field. Consequently, an extended
SP survey was conducted over the area of interest.

SP survey
Self-potential (SP) anomalies have been observed in areas of geothermal interest, so that this
method is used in geothermal research.
Self-potential surveys conducted in a variety of geothermal areas have shown anomalies
ranging from 50 to 2000 mV in amplitude over distances of about 100 m to 10 km. Positive,
negative, bipolar, and multipolar anomalies have been reported from different areas.
The possible mechanisms producing such SP anomalies are thermoelectric coupling (Heikes
and Ure, 1961) and electrokinetic coupling (Mclnnes, 1961).
The SP method has been used to study a large number of geothermal fields. SP measurements
in geothermal areas have shown anomalous regions associated with near-surface thermal zones
and faults thought to be fluid conduits (Zohdy et al., 1973; Corwin, 1976; Anderson and
Johnson, 1976; Zablocki, 1976; Mabey et al., 1978; Thanassoulas, 1988). An excellent account
of the SP method used in geothermal exploration is given by Corwin and Hoover (1979).
Field operations took place in autumn 1989. Ten SP profiles were surveyed over the Nestos
delta area. Spacing between the survey lines was 1000 m, while the sampling interval between
successive observations was 100 m (Fig. 3).
Field procedure and data processing have already been presented elsewhere (Thanassoulas
and Lazou, 1990). Raw data and the corresponding processed SP profile are presented in Fig. 4
while the compiled SP map is shown in Fig. 6a. Interpretative solutions of SP anomalies are
available for a wide range of problems. One group of solutions is directed at mineral exploration
(Meiser, 1962; Paul, 1965), while another group is focused on geothermal exploration. In the
second case, solutions for vertical contacts are available (Fitterman, 1978; Corwin et al., 1981).
This approach suits the tectonic character of the Nestos Delta geothermal field and conse-
quently the "patch model" was adopted for the modelling procedure used to simulate deep
fracture zones circulated by hot water (Fitterman, 1979).
 Nestos Delta Geothermal Field 121
-%

../// N

4
N
I
. . f//

_x-

Fig. 3. Location m a p of the SP profiles. T1 . . . . 10 = location of SP profiles T 1 , . . . I0. A g i a s m a and Eratinon villages are
also shown.

According to this model the polarized source consists of a dipping plane. This plane defines a
contact between two regions with different thermoelectric properties. The geothermal "active"
region has a strike length, L, and a depth extent, T. The depth to the top of the body is Z0, the
dip angle is D and its co-ordinates in the arbitrary X, Y Cartesian system (the Y co-ordinate
being along the profile) are X0, II0. The polarization charge (Po) is expressed in terms of mV,
while the strike angle (A) is counted clockwise from the X axis.
The main SP anomalies observed in the SP map have been modelled using the "patch model"
and the corresponding SP models are marked with letters A,B,C,D1,D 2 in Fig. 6b. A sample of
the modelling procedure is presented in Fig. 5, for the SP anomaly marked as B.

Integration of geological, geothermal and geophysical data

An attempt is made to integrate all the available geophysical, geological and geothermal data
in order to draw conclusions about the areas of main geothermal interest.
Figure 7 presents the apparent resistivity for AB/2 = 500 m over a map of temperature at
-600 m.
The elongation of the contours of the temperature map (-600 m) eastwards indicates
fracturing in a SW-NE direction, while the NW-SE direction is also evident.
The geoelectric data (apparent resistivity map for AB/2 = 500 m) give the lower values of
apparent resistivity over the area where higher temperatures have been observed.
122 C. Thanassoulas and A. Lazou
60

50

40
RAW DATA

30

v
-10 _
PROCESSED DATA '~ "

r i i 1 i 6/
& 7'o 7'~
DISTANCE IN METERS X 100

Fig. 4. SP profile T5. Raw and processed data.

13t
o real SP anomaly B

+ model

t ).,J
,7, i~% 5o 0~

10 Z

Fig. 5. Modelling of SP anomaly B. L = strike length; T = depth extent; Z 0 = depth to the top of the body; D = dip
angle; A = strike angle.
 Nestos Delta Geothermal Field 123

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Fig. 6a. Location map of fracture zones and faults determined from the SP data. Thin lines = SP contours in mV; thick
straight lines = fracture zones/faults; polygons = location of villages.
124 C. Thanassoulas and A. Lazou

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Fig. 6b. Location map of models A, B, C, D1, D2. Arrow indicates direction of dip, associated figure indicates the dip
angle counted from the horizontal plane. (1) = SP contour lines in mV; (2) = synthetic SP profile from which DI ,D2 SP
models were calculated.
 Nestos Delta Geothermal Field 125

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Fig. 7. A p p a r e n t resistivity for AB/2 = 500 m on top of m a p of t e m p e r a t u r e at - 6 0 0 m. (1) = a p p a r e n t resistivity

contours in iq.m; (2) = t e m p e r a t u r e contours in °C.
126 C. Thanassoulas and A. Lazou
The shape of the thermal gradient map of the area of interest (Fig. 8) indicates the existence of
two main fracture zones of a NW-SE and NE-SW trend, respectively. These fracture zones are
marked by parallel solid lines in the same map.
There is an area (left of Eratinon village) in the northern geoelectrical profile (A) (Fig. 8),
where the resistivity value of the overlying electrical formations is 4.5 l).m. Their thickness is
very large, while their horizontal extent is limited. Comparing this area to the location of the
main trends of the thermal gradient, we observe a good coincidence, which leads us to
hypothesize the presence in the basement of a highly fractured zone located in the same place.
The intense fracturing of the basement shown in the gravity and geoelectric profiles coincides
mainly with the bend in the curves of the temperature-depth profile in a SW-NE direction (Figs
9, 10). The position of this bend coincides with the area of low resistivity values (4.5 ~.m),
shown in Fig. 10, and the area of intense faulting that is revealed by gravity modelling (Fig. 9).
Comparison of the gravity models with the geoelectric ones (Fig. 11) reveals the existence of a
horst (northern profile), with overlying sediments of very low resistivity values (2.7-3.3 ~).m).
On the other hand, the deepening of the basement below the highly conductive (4.5 l~.m)
electrical formation does not agree with the corresponding gravity model, because of the
presence in the same area of the main fracture zone in the basement. Circulation of hot water
takes place in this fracture zone. Far lower resistivity values are obtained for the basement
during interpretation of the electrical data, and the depth of the basement (high resistivity
electrical formation) is wrongly located at greater depths than its real value.
In Figs 12 and 13, the faulting system revealed from the SP investigation (Fig. 6a) correlates
very well with the corresponding faulting system revealed by gravity and geoelectrical model-
ling.
Finally, a very good correlation of the faults determined by geological, geoelectrical and SP
methods is evident in Fig. 14.
The models resulting from analysis of the SP anomalies are corroborated by the fault system in
the gravity and geoelectrical models (Figs 12, 13). Furthermore, the SP model C, considered to
be a geothermally active fracture zone/fault, coincides in location with the area of low resistivity
values (1.5-2.7 ~ . m ) of the southern (B) deep geoelectrical- model.

CONCLUSIONS
Nestos geothermal field has been studied by means of the SP method, as well as the
integration of all existing geological, geothermal and geophysical data.
The integrated interpretation of all the above-mentioned data revealed the existence of a
highly tectonized basement. The intense fracturing of the basement revealed by geological,
gravity, geoelectric and seismic investigations coincides with the area of high thermal gradients
and temperatures, low resistivity values of the overlying sediments and specific anomalies on the
SP contour map.
As a result of these studies, it was revealed that the highly conductive subsurface zone and the
high temperatures observed on the ground surface were closely associated with the specific
fracture system. The latter was successfully mapped by the SP method. The SP method defined
certain fracture zones as being highly electrically polarized, which are hypothesized as future
geothermal targets.
A deep borehole drilled earlier in the geothermal field detected high temperatures in the
basement (115°C), but very low values of flowrate.
According to the results of this study, this is due to the fact that the borehole was sited outside
the area of the main fracture zones of geothermal interest.
 Nestos Delta Geothermal Field 127

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Fig. 8. Geoelectrical modelling of the basement on top of the thermal gradient map. (1) = thermal gradient contours,
in °C/100 m; (2) = fracture zones/faults; (3) = basement defined by geoelectrical method, referred to geoelectrical
profile A: (4) = low resistivity zone (1.5-2.7 fl.m), referred to geoelectrical profile B.
128 C. Thanassoulas and A. Lazou

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Fig. 9, Gravity modelling of the basement, on top of the temperature cross-sections. (1) = basement model revealed by
the gravity method along profiles C and D; (2) = thermal contours (cross-section) along profiles E and F, in °C.
 Nestos Delta Geothermal Field 129

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Fig. 10. Geoelectrical basement modelling, on top of the temperature cross-sections. (1) = thermal contours (cross-
section) along profiles E and F in °C; (2) = basement model revealed by the geoelectrical model along profile A;
(3) = low resistivity zone (1.5 - 2.7 l~.m) underneath geoelectrical profile B).
130 C. Thanassoulas and A. Lazou

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Fig. 11. Modelling of basement by geoelectrical and gravity method. (1) = basement model defined by the gravity
method along profiles C and D; (2) = basement model defined by the electrical method along profile A; (3) = low
resistivity zone (1.5 - 2.7 l).m) underneath geoelectrical profile B.
 Nestos Delta Geothermal Field 131

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Fig. 12. Fracture zones and faults determined from SP data on top of gravity modelling of the basement. (1) = b a s e m e n t
model defined by the gravity m e t h o d along profiles C and D; (2) = SP contours; (3) = fracture zones/faults.
132 C. Thanassoulas and A . Lazou

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Fig. 13. Fracture zones and faults determined from SP data on top of the geoelectrical modelling of the basement.
(1) = basement model defined by the geoelectrical method along profile A; (2) = SP contours in mV; (3) = fracturc
zones/faults; (4) = low resistivity zone (1.5 - 2.7 ,O.m) underneath the geoelectrical profile B.
 Nestos Delta Geothermal Field 133

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Fig. 14. SP models on top of fracture zones/faults determined by geological and geoelectrical methods. (l) = fracture
zones/faults mapped by geological methods; (2) = fracture zones/faults defined by the geoelectrical methods; (3) = SP
contours in mV; A,B,C,D1,D2 = SP models.
134 C. Thanassoulas and A. Lazou
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