Unit 1

Geophysics
Introduction to geophysics: -
The science concerned with all aspects of physical properties and processes
of earth and their interpolation, e.g. Seismology, Gravity of rocks, Magnetism, heat
flow.
The technique of geophysical survey involving the remote sensing of some
physical properties of the ground listing instruments, which in most cases remain on
the ground surface
Passive methods accurately measure earth’s properties and search for minute
anomalies (local distortion with over all pattern or deviation from normal valve).
These include gravity survey, Magnetic survey, and radioactivity.
Induction methods send a signal into ground and pick it again. These include
Seismic, Electric, Electromagnetic and RADAR Survey.
Interpretation of geophysical survey invariably requires bore-hole data either
to calibrate profile or to test drill anomalies.
Geophysics is low cast compare to multiple bore holes. It can be cost
effective in sight investigation. There is no single geophysical system applicable to
all problems.
Geophysical information consists of signal plus noise. The signal is
information or message and noise constitutes the extraneous effect i.e. the factors
other than the ore body, which we are exploring. The noise may be cultural (Man
mad) or it may be related to geological features e.g. Topographic features on plan.
The signal divided by noise ratio must be high so as to yield meaningful information.

UTILITY OF GEOPHYSICS IN EXPLORING ORE DEPOSITS

OR MINERAL RESOURCES
Geophysical information is interpreted to geological pattern and evaluates
relationship between rock types, stratigraphic sequences and mineralization.
Geophysical conditions do not find an ore body directly, but indicates the
conditions favorable for formation of ore body, e.g. a high density material may
indicate an ultra-mafic rock. Geophysical information may bring out characteristic
significance of geological features or geological conditions e.g. a fault zone or thrust
zone. These are conditions, which are favorable for the presence of ore body, by
using a number of geophysical methods for the same anomaly; the number of
interpretation can be down. A magnetic anomaly coincide with highly conductive
zone would indicate pegmatite or rock rich in pyrite or praphite. One geophysical
method is rarely sufficient for interpretation. However application of many methods
can be sometimes fruitful. A magnetic anomaly having a high shape and size
strongly indicate presence of pyrrotide, pyrite, Magnetite. Each geophysical method
contrast essential physical properties between ore and enclosing ore body. The
anomaly heavily is dependent upon shape, size and depth. The use of geophysics in
exploring ore bodies starts with reconnaissance stage with air-borne geophysical
methods some geophysical methods indicate ore body directly, e.g. radiometric
prospecting of Uranium, Magnetic prospecting of iron ore, Electric of resistivity
methods are used for zones of base metal mineralization.

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FEILD

Earths magnetic field can be fairly well described by postulating a small but
powerful permanent magnetic bar located near the center of earth and inclined about
11½° from the geographical axis. The north seeking end of a needle (i,e south of
needle) points to the magnetic north pole. A compass needle i.e. free to swing in a
horizontal plane does not point to the geographical north. The angle of east or west
deviation from the true north is called magnetic declination. The declination would
be Zero every where, if magnetic north pole coincide with the geographical North
Pole. A magnetic needle free to pivot in a vertical plane (called a dip needle)
measures the inclination of magnetic field, i.e. the angle that the field makes with
the surface of the earth. At the equator, where the inclination is Zero, the dip needle
takes a horizontal position. Where the angle of inclination i
is related to latitude θ by simple formula
Tanθ= ½ tan i

Figure
The compass and dip needle together give the direction of the geomagnetic field.
The intensity of geomagnetic field is measured with device called a Magnetometer.
The unit of magnetic field strength is Gauss. The earth’s magnetic field is about .5
Gauss near the surface of the earth. Earth’s magnetic field originates is the fluid Iron
outer core. “Walter Elsasser & Edward Bullard” proposed that a dynamo actually
exists in the earth’s outer core, which generates its own magnetic field.

PALEOMAGNETISM / FOSSIL MAGNETISM:

 A property of hot Magnetable material is that, when cooled below curie point
(Critical temperature) they become magnetized in the direction of surrounding
magnetic field. This is called Thermo-ruminant magnetism. Some sedimentary
rocks containing magnetic materials also take on remnant magnetization this are
called Detrital Ruminant Magnetization. The Paleomagnetism leads to the discovery
of 3 important phenomena. 1) Polar Wandering 2) Reversal of geomagnetic field 3)
Sea floor spreading as a magnetic tape recorder.

Polar Wandering:-
Once the direction of remnant magnetism in a rock is measured, it is possible to
determine the position of magnetic pole at the time of rock was magnetized. Ancient
pole position when plotted for reminant inclination and declinations found in rock
formations of different ages seem to have wandered extensively in the past. Actually
it has been found that it is the plates of lithosphere that wander with the axis of
rotation, carrying the geography along. Paleoclimate data such as occurrence of coal
beds in Polar Regions and glacier deposits near equator may be taken as a good
evidence for the movement of evidence, as implied by polar wandering.

Reversal of Geomagnetic Field and Sea floor as Magnetic tape Recorder: -

Roughly after every half million year’s earth’s magnetic field changes polarity,
taking few thousand years to reverse its direction. The reversals are clearly indicated
in the fossils magnetic records of layered lava floor near mid-oceanic ridge.
The direction of ruminant magnetism can be obtained for each layer and in this
way the time sequence of flip flop of the field (i.e. magnetic anomaly can be
obtained). Rocks strongly magnetized in the normal direction (Present direction of
the magnetic poles) would show a positive anomaly reversely magnetized rocks
shows negative anomaly. In mid-oceanic ridges, the bands of positive and negative
anomalies are linear over hundreds of miles and shows almost perfect symmetry
with respect to the central magnetic anomaly. Magnetic anomalies on the sea floor
enable geophysicists to plot a magnetic stratigraphic section, showing the historical
sequence of worldwide magnetic reversal base in geological time to the Jurassic
period.

Interior of Earth: - (Evidence from geophysics)

The indirect method used to obtain information about the earth’s interior comes
from branch of earth science called geophysics. There are many geophysical
resources, which are important sources of information about the earth’s interior,
which are as:
1) Density: - Near the surface of the earth variation in densities are found to
range from 2gm/cc for unconsolidated sediments (Solid sedimentary rocks,
 shale, limestone) to about 3.4gm/cc for the heaviest igneous rocks (Basaltic
rock, peridotite). But the earth’s average density comes about 5.5gm/cc
because of the greater part of the known rock of the earth’s outer most zone
is the density of granite 2.6 or Basalt 3gm/cc, which is less than average
density value (5.5gm/cc) therefore earth’s density must become very great
towards the center in order to give average value of 5.5gm/cc. the most
reasonable conclusion is that there exists a core of high density about
11gm/cc.
2) Temperature: - Temperature increases greatly into earth’s interior.
Measurement of rock temperature in mines and bore holes shows that the rate
of temperature rise (thermal gradient) is average about 1° c/30m or 1° F/50ft.
of depth. For this figure the rate is about 100° F/mile and if this rate kept up
for the whole 4000miles to earth’s center the temperature there would be
400,000°F.
The Asthenosphere is the upper part of the upper mental suggests that
temperature in that region must be close to melting point of materials
composing the Asthenosphere. Seismological evidence suggests that the
mental below the Asthenosphere has a solid consistency, and so the
temperature in that region must be lower than the melting point of the
material under the prevailing conditions. Heat flow value is maximum in
mid-oceanic ridges and at deep sea trenches and lowest heat flow exists in
continents, therefore it indicates rise in temperature from surface to earth’s
interior.
3) Pressure: - Confining pressure can be described in same way that the pressure
of atmosphere or ocean is described about 1/3rd of distance down to the
earth’s center the pressure is 1000000atm. at the center. At the center of the
earth it is about 350,000,000atm. The material at the earth’s center point has
no wait, because it is being attracted outward equally in all directions by the
mass of sphere that surrounds it. However the confining pressure is greatest
here, because the combining wait of the entire earth mass is directed towards
that one point.
4) Meteorites: - These were formed from much of the same form of matter as
terrestrial elements making up the earth. Therefore it is easy to understand
why the core material of the earth is reasonably interpreted as being Fe or Fe,
Ni composition and the surrounding zone as being largely of Dunite (Olivine
or rock containing olivine mineral)
5) Seismic Source: - Study of seismic waves to get the information about the
interior has much importance, because the seismic waves (P & S waves)
move with different velocities in different medium. Study of these waves has
confirmed the existence of spherical core at the center of earth. If the core of
the earth were in solid state entirely the P waves and S waves would travel
 through the center in all possible directions, but it was found that there is a
large region on the side of globe opposite to the earth quake focus where the
S waves are not received. Physicists know that S waves (Transverse waves)
cannot be send through liquid, hence they have agreed that earth’s core (outer
core) is in a liquid state in contrast to the surrounding part. Because of the
wave bounding as the P waves travel through core, there is a zone between
103°-143° distant from the earthquake origin, where no direct S waves and P
waves are received. Earth quake wave move faster in rigid material therefore
the speed of the wave are slow in low rigid material. E.g. Clay, faster in
sedimentary rocks, slightly faster in granite; Clay > Sedimentary rocks >
granite >Basalt > Peridotite > Gabbro > Dunite.
The crust is separated from Mental by rather abrupt and clearly defined change in
the velocity of earth quack wave indicating abrupt change in rigidity. A change in
rigidity indicates mineral composition or mineral components of rock.
P = 33/4 m/s -Granite
P = 4 m/s -Basalt
Earth’s Thermal History: -
We cannot positively reconstruct the earth’s thermal history by working
backward in time from present day observational data and being an infinite number
of thermal histories could have caused our planet to evolve to its present state.
Nevertheless, we can make plausible models by invoking as always our general
knowledge of the earth and other planet and making the best use of such data that
gained from studies of heat flow, radio activity, the ability of rocks to transmit heat
(Thermal conductivity), properties of heated rocks and times of seismic waves. We
have no guarantee that these models correspond to anything that happened, but they
do provide insight about the present thermal state of earth, as well as its possible
history. Radioactivity and conversion of gravitational to thermal energy are thought
to be the measure source of internal heat. The process of planetary ion and adiabatic
compression warmed the interior and earth started on its revolutionary course about
4.7 billion years ago, with an initial temperature that may have been some where
1000°C. Radioactivity then took over and internal temperature began to rise. Core-
Mental separation was triggered perhaps 44.5billion years ago, when the
temperature rose to the melting point of iron. The sinking of vast drops of iron to
the core would have liberated some 2×1037 ergs of gravitational energy in the form
of heat. This source of heat was great enough to produce extensive melting and
reorganization, resulting in a different shaded earth zone into core, Mental and crust.
Heat Flow by Conductions: -
Heat energy in a solid exists as the vibration of atoms. The intensity of
vibration determines temperature. Heat is conducted when the thermally agitated
atoms and molecules colloid with one another, thus mechanically transferring
vibration motion from the hot region to the cool one. The quantity of heat transferred
per unit time between two points is proportional to the temperature difference per
unit distance and to property called thermal conductivity, which differs for each
substance and its ability to conduct heat. Rock is a very poor conductor e.g. a lava
flow of 100meters thick would take about 300years to cool.

Gradient of Heat Flow and Factors controlling Heat Flow: -

Below the surface of earth there is a progressive heating of the deeper regions of
earth’s crust that depends upon heat flow. The heat flow is determined by the
product of temperature or thermal gradient and heat conduction of rocks.
Geothermal gradient means increase in temperature in rocks with depth. The value
is expressed in °C/m. The average geothermal gradient as measured in bore holes
and mines is about 3° C/100m. the geothermal gradient of various regions of the
earth are considerably different from each other and vary between .1°Cm - .01°C/m.
Deviation from the values of geothermal gradient found to be dependent on the
following factors:
1) Heat conduction of rocks.
2) Condition of bedding; (Geothermal gradient is maximum for horizontal
bedding)
3) Temperature and conditions of circulation of underground water. 4)
Relief of territory.
5) Volcanic activity.
6) Geochemical factors.
7) Geological bodies; (Oil, gas, coal deposits etc.) Geothermal gradient
is characterized by positive value.
On the continent (Ancient crystalline shields) where Asthenosphere is absent or
very thin, the average density of heat flow in shield areas is equal to 3.76 J/cm2/sec.
In tectonically active areas, where Asthenosphere is properly expressed the heat
flow is about 7.52 J/cm2/sec. the intensity of heat flow in rift zones is about 8.36
J/cm2/sec. Highest heat flow value 15 J/cm2/sec. on the continent are discovered in
the regions of contemporous volcanism, where the Asthenosphere rises right up to
the sole of earth’s crust.
Measurement of Heat Flow: -
Several thousand measurements of heat flow have been made on land and on the
sea floor. To calculate a measure heat flow value, first the thermal gradient (rate of
increase of temperature with depth in the earth) should be measured then this value
is multiplied by the thermal conductivity of the rock, which measures out ward heat
flow per unit area per unit time. Thermometers are inserted in boreholes to measure
the temperature within the depth.
Heat flow = Geothermal gradient × Conductivity
Temperature in the Earth: -
The average increase of temperature with depth as measured in bore-holes or mines
is about 3°C/100m. Temperatures in the continental crust are well known from
measurements of surface heat flow, which can be separated into heat contributions
from radioactive surfacial rocks and from underlying region. Knowledge of these
sources of heat is sufficient to fix the temperature for the continental crust.
Geotherm or temperature depth profiles, typically of geologically old and stable
regions will show lower temperature and of tectonically young and active regions
will show high temperature as show below.

Figure
We can not simply extrapolate the temperature curves for the crust by straight
line extension all the way to the depth of earth’s core at 2900kms for that it would
give a temperature at least 2500°C, which would mean that most of the earth would
have been molten. This impossible situation shows that the important radioactive
elements are concentrated in the outer most layers (crust) and rate of temperature
increases with depth (Geothermal gradient) must lessen below this radioactive hot
zone. More efficient heat transfer in deeper layer will also decrease the temperature
gradient, so as not to give high values. Seismology reveals that the Asthenosphere
is partially molten, therefore the temperature at this depth (100km) should be at the
solidous or point of insipient melting, which according to laboratory geologists
should be about 1100°-1200°C, this is just about the temperature at which lavas
issue from oceanic volcanism, which provides a new clock.
Formation of Liquid Core: -
Recently a new melting point curve for iron has been used by geophysists to fix
temperature at high pressure in the core. The temperature at core-Mental boundary
must exceed the melting point of iron to account for the liquid core and stay below
that of mental to account for its solidity. More ever the geotherms must cross over
and fall below the Iron melting point curve at 5100km in order to provide solid inner
core.
A geotherm, showing how temperature may increase with the depth from surface
to the center of earth, the geotherm reaches the point of initial melting in the
partially molten Asthenosphere and outer core.
Convection Currents: -
In the upper mental there is a zone between 100-400kms below the earth’s surface
where seismic waves travel more slowly. It is interpreted that in this layer the
…………. of earth’s mental is sufficiently close to its melting temperature and
50% of it is in the molten state, this zone is called Asthenosphere. If the outer part
of earth moves related to inner parts it is likely to do so along this layer. It is now
widely accepted that the tectonic phenomenon i.e. plate motion, mountain building
and earth quakes are accounted for by internal convection currents.
Author Holmes proposed a model in which he compared the earth with a pan of
cooling water in which convection currents developed. The hotter water rives in the
center of the pan and spread out at the surface, cools and sends down the sides of
pan. According to him convection in which flow of matter takes in outer several
kilometers of the earth, explains an ascending hot plume spreads, latterly at mid
oceanic ridges, cools by conduction to the ocean and solidifies to form cold, brittle
boundary layer- Lithosphere.
A descending cold plume, the sub dented Lithosphere. The cycle of convection is
completed by a counter current several 100kms below the surface, which heats up
and rises again. Buoyancy forces of light hot ascending plume and the density of
cold descending plume dry the flow. The energy source of convection current is
radioactive plus perhaps of the original heat left over from early years of the planet.
The evidence for the convection current is velocity of flow, which is calculated for
the model, agrees with the flow spreading rates and the heat coming from the surface
metals with the observational data quit well.

Gravitational Field of Earth

Introduction:
The basics of gravity survey method is Newton’s law of gravitation, it states that
the force of attraction (F) between two masses m1 and m2 whose
dimensions are small with respect to the distance r between them is given by
F = Gm1 m2
r2
Where ‘G’ is the gravitational constant (6.67m3kg/sec2), force is related to mass by
an acceleration and GM/R2 = g is known as gravitational acceleration or simply
gravity. The wait of mass is given by mg. The gravitational acceleration g is a vector
quantity having both magnitude and direction.
Units of Gravity: -
The mean value of gravity at the earth’s surface is about 9.80m/sec2 the unit of
micrometer/ sec/sec is referred to as gravity unit (gu). The c.g.s. unit of gravity is
the milligale (1milligale = 10 3gu = 10 3 cm/sec2).
 g would have a single constant value on the surface of earth if the earth were a
perfect sphere. But the earth is a non uniform, non spherical and rotating.
All these contribute to the variation of g over the surface of earth.
Variation with Latitude: -
Gravity varies (increases from equator to poles) with latitude because of the non-
spherical shape of earth and because of the angular velocity of a point on the surface
of the earth decreases from maximum at the equator and zero (0) at the poles. Earth
is an oblate spheroid whose difference in equator and polar radii is about 21km.
Consequently points near the equator are farther from the center of the earth than
those near the poles, causing gravity to increase from equator to poles. The net effect
of these various factors is that gravity at poles exceeds gravity at the equator by
some 5,160gu. Clairauts International gravitational formula relates gravity to
latitude on the reference spheroid, according to following equation:
gФ = g0(1+k1sin2-K2sin22 Ф)
gФ is the predicted value of gravity at a latitude Ф, g0 is the gravity at equator
(9.7803181sec2), K1 & K2 are constants ( K1=.0053024, k2=.0000059).
Density Variation: -
Gravity variation results from the difference in density or density contrast between
a body of rock and its surroundings for a body of density ρ1 embedded in a material
of density ρ2 the density contrast ∆ ρ= ρ1 - ρ2. The sign of the density contrast
determines the sign of gravity anomaly. Rock densities are among the least variable
geophysical parameters. Most crustal rock types have densities in the range between
1.60-3.20kg/m3. The density of the rock depends both on its composition and
porosity.

Variation of g with Elevation (With altitude and topography): -

Correction for the different elevation of gravity stations is made in three
parts:
(1) Free Air Correction: - It corrects for decrease in gravity with height in free
air resulting from the increase in distance from the center of earth, according
to Newton’s law of gravitation.
To reduce to datum and observation taken at height A;
FAC=3.086h.gu
Free air correction must be added to a measured gravity difference if the
station lies above the datum plan and subtracted in the opposite case.
(2) Bouguer Correction: - Bouguer correction takes into account the attraction of
material between the reference elevation (Geoid) and that of an individual
station. This attraction can be approximated by treating the intervening
material as an infinite horizontal slab of a thickness equal to elevation
 difference ∆H, between the reference base and the station. The gravity
attraction of such slab is know as Bouguer effect and is given by;
Cb = 2ΠGp∆h = .419ρ∆h × 10 -3 g.u
∆h = thickness in meters, ρ = Density of slab in Kg/m3
The Bouguer correction method is of opposite sign to that of free air
correction.
(3) Topography or Terrain Correction: - The Bouguer correction makes an
assumption that the topography around gravity station is flat. This is rarely
the case and therefore further correction. Terrain correction must be made to
account for topography in the vicinity of gravity station. This correction is
always positive.
Free Air Anomaly: -
The observed gravity value is determined by relative gravity measurements
(Gravity meter), with reference to primary base station where absolute
measurements have been made previously. If g observe is observe value of land
surface at height h, it must be reduced to sea level (Geoid) before it can be compared
to gФ , the theoretical value of same latitude of only the free air has to be applied.
We define the free air anomaly as;
∆g F = g observed + FAc-gФ
Free air anomaly maps are usually made with out taking into consideration the
topography above mean sea level.
Bouguer Anomaly: -
In small scale gravity studies, such as those made for mapping local structures
related to environmental, geotechnical, or mineral prospecting problems, the
reduction of gravity data is usually made with reference to any convenient base point
to which an arbitory gravity value is given. To observe gravity difference, ∆gobs
(measured value at the survey points minus (-) the values at base points), the
necessary corrections are then applied. The relative Bouguer anomaly, ∆gB with
reference to the base station is then expressed as;
∆gB = (gobs + CF – CB + CT ) – (gФ)
Gravity Instruments: -
Since gravity is acceleration its measurements should simply involve determination
of length and time. The earlier absolute and relative determination using some form
of swinging pendulum whose time period is related to g, since the development of
other instruments, which are quicker and more accurate making relative
measurements, Pendulums have assumed a secondary role of providing the absolute
value at primary base station and calibration standards for other gravity measuring
instruments. Modern instruments, capable rapid gravity measurements are known
as gravity meters or gravimeters.
 Gravimeters are simply/ basically spring balance carrying a constant mass. A small
change in gravity ∆g, will cause displacement of mass and also a change in spring
length l of small amount ∆l as shown in figure.

Principle of stable gravimeter operation.

The necessity of the spring to serve a dual function, namely to support the mass and
to act as the measuring device, severely restricted the sensitivity of the early
gravimeter known as stable or static gravimeters. This problem is overcome in
modern gravimeter (Unstable or astatic), which employs the additional force that
acts in the same sense as the extension (contra-extraction-action) of the spring and
consequently amplifies the movement directly.
An example of the unstable instruments is ‘Lacoste and Romberg’ gravimeter,
carrying a mass supported by a spring attached immediately above the hinge, as
shown in figure.

The magnitude of the movement exerted by spring on the beam is dependent

on the extension of spring and sign of the angle θ. If the gravity increases, beam is
depressed and the spring further extended. Although the restoring force of the spring
is increased, the angle θ is decreased to θ́.
The other unstable instrument in common used is wooden type gravity meter. The
necessary instability is provided by similar mechanical arrangement as in Locast
and Romberg gravimeter; but in this case the beam is supported by two springs.
Ship Board Measurement: -
Gravity may be measured at discrete location at sea using a remote controlled land
gravimeter, housed in water proof container, which is lowered over the side of the
ship and by remote operation leveled and read on the sea bed. The disadvantage of
this method is that the meter has to be lowered to the sea bed for each reading, so
that the rate of the surveying is very slow. Moreover in strong tidal currents the ship
needs to be anchored to keep it on station while the gravimeter is on the sea bed.
Gravity measurements may be made out continuously at sea using a gravimeter
modified for use on ships, such instruments are known as Ship-Born / Ship-Board
gravimeter. The accuracy of the measurements with the ship born meter is
considerably reduced compared to measurements on the land. Because of sever
vertical and horizontal acceleration imposed on the ship born meter by sea waves
and ship motion. These external acceleration can cause variations in measured
gravity and represent high amplitude noise, from which a signal of much smaller
gravity variations must be extracted. The most successful Ship Born gravimeter to
date is the bell gravimeter (Bell & Watts 1986). The sensing element of the meter
is the exclero-meter shown in figure, which is mounted on a stable platform. It
consists of a mass wrapped in a coil which is constrained to move only vertically
between two permanent magnets. A DC current passed through the coil passes the
mass to act as the magnets in the null position. The wait of the mass is balanced by
the forces exerted by the permanent magnets. When the mass moves vertically in
response change in gravity, the motion is detected by a servo loop, which regulates
the current in the coil, changing its magnetic movement so that it is driven back to
its null position.
Location of Ore bodies’ petroleum deposits and Location of Cavities
through gravity methods: -
Ore bodies are mostly high density material associated with igneous rocks and thus
show positive gravity anomaly. Gravity survey can be used as recon cursance
technique to estimate the shape and depth of plutonic felsic rocks, granites are
mostly associated with gravity lows as compared to mafic rocks.
Salt domes are excellent traps for oil and gas. Salt structures in sedimentary basins
are characterized by gravity lows (-g anomaly) and salt is normally dense then
surrounding sedimentary rocks. The delineation of practical structures is of practical
importance in oil and gas prospecting because these structures are among the more
stable reserve rocks.
 In engineering and geotechnical application gravity surveying is occasionally used
to locate cavities; natural (e.g. Cave and Veins) and manmade (Holes, mines) natural
cavities may be air filled, water filled or salt segment filled. In early case whether
air, water and segment filled cavity will represent a negative density contrast with
surveying rocks. The result is invariably a negative gravity anomaly that can be
detected mire gravity surveys with sensitive instruments. Under favorable
conditions voids and cavities filled with water may also be detected. Cavities and
tunnels can be detected by micro gravity survey and to isolate, or map cavity system
for planning of offensive, defensive, military operations and for civilians
geotechnical follow up programs.

PREPAID BY GDC HANDWARA