EG Unit-4

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION
Geophysical Exploration
Principles of geophysical methods, Electrical, Seismic, Gravity and Magnetic methods. Principle
of Resistivity method and configurations. Applications of Resistivity method in prediction of soil
profile, hard rock and ground water table. Principles of Seismic refraction and reflections
methods and their applications to Civil Engineering problems.
Geological Applications in Civil Engineering: Geological investigations for dams and

reservoirs. Case histories of dam failures and their causes. Geology of the major dam sites of
India. Factors affecting the seepage and leakage of reservoir and the remedial measures.
Geological investigations for bridges and Multi- storied structures. Geological investigations for
highways, railways, canals, runways, powerhouses, power channels and flumes. Geological
investigations for tunnels and coastal structures (Seawalls, groins and bulkheads); Environmental
geology. Coastal Management, Underground water in relation to Engineering Works
4.1 GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION
Exploration geophysics is an applied branch of geophysics, which uses physical methods, such
as seismic, gravitational, magnetic, electrical and electromagnetic at the surface of the Earth to
measure the physical properties of the subsurface, along with the anomalies in those properties.
4.2 GRAVITY METHODS
Gravity Methods represent a set of geophysical methods which make use of natural gravity field
of the earth. The gravity method is a relatively cheap, non-invasive, non-destructive remote
sensing method. It is also passive – that is, no energy need be put into the ground in order to
acquire data. Measurements of gravity provide information about densities of rocks underground.
Physical Property
Density of material is the controlling physical property.
By Shaik Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, ANITS Page 1

Principle
1. The gravity method involves measuring the gravitational attraction exerted by the earth at
a measurement station on the surface. The strength of the gravitational field is directly
proportional to the mass and therefore the density of subsurface materials.
2. The gravimeter, used in relative gravity measurements is a mass loaded spring. If the
subsurface has a relatively heavier body, the gravity pull is more there (+g) and the
springs extends, become longer.
3. If the subsurface has relatively lighter body there the gravity pull is less (-g) and the
spring contracts, become shorter.
4. Thus in particular region, if the subsurface body whose densities are different from the
surrounding rock exists thus the gravity field deviates from normal values and thus the
inhomogeneous bodies are located in subsurface.
5. The field gravity data collected on the ground are influenced by shape of the earth,
topographical irregularities etc. Thus the obtained value is reduced to “geoid” level by
applying various corrections such as latitude correction, free air correction etc.
6. The process of applying various corrections is known as reduction of gravity data.

Figutre 4.1 Principle of Gravity Method
Methods
1. The different kinds of Gravity methods that are followed are; Gravity prospecting;
gravity logging; airborne gravimetry; shipborne gravimetry.
Applications
1. In exploration of ore deposits.

2. In solving regional geological problems.
3. In exploring oil and natural gas deposits.
4. In study of shape of the earth etc.
4.3 MAGNETIC METHODS
Magnetic method represents a set of geophysical methods which make use of the natural
magnetic field associated with the earth.

Physical Property
Magnetic Susceptibility of material is the controlling physical property.
Principles
1. The magnetic methods are based on the fact that the magnetic bodies present in the
earth’s subsurface contribute to the magnetic field of the earth.
2. As in the gravity methods, the contribution of the magnetic body is directly proportional
to the magnetic moment of the body and its size and inversely proportional to its depth of
its occurrence.
3. A magnetometer is a instrument which is used measures both the orientation and strength
of a magnetic field
4. In general, the magnetic content (susceptibility) of rocks is extremely variable depending

on the type of rock and the environment it is in. Common causes of magnetic anomalies
include dykes, faults and lava flows. Where the rocks have high magnetic susceptibility,
the local magnetic field will be strong; where they have low magnetic susceptibility, it
will be weaker.
5. Sedimentary rocks generally have a very small magnetic susceptibility compared with
igneous or metamorphic rocks, which tend to have much higher magnetite (a common
magnetic mineral) content.
Figure 4.2 Principles of Magnetic Method of prospecting

Parameters Studied
1. Total magnetic Field and different space component.
The magnetic field measured in terms of “gamma”.
Methods
The common methods of this investigation are;
Magnetic prospescting; magnetic logging; airborne magnetometry; shipborne magnetometry.
Applications
1. For detection of basic and ultrabasic bodies.
2. For locating and tracing fault
3. For locating strongly magnetic iron ores.
4. In prospecting of ore bodies of copper nickel sulphides tin etc if they are associated with
magnetic minerals like magnetite and pyrrhotite.
4.4 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD
Electrical resistivity methods of geophysical prospecting are well established and the most
important method. From the data obtained, the electrical properties of the earth (the geoelectric
section) can be derived. In turn, from those electrical properties we can infer the geological
characteristics of the earth.
Physical Property
Electrical Resistivity of material is the controlling physical property.
Principles
 All geological formations have a property called electrical resistivity (ƿ) and this
resistivity is expressed in the units of Ohm -meters (Ωm). Electrical resistivity is defined
as the resistance offered by a unit cube of material for the flow of current through its

normal surface. If “L” is the length of the conductor and “A” is its cross-sectional area,
then the resistance (R) is defined as
R= L/A (For Homogenous medium)
 For heterogeneous medium, the resistivity is called the apparent resistivity. The apparent
resistivity depends upon the geometry and resistivity of the elements constituting the
given geologic medium.
a = K (∆V/I)
Where K is the geometrical factor having the dimension of length (m).
 In resistivity method of electrical prospecting, an electric field is artificially created in the

ground by means of either galvanic batteries (DC) or low frequency AC generators. The
energizing current is sent in to the ground by means of two grounded electrodes, called
the current electrodes designated as “C1” and “C2” placed at two selected points. The
potential difference in the area is measured by another two more grounded electrodes
called the potential electrodes designated as “P1” and “P2”.
 P1,P2 = potential electrodes
 E1,E2 = Current electrodes

4.4.1 Various Geological Factors Which Influence the Electrical Resistivity of the
Subsurface Formations
1. Mineral content
(Most of the rock forming minerals have high resistivity except sulphide minerals)
2. Compactness
( Dense and compact rock shows higher resistivity when compare to other rocks)
3. Moisture
(Rocks may contain moisture content in pore space, there is a decrease in an resistivity
with increase in moisture content)
4. Salinity of moisture.
(There is a decrease in resistivity with increase in the salt content)
5. Texture of the rock
(Rocks with same mineral composition, fine grained rocks show a higher resistivity
compared to coarse grained ones)
4.4.2 Types of Electrode configurations
The Wenner configuration;
This method was developed by Wenner in 1915. In this configuration, the outer electrodes, C1
and C2 are used to send current into the ground and the inner electrodes, P1 and P2 are used to
measure the potential. The important feature of this setup is that the distance between any two
successive electrodes is equal. The apparent resistivity measured in the Wenner method is given
by

a = 2πa(V/I)
where
a = Electrode separation
v = Potential difference measured
I = Current sent into the ground
Pa = apparent resistance (ohm-mts )
The Schlumberger Configuration
The Schlumberger array, consist of four co-linear point electrodes to measure the potential
gradient at the midpoint. In this array, the current electrodes and potential electrodes are spaced
in the ratio of 1:5 and the geometrical factor K for this array is given by
K = {(AB/2)2-(MN/2) 2 }/MN
(i. e.) K = ((s2 - b 2)/2b
Apparent resistivity is calculated as
 a = K (∆V/I)

4.4.3 Resistivity methods are classified into:
1. Profiling Method (Lateral exploration)
2. Sounding method (Vertical exploration)
3. Potential Method
Profiling Method
This is also known as Lateral Electrical investigation. In this process, the electrode array i.e.,
setup as a whole is moved from place to place with same intervals (constant electrode spacing)
along a given line and the “a” value at each of the station is determined. The changes in Pa
indicate lateral variations in the subsurface to a certain depth.
The profiling technique will be useful in detecting only the dyke bodies or vertical beds. The
presentation of profiling data is done on a ordinary graph sheet on X-axis (station) and true
resistivity values on Y-axis (ohm-mts). The interpretation of profiling data can demarcate the
high and low resistivity values of the sub-surface.
C1 and C2 are current electrodes & P1 and P2 are Potential electrodes.
PROFILING METHOD (The diagram shows four steps, denoting how an electrode
arrangement with fixed separation is moved along successive stations of a traverse line)

Sounding
This method is popularly known as Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES). In this method, a
number of a values are measured at the same place by increasing the distances between the
current electrodes each time after taking the reading. The successive increasing in distance
makes the current penetrate more and more deeply.
Generally, the depth of penetration of the current (ie depth) is about 1/3rd of the distance
between the current electrodes. The values are plotted on log–log sheet by plotting the electrode
separation (station/distance) on x-axis and true resistivity values (ohm-mts) on y-axis. The
obtained curve is to be matched with master curves.
Self-Potential methods
In self-potential methods, the natural electric field existing in an area is investigated whereas in
other methods, the ground is charged by an artificial electric field and the results on the surface
are investigated. Self-potential method involves measuring the potential between the potential
electrodes for different electrode spacing without introducing current into the ground. This
method is also known as the “Spontaneous Polarization method”.
Several sulphide ores such as pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, molybdenite, cobaltite etc show
spontaneous polarization. Anthracite (coal) and graphite are known to give strong SP effects.
4.5 SEISMIC METHOD
Seismic Method based on the principles that sub-surface rock formation bear different elastic
properties. Because of this, the velocities of propagation of seismic waves through them changes
with change in lithology.
Physical Property
Elastic property differences in the rocks are the controlling physical property.

Principle
The seismic waves are generated artificially by the means of small explosive charge or by
striking the steel plate with a hammer. When explosion is made its energy travels in all direction
in the form of seismic waves. Some of these waves directly travel on the surface of the earth and
some undergo reflection and critical refraction at the boundary between the two different
medium. The time of travel of these refracted and reflected waves to reach different
predetermined points is recorded with a device called geophones. The time travel – distance
curves are drawn and the subsurface characteristics are studied. Seismic refraction is most widely
used method.
Mechanism
Figure 4.3 Seismic Method
From the Figure
1. The shockwaves are generated at the point “P” by a small explosive charge or hammer
blow.
2. The basic refraction survey are based on the assumption that the subsurface are such that
the velocity of shock waves increase with the depth i.e (v3>v2>v3).
3. At geophones located close to the impact, such as point “A” the velocity v1 reaches first.
At the points which are being located away from the point of impact such as point “B”

the refracted waves reach earlier than the direct waves. These waves start from the point
P, travel with the velocity v1 in the upper layer refracted at the interface, moves with
much higher velocity v2 in the second layer, emerge again at the interface and travel back
to the ground surface at the lower velocity v1 in the upper layer .
4. At the point further away from the point of impact, such as point C, the waves are
refracted twice once at the interface of layer I and II, and once at the interface of layers
III and II reach earlier.
5. The time of travel of arrival (t) of the first impulse at various geophones is taken as
ordinate and distance of geophones from the point of impact “P” is taken as abscissa. The
velocity in any layer is equal to the reciprocal of the slope of corresponding line.
6. The critical distance “Dc”, at which both direct waves and refracted waves arrives at the
same time is used to determine the depth at which bedrocks are present. The depth is
given by
𝑍 = (𝐷𝑐 )√ 𝑣2 − 𝑣1
2 (𝑣2 + 𝑣1)
7. The subsurface discontinuity is being indicated by the break in the time-distance curve.

4.6 GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS
Preliminary Investigation
The purpose of preliminary investigation is to provide an engineer a rough idea on the soil
conditions at a given site. This investigation is necessary so that the detailed investigation which
is more expensive and laborious should be made only if the site is approved.
1. Topography: This study gives important information about the valleys, hills, slopes and
terrace present in the areas. These details indicate the stability of the slope and scope of
occurrence of landslides. Also helps in the assessment of depth of bed rock at the site.
The nature of Seismic activity is also known by some suitable studies.
2. Lithology: Lithology provides information on composition, texture, structure and origin
of rocks. This provide information about different varieties of rock type present, their
nature and extent of weathering, occurrence of soil, rock debris etc.
3. Geological Structures: This study gives the information on the strike and dip of the beds
and also occurrence of the geological structures like folds, faults, joints unconformities
and foliation. These features are very important because they have a great influence on
civil engineering projects.
4. Ground water Conditions: This study indicates the water table position in given area. It
also indicates the occurrence of solution cavities present in an area.
Detailed Investigation
If the site is found to be good in preliminary investigation, the detailed investigation of the site is
done. This process comprises of surface investigation and sub surface investigation;
1. Surface Investigation: This investigation includes further close examination of

lithology, topography, geological structure and ground water condition. It includes;
a. Interpretation of Topographic maps

-Determination of attitudes of land surface - relief and position.
-Locating man-made features
-Positioning of gullies, ridges, hills, mountains, plains

b. Aerial photographs and geological Maps

 Air photo
-The shape, size, pattern, shadow are studied.
-It provides information of both regional and local site features
-Geological information of bedding, fault, fold etc is studied.
 Geological Maps
-Map of Geological structures are studied.
-Structural attitude of strata and thickness of each formation are studied.
2. Sub-Surface Investigation: Subsurface investigation provides the information about
the actual prevailing conditions at the site. It includes;
a. Geophysical Method
-Provides the information on the depth of rock, thickness of strata, presence of fault, fold
etc. (Gravity, Electrical resistivity, Magnetic Method and Seismic Method).
b. Bore hole drilling

It is the direct method or subsurface exploration. Deep drilling is performed either by
cable tool method or by one of the several rotary methods and the strata are being
studied.
4.6.1 SITE SELECTION FOR CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS
Topography
 Narrow part of the valley with the steep rocky slope is preferred most.
 If river is narrow, only a small dam is required, that means cost of dam constriction is
less.
 If the river is wide then the dam to be constructed is big thus cost of construction is
more.
Lithology
Bedrock should occur at a shallow depth.

 If competent rock occurs at shallow depth then the cost of foundation is less if it occurs at
greater depth then the cost of foundation is more.
Competent rock offers a stable foundation.
 Igneous rocks occurring in the dam site is good for safe foundation.(Granite and basalt
are most commonly formed rocks).
 Sedimentary rocks such as Limestone which create problem by making caverns and
poorly cemented sandstone are undesirable at dam site.
 If there is no discontinuities, dolerites, basalts, amphibolite, granulites, gneisses,
quartzite, sandstone and massive dolomite have sufficient high bearing strength and make
very good foundation rocks.
 The weaker rocks are vulnerable to deformation and differential movements.
Geological Structures
 Dam axis or resultant force should act more or less perpendicular to the bedding plane.
 Bedding planes dipping upstream side is favourable. (Beds with 10◦ to 30◦ inclination in
the upstream direction are preferred).
 Gravity dam over horizontal beds are more stable.
 Dipping upstream of anticline limb is good.
 The site should be less jointed.
 Dam founded on fault zone is very unfavorable.
 Site should be free from slope stability problems.
 Not preferred in Earthquakes prone areas.
 Groundwater condition (Acidic water is sensitive to carbonate formations)
 Construction material should be near.
 Rock should be impermeable.

4.6.2 SITE SELECTION FOR RESERVOIRS
Topography
• Broad natural valley ended with narrow gorge where a barrier could be placed is most
preferred for reservoir construction.
Groundwater condition
• The amount of leakage of water from the reservoir is controlled by the depth of water
table.
• If water table is occurring at shallow depths(effluent river) then there will be no leakage
occur because all the openings in the ground are saturated by the ground water.
 If the water table occur deep(influent river) , then there will be tremendous leakage of
water will take place.
Lithology
 The rocks which are highly fissured, intensely jointed, faulted or have solution channels,
cause serious leakage from the reservoir.
 Presence of Igneous and metamorphic rocks without any defects such as joints, folds etc
are more suitable.
 The rocks exposed in the reservoir rim must be resistant to solution, erosion and free of
voids to leak the water.
Geological Structures
 Dipping of bedding planes on upstream of side is good as they cause less leakage when
compare to the dipping of plane in downstream side.
 The site should be Less jointed.
 Resevoir on fault zone is very unfavorable.

4.6.3 SITE SELECTION FOR BRIDGES
Topography
 The river should be straight and narrow channel.
Lithology
 Abutment and piers must be in strong rock.

 Poorly cemented, thinly bedded and soft sedimentary rocks should be avoided.
 The presence of harder rocks over weaker layers, rock heterogeneity, zones of weathering
are not suitable for bridge heterogeneity, zones of weathering are not suitable for bridge
foundation.
Geological structure
 Stable from the plane, wedge, and toppling failure i.e Site should be free from slope
stability problems.
 Fault zone should be avoided.
 The strike should be across the river.
 The site should be Less jointed.
4.6.4 SITE SELECTION FOR MULTI STORIED BUILDINGS
Lithology
 The foundation must be laid in strong rock.

 Poorly cemented, thinly bedded and soft sedimentary rocks should be avoided. If
foundation lay on such rocks, the rock should be treated before laying the foundations.

 The site should be less jointed.

Ground water table
 It should be present at considerable depth.
4.6.5 SITE SELECTION FOR ROADS AND RAILWAY TRACKS
Lithology
 Poorly cemented, thinly bedded and soft sedimentary rocks and soil should be avoided.
If present then it should be replaced with suitable soil or should be treated before laying
the roads and tracks.
 In laying the roads and railway tracks along the slopes of folded hills. The ground is more
stable when the surface slope and the bed dipping is in opposite direction. The ground is
unstable when the surface slope and the bed dipping is in the same direction
 The site should be less jointed.
4.6.6 GEOLOGY IN THE SELECTION OF TUNNEL AND OTHER UNDERGROUND

STRUCTURES
Lithology
 Hard rock is most favorable, such as igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks. i.e. Granite
and gneisses respectively.
 Soft rock drives the problems of squeezing and swelling
Water table
 If ground water table is present below the level of tunnel then it may not cause serious
problems.
 If ground water table is present above the level of tunnel then it may serious problems of
leakage of water in the tunnel.

 The site where the closely spaced joints are present should be avoided for the tunneling
because these causes leakage problems and often cause overbreak.
 Tunneling should be avoided in the fault region as it is the zone of weakness. If tunneling
is done in inactive fault zone then those areas should be provided with proper lining.
 Tunnel should be aligned parallel to the axis of the fold is desirable.
 Tunneling along the limbs is desirable and not along the crest (as rock mass will be in
highly fractured in condition) and trough (as rock mass will be harder and more
resistant).
4.7 ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY
Environmental Geology is an applied science concerned with the practical application of

principle of geology in solving environmental problems.
Environmental Geology includes;
 Managing geological and hydrogeological resources such as fossil fuels, minerals, water
(surface and ground water), and land use.
 Studying the earth's surface through the disciplines of geomorphology;
 Managing industrial and domestic waste disposal and minimizing effects of pollution.
4.8 COASTAL MANAGEMENT
Coastlines are under threat of erosion causing cliffs to retreat and beach material to be lost. The
process of trying and reducing the erosion to protect the coastlines is called COASTAL
MANAGEMENT.
4.8.1 Types of Coastal Management
HARD ENGINEERING

Hard engineering options tend to be expensive and short term options. They may also have a
high impact on the landscape or environment.
SOFT ENGINEERING
Soft engineering options are often less expensive than hard engineering options. They are
usually also more long-term and sustainable, with less impact on the environment.
4.8.2 Hard Engineering Techniques
 Groynes – Wooden/concrete barriers built at right angles to the beach.

 They help to build up beach material by preventing long shore drift.
 Groynes build up beaches at a small scale & are cheaper than sea walls.
SeaWalls
 Vertical or sloping structures, built along the shoreline in an attempt to stop erosion.
 Can be constructed from any type of materials; from sand-filled bags to reinforced
concrete structures.
 Waves scour at the bases of the walls & eventually undermine them, causing failure.
 As a result, seawalls only provide temporary protection.
 They are expensive.
 The object of defense work is to dissipate wave energy (beaches do this very well)
whereas sea walls have the opposite effect walls concentrate wave energy and reflects
it back at the sea.

 The wall receives maximum impact which weakens the structure.
Revetments
 Often situated away from the cliffs and attempt to reduce the energy of the waves before
they reach the cliffs/ coastline.
 Designed to allow sediment to pass through them, which means that longshore drift is not
hindered.
 The structures absorb the energy of the waves before they reach the cliffs.
 This method prevent wave scour.
 They are also very cheap, but they do need to be replaced quite .
Rock Armour
 Large boulders that work in a similar way to seawalls, but they are permeable structures.
 They are able to dissipate wave energy by absorbing the impact of the waves.

Gabions
 The principle of gabions is similar to the Rip-rap method of protection (i.e. dissipation of
wave energy etc).
 Gabions use smaller rocks and are encased in a wire mesh.
 Local beach material could be used, which enables the structures to blend in more with its
surroundings.
4.8.3 Soft Engineering
Beach Nourishment

 Replacement of sand/pebbles on eroding beaches.

 Sediment are dredged & moved to the beach to provide an area for recreation & also to
protect the expensive properties that were present in the location.
Beach Reshaping
 Sand dunes and cliffs are a natural sea defense. They dissipate wave energy and protect
the area behind from flooding.
 They are stabilized by fences or by planting, grasses to hold the sand and rocks together.
4.9 CASE HISTORIES OF FAILURES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CONSTRUCTIONS DUE TO GEOLOGICAL DRAWBACK
4.9.1 St. Francis Dam, Valencia, California, Los Angeles , US
The St. Francis Dam was a concrete gravity-arch dam, designed to create a reservoir. The dam
was built between 1924 and 1926 under the supervision of William Mulholland The dam Height
is 195 feet (59 m) & its length is 608 feet (185 m). The dam was constructed on the foundation
of Schists and conglomerates and in turn, separated by a distinct fault. In addition, conglomerates
also had veins of gypsum, a soluble mineral and hence both Schists and conglomerates are
unsuitable to serve as a foundation to such a dam. Several temperature and contraction cracks
appeared in the dam when the reservoir had reached full capacity. Enormous leakage of stored
water occurred through the conglomerate and the dam failed by sliding in 1928 resulting more
than killing of 450 people. Huge concrete block from the west abutment of the dam was carried
out by dam water. The block is approximately 63 feet long, 30 feet high and 54 feet wide. It was
concluded that the disaster was primarily caused by the landslide on which the western abutment
of the dam was built.
4.9.2 Hales Bar Dam, Marion Country, Tennessee, USA
Hales Bar Dam was a hydroelectric dam located on the Tennessee River in Marion Country,
Tennessee, and USA. The height of the dam is 113 feet with a length of 2315 feet. The Hales Bar
Dam was constructed on the foundation of cavernous limestones. Such rocks are naturally weak
both physically and chemically. To improve the site conditions and to reduce the seepage, the

large openings were filled up by using more than 3000 tons of cement and 1100 barrels of
asphalt. The dam was planned to complete in 1909, but numerous difficulties brought by the soft
bedrock ie limestone upon which the dam was built. Leaks began to appear almost immediately
after completion. However in 1919, engineers attempted to minimize the leakage by pumping hot
asphalt into the dam's foundation. This was temporarily successful, but by 1931, a study leaking
at a rate of 1,000 cubic feet per second was noticed. In the late 1950s, however, the water below
Hales Bar Dam was again leaking, this time at an alarming 2,000 cubic feet per second. Dye tests
carried out in 1960 suggested that many of the leakage channels had interconnected, increasing
the possibility of a future dam failure.
4.9.3 Lafayette Dam, California
Construction of Lafayette Reservoir actually began in 1928, as an earth-filled structure for the
dam. The fill was installed very rapidly. This was apparently too fast for the clay foundation,
because as the concrete apron was being poured, the foundation began to move downhill. The
dam reportedly settled, displacing the structure 200 yards (180 m) from the toe of the dam 26
feet (7.9 m) between September 17 and 21. Later the engineers redesigned it.
The Lafayette Reservoir is an open-cut man-made terminal water storage reservoir owned and
operated by the East Bay Municipal Utility District (EBMUD). Completed in 1933, it was
intended solely as a standby water supply for EBMUD customers. EBMUD opened the reservoir
for public recreation in 1966. The reservoir is on the Lafayette-Orinda border. The reservoir is on
a 3.74 km2 site and holds 5,300,000 m3 of water.
4.9.4 Kaila Dam, Gujarat, India
The Kaila Dam in Kachch, Gujarat, India was constructed during 1952 - 55 as an earth fill dam
with a height of 23.08 m above the river bed and a crest length of 213.36 m. The storage of full
reservoir level was 13.98 million cubic mts. The foundation was made of shale. The spillway
was of ogee shaped and ungated. The depth of cutoff was 3.21 m below the river bed. In spite of
a freeboard allowance of 1.83 m at the normal reservoir level and 3.96 m at the maximum
reservoir level the energy dissipation devices first failed and later the embankment collapsed due
to the weak foundation bed in 1959.

4.9.5 Kodaganar Dam, Tamil Nadu, India
This dam was constructed in 1977 on Cauvery River as an earthen dam with regulators. The dam
was 15.75 m high above the deepest foundation, having a 11.45 m of height above the river bed.
The storage at full reservoir level was 12.3 million cubic mts. The dam failed due to overtopping
by flood waters which flowed over the downstream slopes. There was an earthquake registered
during the period of failure although the foundation was strong. Water gushed over the rear
slopes, as a cascade of water was eroding the slopes. Breaches of length 20 m to 200 m were
observed. It appeared as if the entire dam was overtopped and breached.
4.9.6 Tigra Dam ( Madhya Pradesh, India, 1917 )
This was a masonry gravity dam of 24 m height, constructed for the purpose of water supply. A
depth of 0.85 m of water overtopped the dam over a length of 400 m. This was equivalent to an
overflow of 850 m3 (estimated). Two major blocks were bodily pushed away. The failure was
due to sliding. The dam was reconstructed in 1929.
4.10 UNDERGROUND WATER IN RELATION TO ENGINEERING WORKS
Due to the natural phenomenon of weathering of rocks, generally, the land surface is covered by
loose soil. Since the effect of weathering (i.e., disintegration and decomposition) decreases
gradually with depth, a fractured zone of rocks exists below the soil zone. Further, below this
zone, occurs the bedrock which is free from fractures. Thus, a vertical section consisting of loose
soil (at the top), fractured rock (in the middle) and compact bedrock (at the bottom) is generally
encountered in any given area, more so in a hard rock terrain. Hence, when rainfall occurs in any
area, an appreciable percentage of water (not used by plants, and not evaporated into the
atmosphere, and not held as soil moisture) moves downwards through fractures, under the
influence of gravity, until it reaches the bedrock. Then, all openings lying above the bedrock will
begin to be filled up by percolated water. Thus, the percolation of rain water leads to the
development of a zone of saturation above the bedrock, in which all openings are filled with
water. Such water is ground water, in the true sense. The upper surface of this zone of saturation
is called "water table" (Fig. 4.1). Above the zone of saturation and below the ground surface is

the zone of aeration, in which water fills only a portion of the pore space. (This water is actually
the percolating water moving downwards under the influence of gravity through these openings.)
The following are the types of ground water which occur in the zone of aeration:
1) Soil water: This is the water which occurs in the soil and is available to the roots of
plants or vegetation existing on the surface.
2) Pellicular water: When rain water percolates downwards, some water sticks to the sides
of fractures or to the surface of openings in rocks. It does not move down under the
influence of gravity. Such water is called pellicular water.
3) Vadose water: This is also called gravity water. It is actually that fraction of rainfall
which percolates downwards under the influence of gravity and reaches the water table
and joins the zone of saturation. In other words, the ground water is recharged or
enriched this way.
4) Perched water: This occurs above a suitable aquiclude or aquifuge within the zone of
aeration.
5) Capillary water: This exists within very fine openings, just above, and in contact with,
the water table.
The different types of ground water which occur in the zone of saturation are:

1) Unconfined or free ground water: This is the type of ground water which lies below
the water table and under atmospheric pressure only. This water can move freely upwards
or downwards within the aquifer.
2) Confined water: This water occurs below the water table and is confined between
aquicludes or aquifuges (i.e., in between impervious beds). Unlike free water, this type of
ground water occurs under some hydrostatic pressure.
3) Fixed ground water: This exists within extremely small openings in aquicludes and
cannot move under gravity.
4) Connate water: This is the water which is held within the rocks right from the beginning
of their formation.
5) Internal water: The underground water occurring at very great depths within the zone of
disconnected openings is known as internal water.
6) Juvenile water: This is the name given to the water from a magmatic source.
Out of the different types of ground water, only perched water, free water and confined water can
be utilized under favourable conditions as suitable sources of water supply.
 Ground Water Exploration Techniques
Three types of groundwater explorations techniques are available.
1. Geological investigations
2. Geophysical investigations
3. Hydrological investigations
Geological investigations
The ground water occurrence and movement mainly depend on the geology of the area.
Geological studies are very much essential.
• The type of terrain, rock formations, lithological units, geological structures like lineament,
fold, fault, joints and fracture system have to be studied in depth.

• Only after the geological investigations, the type of geophysical method to be conducted may
be decided.
1. Study of rock types: the strike and dip details of the rock, porosity and permeability
characteristics of a rock are to be studies to know the ground water existence.
2. Study of topography: Topography is the occurrence of highlands (hills) and low lands
(valleys). The water table will be roughly parallel to the ground surface. It occurs at a
higher level in hilly regions and at a lower level in valleys. It flows from higher level to a
lower level. In ground water exploration, places of lowest elevation are preferred as the
ground water will come from different sides to that point.
3. Study of weathering: Hard rock areas without soil and subsoil is not suitable for ground
water exploration as they do not contain weathered zones and fractures which may occur
at lesser depths. This means lesser porosity and hence no scope for occurrence of ground
water. The valleys and low lying areas are suitable for the exploration as they are the
most weathered zones.
4. Study of geological structures: the occurrence of joints, cracks, faults and folds etc., not
only contribute to secondary porosity but also act as channels of water flow. Synclinal
folding causes existence of ground water as it may contain artesian conditions.
5. Study of intrusive rocks: the occurrence of dolerite dykes, quartz etc act as barriers for
ground water flow. This results in the accumulation of ground water on one side of the
rock only. Thus it is common that in some places ground water may be plenty and may be
scarce in a nearby area.
6. Geological mapping: This reveals information about the existing rock patterns and
hence very important. The presence of rock types and different structural formations are
shown in the contour map.
Geophysical investigations
Geological methods remain incomplete because the outcrop in insitu rocks may be absent or few,
the surface is covered with soils. All these hide the actual rock type and geological structures,
lying underneath. To overcome this drawback geophysical investigations are made. They reveal
the underlying rock types and also gives information about the structures like faults, joints etc.

Geophysical methods are made on the surface, with the help of some instruments. Geophysical
methods used in ground water exploration
• Electrical resistivity method.
• Electromagnetic method.
• Seismic refraction method.
• Magnetic method.
• Gravity method.
Out of these, Electrical resistivity method is used in 80% of the cases. And seismic method is
used in rest of the cases.
Electrical methods of prospecting include a large group of geophysical techniques employed for
investigating the electrical fields of the earth. Such fields are generated in the earth naturally or
artificially by generators or batteries. The distribution & intensity of electrical fields depend on
the source of excitation as well as upon the electrical properties & geological structures in the
region. Electrical parameters vary depending upon the lithology & more influenced by the
presence, content & quality of water.
Electromagnetic methods based on the measurement of conductivity of subsurface minerals &

formations – useful for exploring minerals & ground water. Geophysical methods make use of
the interaction of electrical & magnetic fields with each other & their mutual interaction with
matter to determine the properties of electrical conductivity or magnetic permeability of the
earth.
Seismic methods depend on the principle that the velocity of shock waves depends on the
fracturing of the meium. In compact rocks, shock waves have a higher velocity than in the
fractured zones.

Magnetic method based on the measurement of susceptibilty contrast between the anomalous
body & the rock around it. • Ferromagnetic minerals particularly magnetite are the main source
of local magnetic anomalies.
Measurements of the gravitational field at a series of different locations over an area of interest.
the objective in exploration work is to associate variations with differences in the distribution of
densities and hence rock types. Based on the measurement of density contrast between the
anomaly causing body & the surrounding rocks. This method may be used for the exploration of
minerals, ground water, oil & gas. In mineral exploration this method is useful particularly for
heavy minerals- barite & chromite.
Hydrological Investigations
These are very simple but very important for exploration of ground water. It includes
 Study of water table

 Study of surface water bodies
 Study of spring and seepages
 Quality of water
 Study of rainfall and climate
4.11 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SEEPAGE AND LEAKAGE OF RESERVOIR AND

THE REMEDIAL MEASURES.
 The amount of leakage of water from the reservoir is controlled by the depth of water
table.
 If the water table occur deep (influent river) , then there will be tremendous leakage of
water will take place.
 The rocks which are highly fissured, intensely jointed, faulted or have solution channels,
cause serious leakage from the reservoir.
 Dipping of bedding planes on downstream of side causes serious leakage problems.
 The jointed site results in leakage of water from reservoir.

 Resevoir on fault zone is very unfavorable.
Remedial Measures
Natural Silting: Fine silt and clay, transported by river get settled on the floor of reservoir, fills
opening of all kind and form a layer of country rocks. They clay being impermeable, will not
allow the leakage through those openings. Thus leakage process is reduced through its own
natural process of silting.
Grouting: Grouting is the process of injecting fluidized material into the voids of the ground,
rocks, generally through borehole under pressure. Thus the strength of the treated ground
increases and also the ground become impermeable, resulting in reduction of leakage.
Covering weak zones with concrete slabs: To reduce the leakage concrete slabs are placed.
Treatment of large area through this technique is impractical.
Cut off and sheet pile: To reduce the percolation under the dam cut off wall and sheet piles are
placed beneath the dam.


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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION

Geological Applications in Civil Engineering: Geological investigations for dams and

4.1 GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION

4.2 GRAVITY METHODS

Density of material is the controlling physical property.

By Shaik Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, ANITS Page 1

By Shaik Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, ANITS Page 2

Figutre 4.1 Principle of Gravity Method

1. In exploration of ore deposits.

4.3 MAGNETIC METHODS

By Shaik Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, ANITS Page 3

Magnetic Susceptibility of material is the controlling physical property.

4. In general, the magnetic content (susceptibility) of rocks is extremely variable depending

Figure 4.2 Principles of Magnetic Method of prospecting

By Shaik Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, ANITS Page 4

1. Total magnetic Field and different space component.

The magnetic field measured in terms of “gamma”.

The common methods of this investigation are;

Magnetic prospescting; magnetic logging; airborne magnetometry; shipborne magnetometry.

1. For detection of basic and ultrabasic bodies.

2. For locating and tracing fault

3. For locating strongly magnetic iron ores.

4.4 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD

Electrical Resistivity of material is the controlling physical property.

By Shaik Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, ANITS Page 5

R= L/A (For Homogenous medium)

Where K is the geometrical factor having the dimension of length (m).

 In resistivity method of electrical prospecting, an electric field is artificially created in the

 P1,P2 = potential electrodes

 E1,E2 = Current electrodes

By Shaik Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, ANITS Page 6

(There is a decrease in resistivity with increase in the salt content)

5. Texture of the rock

4.4.2 Types of Electrode configurations

The Wenner configuration;

By Shaik Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, ANITS Page 7

v = Potential difference measured

I = Current sent into the ground

Pa = apparent resistance (ohm-mts )

The Schlumberger Configuration

(i. e.) K = ((s2 - b 2)/2b

Apparent resistivity is calculated as

By Shaik Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, ANITS Page 8

4.4.3 Resistivity methods are classified into:

1. Profiling Method (Lateral exploration)

2. Sounding method (Vertical exploration)

C1 and C2 are current electrodes & P1 and P2 are Potential electrodes.

By Shaik Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, ANITS Page 9

4.5 SEISMIC METHOD

By Shaik Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, ANITS Page 10

Figure 4.3 Seismic Method

From the Figure

By Shaik Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, ANITS Page 11

By Shaik Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, ANITS Page 12

4.6 GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS

1. Surface Investigation: This investigation includes further close examination of

a. Interpretation of Topographic maps

By Shaik Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, ANITS Page 13

b. Aerial photographs and geological Maps

b. Bore hole drilling

4.6.1 SITE SELECTION FOR CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS

Bedrock should occur at a shallow depth.

By Shaik Asif Ali, Assistant Professor, ANITS Page 14

Competent rock offers a stable foundation.