GEOPHYSCIAL EXPLORATION:

The science of geophysics applies the principles of physics to the study of the Earth.
Geophysical investigations of the interior of the Earth involve taking measurements at or near
the Earth’s surface that are influenced by the internal distribution of physical properties.
Analysis of these measurements can reveal how the physical properties of the Earth’s interior
vary vertically and laterally. There is a broad division of geophysical surveying methods into
those that make use of natural fields of the Earth and those that require the input into the
ground of artificially generated energy. The natural field methods utilize the gravitational,
magnetic, electrical and electromagnetic fields of the Earth, searching for local perturbations
in these naturally occurring fields that may be caused by concealed geological features of
economic or other interest.

GEOPHYSICAL:

Gravity surveying and instruments: gravity surveys can be performed on land, at sea and in
the air. Subsurface geology is investigated on the basis of variations in the Earth’s
gravitational field arising from differences of density between subsurface rocks. An
underlying concept is the idea of a causative body, which is a rock unit of different density
from its surroundings. A causative body represents a subsurface zone of anomalous mass and
causes a localized perturbation in the gravitational field known as a gravity anomaly.A very
wide range of geological situations give rise to zones of anomalous mass that produce
significant gravity anomalies. On a small scale, buried relief on a bedrock surface, such as a
buried valley, can give rise to measurable anomalies.
Absolute gravity meters or gravimeters large pendulums or falling body techniques. Relative
gravity meters or gravimeters are: lacoste and romberg gravimeters, worden-type gravimeter,
shipborne gravimeter, vibrating string accelerometer, bell marine gravimeter.
Magnetic surveying and instruments: magnetic survey is to investigate subsurface geology
on the basis of anomalies in the Earth’s magnetic field resulting from the magnetic properties
of the underlying rocks. Although most rock-forming minerals are effectively non-magnetic,
certain rock types contain sufficient magnetic minerals to produce significant magnetic
anomalies. Similarly, man-made ferrous objects also generate magnetic anomalies. Magnetic
surveying thus has a broad range of applications, from smallscale engineering or
archaeological surveys to detect buried metallic objects, to large-scale surveys carried out to
investigate regional geological structure. Magnetic surveys can be performed on land, at sea
and in the air.
fluxgate magnetometer, proton magnetometer, magnetic gradiometers, optically pumped
magnetometer.

Seismic surveying: Seismic surveys are conducted by deploying an array of energy sources
and an array of sensors or receivers in an area of interest. The source of seismic waves is
either an explosive which directly generates the seismic wavelet or a non-explosive
(mechanical source) which is commonly a vibrator, which uses a steel base plate in contact
with the ground and transmits seismic waves in the earth. The seismic waves with a vibrator
are generated at controlled frequency ranges and a mathematical process of cross-correlation
of the recorded signal with the source generated signal at the vibrator is used to create the
seismic wavelet. The seismic waves that travel from the source into the earth are received on
geophone sensors planted on the surface at different point.
Marine seismic vessels use a combination of air guns, water guns and other acoustic sources
to create the pulse needed to take seismic readings. The water gun injects water into the
surrounding water, resolving the problem caused by compressed air. The point is to produce
an acoustic vibration that can be read by the geophones and interpreted to reveal the geologic
features underneath the seafloor. The information gathered by the geophones is collected into
an analog signal, before being converted to a digital signal and relayed to computers on the
ship. Methods used in seismic are Reflection surveying and refraction surveying techniques
involved are 2d, 3d, 3c, 4d and 4c

Applications of seismic survey (on land / Marine): The seismic survey can explain subsurface
discontinuities, layering, and probable rocks/structures. It is suitable for the investigation of coal, oil
and gas, groundwater, and massive metallic deposits.

Types of seismic sources (to produce sound waves or enegry pulses)

Explosives: most widely used as seismic sources are known as gelatin dynamites.
Using explosives as seismic sources has been in practice for decades because of the
reliability and energy efficiency they provide. Such sources are most commonly
used on land and swampy environments because of high thickness in sediments.
Typical charge sizes used in the field for reflection surveys are 0.25 kg to 100 kg.

Shotguns, buffalo guns and rifles

Disdavtantages: ease of transport in difficult terrains, and lack of regular maintenance compared to
other sources, the use of explosives is becoming restricted in certain areas.

Non explosive: Non-explosive land sources

Vibroseis is the most common non-explosive source used for reflection surveying.
It uses truck-mounted vibrators to pass into the ground an extended vibration of
low amplitude and continuously varying frequency

Weight drops and hammers is a land seismic source is a large mass dropped on
to the ground surface.

Hammer :The most basic seismic source is a sledge hammer

Marine sources:

Air gun: An air gun is used for marine reflection and refraction surveys. It consists
of one or more pneumatic chambers that are pressurized with compressed air at
pressures from 14 to 21 MPa (2000 to 3000 lbf/in2).

Water guns

Plasma sound source: A plasma sound source (PSS), otherwise called a spark gap
sound source, or simply a sparker, is a means of making a very low frequency
sonar pulse underwater.

Electromagnetic Pulse Energy Source (Non-Explosive): EMP sources based on

the electrodynamic and electromagnetic principles.

Boomer sources: Boomer sound sources are used for shallow water seismic
surveys, mostly for engineering survey applications.