MODULE 5: GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION

IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

ENGAGE
Enumerate the different methods of studying the surface and subsurface composition of
an area?

Which method yields the most accurate results?

EXPLORE
Read Modlue 5 (pp 105 – 126)
Watch:
Geophysics: https://youtu.be/f1GeNljM0T8
Gravity method: https://youtu.be/9P6GEpxFtSY
Magnetic method: https://youtu.be/AZyNIGFHsE4
Electrical method: https://youtu.be/xoOiUEyAJnA
Seismic method: https://youtu.be/gL9k_aXCnkQ
Radiometric method: https://youtu.be/tjp4IlcJyUU

EXPLAIN
GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS
 Involve simple methods of study made on the surface with the aim of ascertaining
subsurface details
 Measures physical properties and interpreting in terms of subsurface geology
Passive methods
 Which detect variations within the natural fields associated with the earth, like the
gravitational and magnetic fields, such as gravit, magnetic, some electric and some
electromagnetic methods, radioactive and geothermal methods
Active methods
 These artificially generated signals transmitted into the ground and then modify the
received signals in ways that are characteristic of the materials through which they
travel. Examples of these methods are seismic and some electrical methods.
 Generally, natural field methods (passive methods) can provide information on
earth properties to greater depths and are simpler to carry out than artificial source
methods (active methods). Moreover, the artificial source methods are capable of
producing a more detailed and better resolved picture of the subsurface geology.

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APPLICATIONS OF GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS
 May be applied in solving problems of regional geology
 locating and estimating economically important mineral deposits
 Locating and assessing groundwater potential and quality
 Problem solving in connection with geology

CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

GRAVITY METHOD
 Represent a set of geophysical methods which make use of natural gravity of field of
earth
 Gravity prospecting involves the measurement of variations in the gravitational field of
the earth (i.e. minute variations in the pull of gravity from rock within the first few miles of
the earth’s surface)

PHYSICAL PROPERTY:
 Density – controlling physical property
 Different types of rock have different densities and the denser rocks have the
greater gravitational attraction.
 If the higher–density formations are arched upward in a structural high, such as an
anticline, the earth’s gravitational field will be greater over the axis of the structure
than along its flanks.

PRINCIPLE:
 Nature of distribution of gravity on the surface is analyzed
 useful wherever the formations of interest have densities which are appreciably
different from those of surrounding formations

Instruments:
 gravimeter: - used in relative gravity measurement is mass loaded spring
 gravity instruments are designed to measure variations in the force of gravity from one
place to another than the absolute force itself

Use:
 It is mainly used for oil exploration. Sometimes in mineral and ground water
prospecting
 effective means of mapping sedimentary basins where the basement rocks have a
higher density than the sediments
 uitable for locating and mapping salt bodies because of the low density of salt
compared with that of surrounding formations
 used for direct detection of heavy minerals such as chromite

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MAGNETIC METHOD
 Take advantage of natural magnetic field associated with the earth and its relation to
subsurface geology
 deals with variations in the magnetic field of the earth which are related to changes of
structures or magnetic susceptibility in certain near surface rocks

CONTROLLING PROPERTY:
 Magnetic susceptibility

PRINCIPLE:
 Based on magnetic bodies present in earth's surface that contribute to the
magnetic field of the earth
 Bodies possessing different magnetic moments to surrounding rocks contribute to
deviations in measurements – magnetic anomalies
 Different parameters measured during magnetic investigations are total magnetic field
(intensity and direction) and different space components
 Magnetic surveys have inherit limitations; thus unique and accurate solutions, magnetic
prospecting is often carried out along with gravity or other methods
 Magnetic surveys are designed to map structure on or inside the basement rocks or to
detect magnetic mineral directly.

APPLICATION OF MAGNETIC INVESTIGATIONS

 For delineation of large structural forms favorable for the accumulation of oil and
gases
 For detection of and location of faults
 For locating strongly magnetic iron ores
 By virtue of their inexpensive nature and easy operation, magnetic method are
widely used for detection of ore deposits, geological structures
 In mining exploration, magnetic methods are employed for direct location of ores
containing magnetic minerals such as magnetite

ELECTRICAL METHOD
 Numerous and more versatile and are more popular
 More successful in dealing with variety of problems like groundwater studies, subsurface
structure and many others

CONTROLLING PROPERTIES:
 Electric conductivity
 Magmatic permeability
 Dielectric constant of subsurface bodies

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PRINCIPLE:
 Difference in electrical properties such as subsurface formation, structures, ore
deposits, etc are investigated suitably and exploited to draw necessary
conclusions

CATEGORIES:
 Electrical resistivity method
PRINCIPLE:
 Studies electrical resistivity (or conductivity) of subsurface formation; note that
the electrical resistivity varies for inhomogenous surface
 current is driven through the ground using a pair of electrodes and the resulting
distribution of the potential in the ground is mapped by using another pair of
electrodes connected to a sensitive voltmeter
 A resistive subsurface body, current lines move away from it and for conductive
subsurface body, current lines move towards it
Types:
 Profiling
 Used to detect lateral changes in resistivy by throwing light on the
change in subsurface lithology
 Sounding
 Used to determine vertical changes in resistivity to reveal changes in
lithology at a particular place with increasing depth
USE:
used to map boundaries between layers having different conductivities
employed in engineering geophysics to map bedrock
used in groundwater studies to determine salinity. – The induced polarization (IP)
makes use ionic exchanges on the surfaces of metallic grains (disseminated sulphides)

Other categories:
 Electromagnetic method
 detect anomalies in the inductive properties of the earth’s subsurface rocks
 alternating voltage is introduced into the earth by induction from transmitting
coils and the amplitude and phase shift of the induced potential generated in
the subsurface are measured by detecting coils and recorded
 used to detect metallic ore bodies
 Self – potential method
 used to detect the presence of certain minerals which react with electrolytes
in the earth to generate electrochemical potentials
 Induce polarization method

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SEISMIC METHOD
CONTROLLING PROPERTIES:
Elastic property differences

PRINCIPLE:
• Based on the principle that subsurface rock formations bear different elastic
properties
• Due to the differences, velocities of seismic wave propagation through the
subsurface layers of earth, suffer reflection or critical reflection arrive at the surface of
earth where they are detected by geophones
• the depth of various elastic boundaries can be determined from the time taken by
the waves to travel through the subsurface formation and from the seismic wave
velocities of the media
• geophones are fixed at suitable intervals on the ground, and the seismic waves reach
the surface and are recorded, time-distance curves are constructed based on the
times of their arrival
• direct waves are the first to reach the geophones, the distance beyond the point is
called the critical distance

2 TYPES of SEISMIC METHODS:

a. Seismic Reflection Method
SEISMIC REFLECTION:
• The seismic signal is reflected back to the surface at layer interfaces and is
recorded at distances less than depth of investigation.
• used to map the structure of subsurface formations by measuring the times required
for a seismic wave, generated in the earth by a near surface exploration of
dynamite, mechanical impact or vibration, to return to the surface after reflection
from interface between formations having different physical properties
• Variations in the reflection times from place to place on the surface indicate
structural features in the strata below.
• Depths to reflecting can be determined from the times using seismic velocity
information.
• Reflections from depths as great as 20,000 feet can be observed from a single
explosion, so that in most areas, geologic structures can be determined throughout
the sedimentary section
• USED TO locate and map features such as anticlines, faults, salt domes and reefs.
Many of these are associated with the accumulation of oil and gas

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 b. Seismic Refraction Method
• Effective for depths more than 100m but are not suitable for shallow exploration
• Are employed for investigating depths from close surface to several kilometer deep
• Shallow Seismic Refraction are found effective in investigation the suitability of
foundation sites for civil engineering structures
SEISMIC REFRACTION:
• The signal returns to the surface by refraction at subsurface interfaces and is
recorded at distances much greater than depth of investigation.

 RADIOMETRIC METHOD
CONTROLLING PROPERTY:
Natural radioactivity of rocks and ores

PRINCIPLE
Normal radioactivity varies in different types of rocks:
i.e. Igneous Rocks: decreases with decreasing acidity.
rocks that contain radioactive ore bodies will exhibit very high radioactivity giving rise
to anomalies during surveys
profile form this method clearly describes the subsurface lithology, structure and ore
body

INSTRUMENTS USED:
(i) Detector
(ii) Amplifier or recording unit
(iii) Power supply

APPLICATION:
Exploration of radioactive substances such as uranium and thorium
Location of rare minerals
Geological mapping
Exploration of oil and gas
Ground water studies

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 GEOTHERMAL METHOD
CONTROLLING PROPERTY:
Thermal conductivity

PRINCIPLE
 Temperature distribution on the surface of earth is due to three different sources:
(i) Heat received from the sun
(ii) Heat conveyed from the hot interior of earth due to conduction and convection
(iii) Heat due to decay of radioactive minerals in the earth crust
 Correction are applied to eliminate solar heat component and heat contribution of
radioactive mineral decay
 Once corrections are made, the residual values of temperature distribution on the
earth’s surface can be interpreted in terms of subsurface structures, rock formation
and ore bodies

MATERIALS/ INSTRUMENT:
Thermistors thermometers are used for measuring the temperature on the earth
surface, shallow holes or in deep bore holes
Crystal detectors and radiometers are also used

APPLICATION:
Deep structural studies
Ore deposits
Ground water studies
Delineation of salt-water freshwater interfaces

ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL SITE INVESTIGATION

SITE INVESTIGATION AND GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION
 Process of collecting necessary information for safe and economic design,
construction and maintenance of civil engineering structures, environmental
management or extraction/development of resources

SITE INVESTIGATION AND GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION

 SITE INVESTIGATION
 Information on hydrology
 Meteorology
 Environment
 Natural resources
 Activities and topography

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  GROUND INVESTIGATION
 Information Ground and groundwater Conditions
 MONITORING
 Time dependent change in ground movements, ground water fluctuation and
movement

PURPOSE:
Understand SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS in terms of:
 Soil and rock profile
 Geological features
 Position and variation of ground water table
 Physical properties of soil and rock
 Identify present contamination (if any)
 Gather general data of adjacent structures, hydrological data, topography,
soil maps, seismicity

THREE MAJOR PARTS OF SITE INVESTIGATIONS

1. PLANNING
 Obtain reliable data with minimum cost of explorations
 Decide on quantity and quality depending on type, size and importance of
project and whether investigation is preliminary or detained

2. EXECUTION
 Collection of disturbed and/or undisturbed samples of subsurface strata from field
 Conducting in-situ tests of subsurface material and directly or indirectly obtaining
properties
 Study of ground water conditions and collection of samples for chemical analysis
 Geophysical exploration
 Laboratory testing of samples

3. REPORT WRITING
 Description of site conditions:
 Topographic features, hydraulic conditions, existing structures
(supplemented by plans/drawings)
 Description of nature, type and importance of proposed construction
 Description of field and lab tests carried out
 Analysis and discussion of data collected information
 Preparation of charts, tables, and graphs
 Calculations and recommendations

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GENERAL OBJECTIVES of SITE INVESTIGATIONS:
 Assess suitability of site for proposed structure
 Evaluate impact of construction on existing site conditions on proposed project
 Anticipate what can be expected in the future (during construction and
performance of structure)
 Develop criteria for design and construction based specific site physical parameters
 Recommend corrective measures (if necessary)

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES of SITE INVESTIGATIONS:

 Determine depth and nature of soil/rock at site and stratification
 Observe drainage conditions from and into the site and G water effects
 Assess special construction problems with respect to existing structures nearby
 Identify potential geological hazards: landslides, earthquakes, flooding, volcanoes,
etc
 Perform some in-situ tests: permeability, bearing capacity, shear strength,
compressibility/ settlement behavior
 Obtain disturbed and undisturbed soil and rock samples for visual identification and
appropriate lab tests
 Assess quantity and quality and proximity of construction materials for proposed
project

ON-SITE and REMOTE INVESTIGATIONS

must include:
 Nature of immediately underlying soil and rock
 Geology and geological structures of project and adjacent areas
 Topography and vegetation
 Ground water situations
 Gullying and natural slopes
 Depth to bedrock
 Types of materials excavated and Stability of excavation
 Presence/ absence of toxic wastes
 Position of utilities and Permission to access property
 Influence factors of site selection/rejection
 Drill site to assess parameters (if necessary)

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ELEMENTS/ PHASES OF INVESTIGATION
1. Formulating investigation/stating question
 Once questions are framed the following aspects are defined:
a) Detail or amount of required information
b) Scope of investigation
c) Size of area
d) Time available (required time)
 Some cases may be time limited by other factors
 Time is a function of need of engineer, season, and location

2. Data collection (secondary or primary)

OFFICE STUDY
 Gathering all existing information
 Geology, geomorphology, hydrogeology, population, accessibility, aerial
photography
 Reduces time of field work if conducted properly
 Secondary data collection is completed
 Upon completion of secondary data:
 Available source selected
 Information extracted and data is organized in usable form
 Compared with required data and enable to give a guide to select
appropriate methods for acquiring it

SURFACE EXPLORATION
 Locating springs, seeps
 Mapping landslides
 Measuring structural parameters of rock outcrops
 Data transfer to map (end product of investigation or used for spatial distribution of
other information

SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
 Direct examination by
 Test pits, trenches, drilling
 Indirect examination by
 Geophysical methods
 Data compiled in form of
 Geologic profiles, graphic logs, 3D representations

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 3. Data interpretation
 Interpretation starts with analysis of data in light of question
 Analysis results serve as basis for developing conclusions and recommendations
 Actual investigation data analysis occurs throughout data collection
 To avoid extraneous data or failure to collect data not initially recognized
relevant
 To un interpret:
 Understand role of measurement scales
 Make data manageable for analysis
 Apply analytical techniques

4. communication
 final step in an investigation
 answers developed by the investigation should be transferred to the user for action
o the user: individual, company manager, government board, court, etc
 no single way of communication is appropriate in all cases
 presentation the public, oral communication, written in a defined format
 conclusions must be supported by data and analysis
 confidence in the conclusion means the user must be able to see how the data
supports the conclusions
 assist reader or listener in understanding the findings by stating logical consequences
of conclusion (especially for less technical background)
 use pictures, diagrams, and other nonverbal means of communication

STAGES OS SITE INVESTIGATION

1. Initial or Preliminary/ Reconnaissance study
Involves collection of source information
Collection of data from man’s activities such as wells, quarries, mines etc
Walk over site (fieldwork)

2. Detailed Study(Site Exploration) (surface and subsurface exploration)

2 Main goals:
Determine and interpret surface and subsurface conditions that influence design and
construction project
Evaluate behaviour, characteristics and engineering significance of earth materials
present or those intended for use in construction

2 types of exploration
a) Surface
Surface information (soil and rock) understand geological process which formed
the soil and rocks (natural outcrops, river cuts, etc)

b) Subsurface

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 Know thickness of overburden/soil in the absence of exposures permitting
identification of underlying bedrock
Know uncertainty of the relation of springs and seeps to the regional groundwater
table
Identify nature of discontinuities in orientation in the subsurface

METHODS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

DIRECT METHODS
1. Drilling/Boreholes/Probes
Establish correlation between lithologic units of vertical succession
Evaluate the physical conditions of rocks such as rock quality designation
Collect samples of various rock units for laboratory tests
Carry out water pressure tests

TYPES OF BORING
a. AUGER BORINGS
Simplest method of exploration and sampling
Power driven or hand operated
Maximum depth is 10m
Suitable in all soils above groundwater table but only in cohesive soil below
groundwater table
Hollow stem augers used for sampling or conducting Standard Penetration
Test
a.1 SOLID (CONTINUOUS) FLIGHT AUGERS:
 Continuous augers added in 1.5m having a diameter varying from 102 to
204mm
 Limited to non caving soils and depths less than 10m with finger or fish tail
bit at the front end to loosen soil
 Due to limited application, continuous flight augers are generally not
suitable for use in investigations requiring soil sampling

a.2 HOLLOW STEM AUGURS (HAS)

 Are very similar to the continuous flight auger except it has a large hollow
center
 Added in 1.5m increment
 Allow soil sampling without removal
 Acts as temporary casing to stabilize borehole
 Generally limited to depths less than 30m
 Limitations:
o Cutting produces are mixed as they move up the auger flights and
are limited for visual observation purposes

a.3 BUCKET AUGERS BORINGS

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  Used for obtaining large disturbed samples
 Diameters range from 0.60m to 1.2m
 Increment of 0.3m to 0.6m depths
 Good for gravelly soils and cobbles
 Swivel mounted bottom valve prevents loss of material
 Working below GW level possible
 Construction of rooted piles with belled bucket augers
 Typically advanced by truck-mounted drill
 Boring is advanced by a rotation drilling buked with cutting teeth
mounded to the bottom
 Drilling bucket is attached to the bottom of Kelly bat, which typically
consists of two- or four-square steel tubes assembled as one inside
another enabling the Kelly bar to telescope to the bottom of the hole

b. Rotary Drilling
Used in clay, sand and rocks
Not used for materials containing large percentage of gravel size and
larger

c. Percussion Drilling
Used for making holes in rocks, boulders and other hard strata
Advantage: used for all types of materials including drilling holes in glacial
tills
Disadvantage: material at the bottom of the hole is disturbed by heavy
blows
quite expensive than others

d. Core Drilling
used for drilling holes and obtaining rock cores
Drilling bits I rotary drilling:
drag bits for clays and loose sands
Tricon roller bits for dense coarse-grained granular soils, cemented zones
and soft or weathered rock

2. Manual Hand Auger Method

3. Hand operated Power Augers

4. Drifting
Exploratory drifts made horizontally into the ground to know the subsurface
geological conditions and to know the depth of fresh sound rock
Commonly used for dam abutment investigations

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 5. Test Pits/ Trenches
Shallow visual investigations and take sample from top few meters of soil
Economical and rapid
Excavation with hand tolls, backhoe etc
1 to 3 m deep can be extended to 6m

c. INDIRECT METHODS
Geophysical Techniques

3. Implementation
4. Post construction Stage

ELABORATE
IMPORTANCE OF GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS
 solves a vast variety of problems
 Investigations are carried out quickly
 Large areas can be investigated in a reasonable short period of time
 Geophysical instruments used in the field are simple
 Portable and are operated easily
 Only physical observations are made
 Economical without use of consumable materials like chemicals
 Different interference suit different purposes
 Interferences drawn from the same field can be interpreted differently
 Subsurface of rock type
 Geological structures
 Groundwater conditions
 Ore deposits
 Depth of bed rock

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CLASSIFICATIONS OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

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 ELECTRICAL METHOD

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 SEISMIC METHOD

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What do we investigate?

EVALUATE
Enumerate 10 applications of Geophysical Methods

Research on Baguio Mineral District.

1. Guide for you to work on:
a. Why is it considered a world-class mining district?
b. What are the major minerals found?
c. What are the major mines?
2. Provide the references at the end of your research.
3. Avoid plagiarism. Corresponding deductions will be applied.
4. Files shall be placed in docx files, ppt or pdf. Since your creativity is graded, you can
use any appropriate font but the minimum size should be 12. This is not to be taken
like a photo album or scrapbook. Make it professional looking like an engineer’s
presentation.

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Discuss the activities and the foundation of Geological Society of the Philippines.
1. Your essay should be within 250 to 300 words.
2. If you find it necessary to add some images, you are allowed.
3. Follow the proper essay format:
i. Introduction
ii. First body paragraph
iii. Second body paragraph
iv. Conclusion
4. Avoid plagiarism. Corresponding deductions will be applied.
5. Files shall be placed in docx files. Use 1 inch margin all around, Arial 12 justified. and
place your name in the header. Provide your code of honesty at the end of your
submittal.

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