IB Psychology

Mr. Detjen

Student Responses to CLoA Learning Outcomes

I. General Learning Outcomes

LO1: Outline the principles that define the Cognitive Level of Analysis

LO2: Explain how principles that define the CLoA may be demonstrated in research

LO3: Discuss how and why particular research methods are used in the CLoA

LO4: Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the CLoA

II. Cognitive Processes

LO5: Evaluate Schema Theory with reference to research studies

Taylor Alexander
Schema theory is a theory in which interrelated information is stored collectively in the same general
area of memory. There are five roles of schemas: to organize information into memories; can be activated in
order to increase effectiveness; enables generation or creation of expectation; regulates behavior; and stabilizes
and is resistant to change. A schema is a cognitive structure that organizes and stores knowledge within memory
and evolves over time based on experience.
Schema as a broad category can be divided into subcategories known as scripts, self-schema, and social
schemas. Script schemas are those that provide information of what is most often expected. Self-schemas are
organized bits of information of ourselves that we know. Social schemas often referred to as cultural
stereotypes. These subcategories enable us to create shortcuts in our memory.
Bartlett in his 1932 study of cultural schemas and their influence on memory is an example that relates
to schema theory. In this 1932 study, Bartlett had twenty-four participants attempt to remember a Native
American folk song, “War of the Ghost”. Bartlett found that people had trouble recalling the story and most of
the story had been reconstructed to fit their own cultural schemas that they best saw fit. Participants
reconstructed the folk song into their own replicas of the song because it made the story more relatable to their
culture and more comprehensive and understandable. The 1932 by Bartlett supported schema theory because it
suggested that people remember information based on its level of importance and meaning; his study also
supported the ideal that memory can be distorted or the wrong schemas can be activated.
Another study relevant to the schema theory is Bransford and Johnson’s study of 1972 in which the aim
of their study was to contain the location of schemas as they are being introduced and manipulated. Participants
were placed in one of three conditions. In condition one, participants heard a story and were not given a title for
the story they had heard. In condition two, participants were told the title of the story before hearing the actual
story. The third, and final group of participants (in condition three), were told the title of the speech after it had
been given. Bransford and Johnson found that participants that had been in condition one and three had a more
difficult time understanding the speech. This study supports the schema theory because it shows that people
who received the title of the speech before hearing it could have already had an established schema for the topic
of the speech.
Schemas allow us to use the shortcuts created after encountering an experience that caused us to
remember the information and categorize it accordingly. Although schemas can be distorted for improved
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comprehension and understanding, these schemas could disable us from being open-minded to new perspectives
due to the expectations already set in our minds.

Charles Burt
A schema theory is a cognitive theory about information processing. This theory suggests that our
previous knowledge will influence the outcome of information processing. Humans interpret and integrate
information in order to make sense of what is happening to them. When there is missing information in the
processing, the brain uses schemas to fill in something that seems like it fits. This specific function, however,
could lead to distortions or mistakes. There are many studies in support of schema theory. It has been used to
support other theories about stereotyping and prejudice. It has also helped with understanding memory
distortions. In Bartlett’s 1932 study, The War of the Ghosts, participants were expected to memorize a story and
recall it several times over the course of a year. As expected, the participants began to change the recalling of
the story. Bartlett found that as the story changed, the information that was missing from the story was replaced
with characteristics of the participant’s normal life or schemata. On the other hand, some researchers claim that
there isn’t a way of knowing exactly how schemas are formed and if they are even a special part of information
processing. In the 1993 study by Cohen, Cohen criticizes the schema theory saying that schemas are too vague
to be useful. Even still, researchers use schema theory to help explain information processing in the brain.

Alyssa January
The schema theory is a cognitive theory about information processing. A schema is defined as a network
of knowledge, beliefs, or expectations about specific aspects of the world. There are many types of schemas,
some prominent schemas include cognitive schemas, social schemas, and gender schemas. The schema theory is
a cognitive theory about information processing. The theory basically states that humans try to categorize new
knowledge into existing schema for better understanding.
Bartlett’s The War of the Ghosts (1932) supports the schema theory. The study was on serial
reproduction. Participants were asked read a Native American story and reproduce it 15 minutes later. Then the
participant reproduce it over again but they would leave of details pertaining to Native Americans and add
details that where relevant to their lives. The finding s supports the schema theory because the people put the
story into existing schemas, thus making it easier to reproduce.

Princess Hollins
The schema theory basically states that all of our knowledge is organized into units. Due to the schema theory,
new encounters of the world are rarely completely new. This is because or schema provide a for people, events
or new encounters. So, we already have an idea or perception of everything, though it may be altered when we
actually encounter those events, people or things.

On example of a research study that evaluates the schema theory is the Bartlett study from 1932. The aim of this
study was basically to evaluate the effect of the schema theory on memory. British English participants were
given time to read a Native American folktale. Each had to individually write out the story as they recalled it,
and pass their version of the story on to the next individual to read then regurgitate what they remembered the
story to be, like a game of "telephone." The results showed that their memory of the story was altered due to
their schema and background. Their stories were altered to be similar to some sort of story including familiar
events pertaining to their culture.

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Imani Taylor
A schema is a cognitive structure that serves as a framework to organize people, objects and situations.
Schemas help and allow us to do several things. It organizes our knowledge in our memory, and it helps people
to make sense of situations. Schemas are based off our experience and new experiences add to our knowledge,
this is because if we come to an experience that contradicts our own personal schema then we may go to accept
it which results in our schemas expanding or new schemas be created. The schema theory states that schemas
and our stored knowledge influences our processing and behavior; that schemas effect how we approach the
world, how we behave and how we process information. There are four interrelated functions in the schema
theory, all adding to the idea that schemas are an energy saving device to help us organize our knowledge and
work more efficiently because we do them automatically. The four components are that schemas organize
information in our memory, that schemas can be activated to enhance/increase information processing
efficiency, it enables creation/generation of expectations of objects, situations and people, and lastly the
schemas regulate behavior and how we approach the world.
Three main studies that try to support the schema theory are Bartlett (1932), Bransford and Johnson
(1972), and Loftus and Palmer (1974).
Bartlett's 1932 study was trying to test schemas in memory. In the study he took several British
participants and read them a Native American folk tale called Ghost, after the study they did two experiments to
test the participants memory of the story, either a serial reproduction or a repeated reproduction. In the serial
reproduction one participant was asked to reproduce the Native American story and then another participant
read that story and was asked to reproduce the "reproduced story", next a third and fourth participant was asked
to reproduce the story that was already reproduced. In the repeated reproduction the participants was asked to
reproduce the story several times with different times in between, sometimes minutes up to days or years. The
results were that the stories always became shorter and shorter and that the participants distorted the story so
that it matched more with their culture so instead of hunting seals the people were fishing and instead of being
in a canoe the people were in a boat. This research relates to schemas because it reflects the persons culture,
they have an active reconstruction process so that the story matches more with what they understand.
The Bransford and Johnson 1972 study took several participants and read them instructions; the first
group was given the title at the beginning of the paragraph, the second group was given the title at the end and
the third group was not given a title at all. After reading the paragraphs the participant was asked how easy it
was to comprehend and remember the paragraph, the subjects given the title at the beginning was able to
remember more and comprehend more than the other two. Having the title therefore set off a schema to help
the people remember more of the instructions and improve understanding.
The last study, the Loftus and Palmer 1974 research aim was to study schemas and eyewitness
testimonies. The participants were shown the same clip of two cars crashing and then asked if the cars had been
bumped, crashed, smacked or hit and then later asked how bad was the accident and what speed the cars had
been going. Those with words such as smacked had a higher speed than those that heard the word bumped and
reported a more violent accident. This experiment showed that word usage effects retrieval and shows that the
word schema are associated with different situations.

Dominique Price
A schema is a cognitive device that organizes information in the mind; it allows this information to be
processed by means of prior knowledge and by memories of a situation, object, or person. In laymen’s terms, it
is how the mind understands incoming information through the use of past memories and known information.
There are three types of schemas: script, self, and social. Script schemas are a pre-organized information about a
object or place. Self schemas are pre-organized information about oneself whether this be pre-determined
physical, emotional, and or mental information. Social schemas are pre-motioned information about other
people. In reference to the top-down/down/up theory; schemas allow for the stimulus and information traveling
up to the brain to be more easily understood. This theory may also alter a schema because of new incoming data
about a pre-known subject.
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 Sir Fredrick Bartlett’s 1932 studies on memory support the schema theory. The study The War of the
Ghosts focused on how memory is retrieved from long or short memory; it created the theory of the seven sins
of memory. The seven sins of memory are transience, absent-mindedness, blocking, misattribution,
suggestibility, bias, and persistence. Bartlett used twenty-four participants to read a native American tale and
split the group into two conditions. The first group was serial reproduction which were read the tale and asked
to recall the story and write it down on paper and then this story is read to the next participant; then the process
was repeated. The second group was repeated reproduction in which, one participant was read the tale and was
then required to write down on paper and dictate it to the rest of the conditional group. His conclusion was that
both conditions produced similar results. The original story was altered as it was retold which thus supported
Bartlett’s suggestibility theory from his study The War of the Ghosts which state that information is loss as it is
passed from person to person.

Jolie Huynh
Schema theory is a cognitive theory explaining how information is process by the mind. Schemas provide the
framework to organize input information and come from prior knowledge. For example, a schema for school
would be the people, objects, and ideas that are often associated with school such as students, teachers, and
homework. There are three types of schemas: scripts (schemas for sequence of familiar events), self-schemas
(organized information about ourselves such as our weaknesses), and social schemas (information about a group
of people or stereotypes). These schemas, thus, allow the brain to use stored knowledge to process information
more efficiently in a shorter amount of time and create expectations for certain aspects of the world. The
schema theory is based on the idea that schemas can influence behaviors, which are any observable acts, and
mental processes such as memory.
In 1932, Bartlett conducted a study to investigate whether schema can affect memory. In thestudy, he read to a
group of British participants an African tale and tested their memory through serial reproduction (a participant
recount the tale to a second participant who recount it to a third participant and so on) and repeated reproduction
(a participant recount the tale to several other participants). In both methods of reproduction, Bartlett found that
some details in the original tale were changed to make more sense to the participants. He therefore concluded
that memory can be reconstructed to better fit the one’s expectations and beliefs.
Another study by Loftus and Palmer (1974) provides further support. The researchers firstdivided the
participants into five groups. All the groups watched the same seven videos of car accidents and were later
asked to answer a questionnaire. One group was asked “About how fast were the cars going when they bumped
into each other?” For the other four groups, “bumped” was replaced by “smashed”, “collided”, “hit”, and
“contacted”. The results showed that those with the word “smashed” reported highest speed estimate whereas
those with “contacted” reported the lowest estimate. Thus, the schemas associated with each verb had
influenced the participants’ memory of the cars’ speed.
Bransford and Johnson (1972) carried out a study in which a paragraph was read to the participants, who were
divided into three groups: one group was given a title for the paragraph before it was read, one group was given
the title after it was read, and one group was not given a title at all. The participants in all three conditions then
tried to recall as much of the paragraph as possible. The results showed that the group who was given the title
before the paragraph was read had the best performance on recalling because the title gave the participants an
idea of what the paragraph was about and activated a schema within their mind to help them remember the
paragraph better.
Bartlett (1932), Loftus and Palmer (1974), and Bransford and Johnson (1972) all supported schema theory’s
idea that schemas can affect memory as their studies demonstrated that schemas can reconstruct memory
leading to distortions or help one remembers better. Distortions happened when the brain tries to fill in missing
information based on the existing schema and that information can sometimes be false, especially if one is in an
unfamiliar setting. Schema theory, however, is limited in that it does not fully explain how schemas are attained
and how they actually influence mental processes. A few psychologists believe that schemas are too vague of a

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concept to explain how the brain process information, though researchers still utilize the schema theory in their
works.

Karl Wimmer
The schema theory is a cognitive theory that pertains to information processing. The theory was views
organized knowledge as a network of mental structures which represent how people understand the world. This
theory was developed by R.C. Anderson. The theory is very useful for understanding how people categorize,
interpret and make inferences. The schema theory has also been used to explain memory processes.
Psychologists divide memory into three stages: encoding, storage and retrieval. According to the theory, schema
processing can affect memory at all stages.
The schema theory has been a topic for several research studies in the field of psychology. One study
was Reconstructive Memory(1932) done by Bartlett which investigated how memory is able to store
meaningful information. The participants were told a story and asked to recall the story at different time
intervals. Bartlett concluded that memory is reconstructive and people attempt to relate memories to any
personal schemas they may have.
Another study is Peterson and Peterson (1959) where participants were given multiple trigrams and asked to
recall them after 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 seconds, they were also being distracted. Peterson found that after 3
seconds 80% of the participants were able to recall the information, but at the 15 second interval only about
10% could remember. This shows that after longer periods of time, people tend to remember less information.

Megan Ratcliff
A schema is defined as a mental representation of knowledge. Schemas are based upon individual
experiences and represent the opinions that individuals form to help them make better sense of their surrounding
world. The schema theory is a cognitive theory about how information is processed and states that “new
encounters in the world are rarely new; rather our actions are determined by our previous experiences”. This
means that previous knowledge will influence the outcome of information processing and the theory divides
memory processes into three main stages of encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Several psychologists have studied this theory; among them is the pioneer Frederick Bartlett. He was the
first psychologist to coin the term schema and his 1932 study was the first of its kind. He read a Native
American folktale to a group of 24 Englishmen. He split them into two conditions; one used serial reproduction,
in which each participant is read the story, reproduces the story on paper from memory, and then that story is
read to the next participant and the cycle continues. The other involves one participant writing the story and
reads that to the rest of the participants.
He found that both conditions were similar. In both cases, the original story became shorter and the
meaning of the story was changed to make for a better understanding for the Englishmen. He concluded that the
way the story was recalled was affected by schemas they had. So therefore, Bartlett suggested that schemas
were most active during retrieval.

Kaliice Walker
A schema is a cognitive structure that provides a framework for how we process and organize the world
around us. It is the combination on previous knowledge, expectation, and beliefs of certain aspects of the world.
Schemas have many functions. They help organize information; they increase process efficiency, regulate
behavior, and enable us to have expectations. They can however, lead to distortions and mistakes. While
schemas are particularly stable and resistant they can change and adapt over time.
The schema theory is a cognitive theory in that it explains how we process. It is the idea that we store
new knowledge into existing schema categories that help better understand what we are trying to process. As we
are processing information these schemas can lead to distortions when our assumption about the world does not
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meet out schema. There are different types of schemas. One type is scripts; this is a type of schema of a
sequence of event. An example of this is the schema of what a restaurant is and what the “restaurant”
experience is suppose to be like. Another type of schema is social schema. Social schema is the assumption that
we have about a group of people and examples of these are stereotyping and prejudice. The last main type of
schema is self schema. This is the expectation that we have about ourselves. This provides to the framework for
how we organize information about ourselves. The main factor of what goes into these schemas is the culture in
which a person lives in.
The schema theory is supported in the Loftus and Palmer study of 1974. The aim of this study was to
investigate the effects of leading questions of a person’s memory of an event. Participants in this study were
showed a clip of a car crash and then asked a serious of questions. This study mainly looked at the schemas
behind certain key verbs. Loftus and Palmer thought that after viewing the car crash video, participants thought
they were asked “how fast the cars where going when they smashed” would report a higher speed, opposed to
those asked “how fast where the cars going when they contacted each other.” The results of this study
supported that the schema of the verbs could and did influence the retrieval of memory.

Jarren Gorka
Schemas, in their most basic form, are cognitive structures that provide a framework for the organization
and categorization of objects, people, situations, etc. Dive into the term deeper, and you’ll find a number of
types of schemas including scripts, self-schemas, and social schemas. Schemas help us to identify and evaluate
issues, predict outcomes, and role play. Memory, as it is understood today, is processed first by encoding, then
through storage, and, finally, through retrieval. Schemas begin to form from the start of one’s life as they begin
to hear and observe the world, continuously growing and changing until one’s set of schemas become, more or
less, “set” later in life. With that said, as outlined by Bartlett’s 1932 study based on cultural effects on schema
and Brewer and Treyens’ 1981 study based around one’s expectations of a situation, schemas play a major role
in the processing of memories.
One of the three main types of schemas, scripts, deals heavily with role playing in that it offers up a
sequence of events that is familiar to an individual. This type of schema contains sets of role expectations. A
very basic example of a script schema would be basic shopping for a basic person. When one goes shopping,
they walk in, browse, and purchase whatever items they may have found. The big key here is to actually
purchase, rather than to steal. The majority of us know not to steal because it’s ingrained in our heads from not
only previous shopping experiences, but also from growing up and observing family who rightfully paid for
their items.
Self-schemas, on the other hand, are specific to one’s self. These schemas are based on how we perceive
ourselves as humans in terms of traits, abilities, values, etc. If a child knows that she cannot swim, the odds of
her jumping into a twelve foot deep pool are highly unlikely; however, if an olympic swimmer sees a twelve
foot deep pool, jumping in without any thought is likely. Both the child and olympic swimmer know of their
abilities and inabilities from previous experiences. These experiences then help to build schemas which in turn
helps one live his or her life in comfort.
Finally, social schemas are set ideas for certain groups of people, animals, items, etc. These schemas are
very similar to self-schemas in that they are created through how one perceives traits, abilities, and values of
another. Social schemas are, essentially, stereotypes that dictate how we perceive. A perfect example would be
feminists in that they are stereotypically seen as a very angry, dykey, man hating lesbian; however, this schema
is only in place because of the misunderstanding of what exactly feminism stands for. It is seen as anti-men and
a need for women to be better, but it is instead a fight for equality between genders, not valuing one over
another.
No matter the type of schema, these preset expectations, ideas, and categories affect how we process
memories. Bartlett’s 1932 study on the affect of cultural schemas on recalling information showed that
interpreting and recalling information has everything to do with preexisting schemas based on one’s cultural
norms and expectations. This theory was demonstrated through the retelling of the Native American folk tale
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“The War of the Ghosts” by participants where, for example, recalling the use of a canoe in the tale was either
omitted due to perceived irrelevancy or recalled using a different name due to cultural differences. Brewer and
Treyens’ 1981 study demonstrated something similar. Participants were asked to wait in a room openly
identified as an academic’s study and then later asked to recall what they remember of the room. They found
that because of the identification of the room, many people imagined items that were not actually present, such
as books. This was due to preset schemas, expectations of what an academic’s study should look like.
Scripts, self-schemas, and social schemas guide our everyday interactions with the world whether it’s
knowing that it’s best to pay for items rather than to steal, knowing our limits and our abilities with regards to a
situation, or in our sometimes not intentional stereotyping of people. As demonstrated through Bartlett and
Brewer and Treyens, our schemas do in fact play a major role in the processing of memories.

Hannah Florence
Schemas are cognitive structures that provide a framework for the organization of objects, people, and
situations; they are mental representations of an idea which is categorized. The way memory is processed
includes three steps: encoding (transforming sensory information into a meaningful memory), storage (creating
a biological trace of the encoded information in memory, which is either consolidated or lost), and retrieval
(using the stored information). It is currently believed that the processing of schemas can affect memory at all
three of the steps in memory processing. Informally, schemas are basically shortcuts that allow us to interpret
information rapidly. The formation of schemas start at a very young age and develop based on past experiences.
As children categorize objects, people, and situations by their differences, schemas begin to form. There are
three main types of schemas, which include: scripts, self-schemas, and social schemas.
Scripts are a type of schema in which the order or sequence of events is familiar. Think of the times
you’ve gone to a movie theater. What is the sequence of events that take place before you see the movie? First,
you go to the ticket booth and purchase a ticket. Next, you may go inside and get something to eat and drink.
Then, you may go into the theater, sit down, and wait for the movie to begin. This script has been developed
due to the multiple times you have gone too see a movie. Any slight deviance in the order may seem odd to you
based on the schema you’ve developed.
Self-schemas develop as we learn and categorize information about ourselves such as our strengths and
weaknesses. If given a choice, you may choose not to participate in an activity that you know you will not be
good at based on the other times you have tried. However, you may readily accept performing a task because
you consider it to be one of your “strong suits” and something you know you will prosper in doing.
It may be easy to understand the concept of social-schemas since this aspect is closely related to
stereotyping. Social-schemas depend on information we know and have gathered about other people. If you
picture a fireman, what do you see? You are likely to see a young, fit male with a mustache wearing turnout
gear and possibly standing next to a big red truck and a spotted dog. As you have seen firemen on television and
in books, you have created, in your mind, a mental representation of what firemen look like. If a fireman was to
wear black cargo pants and a blue collared shirt, you may not realize that he too is a fireman. Social-schemas
not only use surroundings but also incorporate race. Unfortunately, if you grew up in a secluded neighborhood,
you may run into a person who does not look like the people you’ve seen your whole life, thus you may be
scared of that person based solely on his or her race.
The reaction you may have to a person, object or situation is a key example of how schemas affect our
behavior. Along with behavior, there are other concepts that schema theorists apply to the overall concept of
schema theory. Schemas also help to increase information processing efficiency; if every time you saw a ball
you had to say “Oh, it is circular, it bounces, and it can roll; therefore, it must be a ball” it would take a very
long time to process information. The case may also be made that schemas are relatively stable and take some
time to change. If you are raised to believe in one concept, and then suddenly a new, viable concept is
introduced you may refuse to believe in the unknown. Therefore, one must remain partially open-minded in
order to learn new information that may have just as much validity as what was previously known.
Comparatively, schemas may engender expectations. For example, if you were to create a schema that all four-
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legged animals are vicious, you would never go around the gentlest dog due to the fear that one may attack you.
In this case, it is also important to keep an open mind but not so open that it results in physical harm.
The research study performed by Bartlett in 1932 sought to show the effects of schemas on memory.
Participants were asked to read a story then reproduce it audibly or visually, the original story itself was told
using colloquial terms and was asked to be retold by someone from a different region who used the same
general language. Results found that the stories changed as they were retold in a way that was more memorable
to the teller, a concept that was termed “rationalization.” Bartlett’s work was criticized due to lack of procedural
strictness and lackadaisical manner in which the research was conducted. Gaule and Stephenson performed the
same study with a stricter setting and ended up getting the same results supporting Bartlett’s original findings.
Results supported the schema theory and showed that participants changed the original story to fit
predetermined schemas that were more relatable to the individual participants.
Bransford and Johnson (1972) involved three conditional groups in which all the participants had to
listen to a speech. The speech itself listed the steps taken while doing laundry but key words were replaced with
more vague terms as to not give away what the list was pertaining to. Participants in one group were told the
title of the speech before it was given; the second group was the title after the speech was given; and the third
group was not told the title at all. The group that was told the title before the speech was able to comprehend
what was being talked about and the participants were also able to recall a large portion of the speech due to the
schema they already possessed about washing clothes. The participants in the second and third groups reported
having trouble recalling the steps listed in the speech as well as little to no comprehension of what the speech
was about.
There are some challenges to the schema theory as a whole. There are people in the world who don’t
believe in aspects that cannot be traced from their origins or cannot be directly seen as they relate to the
processes that are believed to control. Some people think the concept of schemas is too vague. Also, schemas
may find a pattern but that pattern may not be fully correct. All in all, the schema theory has a great deal of
basis in the scientific community.

Emily Forsythe
In order to evaluate the schema theory one must first recognize what a schema is. A schema is a
cognitive structure that provides the framework for organization such as objects, people, and situations.
Schemas are formed from past experiences and create shortcuts to interpret information. There are three types
of schemas: scripts, self-schemas, and social schemas. Scripts are schemas that organize events in
order/sequence based on familiarity. Self-schemas are schemas that organize information about us and our
strengths and weaknesses. Social schemas are schemas that organize information about others such as
stereotypes.
The schema theory is a cognitive theory about information processing and can be used to explain
memory processes. There are several connections in the functions of the schema theory. Theorists believe that it
helps organize information in memory, they can be activated to increase information processing, they engender
expectations, they can help regulate behavior, and they are relatively stable.
In 1932, Bartlett studied the affect of cultural schemas on recalling information. Through the study
Bartlett was able to show that schemas that are based on social expectations and guidelines deal with recalling
and interpreting information. Bartlett had people retell a Native American story, “The War of the Ghosts” and
interpreted the differences in word choice as either irrelevant or a difference caused by culture.
In 1981, Brewer and Treyen asked participants to wait in a room referred to as an academic study and
then were later asked to state what they remember about the room. Several participants stated that they saw
things in the room that were not actually in the room such as books or pens. A preexisting schema of what an
academic study is and has in it can be correlated to the responses given by participants.

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 LO6: Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research
studies

Charles Burt
Two models or theories of memory are: the multi-store model and the levels of processing model. The
Multi-store model was developed in the Atkinson and Schiffrin (1968) study. The study revealed that there are
different sub-categories that memory can be broken down into. Those sub-categories are the sensory, short-
term, and long-term memory categories. The Levels of Processing Model was developed in the 1972 study by
Craik and Lockhart. This study contradicted the Atkinson study in that it stated that memory was dependent on
how it was processed, not store. The Levels of Processing Model says that information is processed in a
structural, phonetic and semantic sense.
The Multi-store memory model has the advantage of providing support that there is short and long term
memory. The multi-store model is also supported by the HM case study. There is a difference in long and short
term memory in this case study due to HM only remembering things from his short-term memory and not things
that should be in his long term memory, like the death of a parent for example. On the other hand, Multi-store
model’s greatest criticism is that it is too simple. The model leads you to believe that the sub-categories don’t
have sub-categories. From the 1974, study of Baddeley and Hitch, it was shown that short-term memory had
sub-categories of central-executive and visuo-spatial.
The Levels of Processing Model has the strengths of actually improving or making the multi-store
model more complex. It showed that memory was not dumped into long, short, and sensory memory. It was first
processed into structural, phonetic, and semantic memory. Although the Levels of Processing does all of this, it
does not explain how the structural, phonetic, and semantic processes result in better memories and it can’t be
physically observed.

Imani Taylor
Two methods of memory and memory storage are the multi-store model theory and the levels of
processing theory. The multi-store model says that memory has three different "stores" and that these "stores"
are in linear fashion, first the sensory story, then the short term store and then the long term store. The
differences of the three stores are duration, capacity, and encoding. The sensory store has unlimited capacity
because people receive tons of information constantly, we just don't pay attention to it. But this store has no
duration, the memory decays rapidly; we have to pay attention to the information for it to begin to get
transferred to the short term memory. The two coding systems that the sensory store has in the visual sensory
store or the iconic memory, which deals with visual information and the auditory memory or the echoic memory
which is based on our hearing. The iconic memory lasts about 1-2 seconds while our echoic memory lasts about
3-4 second. Next is the short term memory store which has an extremely limited capacity, about seven units,
and only lasts about 30 second to one minute unless it is intentionally maintained by rehearsal where then it
begins to get transferred to the long term store. The long term store has unlimited capacity along with unlimited
duration, rehearsed and semantic coding is used here, which is coding based off meaning. This store model
basically shows that memory is not unitary, it has three stores and that attention, rehearsal and retrieval link the
three stores together.
Another theory for how memory works is the level of processing. This theory ignores the multi-store
theory and focuses on the fact of depth of processing. The theory states that there are three different encoding
processes: structural, phonological and semantic. The structural encoding deals with what a word looks like,
physical features and how the word is presented. The second encoding is phonological: the phonetics, how we
understand and process the word and how the word sounds. The last encoding is semantic encoding which is the
meaning of the word. This theory deals with the depth of processing and the depth increasing from structural to
phonological to semantic with semantic encoding being the deepest of the three. The criticism of the theory is
that there are no convincing measurements of depth in the memory, that it is more descriptive than explanatory
9
and that it do not address retrieval, just encoding. One study that tried to support this theory is the Craik and
Lockhart 1972 study. The study took a number of participants with 60 words and gave each word a question
that dealt with one way to encode the word, after a distracting process the participants were asked to find the
words from a larger list. The results of the study was that the words that had semantic questions asked of them
were much more easily found, then the phonological words were found in more numbers than the structural
words; supporting the idea that the deeper the processing of a word the deeper the word is into the memory.

Jolie Huynh
A model for memory was suggested in 1968 by Atkinsson and Shiffrin. They proposed that memory is made up
of three components- sensory store, short-term store, and long-term store- and that these components work
together in a linear order. Information first enters sensory memory, which is modality specific (auditory
information is stored in echoic memory, and visual information is stored in iconic memory) and lasts only a few
seconds. If enough attention is given, the information from sensory memory is transferred to short-term memory
store, which can hold seven units of information at a time and lasts about six to twelve seconds. Rehearsal
(repeating the information over and over) transfer information from the short-term memory store to the long-
term memory store, which has unlimited capacity and duration. It stores information in the form of an outline,
and when the information is needed to be recalled, the mind fills in the gaps to complete the memory. This
multi-store model, however, is too simplistic, and the idea that rehearsal is required to store information in long-
term memory can be challenged because there is a difference in coding for long-term and short-term stores.

The working memory model is based on the multi-store model but suggests that the storage for short-term
memory has more than one component. The central executive is in charge of monitoring and coordinating the
other components. It operates on an automatic level, which is based on habit and controlled automatically by
stimuli from the environment, and on a supervisory attentional level, which is triggered by emergencies. There
is also an episodic buffer, which displays and stores the information temporarily and passively until it is later
needed. The phonological loop is part of the working memory model. There are two components to the
phonological loop: the articulatory system, which holds information in a verbal form and holds words ready as
you prepare to speak, and the phonological store, which holds information in a phonological form and receives
auditory information from sensory memory, verbal information from long-term memory, and also information
from the articulatory control system. The visualspatial sketchpad, on the other hand, processes visual and spatial
information from sensory information and long-term memory.

This model is supported by a study by Baddeley and Hitch in 1974. The researchers asked the participants to
read and understand a prose and to memorize a list of numbers. As the participants memorized more numbers,
their reasoning ability for the prose was decreased but not by a significant amount. This led the researchers to
the conclusion that the participants did not have much trouble performing both cognitive tasks at the same time
because short-term memory has more than one store as suggested by the multi-store model. The working
memory model is accepted by psychologists for its complex rather than simplistic explanation and is used
widely in many studies in learning and memory.

Taylor Alexander
A cognitive process that has references to both models and theories is memory. Memory is the ability of
the mind to remember pieces of information, whether it is to be stored or recalled within moment of rehearsal.
Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968 created the basic architecture of memory. The multi-store memory model
suggests that there are three subheadings to memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term
memory. In its linear form, the multi-store memory model helps organize the chronological order in which
memory is stored. A model of the basic structure of memory claims that each component of memory varies in
capacity, duration, and method of encoding.
10
 The duration of sensory memory is approximately a forth to a half a second and has an unlimited
capacity level. Memories are encoded through the senses; there is a different storage area for each sense. Short-
term memory has the duration of approximately eighteen seconds, maximum, and a capacity allowing the
remembrance of seven things, plus or minus two. Memories that are stored in an individual’s short-term
memory are stored mostly through auditory means. Long-term memory however, has an unlimited capacity and
duration and is encoded semantically. Memories stored in the long-term memory can also be encoded visually
and auditory. Strength of the multi-store memory model is that it explains the primary and regency effect. One
weakness is that it is too simplistic; this proposes that short-term memory and long-term memory work in an
identical manner.
A research study that proposed a theory for the cognitive process of memory is Craik and Lockhart of
1972. Craik and Lockhart established a theory that focused on the levels of processing instead of the structural
aspect of memory. They believed that memory is a result of the information processed. The aim of the Craik
and Lockhart study of 1972 is to investigate how the depth of affects the recollection of memory. In the study
participants were given a list of words and asked to pick out the original word from the list of mixed words.
Craik and Lockhart proposed that there are three different ways to process memory: structural processing,
phonological processing, and semantic processing. Structural processing is when the way the word looks is
encoded. Phonological processing is when the way the way the word sounds is encoded. Semantic processing is
when words are processed for meaning. The results of the study showed that words were semantically
processed.
Whether memory is processed through a chronological order in different depths and levels of
significance, memory is a cognitive process in which can be supported by both theories and models.

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 LO7: Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process

Emily Forsythe
Alzheimer’s disease is an irreversible disease that causes progressive memory loss. Alzheimer’s can also
cause confusion, depression, a loss of appetite, and ultimately leads to death. In order to diagnose Alzheimers,
there must be a problem in another area besides memory loss such as slowed speech.
Salthouse and Becker (1998) studied the disorder of episodic, semantic, and procedural memory.
Episodic memory is the memory of events and a disorder in this memory can cause one to misplace keys or
miss appointments. Semantic memory is the memory of general knowledge of the world. Procedural memory,
which is typically less affected by Alzheimer’s than semantic and episodic memory, is the memory of motor
and cognitive skills. Episodic memory occurs in the medial temporal lobe (MTL) and is the first to show
changes in the brain when Alzheimer’s disease is present.
Schwint and Black (2009) studied the stage developments of Alzheimer’s disease. The first stage
appears in the MTL as discussed above and then in the hippocampus. Alzheimer’s patients have low
concentrations of Acetylcholine in their hippocampus as well as abnormal levels of amyloid plaques. The
amyloid beta protein creates amyloid plaques which are very sticky. These amyloid plaques build up in neuron
spaces and damage the axons and dendrites of neurons.

Hunter
The cognitive process I will be talking about is memory and the biological factor that may affect it is
Alzheimer's Disease. AD is a degenerative brain disease much like dementia but worse. This disease generally
occurs in people at the age of 65 or older. Not only does Alzheimer's affect memory, it affects other routine
things humans partake in like movement and sometimes even speech. Alzheimer's starts off as simple
forgetfulness but gets worse and worse as time goes on. For instance one may start off simply forgetting their
keys and later on in the illness will begin questioning what their keys are for and how they got in their hands.
AD causes several things to go wrong with the brain which is what causes the memory loss. One of the
key parts of the brain that involves memory is the hippocampus. In a brain with Alzheimer's disease, there is a
severe shrinkage of the hippocampus which makes it really hard to form new memories. There are also
abnormal levels of Amyloid plaques which deposits sticky proteins into the brain. These abnormal levels also
cause tangles with the nerve cells and the proteins. The tangles and large clusters of the brain cause the signals
between cells to become blocked which means synapses are never completed.

Alyssa January
Alzheimer's disease is a degenerative disease of the brain without any known cure. This disease is well-
known for causing memory loss and difficulty in understanding and speaking language. In Hodges et al. (1974)
study of memory of Alzheimer patients, the semantic memory in Alzheimer patients were measured. The
researchers measured semantic memory through simple tasks such as naming pictures of animals and objects.
The researchers found Amyloid plaques, which are sticky buildup which forms outside of neurons, in the brain.
Amyloid plaques are responsible for the destruction of axons and dendrites. Neurofibrillary tangles were also
present. These insoluble tangles consist of the protein Tau. The Amyloid plaques and the neurofibrillary tangles
play a massive role in destroying brain cells and connections in Alzheimer’s patients. The destruction of the
brain cells and important connections between neurons makes it difficult for Alzheimer’s patients to store,
create, and retrieve memories. This degenerative disease affects episodic and semantic memory but not the
procedural memory.

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Princess Hollins
     Biological factors, like Alzheimer's Disease, can affect one cognitive process. Alzheimer's is a serious
degenerative brain disease which ultimately leads to death. Victims of Alzheimer's disease have a low level of
acetylcholine, whereas it's normal to have a high level. victims also experience a loss of brain cells. It takes up
to twenty years for this disease to run its course.

       Within the brain, the medial temporal lobe, or MTL, is the first area to show changes (hippocampus).
Amyloid plaques accumulate in the spaces between neurons. They are caused by a buildup of plaques of
amyloid pro turns. Also, neurofibrillary tangles are present. These are microtubules that are tangled around each
other. They primarily consist of TAU proteins, which are abnormal in Alzheimer's victims. Amyloid plaques
and neurofibrillary tangles are thought to contribute to the degradation of the neurons in the brain as well as the
subsequent symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. Those symptoms may include hallucinations, delusions and so
on.

     Cognitive processes may be affected by Alzheimer's. victims of this disease have a procedural memory that
becomes less effective than usual. Procedural memory is the most basic and primitive form of memory. It is
where we store procedures or basic associations between stimuli and responses.

     Victims of this disease are able to retain the ability to play a piano for example. Their semantic memory is
affected as well. Semantic memory is one of the three types of long-term memory  in which we store general
world knowledge such as facts, ideas, words, problem solving, and so on.

Karl Wimmer
Biological factors play a major role in cognitive processes and can alter how the brain carries out
functions. One biological disease that has an affect on cognitive abilities is Alzheimer’s. This disease is caused
by an abnormal buildup of proteins called Amyloid plaques and Neurofilbrillary tangles; these together cause
brain cells to die off. The Hippocampus is severely affected by Alzheimer’s which is where memories are
created and stored. Brain cells that help with memory retrieval and connection are harmed as well. The
Temporal Lobe is also damaged which is where explicit memories are held, these include episodic and semantic
memory. The implicit memories; procedural and emotional are not affected by the disease. The disease causes
difficulty in understanding, speaking and motor processes; some problems also pertain to the heart and
breathing patterns.
One study done on Alzheimer patients was Hodges et al. where the semantic memory of the patients
were tested. The participants were asked to carry out tasks including naming common images. They found a
constant decline in semantic memory.

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 LO8: Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process

Dominique Price
It can rightly be said that cognition is influenced, if not shaped by social and cultural factors. This can be
said because of the “different challenges around the world” that create varying cognitive make-ups in the brain;
different societies and the culture associated with them require certain knowledge and processes of thought.
There is also the case of the industrial revolution which, ushered in new technologies that change society as it
was then known. However, some nations did not see the boom of technological innovation and some were less
exposed than others which would thus create differing ways of cognition in relation to how exposed a people
were to the revolution.
Proof that cognition does not always translate across culture is in the cross-cultural study conducted by
American psychologists Sylvia Scribner and Michael Cole in they’re 1974 study of the memory strategies used
by western American children versus eastern children from rural Liberia. The test was conducted in two trials in
which they were required to memorize and then recall. In the first trial the children were asked to memorize
words relevant to their culture and recall them in any order they wished; this was done because Cole and
Scribner wanted to avoid a bias toward the American children. The first trial concluded that children with
schooling from both Liberia and America were able to recall more words with practice but, the Liberian
children with no schooling did not improve on their memorization. However, in the second trial when asked to
memorize objects the children from the U.S. and the children of Liberia, with and without school all were
capable of memorization of the objects. These results can be attributed to how learning and memorization
occurs in the separate cultures. Children with schooling from both countries learned to use the concept of
chunking in order to memorize words; they group words that relate in order to recall them but, the children who
had not attended school in Liberia did not learn this skill so memorization was significantly more difficult. In
the case of memorizing the objects was generally easier for the children of Liberia and the United States to
recall because the objects were presented through a story and thus were given not a meaning but, a use with
which it could be associated. Association was thus found by Cole and Scribner as a viable form of
memorization between the two cultures; meaning needs to be attached to a concept that is being memorized in
order to be encoded in the mind.

Megan Ratcliff
One major result of the effect of social and cultural factors on cognitive processes is individualism
versus collectivism based societies. Individualist countries encourage emotional expression because it promotes
diversity and uniqueness within the society. Conversely, collectivist societies discourage emotional expression
because emotion may be viewed as a sign of weakness or simply unimportant.
One study that demonstrates this is the Tali Sharot study on flashbulb memory on 9/11. The procedure
called for 24 witnesses from different parts of Manhattan. The participants were placed in an fMRI machine and
asked to recall 9/11 and asked to recall a summer holiday for control purposes. It was found that different parts
of the brain were activated for each memory recollection. This supported the theory of flashbulb memory as
LTM. In relation to collectivist and individualist countries, the type of society effects how a memory is
encoded. In an individualist society, since emotions are encouraged, events like 9/11 evoke strong emotions, so
the memory is encoded at a deeper level. Collectivist countries, however, do not encourage emotions, so
memories of traumatic events are encoded at a shallower level.

Jarren Gorka

14
 Social and cultural factors play a heavy role in our everyday lives as proven through many research
studies. In specific, it is theorized that culturally, individualistic and collectivist societies can have an impact
on a citizen’s flashbulb memory.
Before looking at individualistic and collectivist societies in relation to flashbulb memory, one must first
understand the concept of flashbulb memory. In 1977, Brown and Kulik theorized that flashbulb memory is any
vivid and detailed memories of highly emotional events. These memories appear to be recorded in the brain as
though with the help of a camera’s flash. They suggested that there may be a special neural mechanism which
triggers an emotional arousal because the event is either unexpected or extremely important. In 1982, Neisser
sort of expanded on this idea of flashbulb memory by suggesting that these memories are so vivid because the
event itself is rehearsed and then reconsidered afterwards.
Diving into social and cultural factors, collectivist societies, such as Japan, work as a unit. There are
defined social and cultural roles that everyone follows quite rigidly. Visible emotion, for example, is looked
down upon; it is not a cultural norm to openly display how one feels. This cultural norm affects flashbulb
memory in that collectivist societies are more likely to suppress and and forget highly emotional events. This
was proved by Basabe and Ros in 2005.
Individualistic societies, on the other hand, openly embrace emotion. Because of this, flashbulb
memories are thought to be greater due to the idea that more blatant emotion means an event has more of an
impact. The United States would be a perfect example of such an Individualistic society.
As with any psychological theories, flashbulb memory comes with criticism. In particular, Neisser and
Harsch (1992) showed in research that forty percent of participants showed distortion in their memories in their
final report. This argument makes sense considering it is a known fact that memories can be, and are regularly,
influenced by one’s current attitude, one’s past experiences, etc. With that said, flashbulb memory and its
relation to individualistic and collectivist societies should be looked into a bit more.

Kaliice Walker
Cultural factors have a huge impact on the cognitive process of memory. There are different methods in
which people recall memories from culture to culture. In western culture individualism is a way of life. People
in theses cultures are encouraged to express emotions because they are viewed as unique individuals. In other
cultures where collectivism is a way of life, people are discouraged not to express emotions. Their identity is
defined by the group in which belong. The expression of emotions is thought to be dangerous, unimportant,
disrespectful and often disregarded.
Since cognitive cultures do not follow universal law, different cultures do not have the same memory
structures. Individualism and collectivism affects flashbulb memory. Flashbulb memory is a highly detailed,
vivid “snapshot” memory of an event that is stored and retained for a lifetime. This type of memory is affected
by memory impact.
Cross-cultural studies are used to see the impact that cultural have on people’s behavior. In the Wang
and Aydin study of 2009, (Culture variation in the correlates of flashbulb memories: An investigation in five
countries). They set out to test the correlation of flashbulb memory. This study had 274 participants, including
61 Chinese, 65 German, 48 Turkish, 50 British, and 50 Americans. All the participants were between the ages
of 32 and 65 years old and were recruited mainly from middle-class communities.
The participants were given five minutes to recall as many memories as they could of public events.
They were asked to respond with the first memories that came to mind and write a short phrase about it, then
move on to the next memory. The results showed that the participants recalled between 1 and 38 events and
indicated that culture influenced the total number of events reported. British participants reported the greatest
number of events, followed by Americans, Germans, Turkish and lastly Chinese. These results supported theory
that culture and emotion effects the way people remember things.
.People in western would have more flashbulb memories since these memories are driven by emotional
impact. The greater the emotional impact the stronger the memory. Cultures dictate the pattern in which people

15
store memories. In cultures where emotional expression is encouraged, the people have more memories of
emotional events while cultures that don’t encourage emotion do not.

Hannah Florence
Social and cultural factors play a huge role in our everyday lives. These factors have been theorized to
affect out behaviors, thought processes, and much more. Cultural and societal norms have been thought to have
an influence of processes such as memory. Culturally, individualistic and collectivists societies have been
studied in relation to flashbulb memory.
Brown and Kulik (1977) offer us one explanation in hope of understanding what flashbulb memory truly
is. “Flashbulb memory is a special kind of emotional memory, which refers to vivid and detailed memories of
highly emotional events that appear to be recorded in the brain as though with the help of a camera’s flash.”
(Crane) It has been found that highly emotional events are better remembered than emotional events that are not
as significant.
Individualistic societies, such as the United States, embrace each person’s uniqueness. Citizens of
individualistic societies also realize that emotions contribute to that uniqueness. These societies encourage the
sharing of emotional events. On the other hand, collectivist societies, such as China and Japan, focus on
emotions in a large group. In these types of societies, any expression of negative emotions is frowned upon and
thus people are discouraged from sharing their emotionally provocative events.
In general, collectivists show lower levels of emotion and share emotions less. Individualists are most
likely to have greater flashbulb memory recall than collectivists. Since individualists can be more blatantly
emotional, traumatic events have a greater impact. Collectivists are much less likely to show raw emotion and
therefore suppress their feelings and forget about the emotional experience that took place. In addition, Basabe
and Ros (2005) found that collectivists show lower levels of emotion in general and share emotions less, which
may also contribute to the findings that conclude less flashbulb memory recall.
The work with flashbulb memory in relation to collectivism and individualism is regarded on a scientific
basis. Anything facing such a critical analysis will have some challenges. Flashbulb memory by itself is
challenged. Most challenges of flashbulb memory point to the inaccuracy of the concept. Neisser and Harsch
(1992) investigated people’s flashbulb memory accuracy of an incident twenty-four hours after the accident,
and then again two years later. Results found that 40% of the participants had distorted memories in the final
reports they gave. Talarico and Rubin (2003) found that emotional intensity was often associated with greater
memory confidences, but not will accuracy. Memories may also be influenced by current attitudes; past
emotional memories are partly reconstructed based on people’s current appraisal of events. (Crane)

16
 LO9: With reference to relevant research studies, evaluate the extent to which one
cognitive process is reliable

Charles Burt
Having an eyewitness during a trial is usually seen as the best defense weapon a person can have. Jurors
depend on the eyewitness’s memory to help guide them through the decision process, and the eyewitness is
usually seen as the most reliable. However, memory is not always one-hundred percent reliable.
Confidence does not always correspond with accuracy, especially in memory. A person can think they
saw a polka-dot dog, when it was really a striped zebra. Memory is an active reconstructive cognitive process. It
is not just a container of accurate information. Therefore memory is not completely reliable. Stress levels also
affect memory. In Deffenbacher’s 2004 study, it was shown that heightened stress or anxiety severely cause
changes to a person’s ability to recall information accurately.
Loftus and Palmer’s 1974 study on eyewitness testimony reliability found that the way a question was
asked also affected how a person recalled a memory. Participants were asked “About how fast were the cars
going when they hit each other” after viewing a video of a car accident. The word “hit” was replaced with other
trigger words like “smashed”, “collided”, or “contacted”. Although all the participants had seen the same video,
as the words changed, so did the responses. This study shows that a person can unconsciously create false
memories, or distorted recollections of some event.
Although memory seems like it is something that can be trusted thoroughly, there are many unconscious
or unintended factors that lead to distortions in those memories. Those factors include things like stress levels
and/or how the memories were asked to be recalled.

Taylor Alexander
Memory is a reconstructive process in which the mind undergoes. Due to this process, the reliability of
memory is not 100% accurate. Eyewitness testimonies, for example, are not always accurate in regards to
description or detail. Witnesses may approach a case with confidence but confidence does not determine
accuracy. Two studies pertaining to eyewitness testimonies support this claim.
In 1987 Loftus et al conducted a study on the demonstration of a weapon effect. Participants were asked
to pay attention to a crime in which two people were involved in an argument. In the more quiet altercation, a
man came out with greasy hands holding a pen. In the more aggressive altercation, a man came out holding a
knife with blood on it. Participants were then asked to recall the face or features of the suspect and none could
do so, most accurately than others. The conclusion of Loftus’ study was that the weapon itself drew more
attention than the potential suspects face.
Deffenbacher et al, in 2004, did a meta-analysis study. A meta-analysis study is when researchers use
several studies relevant to the specific subject in whom they are researching in order to propose a theory or
propose a claim in which the information gathered from the several research studies supports. Deffenbacher’s
study focused on the role of emotions such as anxiety on eyewitness testimonies. He found that participants
were less likely to recall accurate accounts of a situation because of the increased level of emotion.
Thanks to Loftus and Deffenbacher’s studies, it can be said that memory—as a cognitive process is not very
reliable. The reasons being for memory’s inaccuracy is in part because memory can be distorted and all
recollections of an event are not accurate due to confidence in perspective.

17
Princess Hollins
     There have been studies that can attest to the extent to which a cognitive process such as memory is reliable.

     Studies of eyewitness testimony including the Loftus and Palmer (1974) and Deffenbacher et. al (2004) shed
light on the reliability of the human memory. The Loftus and Palmer study was basically allowing participants
to watch and short video of a car crash and asking them to answer a questionare in what they recalled. The catch
was that different groups of people had different verbs such as hit, smashed, bumped, collided or contacted to
attempt to distort their memory. Then another questionnaire was given a week later asking if they recalled
seeing broken glass. The findings were that there may have been distortion of the participants memory or a
result of response-bias factors. The study by Deffenbacher et. al was a series if meta-analysis. It combined the
results of studies that addressed the same hypothesis. The findings of this study included that anxiety and stress
both reduce reliable recall. Therefore, memory, cognitive process, is less reliable.

     An evaluation of research on eyewitness testimony is illustrated by three of many studies: Ihleback et. al
(2003), Eysenck and Keane (2010), and Rinold et. al (2003). The Ihleback et. al study staged a robbery with
robbers holding handguns. The participants witnessed the robbery live and some through video. The results
show that when people view a video of a crime it is far less disturbing than seeing it in real- life. Eysenck and
Keane's study looked into ecological validity. This is real accident reports provided by actual victims of a crime.
The Rinold et. al study was about eyewitness testimonies of the Titanic.

     Confidence has no effect on whether or not a testimony is correct or accurate. It's important to remember that
memory is not a computer. Each time we use our memories, we distort them even further than before. This is
because we are forced to simplify things. However, reconstruction of memory does not necessarily mean
distortion will occur. Our schematic processing can lead to mistakes.

Emily Forsythe
Eyewitness testimonies are the recollections of events of people who were present for an event of some
sort. In Loftus and Palmer’s study of 1974, the use of eye witness testimonies, which are heavily relied on in the
justice system, are studied. Loftus and Palmer tested the weapons effect using two groups, the weapons group
and the no weapons group. For the weapons group, a man walked into the room of participants with a paper
knife covered in blood. For the no weapons group, a man walked into the room of participants with greasy
hands a pen. Participants were better able to identify the man in the no weapons group because there was less
fear and participants were better able to focus on identifying the man rather than fearing him.
The Deffen Bakner study of 2004 uses meta analysis which combines the results of several studies that
have the same hypothesis. The results from this study were that anxiety and stress reduces a reliable recall of
details. Increases in anxiety levels up to a certain point can improve accuracy of details.
Eysenck Keane’s study of 2010 studied the ecological validity of victims in accidents providing the
reports of what happened. Watching an accident is less stressful than actually being in an accident. Sometimes
victims provide mistaken testimonies in court cases but there are real consequences in court unlike in studies.
Yuille and Cutshall staged an armed robbery in Canada. Participants were asked to recall what happened
and were asked leading questions and gave a response for each question. Five months later, the participants
were asked again to recall what happened as well as the same leading questions and most of their answers were
the same as when the robbery happened originally.
When recalling an event, many witnesses may appear to be confident about their recollection and
responses regarding an event. However, confidence does not mean accurate. Memory is an active reconstructive
18
process in which we alter stored information every time we use it. As seen in these studies, eye witness
testimonies can be very reliable accounts of events but can also be very wrong and distorted.

Karl Wimmer
The cognitive process of recall and memory can be reliable at some points but there are several
situations where inaccurate recall occurs. Memory and the process of recall can be interfered with in multiple
different ways, especially in cases of eyewitness testimony. The weapon condition is when there is a weapon in
the scene of the crime and the witness pays more attention to the weapon than the culprit, leading to less
accurate recall. The Deffenbacher et al. (2004) study evaluates the relationship between the emotions of the
eyewitness and the accuracy of the testimony. The study found that if an eyewitness has high levels of stress
and anxiety the testimony will therefore be less accurate.
Not all eyewitness testimonies are reliable. The Ihleback et al (2003) study researched the accuracy of
memory in witnesses that experienced the crime live versus observing a video recording. The study found that
the witnesses who watched the video recording had better, more accurate memory. Eyewitnesses always show
high levels of confidence even when right or wrong. One must also always remember that memory is a
reconstructive process the cognitive process is not always reliable.

Kaliice Walker
In order to evaluate how reliable the cognitive process of memory is you must first understand some key
elements. One of the main ideas is reconstructive memory. This is the brain’s active processing of information
that helps to make sense of the world. These memories are not always one hundred percent accurate and are
used to help fill in the blanks that are brain is missing. In the process of retrieving them, one can have false
memories. These are memories that people believe are true but are really not.
Psychologists test the reliability of memory by looking at eyewitness testimonies. There are many
studies that test this and they all have different methods of doing so. The study of Loftus and Palmer of 1974
looks at eyewitness testimonies of a car crash. Participants in this study viewed a video of car crash and then
were asked a series of questions regarding the video. The study sought to see if leading questions would
interfere with an eyewitness’s testimony. In this study the leading questions where verbs such as, crashed,
bumped, and contacted. The results of this study showed that leading questions did in fact influence the
testimonies. Participants that where asked how fast the cars where going when they crashed into each other
reported a faster speed that those who were asked how fast were they going when they bumped into each other.
This supported the theory that eyewitness testimonies are not always accurate.
However studies like this are challenged. One reason is for their ecological effectiveness due to the fact
that they took place in a laboratory rather than in real life. Also in real life they person who would be questioned
is the victim and not someone who saw it in a video. Another challenge is that in real life a mistake in an
eyewitness testimony can have huge consequences. Also these laboratory experiments, participants do not have
the same emotion impact that they would have in a real life situation.
Many studies have tested the reliability of memory with eyewitness testimonies. Some studies as the
Loftus and Palmer showed that these testimonies were not accurate, while others such as the Rinolo et al.
Titanic study of 2003 have showed the opposite. There are two main points to draw from these studies,
confidence as no effect on the accuracy of a testimony and memory is not a computer where everything is one
hundred percent.

Jarren Gorka
Memory recall is a cognitive process in which one is able to retrieve information without renewed
exposure to some type of stimulus. This cognitive process is involved in our everyday lives. It is important to
note that our memories are not computers, but are instead reconstructive processes. Meaning, each time we our
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memory, we alter what is within in some way in a way that isn’t always on purpose or conscious. Eyewitness
testimony, heavily involving memory recall, is thought to be the most reliable source of accurate information
for criminal court cases; however, it is often argued otherwise.
In 1974, Loftus and Palmer created multiple studies whose results showed that reconstructed memories
can in fact be inaccurate. This inaccuracy can be caused by courtroom tactics such as the use of misleading
questions to obtain necessary information for a court case to win. Loftus and Palmer concluded that one’s
answer will change depending on how a question is asked of them. Besides sneaky tactics, being in a courtroom
can turn into a stressful situation. Deffenbacher et al. found in 2004 that anxiety and stress reduces the ability
and reliability of recalled information.
When researching studies, one must take into account ecological validity. Meaning, can a study and its
results be applied to a large population outside of a laboratory? In 2003, Ihleback et al. found that when shown a
video of a criminal situation, in this case, a robbery, took place, rather than actually being near the robbery as it
took place, participants exhibited far less stress and provided more accurate details. These findings were later
refuted the same year by Riniold et al. Instead, this study found the exact opposite to be true in that those that
actually witnessed the criminal activity seemed to show quite a bit of memory recall accuracy.
As briefly mentioned before, memory recall can be altered unconsciously and entirely by accident;
however, there is much issue in the changing of one’s memory especially when looking at eyewitness
testimonies in a courtroom. Loftus and Palmer (1974), Deffenbacher et al. (2004), Ihleback et al. (2003), and
Riniold et al. (2003) all found to varying degrees, and in varying circumstances, that reconstructed memories
can be highly inaccurate.

Hannah Florence
Cognitive processes occur in the brain and are, for the most part, unobservable without proper
technologies. One such cognitive process is memory recall. Remembering is a prime example of memory recall.
There are many situations in our loves that require the recall of memory. One specific time when memory recall
is extremely important is during court trials. Eyewitness testimonies rely solely on memory recall to give
accurate descriptions of occurrences that took place and the people involved in the occurrences.
Eyewitness testimonies are heavily relied upon in court while in the process of trying to convict or prove
the innocence of an individual. A downfall to such testimonies is their possible inaccuracy. Loftus and Palmer
(1974) conducted multiple tests that showed how memories can be reconstructive and inaccurate. One tactic
used in court to confuse witnesses is misleading questions. Loftus and Palmer showed that, depending on how a
question is asked, answers will change. Loftus (1987) also tested a concept known as the “weapons effect.”
When testing this concept, two conditions were established. In one condition a greasy man with a pen walked
out of an adjoining room, where participants were held, and was holding a pen. In the second condition a greasy
man with a bloody knife walked out of the adjoining room. Participants in the first conditions were able to more
accurately describe the man they saw. Participants from the second condition were more focused on the knife
and not the man, this recalling less about the man appearance. Both studies show how memories can be changed
or altered based on available information and focus.
Deffenbacher et al. (2004) found that anxiety and stress reduces reliable recall of important details.
These findings were challenged when someone else concluded that some anxiety increases focus and attention.
Deffenbacher responded to this challenge by saying that increases of anxiety are helpful to a certain extent
before they decrease reliability.
Most studies that tested eyewitness’ reliability were performed in laboratory settings and therefore
ecological validity may not have been present. One studied that aimed to find the discrepancy between results
found in lab experiments and real world situations in terms of eyewitness testimonies. Ihleback et al. (2003)
conducted a studied in which a robbery was staged. In the study, there were two conditions. The first was a live
condition in which people were part of the robbery and thought they were in a real life or death situation. In the
second condition, the participants watched a video of the robbery that took place. The participants who watched
the video were able to provide closer, more accurate details. This study showed that laboratory (or video)
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experiments when the witnesses were not under distress seem to provide more accurate details, but that means
that memories recalled are showed to be less valid.
A challenge to Ihleback’s findings was present in a study conducted by Riniolo et al. (2003). This study
looked at the memories of the survivors of the legendary Titanic accident. Riniolo found that the memories of
those individuals who were actually part of the accident were quite accurate.
Although eyewitness testimonies have been used efficiently for many years, there are more than enough
limitation to refute the accuracy of memory recall. Even when warned about the possibility of memory
distortions, individuals are still vulnerable to the distortions themselves. Also, all eyewitnesses express a level
of confidence when recalling their memory; however, a high level of confidence does not mean a high level of
accuracy and vice versa. Memory as a whole is a reconstructive process. Every time we use our memory,
aspects and details may, and will most likely, change. Memory itself is a framework, or outline, of the situation
that actually occurred. When memory is encoded and stored, gaps are present that the individual fills in when
the memory is recalled. These gaps can be filled with prior knowledge of similar events and schemas. The gaps
that are filled may not be completely correct, but the individual recalling this memory may have no knowledge
that the memory itself was altered.

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 LO10: Discuss the use of technology for investigating cognitive processes

Hunter
Technology has played a huge role in changing the face of psychology. With the use of PET scans,
MRIs and fMRIs, psychologists can see what your brain is doing and how it reacts to whatever stimuli they give
you. Before this technology nobody could see what the brain was doing throughout experiments. But due to
these relatively new technological advances, psychologists can see exactly what part of the brain is working
when certain things happen. PET scans and new technology has definitely paved the way for not only
psychiatrists, but doctors as well, helping make major breakthroughs in diseases like Alzheimer's which affects
the important cognitive process memory.
PET scans are used to measure things in the brain like blood flow and even glucose consumption
(Crane-Hannibal). PET scans see different types of changes in organs/tissues which allows it to locate tumors.
PET scans have led to several breakthroughs in the investigation of Alzheimer's disease. Since it can, in fact,
see the rise or fall of metabolic changes within organs, and in this case, the brain. With the technology of a PET
scan and a computer program made by researchers from the New York School of Medicine, we now know that
there is an reduction in brain metabolism in the hippocampus in the earlier stages of Alzheimer's.

Imani Taylor
A modern technology machine that the field of psychology has used a lot recently is the fMRI, which
stands for functional magnetic resonance imaging. An fMRI uses the change in blood flow in the brain to detect
energy usage of brain cells, which shows what area of the brain is active during a certain activity.
One cognitive process that psychologist have studied with the fMRI is decision making. The results
were that the prefrontal cortex and the partial cortex increase during decision making and that there are two
types of decision making. The first type is called "risky decisions", and these are decisions that have several
outcomes and the probabilities are known. The second type is called "ambiguous decisions", which are
decisions that have several outcomes where the outcomes are unknown. One study that tried to support these
ideas is the Heut et al. 2006 study which took participants and gave them pairs of decisions; containing both
risky decisions and ambiguous decisions. In the study just as stated before the prefrontal cortex and the partial
cortex increased in activation while the participants chose the decision. When the participant showed a
preference for ambiguous type decisions the lateral prefrontal cortex activation increased, while participants
who showed a preference for risky decisions showed increased activation in the posterior partial cortex. This
study shows the benefits of the use of technology in studying cognitive processes.
Another cognitive process that has been studied with the fMRI is cognitive reappraisal. Cognitive
reappraisal is when a person cognitively reinterprets the meaning of emotional stimuli in a way that changes the
emotional value/meaning. The fMRI shows that the more active the prefrontal cortex the more active the
cognitive reappraisal, and that activation decreases in the amygdale which is associated with negative emotion
and increases in the nucleus accumbens which is associated with positive emotion. One study that used the
fMRI investigating cognitive reappraisal is the Wager et al 2008 study. The study took participants and had
them look at images during an fMRI scan. The first group of images was "neutral" images and basically no real
emotion; the second group was negative images. In each group the participants were asked to think and feel
those emotions that appeared in the images and how they would normally experience it. The third group
consists of negative images but the participants were told to go through cognitive reappraisal, changing the
negative emotions they would naturally feel into positive emotions, counteracting the negative feelings. The
results showed a lower emotional impact in the third grouping and also that the prefrontal cortex was involved
in emotions and activation here was increased.

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Dominique Price
While mainly being used in research for the biological level of analysis brain scanning technologies
such as, the F.M.R.I., the M.R.I., or the P.E.T. scan can give insight into the cognitive level of analysis. Brain
scanning technologies have shown researchers the localization of function for many cognitive processes that
were; before these technological innovations unknown. In the concept of how humans make decisions
psychologist researchers have found that the function is located in the pre-frontal and parietal cortexes.
This was found after a number of case studies using participants being scanned by the Functional
Magnetic Resonance Imaging machine (F.M.R.I); as they were stimulated the F.M.R.I showed that the pre-
frontal and parietal cortexes had an increased amount of functionality. A study that showed that cognitive
activity could be scanned by the F.M.R.I. machine was the Huetterel decision making study of 2006.
Huetterel’s study of 2006 focused on the localization of function for decision making; it differentiated
the localization of different types of decisions of the risky and ambiguous varieties. The experiment was
conducted through three different trials in which Huetterel’s participants were shown an assortment of images
while being scanned with a F.M.R.I machine. In the first trial the participants were shown neutral images
which, resulted in equalized functioning in both the Parietal and pre-frontal cortexes. The images of the second
trial were depicted ambiguous decisions being made to the participants and resulted in functioning of the lateral
parietal cortex. In the third trial risky decisions were shown to the participants which made the postereal pre-
frontal cortex spark in function. The overall results of the study showed that risky decision and ambiguous
decisions localized in difffere2nt place in the parietal cortex and frontal cortex respectively.

Jolie Huynh
Researchers often utilize brain imaging technologies to investigate the relationship between cognitive processes
and the regions in the brain. One of the technologies used is PET or positron emission tomography, which
measures the metabolic changes in the cells of an organ and can be used to detect brain tumors or the early signs
of Alzheimer’s disease. Lisa Mosconi (2005) and her team conducted a longitudinal study on 53 participants for
9 to 24 years. Using PET scans, the researchers found that participants who showed a decrease in brain
metabolism in the hippocampus were later associated with Alzheimer’s disease.
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) and MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) are usually used to see
what brain regions are activated when people perform certain cognitive task. This brain imaging technology
detects changed in the blood’s oxygen level, which increases when an area in the brain is active. A study by
Huetel (2006) used fMRI scans to see which brain regions are involved in risky and ambiguous decision-
making. A risky decision is when a decision is made with several possible known outcomes, whereas
ambiguous decision involves possible unknown outcomes. The researcher studied the brain images of
participants who took part in risky and ambiguous decision-making and arrived at the conclusion that the
activity in the pre-frontal and parietal cortex increases during decision making and that the pre-frontal cortex is
also active when an impulsive decision is made.

MRI is used by Kilts (2003) in a study to investigate the brain regions involved in product preference. The
participants were asked to rate pictures of items in terms attractiveness and were undergoing an MRI scan at the
same time. The researcher found that there was a small activity in the medial pre-frontal cortex whenever the
participants rated an item as attractive. This brain region is associated with our sense of self and our personality,
and it is active because when the participants made a preference for a certain item, they usually identify with it.

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Alyssa January
The use of brain-imaging technology such as the PET scan and MRI is to is to obtain images of brain
functioning and structure. These images help researchers examine the connection between cognitive processes
and behavior.
Kilts (2003) study aimed to find out which areas of the brain were involved in forming preferences. Kilts
conducted these experiments by using the Magnetic resonance imaging or MRI which provides a three-
dimensional picture of the brain’s structures. The MRI works by detecting changes in the use of oxygen. More
oxygen is used in the blood when an area in the brain is more active.
The participants of the study were given an assortment of different consumer goods. Then the
participants were asked to rate the products on a numerical scale based on appeal. After that participants were
placed in an MRI scanner that measured their brain activity while they viewed same goods. Kilts found that the
medial prefrontal cortex of the brain was most active because of the blood rush toward the area when a
participant viewed something appealing.
Through the use of the MRI we can conclude that the medial prefrontal cortex is an area involved in self-
awareness and the structure of our personality. We can also note that the use of technology is effective in
investigating cognitive processes.

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III Cognition and Emotion

LO11: Evaluate the extent to which cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion.

Alyssa January
Cognitive and biological factors both play important roles in emotion. In Lazarus’ Appraisal Theory (1975),
Lazarus stated that people asses how an imminent situation will affect them. Speisman et al. study (1964)
supports Lazarus’ Appraisal Theory. In this experiment the participants were shown circumcisions. The
participants were placed into three conditions the trauma condition (pain is stressed), denial condition (patient is
happy to have surgery), and the intellectual condition (professional’s opinion of surgery). The results showed
that the participants responded more emotionally to the trauma condition than to the others. From the results we
can conclude that it is person’s interpretation of a situation that creates emotional stress. Schacter and Singer’s
Two-Factor Theory states that a situation causes physiological arousal first and then emotion is labeled last.
Emotion is label when a person puts meaning to a situation.

Karl Wimmer
Biological and cognitive factors both play major roles in emotion. Emotion consists of physiological changes,
someones own feeling of emotion, and behavior associated with a certain emotion. The two factor theory of
emotion proposed by Schacter and Singer(1962) states that emotion is a function of cognitive factors and
physiological arousal. The theory says that people look to the environment for emotionally relevant things to
interpret unexplained physiological arousal. The results of the study by Schacter and Singer show that a
stimulus triggers physiological response and simultaneously the stimulus interpreted in the brain. The appraisal
theory by Lazarus(1975) states that people evaluate cognitively how a situation will affect them. The cognitive
appraisal of a certain event determines the amount of physiological arousal and type of emotion. The Speisman
et al. (1964) study supports the theory by showing that people respond more to trauma and the effect on
emotional stress.

Kaliice Walker
When discussing the extent that in which cognitive and biological factors interact with emotions, there are many
theories that must be looked at.
One theory is the two-factor theory of emotion that was presented my Schacter and Singer in 1962. This
theory states that two factors interact to determine emotion. One factor is the physical arousal of the emotion.
The second factor is the emotion interpretation. This theory however has a lot of criticisms. Other
psychologists criticize the method they used to discover this theory my checking the emotion through needles
was not neutral. Also there were a lot of replication failures that followed this study. Other critics doubt how
this can be related to real life. However there is the strength that this study opened the door to other studies like
these.
The appraisal of emotion is another theory about interaction of emotion. This theory states that emotion
helps determine how we feel in a situation and was presented in Lazarus work in 1982 and 1991. In this theory
there are two types of appraisal. There is primary appraisal which helps decided if a situation is personally
relevant. The parts primary appraisal is motivation relevance, motivation congruence and accountability. The
other type is secondary appraisal, this provides coping options in a situation. The parts of this consist of
problem focus coping, motion focus coping, and future expectancy. This theory has very little criticisms with
many following studies supporting it.
The last theory has to do with conscious and unconscious appraisal and the body. This questions if
appraisal are always conscious things or can they happen unconsciously. In a study done by Ohman in 2000, he
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aimed to test if appraisal could happen unconsciously. He had participants that were both afraid and not afraid
of snakes. He showed the participants pictures of a snake in a snapshot so fast that their conscious mind would
not catch it, and also when they were consciously aware. The results supported the theory that appraisals could
happen unconsciously, because even when the participant where not consciously aware of the snake photo the
participants with a phobia of them showed fear.

Princess Hollins
The two-factor theory of emotion states that there are two factors interact with each other to determine an
emotion. Both physical arousal and emotional interpretation and labeling of that arousal. A study study from
1962 by Schacter and Singer illustrates this. The critics of this study doubt the ecological validity.

The appraisal theory of emotion is an evaluation of situations according to the significance that it has to us.
There are six components of this theory. The Lazarus studies of 1982 and 1991 used the core relational theme.
Primary appraisal is deciding whether a situation is personally relevant. It involves determining the relevance to
a goal, the motivational relevance and countability, meaning who is responsible. Secondary appraisal provides
information about individuals' coping options in a situation. It involves problem focused coping, emotion
focused coping and future expectancy.

Conscious and unconscious appraisals are related to the body. There are studies that help describe this. The
Speisman et. al study of 1964 used different confirms including : silent, trauma, intellectualization and denial.
The conclusion was that physiological reaction was affected by the various conditions. The Ottoman study from
the year 2000 presented pictures of spiders and snakes to both a group of participants who had a fear of them
and who did not. The findings indicate that that appraisal can occur unconsciously. This is how we get the
concept of subliminal messages.

Jolie Huynh
The two-factor theory established by Schachter and Singer (1962) proposes that emotion is the result of
physiological arousal and the emotional interpretation and labeling of that arousal. In their study, the
researchers divided the participants into three groups and injected all of the participants with a dose of
adrenaline. In one group, the researchers informed the participants of the injection’s possible side effects such
as increased heart rate. In another group, the researchers did not inform the participants about any of the side
effects. In the last group, the researchers misinformed the participants about the side effects. Afterward, an actor
would come and perform in front of the participants acts that were supposed to produce either euphoria or
anger. The researchers found that the participants who were misinformed or uninformed about the effects of
adrenaline attributed their physiological arousal to the euphoric or angry acts from the actor whereas the
informed group was rather unaffected by the acts. Schachter and Singer explained that the informed group knew
the cause for their arousal and thus did not look for external factors to explain their arousal. The misinformed
and uninformed groups, however, were manipulated into thinking they were euphoric or angry to explain the
arousal.
The cognitive process of appraisal or interpreting how a situation will be significant to one’s well-being also
influences behavior. According the Lazarus, people evaluate a situation based on motivational relevance (how it
related to their goals), motivational congruence (whether it is favorable to their goals), and accountability (who
is responsible). If the situation is assessed to be beneficial, it will result in positive emotion. On the other hand,
if the situation seems to be harmful, it will lead to negative emotion. Appraisal can also influence how people
cope with emotional arousal such as stress. They usually approach stress with problem-focus coping, which
involved changing the situation that causes stress, or emotion-focused coping, which involved changing the
emotion toward stress rather than the situation.

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Speisman (1964) supported this theory through his study on the effects of appraisal on emotional response. In
the study, the participants were shown a video of circumcision as a ritual and were divided into three groups
with different soundtrack: traumatic (emphasizing pain), denial (anticipation for circumcision), and intellectual
(ignoring the emotional aspect). The results showed that emotional response was highest for the group with a
traumatic soundtrack and lowest for the one with intellectual soundtrack. Speisman thus arrived at the
conclusion that the participants’ emotional responses to the video were not the result of the content but was the
result of how the video was interpreted.

Colin Kehoe
Learning Outcomes: Appraisal Theory
The appraisal theory is meant to explain the origins of our emotions. The theory states that an emotional
response indirectly comes from reactions to situations. That we appraise certain events and depending on how
we evaluate that stimuli depends on how we perceive it. Richard Lazarus broke this process down into two
categories: primary appraisal and secondary appraisal.
Primary appraisal is personal, in that an individual looks at the stimuli from a point of view of how it relates to
them. Primary appraisal itself can be broken into three categories. These are motivational relevance,
motivational congruence, and motivational avoidance. Motivational relevance refers to how a stimuli affects
that person's drives. For example, "is this going to satisfy my hunger or thirst?" Motivational congruence asks
whether or not a situation is congruent with one's goals. Motivational avoidance asks whether or not the
situation is one that is too risky to even be in.
Secondary appraisal involves the evaluating of how one can cope with a situation. Problem-focused coping
refers to one altering a situation in order to make it congruent with one's goals. Emotion-based coping refers to
one's ability to emotionally adapt to the results of a situation. Therefore appraisal itself does not produce a
singular emotion. Appraisal only views a situation negatively or positively based on whether or not that
situation will be beneficial or harmful.
In a study by Ohman, one group of subjects were shown things they were afraid of. In the second group the
disturbing images flashed for only long enough to be subliminal. The reactions were the same. This supports the
idea that appraisal occurs both on a conscious and unconscious level.

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 LO12: Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process

Hannah Florence
Our thoughts on a situation have an effect on how memorable the situation becomes. Memory is a
cognitive process in which the details of an event are recorded and stored for later use. One theory of emotion is
that the more intense the emotional response, the greater ability for us to remember details of that event.
Flashbulb memories are memories associated with the remembrance of highly emotional events. According to
this term, more emotion means more memory.
Brown and Kulik (1977) defined flashbulb memories as memories of the circumstances in which one
first learned of an emotional event. These memories occur when we encounter emotionally stimulating
occurrences. Brown and Kulik claimed that these memories are maintained by means of rehearsal and covert
rehearsal – thinking over the details of an event in your head instead of out loud to other people. Flashbulb
memories are more vivid, last longer, and are more consistently accurate when compared to normal memories.
These researchers said that flashbulb memories require the involvement of a neuro-mechanism in which
information is stored permanently in a designated mental store. Brown and Kulik conducted a study to support
their claims. Participants of their study, eighty Americans, were asked to recall the circumstances they were in
when ten events happened. Nine of the ten events asked for were famous assassinations, the other events was
some kind of personal experience. The participants were also asked to tell how much they rehearsed the
memory. Results found that the John F. Kennedy assassination was the famous event that people were able to
provide the most details for. African American participants were able to recall their reaction to civil rights
activists better, as opposed to Caucasians. These results support the claims made by Brown and Kulik that
define flashbulb memories. Some aspects of Brown and Kulik’s research have been criticized. For instance, the
memories recalled may not be accurate or pertinent and little work has been done to support the theory of the
neuro-mechanism and its designated store.
Neisser and Harsch (1992) asked participants to recall memories about the Challenger Space Shuttle
accident. These participants were asked to tell their story on two occasions. The first occasion was the day after
the accident and more accurate descriptions were recalled. The second time the story was told was two and a
half years after the accident originally occurred. The details recorded from this telling were less accurate and it
was believed that the memories may have deteriorated. This study refuted the reliability of flashbulb memories
and claimed that they may just be simple, everyday memories.
Talarico and Rubin (2003) wanted to see if there was even a difference between flashbulb memories and
normal memories. Participants of this study were asked to recall the events they remember surrounding the
September 11th terrorists attack on the World Trade Center complex in New York City. Participants were asked
to tell their stories 1 day, 7 days, 42 days, and 224 days after the attack. The researchers also asked the
participants to recall something they remember, unrelated to the attack, that occurred around the same time.
Once again they had to tell their stories on four occasions: 1, 7,42, and 224 days after it happened. Results
found that flashbulb memories were more intact and vivid as opposed to any other memory.
In general, flashbulb memories have some specific aspects that have been supported on numerous
occasions. Flashbulb memories are long lasting but not necessarily permanent in an individual’s memory.
However, they might last just as long as normal memories. These memories have been known to be more vivid
and are recalled with a higher degree of confidence.

Imani Taylor
One theory that may affect one cognitive process is the theory of flashbulb memory. Flashbulb memory
according to the Brown and Kulik 1977 study on assassinations are the memories of the circumstances in which

28
we first learn of a surprising, consequential and emotional arousing event. This theory says that it’s mainly
about the reception context and not the actually event but the circumstances surrounding it. The memory forms
when the situation is surprising and highly emotional; these memories form from talking about the event and
from privately thinking about it. Brown and Kulik also say that these flashbulb memories are more vivid, longer
lasting, more consistent and more accurate than regular memories. The last component of the theory states that
there is an involvement in a special neural mechanism that stores the memories permanently in a unique
memory system. The study took participants and gave them ten events, the first nine were assassinations and the
last memory was a memory that the participants chose on their own; this personal memory was usually the
death of a parent. In the study some of the results were that African Americans had more details and flashbulb
memories for civil rights leaders than non-African American participants. The criticism of this study was that
flashbulb memories are not always accurate and that the special neural mechanism they spoke of they did not
have enough evidence on.
Another study that dealt with the theory of flashbulb memory was the 1992 Neisser and Harsch study for
how people remember what they were doing on the day of the Challenger Space Shuttle. They took participants
and asked them how they had heard the news, 20% said they heard it on the television, but yet two years later
when the same participants were asked the same question 45% said they had seen it on the television. This
simple study shows that the memory deteriorates and that flashbulb memories are no different from regular
memories in reliability.
The Talarico and Rubin 2003 study for flashbulb memories was similar to the Neisser and Harsch 1992
study because it asked participants several times about an event, this event was the 9/11 attack. First the
participants were asked details about their circumstances on the day of, 7 days later, 42 days later and then 224
days later. Along with questions about 9/11 the participants were also asked questions about an everyday event
near the attack on the day of, 7 days later, 42 days later and 224 days later. Their results and conclusion stated
that flashbulb memories were more vivid than every day memories, that each time the participant had high
confidence in what they were saying was accurate, and that the memory was longer lasting but not permanent
(possibly no longer than everyday memories). So in this study Neisser and Harsch showed that Brown and
Kulik overestimated the durability and consistency of flashbulb memories and there was still no solid evidence
on the special neural mechanism they stated.

Jarren Gorka
Memory is a cognitive process in which information is recorded and then stored for use at a later time.
Flashbulb memory, on the other hand, is an emotional theory in which highly emotional events are thought to be
more intense for an individual and therefore it thought to leave a longer lasting impression and is easier to recall
later on.
Flashbulb memory was first suggested by Brown and Kulik in 1977. They claimed that these special
types of memory are maintained through covert and overt rehearsal in which one replays an event either within
or out loud. It is thought that these memories are stored in a different part of the brain than regular memories
through a neuro-mechanism and are considered more vivid, more consistent/accurate, and is remembered far
longer than other types of memories. Brown and Kulik tested their theory in which eighty Americans were
asked to recall major historical events along with more personal events. The study found that more details were
provided for the assassination of John F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King.
One major criticism for Brown and Kulik’s work is that their study/theory did not take into account
whether or not recalled flashbulb memories are accurate. In 1992, Neisser and Harsch had participants report on
how they first heard about the Challenger space shuttle disaster on two separate occasions, one day after the
occurrence and two and half years after. Their results showed a deterioration of memory and suggests that
flashbulb memories might just be regular memories. Years later, Talarico and Rubin (2003) created a similar
study in which they had participants report on how they first heard about 9/11; however, they also had
participants report on one everyday event that happened around the same time. Participants were tested a total
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of four times, one day, seven days, forty two days, and two hundred forty two days after the occurrence. Their
findings also seemed to disprove Brown and Kulik in that no large difference was found between the
recollection of supposed flashbulb memories and everyday events.
Brown and Kulik’s initial suggestion of flashbulb memory has faced major criticism. At the basis of the
concept, flashbulb memories are considered to last far longer than regular memories; however, they aren’t
necessarily permanent. Such memories are also considered to be more vivid and recalled with a higher amount
of confidence than its counterpart.

Chuck Burt
One theory of emotion that may have an effect on a cognitive process such as memory, is the flashbulb theory.
The flashbulb theory of emotion was suggested by Brown and Kulik (1977). The theory says that a flashbulb
memory is one that can be remembered vividly and detailed. Brown and Kulik researched the flashbulb theory
in a study by asking participants to recall many big events. Some were recalled more vividly than others. In
Brown and Kulik’s opinion, memories were recalled more vividly than others because they were more
significant emotionally. On the other hand, Neisser (1982) suggested that there is no way of knowing that a
memory is important at that very moment, therefore how would a person know to make it a flashbulb memory.
Neisser believed that these flashbulb memories occur because they have been rehearsed over and over. Neisser
called it a narrative convention. He tested the flashbulb theory when studied participants who were recalling the
1986 Challenger space shuttle accident. Even though the participants had great confidence in their recollections,
many were still wrong. All in all this shows that flashbulb theory can effect memory, but it is not always
accurate.

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