1. Behaviorism
ARCS is also claimed – and acclaimed –by humanists, so it
Based on the principle of stimulus-response, behaviorism assumes the
learner is passive, merely responding to external stimuli. “Learning” is
evidenced by a change in the learner’s behavior.
External stimuli cause all behavior. So behavior can be explained without
considering internal mental states or consciousness.
The learner begins as a “clean slate.” Subsequent behavior is shaped by
positive (applying a stimulus) or negative (withholding a stimulus)
reinforcement. Any reinforcement increases the probability that the previous
behavior will be repeated, while punishment reduces the probability that the
previous behavior will be repeated.
2. Cognitivism
Cognitivism believes that the mind’s “black box” needs to be opened and
understood. It views the learner as an information processor – somewhat like
a computer. During the 1960s, cognitivism, which focuses on exploring
mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem solving,
replaced behaviorism as the dominant learning theory.
Cognitivists see knowledge as symbolic mental constructions, or “schema.”
Learning is a change in the learner’s schema.
3. Constructivism
Constructivism – which is allied to social and situational learning theories –
views learning as an active process in which learners build information to
create subjective representations of objective reality. These representations
are subjective because new information is always linked to people’s prior
knowledge.
Reacting against the didactic approaches of behaviorism and programmed
instruction, constructivism argues that learning is an active, contextualized
process, comprising building – not acquiring – knowledge. Personal
experience, allied to ideas about the learner’s environment, helps build that
knowledge. Learners constantly test these ideas through social negotiation
and, since everyone’s an individual, each person approaches building
knowledge differently, and interprets it differently.
4. Humanistic learning theory
Allied to motivational learning theories, humanism views learning as a
personal act that contributes to fulfilling a person’s potential. Championed by
such learning theorists as Abraham Maslow, humanism has given us the
term “self-actualization” as well as the concept of the teacher as facilitator.
Like cognitivism, humanism emerged in the 1960s. It focuses on human
dignity, freedom and potential. One of its central pillars is the assumption that
people act with “intentionality” and values. This contrasts with behaviorism,
which says that all behavior is the result of applying consequences. The
humanist view also opposes cognitive psychology’s belief that discovering
knowledge and constructing meaning is central to learning.
A key humanist view is that it’s vital to see the learner as a whole person,
especially as he or she grows and develops over his lifespan.
5. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
This hierarchy grew from Maslow’s quest to understand what motivates
people. In 1943, Maslow said that people are motivated to achieve certain
needs. Having fulfilled one need, they seek to fulfill the next one, and so on.
The most widespread version of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs includes five
motivational needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
These are physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization.
6. Experiential Learning
David Kolb published his learning styles model in 1984. From this, he
developed his learning styles inventory.
Kolb’s experiential learning theory operates on two levels – a four-stage cycle
of learning and four separate learning styles. Much of Kolb’s theory focuses
on the learner’s internal cognitive processes.
In his view, learning involves acquiring abstract concepts that can be applied
flexibly in a range of situations. In his theory, the impetus to develop new
concepts is provided by new experience.
7. ARCS
A design theory developed by Dr John M Keller, ARCS is a mnemonic that
stands for Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction. ARCS is a
problem-solving approach to designing learning environments that stimulate
and sustain students’ motivation to learn. In two parts, the ARCS model is a
set of categories representing the components of motivation, followed by a
systematic design process to create appropriate motivational enhancements
for learners.
could also be seen as part of humanism (see above).
8. ADDIE
ADDIE is a mnemonic that stands for the five stages of instructional design:
Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate. ADDIE is a high-level
framework that helps provide context for what an instructional designer does.
9. Elaboration theory
Like other design theories and models, Charles Reigleuth’s elaboration
theory (published in 1979) tries to bridge theory and practice in education,
aiming to reveal the relationships between educational theory, designed
learning programs, and practice.
Reigleuth’s view is that content that must be learned should be organized in
an order from the simple to the complex – while providing a meaningful
context within which to integrate subsequent ideas. Elaboration theory
proposes seven major strategy components: an elaborative sequence,
learning prerequisite sequences, summary, synthesis, analogies, cognitive
strategies, and learner control.
10. Bloom’s Taxonomy
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a way of classifying thinking according to six cognitive
levels of complexity. This hierarchical model argues that Knowledge,
Comprehension and Application are more “basic” than Analysis, Synthesis
and Evaluation.
These six steps can be seen as a stairway that learners are encouraged to
ascend to achieve a higher level of thinking. Once a learner has mastered a
higher level of thinking, then she is said to have mastered the lower levels.
First published in 1956, Bloom’s Taxonomy’s six steps have been updated to
meet 21st century demands. They’re now said to be: Remembering,
Understanding, Applying, Analyzing, Evaluating, and Creating.
Ainsworth, Mary - Attachment Theory
Asch, Solomon - Conformity Experiment
Bandura, Albert - Social Learning Theory
Bowlby, John - Attachment Theory
Bruner, Jerome - cognitive development of children
Erikson, Erik - Theory of Psychosocial Development
Freud, Sigmund - psychoanalysis
Kohlberg, Lawrence - moral development
Kolb, David - experiential learning styles theory
Kuhn, Thomas Samuel – developmental psychology
Maslow, Abraham - Hierarchy of Needs
Milgram, Stanley – obedience experiment
Pavlov, Ivan – conditioned/unconditioned response
Piaget, Jean – cognitive development
Popper, Karl - distinguishing science from non-science
Rogers, Carl - self actualization
Skinner, B. F. - operant conditioning
Thorndike, Edward - operant conditioning within behaviorism
Vygotsky, Lev – sociocultural theory
Watson, John – classical conditioning within behaviourism
Wundt, Wilhelm – structuralism, founder of experimental psychology
Zimbardo, Philip - Stanford Prison Experiment
Ivan Pavlov 1849–1936
The man behind Pavlovian conditioning was educated in natural sciences in
St Petersburg, Russia. His primary interest was physiology and it was while
researching the digestive system in dogs that he made his most famous
discovery – he noted that dogs would salivate before the delivery of food.
Pavlov rang a bell when feeding the dogs which they soon learnt to associate
with food. After some time the dogs salivated in response to the bell alone.
Pavlovian conditioning has a number of real-life applications including in the
treatment of phobias and for aversion therapy.
Sigmund Freud 1856–1939
The founding father of psychoanalysis first qualified as a doctor of medicine
at the University of Vienna. Freud went on to work in cerebral anatomy and
his fascination with the brain developed from there. Freud died in 1939 but
his legacy lives on with many of his theories providing the basis for modern
clinical psychology.
Carl Jung 1875–1961
Like many on our list Jung studied medicine, at the University of Basel. His
interest in spiritual phenomena lead him to combine his two passions and
become involved in the field of psychiatry, His dissertation was entitled “On
the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena”. Jung
befriended Freud and, for a time, was viewed almost as his protégé. Jung,
however, started to develop his own ideas and the two men grew apart.
Jung’s synthesis of the concepts of introversion and extraversion form a
major foundation of personality psychology and has also influenced
psychotherapy.
Melanie Klein 1882–1960
Austrian psychoanalyst, Melanie Klein reached academic fame in the early
20th century for her work on psychoanalytic child psychology. Klein’s ideas
included a strong belief in the therapeutic effects of child play. Klein proposed
that play afforded an opportunity for children to express their experiences and
feelings. Kleinian psychoanalysis is one of the major school’s in psychology
and an area you’ll cover if studying the subject at university.
Karen Horney 1883–1952
Best known for her work on neurosis and feminine psychology, Horney was
educated at the University of Freiburg, University of Göttingen and the
University of Berlin. Horney’s theory of neurosis stipulated that there are ten
types of neuroses, which are used to cope with anxieties caused by
interpersonal relations a theory that remains prominent today. Horney also
famously opposed Freud’s views on female psychology and used the
scientific method to prove that societies encourage women to be dependent
on, and overvalue men.
Anna Freud 1895–1982
Daughter of the illustrious Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud has certainly found
her own voice in the world of psychological discovery. She and Melanie Klein
are considered the founders of psychoanalytic child psychology. Anna’s work,
specifically emphasised the importance of the ego in serving and opposing
subconscious behaviour.
Jean Piaget 1896–1980
Initially educated in natural history and philosophy at the University of
Neuchatel, Switzerland, it wasn’t until later that he turned his hand to
theoretical psychology. Piaget’s work on child psychology and intellectual
development has proved monumentally influential, being used to inform
educational methods around the world to this day. In reference to Piaget’s
observations on children’s intellectual growth, Einstein is quoted as saying
“it’s so simple that only a genius could have thought of it.”
Solomon Asch 1907–1996
Solomon Asch became interested in psychology as he was nearing the end
of his undergraduate studies, so much so that he went on to pursue his
graduate degree in the topic at Columbia University. Asch soon became
involved with Gestalt psychology and social psychology, becoming famous
for his conformity experiments in which he proposed that group pressure can
cause humans to entirely change opinion in spite of obvious facts.
Stanley Milgram 1935–1984
Milgram began his university career with an undergraduate degree in political
science, moving on to pursue his passion in social psychology by studying for
a Ph.D at Harvard. He became renowned for his work regarding the
“Behavioural Study of Obedience”. In this study, Milgram measured the
willingness of subjects to obey an authority figure, despite ordering the
participants to perform acts conflicting with their conscience. He found that 26
of the 40 subjects seemingly delivered electric shocks of up to 450 volts to
another person, when ordered to do so. The shocks were fake but the
experiment has been used to suggest why humans are willing to commit the
most appalling atrocities in times of war. Despite a backlash from the
scientific community the experiments are still considered hugely influential
today.
Phillip Zimbardo 1933–Present
Zimbardo completed an MA and Ph.D in Psychology at Yale University back
in the swinging sixties. He accepted the position as Professor of Psychology
at Stanford University in 1971 and soon after conducted the famous Stanford
prison study. Zimbardo used subjects to examine the psychology of prison
life with half the participants being assigned the role of guard and the others
the role of prisoner. The planned two week experiment ended after only six
days as the guards became sadistic, and the prisoners showed extreme
passivity and depression. Zimbardo concluded that certain situations have a
higher influence over our psyche then we expect.
B. F. Skinner
B.F. Skinner's staunch behaviorism made him a dominating force in
psychology and therapy techniques based on his theories are still used
extensively today, including behavior modification and token economies.
Skinner is remembered for his concepts of operant conditioning and
schedules of reinforcement.
Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development had a profound influence on
psychology, especially the understanding of children's intellectual growth. His
research contributed to the growth of developmental psychology, cognitive
psychology, genetic epistemology, and education reform.
Albert Einstein once described Piaget's observations on children's intellectual
growth and thought processes as a discovery "so simple that only a genius
could have thought of it."
Sigmund Freud
When people think of psychology, many tend to think of Sigmund Freud. His
work supported the belief that not all mental illnesses have physiological
causes and he also offered evidence that cultural differences have an impact
on psychology and behavior. His work and writings contributed to our
understanding of personality, clinical psychology, human development, and
abnormal psychology.
Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura's work is considered part of the cognitive revolution in
psychology that began in the late 1960s. His social learning theory stressed
the importance of observational learning, imitation, and modeling.
"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if
people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them
what to do," Bandura explained in his 1977 book "Social Learning Theory."
Leon Festinger
Leon Festinger developed the theories of cognitive dissonance and social
comparison. Cognitive dissonance is the state of discomfort you feel when
you hold two conflicting beliefs. You may smoke even though you know it is
bad for your health. His social comparison theory says that you evaluate your
ideas by comparing them with what other people believe. You are also more
likely to seek out other people who share your beliefs and values.
William James
Psychologist and philosopher William James is often referred to as the father
of American psychology. His 1200-page text, "The Principles of Psychology,"
became a classic on the subject and his teachings and writings helped
establish psychology as a science. In addition, James contributed to
functionalism, pragmatism, and influenced many students of psychology
during his 35-year teaching career.
Ivan Pavlov
Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist whose research on conditioned
reflexes and classical conditioning influenced the rise of behaviorism in
psychology. Pavlov's experimental methods helped move psychology away
from introspection and subjective assessments to objective measurement of
behavior.

Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers placed emphasis on human potential, which had an enormous
influence on both psychology and education. He became one of the major
humanist thinkers and an eponymous influence in therapy with his client-
centered therapy.

As described by his daughter Natalie Rogers, he was "a model for

compassion and democratic ideals in his own life, and in his work as an
educator, writer, and therapist."

Erik Erikson
Erik Erikson's stage theory of psychosocial development helped create
interest and research on human development through the lifespan. An ego
psychologist who studied with Anna Freud, Erikson expanded psychoanalytic
theory by exploring development throughout life, including events of
childhood, adulthood, and old age.

Lev Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky was a contemporary of some better-known psychologists
including Piaget, Freud, Skinner, and Pavlov, yet his work never achieved the
same eminence during his lifetime. This is largely because many of his
writing remained inaccessible to the Western world until quite recently.

It was during the 1970s that many of his writings were translated from
Russian, but his work has become enormously influential in recent decades,
particularly in the fields of educational psychology and child development.

While his premature death at age 38 put a halt to his work, he went on to
become one of the most frequently cited psychologists of the 20th-century.